Types of Systems

Systems are specific part of the universe that is of interest in the study
Open System Closed System Isolated System

Exchange of Exchange of Energy No Exchange

Mass and Energy

Calorimetry
Study of heat transfer during physical or chemical processes
Calorimeter
Device used to measure heat changes that accompany a chemical
process; usually a container surrounded by an insulating vessel
NOTE: The whole calorimeter serves as an isolated system. It is
also considered as an adiabatic system.
An adiabatic system does not exchange heat with
surroundings; thus, energy is conserved:
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡
𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
= 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝑞𝑟𝑥𝑛 = −𝑞𝑐𝑎𝑙

Enthalpy (∆H), J
Heat of a process at constant pressure

Heat Capacity of Calorimeter

Quantity of heat required to change the temp of a system by 1°C

𝑞𝑟𝑥𝑛 = −𝑞𝑐𝑎𝑙
∆𝐻𝑟𝑥𝑛 ∙ 𝑛𝐿𝑅 = −𝐶𝑐𝑎𝑙 ∙ ∆𝑇
−∆𝑯𝒓𝒙𝒏 ∙ 𝒏𝑳𝑹 −𝑪𝒄𝒂𝒍 ∙ ∆𝑻
𝑪𝒄𝒂𝒍 = ∆𝑯𝒓𝒙𝒏 =
∆𝑻 𝒏𝑳𝑹
1
Experiment 6
Calorimetry – Determination of Heats of Neutralization

OBJECTIVE Construct an improvised calorimeter.

Determine the heat capacity of the calorimeter.
Determine the enthalpy for the neutralization reaction
of Nitric Acid, HNO3 and Sodium Hydroxide, NaOH.

Improvised Calorimeter Set-Up

Avoid Heat Lost

Only the rubber stopper with the
inserted thermometer should be
visible on the surface of the
Styrofoam ball

NOTE: The Styrofoam ball acts as the

insulating vessel.

Materials and Apparatus

1.00 M HCl 6” test tube
1.00 M NaOH 10 mL volumetric pipette
1.00 M HNO3 5 mL measuring pipette
Styrofoam Ball Rubber stopper
Thermometer

Waste Disposal
Dilute all solutions with tap water and flush directly down the sink with
copious running water.

2
Procedure
A. Calibration of the Calorimeter

Record the stable initial

temp of 10mL 1M HCl

Add 5mL 1M NaOH;

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Cover and gently swirl

↓
Constant temperature serves as the
Record temperature with final temperature
30s interval until constant −∆𝐻𝑟𝑥𝑛 ∙ 𝑛𝐿𝑅
𝐶𝑐𝑎𝑙 =
∆𝑇
Where, ∆𝐻𝑟𝑥𝑛 = −55.8 𝐾𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙
∆𝑇 = 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖
𝑛𝐿𝑅 = 0.005 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻

B. Determination of ∆Hrxn of HNO3 and NaOH

Record the stable initial

temp of 10mL 1M HNO3

Add 5mL of 1M NaOH;

HNO3(aq)+NaOH(aq)→NaNO3(aq)+H2O(l)
Cover and gently swirl

↓
Constant temperature serves as the
Record temperature with final temperature
30s interval until constant −𝐶𝑐𝑎𝑙 ∙ ∆𝑇
∆𝐻𝑟𝑥𝑛 =
𝑛𝐿𝑅
Where, ∆𝑇 = 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖
𝑛𝐿𝑅 = 0.005 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻

3
Chromatography
Collection of laboratory techniques based on the fundamental concepts
of adsorption and solubility to separate and analyze mixtures
o Mobile Phase – a liquid or a gas that dissolves the mixture
o Stationary Phase - a solid or a liquid supported on a solid
NOTE: Chromatography works because the various constituents of the
mixture travel at different speeds, causing them to separate.

Classification Based on Set-Up or Instrument

1. Planar Chromatography
Thin Surface Chromatography; done on a flat surface
Used to characterize composition of mixture
2. Columnar Chromatography
Done on a column or a tube
Used to collect different composition of mixture

Classification Based on State of Phases

1. Solid-Liquid
2. Liquid-Liquid
3. Gas-Liquid
4. Solid-Gas

Classification based on Degree of Polarity

Nonpolar
Stationary Phase: Polar
1. Normal
Mobile Phase: Nonpolar Polar

Polar
Stationary Phase: Nonpolar
2. Reverse
Mobile Phase: Polar Nonpolar

NOTE: In the experiment, the basis of polarity would be the Retention

Factor (Rf). Since the experiment falls under the normal
classification based on degree of polarity, high retention factor
implies that the component is nonpolar.
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑡
𝑅𝑓 =
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
4
Advantages and Disadvantages of Chromatography
Advantage Disadvantage
- Simple Set-Up, Cheap - Applicable only to mixtures
of colored compounds
- Less Time-Consuming (e.g. pigments)

Choice of Mobile Phase

1. Effectively separate components (good resolution)
2. Moderately volatile
3. Cheap and relatively less toxic
4. Mixture of two or more solvents to achieve right polarity that would
optimize solution

Chromatographic Chamber
1. Essentially closed solvent (prevent evaporation of volatile solvent)
2. Sacrificial filter paper is used to saturate chamber with paper

Common Problems Encountered

1. Tailing (overloading of spots)
2. Absence of spots (very dilute concentrate)
3. Solvent does not rise or is very slow to rise (non-volatile solvent)

Applications of Chromatography
1. Location of Components
Chromatography can be two-dimensional

2. Reaction Monitoring

5
Experiment 7
Paper Chromatography – Separation of Food Dyes

OBJECTIVE Separate food dyes in Nips samples using 1% NaCl as

solvent and calculate retention factors to qualitatively
describe the components of the samples

NOTE Retention Factor (Rf) is based on any substance that

always moves at the same rate, no matter what else it
may have been mixed with originally.

Chromatographic Set-up
Stationary Phase
Water bound to cellulose
Mobile Phase
1% NaCl Solution
Chromatographic Paper
Filter Paper
Chromatographic Chamber
Beaker, Watch Glass, Filter
Paper (Sacrificial)

Chromatogram

Avoid Tailing.
Do not overload spots.

Everything should be
written with pencil since
ink will also act as a
mixture.

Waste Disposal
1. Dispose the developing solvent (mobile phase) directly down the
sink with copious running water.
2. Dispose used capillary tubes in the “Broken Glassware” container.

6
Procedure

Place each candy in a The pigments of the candy coating

spot plate and put a drop contain many hydroxyl group (OH)
of distilled H2O that is soluble in H2O.

250 mL beaker + NaCl Chromatographic Chamber

Wait until the developing solvent
solution (0.5 cm deep) + (mobile phase) saturates all of
filter paper + watch glass sacrificial filter paper.
↓
Avoid overloading!
Using a capillary tube,
Spots should have minimal diameter
apply small spot of Nips and should be 2cm apart from each
extract on chromatogram other to avoid premature separation.

↓ Let each spot dry before reapplying the

color concentrate for two more times.
Roll filter paper to form a Spots should be above the solvent level
cylinder and staple it; Put and should not touch the sides of the
it inside the chamber beaker to avoid premature separation.

↓
Since the pigments are relatively easy
Air dry for 2-5 mins and to be seen by the naked eye, visualizing
visualize results agents (e.g. Iodine, UV, stains) can be
discarded when visualizing result.
↓
Retention factor is a qualitive parameter
Calculate the Retention that depends on a solvent.
Factor of the components 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑡
of the color concentrate 𝑅𝑓 =
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡

Results Polarity (Rf)

Concentrate Components
--- Nonpolar ---
Violet Allura Red & Brilliant Blue
Brilliant Blue
Red Allura Red Sunset Yellow
Orange Sunset Yellow Tartrazine
Allura Red
Blue Brilliant Blue
------ Polar ------
Yellow Tartrazine
7
Acid-Base Equilibrium
Rate of Forward Reaction = Rate of Backward Reaction

Le Chatelier’s Principle
If a constraint is applied to a system in equilibrium, the equilibrium will
shift to tend to counteract the effect of the constraint.

SUMMARY OF EQUILIBRIUM SHIFT

Constraint Equilibrium Shift Why

to use the added

Concentration ↑ opposite side
concentration

to make up for the

Concentration ↓ same side
lost concentration

side with fewer to make up for the

Pressure ↑
moles of gas lost volume

side with most to use the

Pressure ↓
moles of gas added volume

endothermic to use the added

Temperature ↑
direction heat

exothermic to make up for the

Temperature ↓
direction lost heat

rates of both sides

Added Catalyst no change
are equally increased

In this experiment, pH affects equilibrium. pH can be determined using

a color indicator present in plant pigments called anthocyanins.
Hln + H2O ↔ ln- + H+

Color Form Equilibrium Shift

Protonated Magenta Hln Favors backward reaction
Deprotonated Green ln- Favors forward reaction

8
Intermolecular Forces of Attraction (IMFA)
Forces between individual molecules, ions, or particles
1. Ion-Ion Interaction
The force of attraction between two oppositely charged ions is
governed by Coulomb’s law:
𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹=
𝑟2
Where q = charge of ions
k = Coulomb’s constant, 8.99 × 109 N∙m2/C2
r = distance between two ions
Generally, ↑ IMFA ↑ Boiling Point ↑ Melting Point

2. Ion-Dipole Interaction
Force of attraction between an ion and a neutral molecule with a
dipole (positive pole and negative pole)
e.g. Dissolution of NaCl on H2O
Na+ is attracted to the negative pole of H2O.
Cl- is attracted to the positive pole of H2O.

3. Dipole-dipole Interaction
Attraction of uncharged polar covalent molecule

4. Hydrogen Bonding
Special type of dipole-dipole (Very strong); F, O, N bonded to H
Result into a 180° bond angle (ice is less dense than liquid water)
o Hydrogen-bond donor: molecule with the attached hydrogen
F—H > O—H > N—H
o Hydrogen-bond acceptor: molecule with the electronegative
atom attracting the hydrogen
N>O>F
9
5. London Dispersion Forces
Attractive forces that arise from temporary dipoles induced in
atoms or molecules; only IMFA of nonpolar covalent molecules;
occurs only in small distances
o Induced Dipole-Induced Dipole Interaction
Interaction between strictly nonpolar molecules
o Dipole- Induced Dipole Interaction
Interaction between a dipole (polar) molecule and a nonpolar
molecule

Polarizability
Ease with which the electron distribution in the atom or molecule can
be distorted

LDF are most important when polarizability is high.

o When overall molecule is large.
o When molecule has a high number of electrons (squishy)
o When there are π delocalized bonds that makes the molecule flat
o When molecule has a high surface area

NOTE: LDF is a surface phenomenon.

Trend of IMFA Strength (Descending Order)

1. Ion-Ion Interaction
2. Ion-Dipole Interaction
3. Hydrogen Bonding
4. Dipole-Dipole Interaction
5. London Dispersion Forces
Dipole-Induced Dipole Interaction
Induced Dipole-Induced Dipole Interaction

Solubility
Ability of a Solute to dissolve with a given amount of solvent at a
specific temperature and pressure
o Solute – substance being dispersed
o Solvent – dispersing medium

Miscibility
o Miscible – two liquids form one phase
o Immiscible – two liquids form distinct phases

10
Experiment 8
Dynamic Equilibrium and Heats of Solution

OBJECTIVE Observe heat and volume changes in mixing process

and the effect of temperature and nature of reagents
on solubility.
Flowchart of Procedure
A. Acid-Base Equilibria

B. Effect of Nature of Solute and Solvent

C. Effect of Temperature

D. Heats and Volume Changes

11
Table 1. Colors of Solutions at Different pH Levels

Hln + H2O ↔ ln- + H+

pH Color Form Favored Rxn
Extract 6 Violet Hln Backward
Extract + HCl 1 Pink Hln Bacward
Extract + NaOH 8 Green ln- Forward

Table 2. Effect of Nature of Solvent

Distilled H2O Ethyl Alcohol Toluene

NaCl Soluble Either Insoluble
Naphthalene Insoluble Either Soluble
Glycerol Miscible Miscible Immiscible

Structure of Reagents

NaCl (P) Naphthalene (NP) Glycerol (P)

Distilled H2O (P) Ethyl Alcohol (P) Toluene (NP)

NOTE: Polar species dissolves polar species. Nonpolar species

dissolves nonpolar species.
Ethyl Alcohol has relatively low polarity due to low amount of
hydroxyl group (OH).

12
 Iodine Crystal
Distilled H2O Insoluble I2(S) + H2O(l) → no rxn

Distilled H2O + KI(aq) Soluble I2\(S) + KI(aq) → I3-(aq) + K+(aq)

Table 3. Effects of Temperature

Process Observation Solubility

Heating NH4Cl + H2O Cold test tube (Endothermic) Increases
Cooling Ca(OH)2 + H2O Hot test tube (Exothermic) Decreases

Types of Process Based on Enthalpy (∆H)

1. Exothermic: Undissolved Solute → Dissolved Solute + Heat
2. Endothermic: Undissolved Solute + Heat → Dissolved Solute
NOTE: Almost all dissolutions of solids are endothermic reactions.
Combining two liquids depends on IMFA.

Table 4. Heat and Volume Changes

System Temperature Volume
Water + Methanol
Increases Decreases
(P) (P)

Ethanol + Acetone
Decreases Increases
(P) (NP)

Methanol + Ethanol
Constant Constant
(P) (P)

∆𝐻𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ∆𝐻1−2 + ∆𝐻1−1 + ∆𝐻2−2

1. High Temperature, Low Volume, Low Vapor Pressure
𝐼𝑀𝐹𝐴𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟−𝑚𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙 > 𝐼𝑀𝐹𝐴𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟−𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝐼𝑀𝐹𝐴𝑚𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙−𝑚𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑛𝑎𝑜𝑙

2. Low Temperature, High Volume, High Vapor Pressure

𝐼𝑀𝐹𝐴𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙−𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒 < 𝐼𝑀𝐹𝐴𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙−𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙 + 𝐼𝑀𝐹𝐴𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒−𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒

NOTE: High vapor pressure implies gaseous state (high volume).

3. Temperature and volume remains constant due to similarity in
structure. M-M (=) E-E (=) M-E

13
Distillation
Process of separating the components or substances from a liquid
mixture by using selective boiling and condensation
1. Simple Distillation
Separating liquids below 150°C at 1 atm from either non-volatile
impurities or another liquid with boiling point that is at least 25°C
from the first
2. Vacuum Distillation
Separating liquids above 150°C at 1 atm from either non-volatile
impurities or another liquid with boiling point that is at least 25°C
from the first
3. Fractional Distillation
Separating liquids whose boiling points differ by less than 25°C;
Commonly used in industrial processes, e.g. gasoline production
4. Stream Distillation
Separating liquids that are insoluble or slightly soluble in water

Superheating
Buildup of pressure in the system; Can cause set-up explosion
Possible Causes of Superheating
1. Vacuum stream of the two-way adapter is blocked.
2. No boiling chips are added. Boiling chips increase the surface
area where boiling occurs.
3. The joints of the setup are not tight.

NOTE: Consider a distillation of alcohol. Assuming 100% purity and

100% percent recovery, the amount of distillate (liquid collected
in the receiving flask) should be equal to the amount of alcohol
present in the alcohol solution.
Factors Affecting Yield
1. Water is not circulated through the condenser.
Decreases the amount of collected alcohol
2. Water circulated through the condenser is warm.
Decreases the amount of collected alcohol
3. The first 1mL of distillate was included.
Increases the amount of collected alcohol
Decreases the purity of collected alcohol
14
Experiment 9
Distillation of Rubbing Alcohol

OBJECTIVE Perform simple distillation on a sample of isopropyl

alcohol to isolate the alcohol from its mixture with water
Distillation Set-Up

NOTE: The thermometer should not be submerged in the solution but

should be below the side-arm of the three-way adapter since
it is supposed to measure the temperature of the steam.
Procedure

Place 20 mL of isopropyl
The round bottom flask serves as the
alcohol solution in a distilling flask.
round bottom flask

↓
Boiling Chips or Boiling Sticks
Add 2-3 pieces of boiling Small porcelain chips or tiny glass
chips or boiling sticks to capillaries that prevent bumping;
the distilling flask. Should never be added to a hot liquid

↓
A rubber stopper with a hole should be
inserted to the top opening of the three-
Finish the simple
way adapter to prevent any steam from
distillation set-up going out of the system.
Use rubber tubing to let the cold water
↓ flow into the bottom of the condenser’s
cooling jacket and out from the top
15
 Heat the water bath You should not heat a distilling flask
where the distilling flask directly on a hot plate. Use a hot water
is submerged into bath. Wait until gently boiling.

↓
For isopropyl alcohol, maintain the
Maintain the temperature temperature at about 82°C - 84°C.
around the theoretical
For ethyl alcohol, maintain the
boiling point of alcohol
temperature at about 78°C - 80°C.
↓

Discard the first 1ml The first 1 mL of the distillate are the
(about 20 drops) of impurities whose boiling points are
the distillate lower than the alcohol’s.

↓
In calculating percent recovery, take into
Measure the volume of account the percentage of alcohol in the
the collected distillate; rubbing alcohol sample
Percent recovery 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒
% 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑜𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑙′𝑛

Safety Precaution
Allow the entire setup to cool before dismantling it.

Waste Disposal
Dispose of the rubbing alcohol distillate into the non-halogenated
organic waste container

16
Gases
State of matter where molecules are separated by large distances and
in random movement
Properties of Gases
1. Expand to fill the volume of any container.
2. Have much lower densities than solids or liquids.
3. Have highly variable densities, depending on conditions.
4. Mix with one another readily and thoroughly.
5. Change volume dramatically with changing temperature.
Pressure, N/m2 or Pa
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

Pressure results from molecular collisions

between gas molecules and container walls,
each imparting an amount of force.

The summation of these forces produces the

macroscopic property of pressure.
Atmospheric Pressure
Force exerted by the weight of air molecules at a given surface;
Measured using a barometer and decreases with altitude.
Atmospheric Pressure at Sea Level
1 atm 101 325 Pa 1.01325 bar 760 Torr
14.696 psi 760 mmHg 10.33 m H2O

Gas Laws Relationship Constant Equation

1
Boyle’s 𝑃∝ 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
𝑉
𝑉1 𝑉2
Charles’ 𝑉∝𝑇 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝑇1 𝑇2
𝑃1 𝑃2
Gay-Lussac’s 𝑃∝𝑇 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 =
𝑇1 𝑇2
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
Combined 𝑃𝑉 ∝ 𝑇 𝑁𝑜𝑛𝑒 =
𝑇1 𝑇2
𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑉1 𝑉2
Avogadro's 𝑉∝𝑛 =
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑛1 𝑛2
17
Ideal Gas Law in Magnesium Ribbon and Hydrochloric Acid
BCE: Mg (s) + 2HCl (aq) → H2 (g) + MgCl2 (aq)
NIE: Mg (s) + 2H+ (aq) → H2 (g) + Mg2+ (aq)
TYPE: Reduction-Oxidation (Redox) Reaction
Reducing property of Mg > Reducing Property of Hg

The volume reading of trapped air may exhibit any one of the three
cases shown below:

The pressure of trapped air depends on the case observed.

ℎ NOTES:
Case A 𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝑃𝑏𝑎𝑟 −
13.6
𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝑃𝐻2
Case B 𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝑃𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑃𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 760 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑟
ℎ ℎ = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑚
Case C 𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝑃𝑏𝑎𝑟 +
13.6 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑔 = 13.6

Calculating the amount of H2 produced and Mg consumed:

Equations Pressure of Water
𝑅𝑇 T, °C P, torr T, °C P, torr
𝑛𝐻2 = 20 17.5 26 25.2
𝑃𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑉𝑎𝑖𝑟
21 18.7 27 26.7
𝑃𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑖𝑟 − 𝑃𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 22 19.8 28 28.3
23 21.1 29 30.0
24 22.4 30 31.8
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑀𝑔 = 𝑛𝐻2 ∙ 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑔
25 23.8

|𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑀𝑔 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 − 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑀𝑔 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑑 |

% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100%
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑀𝑔 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑑
18
Experiment 10
Gases – Testing the Ideal Gas Law

OBJECTIVE Illustrate and test the ideal gas law.

Procedure

The eudiometer should be completely

Eudiometer: water +
filled with water and HCl so that it does
10 mL 6M HCl + water not contain air.

Cover it with fingertip and

Release your fingertip on the opening of
invert to beaker + water, eudiometer only after submerging it in
catching the Mg ribbon water to not let air enter the system.
↓

After reaction, wait for 5 Five-minute waiting time allows the

minutes before recording system to have the same temperature
volume, ∆height, temp as that of the surroundings.

Take note of the case;

Calculate moles of H2, Case Observed: Case A
mass of Mg, percent error

Waste Disposal
Dilute HCl with plenty of water and flush directly down the sink with
copious running water.

Factors Affecting Yield

𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
1. Volume of gas is immediately read after the reaction occurred.
↑ Volume of Gas ↑ Moles of H2 ↑ Mass of Mg

2. If the eudiometer is not completely filled with HCl-H2O mixture.

↑ Volume of Gas ↑ Moles of H2 ↑ Mass of Mg

19
Concentration
Relative amount of a given substance contained within a solution
Concentration Expressions
Expresses amount of a substance per defined space or amount
A. Mole Fraction (X) C. Mass-Volume (%m/V)
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑆𝑂𝐿𝑈𝑇𝐸 𝑔 𝑆𝑂𝐿𝑈𝑇𝐸
𝑋= %𝑚/𝑉 =
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑆𝑂𝐿𝑈𝑇𝐼𝑂𝑁 𝑚𝐿 𝑆𝑂𝐿𝑈𝑇𝐼𝑂𝑁

B. Percent by Mass (%m/m) D. Molarity (M)

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑆𝑂𝐿𝑈𝑇𝐸 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑆𝑂𝐿𝑈𝑇𝐸
%𝑚/𝑚 = 𝑀=
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑆𝑂𝐿𝑈𝑇𝐼𝑂𝑁 𝐿 𝑆𝑂𝐿𝑈𝑇𝐼𝑂𝑁

C. Percent by Volume (%V/V) E. Molality (m)

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑆𝑂𝐿𝑈𝑇𝐸 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑆𝑂𝐿𝑈𝑇𝐸
%𝑉/𝑉 = 𝑚=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑆𝑂𝐿𝑈𝑇𝐼𝑂𝑁 𝑘𝑔 𝑆𝑂𝐿𝑉𝐸𝑁𝑇

COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS

Properties of solution that depends on the concentration of solute
particles but not on the identity of solute

1. Boiling Point Elevation

Solute molecules block solvent molecules in boiling
𝑻𝒃 − 𝑻𝟎𝒃 = 𝒊𝑲𝒃 𝒎

2. Freezing Point Depression

Solute molecules block solvent molecules in forming a lattice
structure.
𝑻𝒇 − 𝑻𝟎𝒇 = −𝒊𝑲𝒃 𝒎

3. Vapor Pressure Lowering

Solute molecules block solvent molecules on the surface in
increasing the vapor pressure; Governed by Raoult’s Law
∆𝑷𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑿𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑷𝟎𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕

4. Osmotic Pressure, π
Pressure required to oppose passage of pure solvent through
semipermeable membrane to the solution (osmosis)
𝝅 = 𝒊𝑴𝑹𝑻

20
Van’t Hoff Factor
Ratio between the actual concentration of particles produced when
the substance is dissolved, and the concentration of a substance as
calculated from its mass
Non-Electrolyte 𝑖=1
Strong Electrolyte 𝑖 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
Weak Electrolyte 1 < 𝑖 < 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
NOTE: The equation for strong electrolyte is only true for lower
concentrations because at high concentrations, a cation and
an anion in a solvent adhere to each other briefly, forming an
entity known as the intimate ion pair, before diffusing away.
(𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖 < 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑖)

Electrolyte
Substance that produces an electrically conducting solution when
dissolved in a polar solvent, such as water
1. Strong Electrolytes
100% dissociation when dissolved in water
o Strong Acids
HCl, HBr, HI, HNO3, HClO3, HClO4, H2SO4
e.g. HCl (aq) + H2O (l) ⟶ H3O+ (aq) + Cl (aq)
o Strong Bases
LiOH, NaOH, KOH, RbOH, CsOH, Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, Ba(OH)2
e.g. NaOH (aq) + H2O (aq) ⟶ Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq) + H2O (aq)

o Soluble Salts
e.g. NaCl (aq) + H2O (aq) ⟶ Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) + H2O (aq)

2. Weak Electrolytes
Partial dissociation when dissolved in water
o Weak Acids
e.g. HF (aq) + H2O (aq) ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + F- (aq)
o Weak Bases
e.g. NH3 (aq) + H2O (aq) ⇌ NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
o Insoluble Salts
e.g. Ag2S (s) + H2O (aq) ⇌ (no visible reaction)

Non-Electrolytes
Solutions that do not dissociate into ions and do not conduct electricity
e.g. Hydrocarbons
21
Experiment 11
Colligative Properties of Solutions
OBJECTIVE Observe freezing point depression and boiling point
elevation; Calculate experimental Van’t Hoff Factor
∆𝑇𝑓,𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝑖=
∆𝑇𝑓,𝑛𝑜𝑛−𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑒
Materials and Apparatus
Rock salt Test tubes
Ice tubes 250mL beaker
110°C thermometer 400mL beaker
Hotplate

Procedure
A. Freezing Point Depression

Ice-Salt Water Bath: The dissociation of rock salt in tap water

is an endothermic reaction; thus, it will
400 mL beaker + crushed absorb heat energy from surroundings
ice + rock salt + tap water (solution in the test tube to be put).
↓
Fill 1/3 test tube with H2O and insert
Record the freezing point thermometer. Cool it in ice bath. If temp
of distilled water reaches -2°C, remedy supercooling by
putting a fragment of ice in the test tube.
↓

Record the freezing point MM of NaCl = 58.44 g/mol

of 0.65m NaCl solution in Density of H2O = 1.00 g/mL
10mL distilled water 0.65m = 0.37986g NaCl + 10mL H2O

Record the freezing point MM of NaCl = 58.44 g/mol

of 1.10m NaCl solution in Density of H2O = 1.00 g/mL
10mL distilled water 1.10m = 0.64284g NaCl + 10mL H2O

Calculate the van’t Hoff

Kf,water = 1.86 °C/m
factor for the two NaCl ∆𝑇𝑓 = −𝑖𝐾𝑓 𝑚
solutions

22
B. Boiling Point Elevation

Record the boiling point

of distilled water in a
250mL beaker

Record the boiling point MM of NaCl = 58.44 g/mol

of 1.50m NaCl solution Density of H2O = 1.00 g/mL
in 50mL distilled water 1.50m = 4.383g NaCl + 50mL H2O

Record the boiling point MM of NaCl = 58.44 g/mol

of 2.50m NaCl solution in Density of H2O = 1.00 g/mL
50mL distilled water 2.50m = 7.305g NaCl + 50mL H2O

Calculate the van’t Hoff

Kb,water = 0.512 °C/m
factor for the two NaCl ∆𝑇𝑏 = 𝑖𝐾𝑏 𝑚
solutions

Waste Disposal
Dispose all salt solutions in the sink with copious running water

23
Operational Properties of Acids and Bases

ACID BASE
Taste Sour Bitter
How do
Feel just wet Feel slippery
they Feel?
Reacts with metal to Only reacts with
generate hydrogen, H2(g) amphoteric metals
Reaction Reacts with metal oxides
Reacts with acids to
and hydroxides to form
form salt and water.
salt and water.

Electrical Conduct electricity as Conduct electricity as

Conductivity aqueous solution aqueous solution

Color Indicators for Acids and Bases

INDICATOR ACID BASE

Litmus paper Blue → Red Red → Blue

Bromothymol Blue Yellow Blue

Methyl Orange Red Orange

Phenolphthalein Clear Pink

Theoretical Definition of Acids and Bases

ACID BASE
Arrhenius Produces H+ or H3O+ Produces OH -

Bronsted-
Proton donor Proton acceptor
Lowry

Lewis Electron acceptor Electron donor

24
Arrhenius Theory
A neutralization reaction involves the combination of hydrogen ions
and hydroxide ions to for water
LIMITATION Cannot explain the behavior of Ammonia, NH3 as a
base because it does not contain OH-

Bronsted-Lowry Theory
The reversible reaction contains two acids and two bases. We think of
them in pairs (conjugate pairs):

Members of a conjugate pair differ from each other by the presence or

absence of the transferrable hydrogen ion.

NOTE: The acid and base on the left side of the reaction is stronger
than the acid and base on the right side of the reaction.

Amphoteric Substances
Substances that can act either as acid or a base, e.g. H20

Amphiprotic substances
Both accept and donate protons

NOTE: All amphiprotic are amphoteric, but not all amphoteric are
amphiprotic.
25
Lewis Theory
Acids accept electrons while bases donate electrons

Summary of Theories of Acids and Bases

NOTE All Arrhenius acids and bases are also Bronsted-Lowry acids
and bases and Lewis acids and bases.
All Bronsted-Lowry acids and bases are also Lewis acids and
bases.

26
Autoionization of Water
Water is an amphoteric molecule
H2O + H2O → H3O+ + OH-
Ion-Product Constant (Keq)
Product of the molar concentrations of H+ and OH- ions at a temperature
Ion-Product Constant of Water at 25°C:
[ 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 ]
𝐾𝑒𝑞 =
[ 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 ]
𝐾𝑤 = [𝐻3 𝑂+ ][𝑂𝐻 − ] = 1.0 × 10−14

Since water is a neutral solution,

[𝐻3 𝑂+ ] = [𝑂𝐻 − ] = 1.0 × 10−7 .

Power of Hydrogen, pH
Measure of acidity or alkalinity of water-soluble substances

NOTE A change of 1 pH unit in the pH scale represents tenfold (10x)

change in the acidity of a solution.

Neutral Solution [𝐻3 𝑂 + ] = [𝑂𝐻 − ] 𝑝𝐻 = 7

Acidic Solution [𝐻3 𝑂 + ] > [𝑂𝐻 − ] 𝑝𝐻 < 7
[𝐻3 𝑂 +] [𝑂𝐻 − ]
Basic Solution < 𝑝𝐻 > 7

Equations and Relationships

𝑝𝐻 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔[𝐻3 𝑂+ ] 𝑝𝑂𝐻 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔[𝑂𝐻 − ]
𝑝𝐻 + 𝑝𝑂𝐻 = 14.00

27
Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases
I. Binary Acids (Hydrogen Halides)
Hydrogen is combined with a second nonmetallic element
1. Down a Group: ↑ Bond Strength ↓ Acid Strength
HF << HCl < HBr < HI

2. Down a Group: ↑ Size of Molecule ↑ Acid Strength

3. Across a Period: ↑ Bond Polarity ↑ Acid Strength

CH4 < NH3 < H2O < HF

II. Oxoacids
Acids that contain a hydrogen atom bonded to an oxygen atom
1. ↑ Electronegativity of Central Atom ↑ Acid Strength

28
 2. ↑ Number of Terminal O ↑ Acid Strength

III. Organic Acids

Organic compounds with acidic properties
1. ↑ Stability of Conjugate Base ↑ Acid Strength

2. ↑ Electronegative Atoms ↑ Acid Strength

IV. Amines
Formally derivatives of ammonia wherein one or more hydrogen
atoms have been replaced by a substituent group
1. ↑ Electronegative Atoms ↓ Base Strength

29
Acidic and Basic Oxides

Predicting the Acidity of Salts

Reactions between an acid and a base always yield into salt and water
1. Strong Acid + Strong Base → Neutral Salt + Water
e.g. HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
H2SO4 + NaOH → Na2SO4 + H2O

2. Weak Acid + Strong Base → Basic Salt + Water

e.g. CH3COOH + NaOH → NaCH3COO + H2O

3. Strong Acid + Weak Base → Acidic Salt + Water

e.g. HCl + NH4OH → NH4Cl + H2O

4. Weak Acid + Weak Base → (Indeterminate)

30
Experiment 12
Properties of Acids and Bases – pH, Conductivity, and Relative
Strengths of Acids and Bases

A. Conductivity of Test Solutions

Procedure
Prepare 20 mL of the test solution in
50 mL beakers. Immerse the
electrodes 1cm apart. DO NOT PUT
THE ELECTRODES IN CONTACT.

Prior to each test, wash the electrodes

with distilled water then wipe with a
piece of tissue to avoid contamination
of other test solutions.

Results
Strong Acid Strong Base Soluble Salt
Weak Acid Weak Base Insoluble Salt

Test Solution Intensity of Glow Classification

Distilled Water None Non-Electrolyte

HCl Bright Strong Electrolyte
CH3COOH Dim Weak Electrolyte
NaOH Bright Strong Electrolyte
NH3 Dim Weak Electrolyte
NaCl Bright Strong Electrolyte
NaCH3COO Bright Strong Electrolyte
Sucrose, C12H22O11 None Non-Electrolyte
NH3 + HCl Bright Strong Electrolyte
NH3 + CH3COOH Bright Strong Electrolyte
Glacial CH3COOH None Non-Electrolyte
First Dilution Dim
Second Dilution Less dim
31
NOTES: Ammonia and hydrochloric acid dissociate into ions
when reacted with each other.
NH3 (aq) + HCl (aq) → NH4+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

Ammonia and acetic acid also dissociate into ions

when reacted with each other.
NH3 (aq) + CH3COOH (aq) → NH4+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq)

Glacial Acetic Acid

Name for water-free (anhydrous) acetic acid
CH3COOH (aq) + H2O (l) → NH4+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq)

B. Determination of pH of Different Solutions

For Strong Acids: [H+] on test solution = Calculated [H+]
For Strong Bases: [OH-] on test solution = Calculated [OH-]

Test Solution pH [H+], M Classification

0.1M HCl 1.0 1×10-1 M Strong Acid
0.1M NaOH 13.0 1×10-13 M Strong Base
0.1M NaCl 7.0 1×10-7 M Neutral
0.1M CH3COOH 2.9 1×10-3 M Weak Acid
0.1M NaHCO3 11.1 8×10-12 M Weak Base
0.1M NH3 8.3 5×10-9 M Weak Base
Softdrink 3.0 1×10-3 M Acidic Solution
Fruit Juice 4.0 1×10-4 M Acidic Solution
Detergent 9.0 1×10-4 M Basic Solution

NOTE: Low pH value does not mean that the solution is a

strong acid, and high pH value does not mean that
the solution is a weak base.

32
C. pH as a Function of Concentration

Components [H+] pH
A 0.1M HCl 0.1M 1
B 1mL A + 9mL H2O 0.01M 2
C 1mL B + 9mL H2O 0.001M 3

Components [H+] pH
A 0.1M NaOH 1.0 × 10-13 M 13
B 1mL A + 9mL H2O 1.0 × 10-12 M 12
C 1mL B + 9mL H2O 1.0 × 10-11 M 11

Dilution Equation
Dilution is the process of decreasing the concentration of a solute in a
solution, usually by adding more solvent to a solution.

𝑀1 𝑉1 = 𝑀2 𝑉2
Where, M = Concentration of solutions, M
V= Volume of solutions, L

D. Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases

Test Solutions Observation Net Ionic Equation

NaCH3COO + HCl →
NaCH3COO + HCl Sour Smell
CH3COOH + NaCl

Na2CO3 + CH3COOH →
Na2CO3 + CH3COOH Effervescence
H2O + CO2 + NaCH3COO

Red LP turns
NH4Cl + NaOH NH4+ + OH- → NH3 + H2O
Blue

NOTE: The relative strengths of acids and bases work like

the relative strengths of the reducing power of metals
and oxidizing power of non-metals.
H2CO3 < CH3COOH < HCl
33