Pashto Cultural Orientation

Table of Content
CHAPTER 1 PROFILE................................................................................................................ 5
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................... 5
GEOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................................... 5
AREA ............................................................................................................................................... 5
CLIMATE ......................................................................................................................................... 5
GEOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS ............................................................................................................... 6
RIVERS AND LAKES ........................................................................................................................ 7
MAJOR CITIES ................................................................................................................................ 7
KANDAHAR (QANDAHAR) ............................................................................................................... 7
GARDEZ (GARDEYZ)........................................................................................................................ 8
JALALABAD ..................................................................................................................................... 8
HISTORY ......................................................................................................................................... 9
GOVERNMENT .............................................................................................................................. 11
ECONOMY ..................................................................................................................................... 12
ETHNIC GROUPS........................................................................................................................... 13
LANGUAGES .................................................................................................................................. 15
PROFILE ASSESSMENT.......................................................................................................... 16
CHAPTER 2 RELIGION ........................................................................................................... 17
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................. 17
ISLAM ............................................................................................................................................ 17
SUFISM ........................................................................................................................................... 19
THE ROLE OF RELIGION IN GOVERNMENT ................................................................................ 19
INFLUENCE OF RELIGION ON DAILY LIFE.................................................................................. 20
RELIGION AND GENDER .............................................................................................................. 21
RELIGIOUS EVENTS AND HOLIDAYS ........................................................................................... 21
RAMADAN...................................................................................................................................... 21
EID ................................................................................................................................................. 22
ASHURA ......................................................................................................................................... 22
BUILDINGS OF WORSHIP AND SACRED SITES............................................................................. 23
MOSQUES ....................................................................................................................................... 23
SHRINES AND CEMETERIES............................................................................................................ 23
BEHAVIOR IN PLACES OF WORSHIP ........................................................................................... 23
RELIGION ASSESSMENT ....................................................................................................... 25
FALSE. FEMALES ARE PERMITTED TO ENTER ONLY A FEW MOSQUES IN

KABUL. MOST MOSQUES ARE NOT OPEN TO FEMALE WORSHIPPERS.
TRADITIONALLY, AFGHAN WOMEN HAVE PRAYED AT SHRINES KNOWN AS
ZIARATS.CHAPTER 3 TRADITIONS ................................................................................... 25
CHAPTER 3 TRADITIONS ...................................................................................................... 26
2
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................. 26
GREETINGS AND CODES OF CONDUCT ....................................................................................... 26
MALE-FEMALE INTERACTIONS .................................................................................................. 28
GENDER ROLES AND RELATIONSHIPS ........................................................................................ 28
SOCIAL CODES: PASHTUNWALI .................................................................................................. 30
HONOR (NANG) ............................................................................................................................. 30
HOSPITALITY (MELMASTIA).......................................................................................................... 30
PROTECTION OF WOMEN, LAND, HONOR, AND WEALTH (NAMUS) .............................................. 31
VENGEANCE (BADAL) ................................................................................................................... 31
TRIBAL COUNCIL (JIRGA) .............................................................................................................. 32
ESCORT (BADRAGGA).................................................................................................................... 32
HOSPITALITY AND GIFT-GIVING ................................................................................................ 32
TRADITIONAL JOBS AND ECONOMY ........................................................................................... 33
TRADITIONAL DRESS ................................................................................................................... 34
FOOD ............................................................................................................................................. 35
EATING HABITS ............................................................................................................................ 36
NON-RELIGIOUS HOLIDAYS ........................................................................................................ 37
WEDDINGS .................................................................................................................................... 37
FUNERALS ...................................................................................................................................... 38
WEAPONS ...................................................................................................................................... 39
TRADITIONS ASSESSMENT .................................................................................................. 40
CHAPTER 4 URBAN LIFE ....................................................................................................... 41
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................. 41
HEALTH ISSUES ............................................................................................................................ 42
EDUCATION .................................................................................................................................. 44
TELECOMMUNICATIONS .............................................................................................................. 45
TRAFFIC AND TRANSPORTATION ................................................................................................ 46
MARKETS ...................................................................................................................................... 48
RESTAURANTS .............................................................................................................................. 49
STREET VENDORS AND BEGGARS ............................................................................................... 51
URBAN LIFE ASSESSMENT ................................................................................................... 52
CHAPTER 5 RURAL LIFE ....................................................................................................... 53
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................. 53
TRIBAL DIVISIONS........................................................................................................................ 53
RURAL ECONOMY ........................................................................................................................ 54
LAND OWNERSHIP........................................................................................................................ 55
NOMADIC TRIBES ......................................................................................................................... 56
RURAL HEALTH CARE ................................................................................................................. 57
RURAL EDUCATION...................................................................................................................... 58
GENDER ROLES IN RURAL AREAS .............................................................................................. 59
TRANSPORTATION........................................................................................................................ 60
MARKETS IN RURAL AREAS ........................................................................................................ 61
3
SELF-PROTECTION AND FIREARMS ............................................................................................ 61
RURAL LEADERSHIP .................................................................................................................... 62
CHECKPOINTS .............................................................................................................................. 63
LANDMINES .................................................................................................................................. 64
RURAL LIFE ASSESSMENT ................................................................................................... 66
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................. 67
AFGHAN HOMES ........................................................................................................................... 67
FAMILIAL AND TRIBAL RELATIONS............................................................................................ 68
THE TYPICAL HOUSEHOLD ......................................................................................................... 69
GENDER ROLES ............................................................................................................................ 71
LIFE STAGES ................................................................................................................................. 72
BIRTH............................................................................................................................................. 72
STATUS OF THE ELDERLY .............................................................................................................. 73
STATUS OF CHILDREN ................................................................................................................... 73
NAMING CONVENTIONS ............................................................................................................... 74
FAMILY LIFE ASSESSMENT ................................................................................................. 75
FINAL ASSESSMENT ............................................................................................................... 76
RESOURCES............................................................................................................................... 77
4
Chapter 1 Profile
Introduction
Located in south-central Asia, Afghanistan is a poor,
largely undeveloped country that has experienced
considerable conflict throughout its history. The
region’s strategic location has long made it prone to
invasion, but its rugged, unforgiving topography has
also served to isolate it. The nation is home to a great
variety of ethnic, linguistic, and tribal groups.
Although these groups maintain diverse customs and
traditions, the vast majority of them practice Islam,
the nation’s predominant religion. Pashtuns, who speak Pashto and form the largest
ethnic group in the country, have played a significant role in the growth of the nation.
Until the 20th century, the term “Afghan” applied only to Pashto-speaking peoples.1
Geography
Area
Afghanistan occupies a landlocked position in south-central Asia. Its northern border
abuts the Central Asian countries of Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan. A large
section of this border is formed by the Amu Darya River and its tributary, the Panj. In the
northeast, Afghanistan shares a short border with China at the eastern end of the Wakhan
Corridor. The country shares its eastern and southern borders with Pakistan. On its
western edge, Afghanistan borders Iran. As the country has no direct access to the ocean,
the nearest coast lies on the Arabian Sea, about 300 miles (480 km) to the south in
Pakistan. 2 Its total area is 652,230 sq km (251,827 sq mi), making it slightly smaller than
the state of Texas. 3
Climate
Afghanistan is generally subject to hot, dry summers and cold winters, but conditions
vary according to region. The northeastern mountain regions, including the Wakhan
Corridor, have a subarctic climate characterized by dry, cold winters. The Central
Highlands receive the bulk of their precipitation in the winter and early spring, when cold
air masses blow in from the north and northwest. Lower elevations may receive rainfall
during this time, while the peaks of many of the country’s high elevation ranges are
covered in snow year-round. In the summer, the mountainous regions near the Pakistani
border may receive tropical air masses influenced by the Indian monsoon. These air
masses often carry humidity and rain, and they may move into the central and southern
areas of the country. Known as the “wind of 120 days,” strong winds are a near daily
occurrence in the southwest during the summer. These hot, dry winds often create
1
Historical Dictionary of Afghanistan, Third Edition. Adamic, Ludwig W. “Afghan [p. 12].” 2003.
Lanham, Maryland: The Scarecrow Press.
2
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. “Afghanistan: Land.” 2010. http://search.eb.com/eb/article-21414
3
Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook. “Afghanistan.” 13 April 2010.
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html
5
dangerous sand or dust storms that sweep across the southern deserts. The Southern
Plateau experiences the hottest, driest weather in the country.
The country’s various climatic regions demonstrate extreme variations in temperature.

Depending upon elevation, temperatures in the Central Highlands range from -15°C (5°F)
and below in the winter to between 0°C and 26°C (32°F and 78°F) in the summer. Lows
in the Wakhan Corridor often reach -21°C (-6°F) and below, 4 whereas highs above 35°C
(95°F) are common in the southern deserts. In the northeast, extremes of 49°C (120°F)
and -31°C (-24°F) have been recorded in Jalalabad and Kabul, respectively. 5
Geographic Divisions
Afghanistan can be divided into three distinct
geographic regions: the Central Highlands, the
Southern Plateau, and the Northern Plains. The
Central Highlands include the Hindu Kush Range,
which is the country’s dominant mountain system.
This mountain range extends in a southwesterly
direction from the Wakhan Corridor of the far
northeast toward the center of the country. Spreading
out from the Hindu Kush, a number of mountain
chains extend throughout the country’s eastern and central regions, with some ranges
stretching westward to the Iranian border. High mountain passes are of great strategic
value in the Central Highlands; these include Shebar Pass and the legendary Khyber Pass,
the gateway to the Indian subcontinent. The country’s highest point, Noshaq Peak, is
found in the Hindu Kush at 7,485 meters (24,577 ft). 6
To the north of the Central Highlands lie the Northern Plains. Extending into Central
Asia, this expanse of foothills and fertile plains is the site of heavy agricultural activity.
There are also abundant mineral resources and natural gas deposits in this region. The
country’s low point of 258 meters (846 ft) is found in the Amu Darya Basin of this
region. 7 South of the Central Highlands, the Southern Plateau consists of varied desert
and semi-desert terrain, including salt flats and dry, stony expanses. The soil of much of
this region is infertile. The southeastern section of this region, known as Rigestan, is a
sandy plain scattered with sand dunes and ridges. 8
4
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Afghanistan: A Country Study. Blood, Peter R., ed.
“Chapter 2: The Society and Environment: The Natural Environment: Climate.” 1997.
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+af0034)
5
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. “Afghanistan: Land: Climate.” 2010. http://search.eb.com/eb/article-
21418
6
7
8
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. “Afghanistan: Land: Relief: Physiographic Regions.” 2010.
http://search.eb.com/eb/article-226121
6
Rivers and Lakes
Although Afghanistan is located in an arid region, the country has relatively abundant
water resources due to its many high mountain ranges. Over 80% of the country’s river
water originates in the Central Highlands (including the Hindu Kush), which collect
significant snowfall. 9 Yet, due to a lack of infrastructure, most of the country’s water
resources remain unharnessed. Only 30-35% of the annual water supply is used
domestically, with the rest flowing out into surrounding countries. In the absence of
sufficient storage, management, and distribution systems, water shortages are common. 10
The major Afghan rivers are the Amu Darya, the Kabul, the Helmand, and the Hari Rud.
Forming a large section of the country’s northern border, the Amu Darya is Afghanistan’s
only navigable river. The Kabul, the major waterway in eastern Afghanistan, flows from
its source in the Central Highlands into the Indus River in Pakistan. The Helmand is the
longest river in the country and an important resource for irrigation water in the south.
Flowing westward from the central mountains, the Hari Rud passes near the large western
city of Herat and ultimately forms a portion of the Afghan-Iranian border. Afghanistan’s
few lakes are mostly small in size; some are saline. Many of the country’s streams and
lakes are only active after periods of rainfall or during the spring snowmelt. 11
Major Cities
Kandahar (Qandahar)
Located in southeastern Afghanistan, Kandahar is situated
alongside the Tarnak River on a high plain between the foothills of
the Central Highlands and the deserts of the Southern Plateau. The
city is surrounded by fertile agricultural land, with major regional
crops consisting of various fruits, such as grapes and pomegranates.
With a population of approximately 325,000 people, it is the third
largest city in Afghanistan. 12 (As population figures for the country
vary, other estimates place the city second in size behind only the
Afghan capital, Kabul.) Historically, the city’s strategic location on
major trade routes made it prone to frequent invasion. The city
served as Afghanistan’s first capital after Ahmad Shah Durrani
unified the tribal nation in the 18th century. Ahmad Shah’s
mausoleum is found in the city, as is the Khirqah Mosque, which is believed to house the
cloak of the Prophet Muhammad. 13 As a major center for Pashtun peoples, the city is
9
Asian Development Bank. “Afghanistan: Issues, Constraints and Objectives.” 2005.
http://www.adb.org/Water/NARBO/2005/Training-Program/pres-AFG-grp1-NARBO-training.pdf
10
Reuters. Salahuddin, Sayed. “With War and Neglect, Afghans Face Water Shortage.” 24 March 2010.
http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE62N19Q20100324
11
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. “Afghanistan: Land: Drainage.” 2010. http://search.eb.com/eb/article-
21416
12
City Population. Brinkhoff, Thomas. “Afghanistan.” 26 March 2010.
http://www.citypopulation.de/Afghanistan.html
13
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. “Kandahar.” 2010. http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9044534
7
home to the Kandahari dialect of Pashto, which is the soft-voice form of the language.14
The city served as a stronghold for the Taliban during their time in power.
Gardez (Gardeyz)
The town of Gardez is located on a high plain in
eastern Afghanistan, roughly 80 km (50 mi) from the
Pakistani border. Situated at 2,300 m (7,550 ft), the
town is a transshipment center for regional timber
production. It is also located on transit routes to
Kabul, Ghazni, and nearby Pakistan. 15 Although
small in population (est. 20,000 in 2006), 16 Gardez is
important for strategic purposes. The city and the
surrounding area once served as a stronghold for the
Taliban, but it is now home to a forward operating base for the U.S. Military, as well as a
base for the Afghan National Army. Both the town and the greater province (Paktia) are
largely populated by Pashtuns, and the region is known for its tribal traditions and
divisions. 17
Jalalabad
Jalalabad, the capital of Nangarhar province, is located in a strategically important region
of eastern Afghanistan. Situated on the Kabul River, the city lies on the major trade and
transportation route that runs through the Khyber Pass from the Afghan capital, Kabul, to
nearby Pakistan and the Indian sub-continent. Because of its location, the Jalalabad
region has been occupied for millennia and has often served as a military outpost and
command center. In the modern era, both the British and Soviets stationed troops in the
city. More recently, Jalalabad served as a stronghold for Taliban forces during their time
in power. The city is also home to an important regional airfield.
The city’s population is dominated by Pashtuns, and it is in close proximity to Peshawar,

a major Pashtun city in northwestern Pakistan. Fertile agricultural fields surround
Jalalabad, with nuts, fruits, and cereals grown as major crops. 18 Nangarhar province was
once known as a major site of opium poppy cultivation, but efforts to reduce production
in the region have demonstrated considerable success. 19 Jalalabad has a population of
168,600 (2006 est.), making it the fifth largest city in the country. 20
14
Language Materials Project, Center for World Languages, UCLA. “Pashto.” No date.
http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=64&menu=004
15
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. “Gardeyz.” 2010 http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9036064
16
17
GlobalSecurity.org. Pike, John. “Gardez.” 12 November 2008.
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/afghanistan/gardez.htm
18
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. “Jalalabad.” 2010. http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9043270
19
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. “Opium Cultivation Down by a Fifth in Afghanistan.” 26
August 2008. http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/press/releases/2008-08-26.html
20
8
History
Early History
Human settlement in the Afghan region dates back several thousand years. Historically,
the region served as a crossroads for traffic between the Middle East, Central Asia, South
Asia, and East Asia. Accordingly, various waves of migrating peoples and invading
armies passed through the area, bringing trade and war. Many of these peoples followed
an important trade route that cut through the Hindu Kush Mountains of modern-day
Afghanistan. This route formed a section of what would later be known as the Silk Road.
The Persians were one of the first major powers to control the region. Later, in the 4th
century B.C.E., Alexander the Great and his forces conquered the area for the Greeks.
After several centuries during which various powers fought for control of the area, the
Arab Muslims swept into the region in the 7th century C.E. They spread the practice of
Islam, which remains prevalent in the region today. Several centuries of power struggles
and turmoil followed, including a Mongol invasion led by Genghis Khan. Overall,
throughout the ancient era, the Afghan region was subject to frequent incursions and
conflict, as well as influxes of diverse cultures.
The Afghan State and the Colonial Era

In the early modern era, the Afghan state was
founded by Ahmad Shah Durrani, a Pashtun chief
who was elected Shah, or King, in 1747 by an
assembly (loya jirga) of Pashtun tribal leaders.
Ahmad Shah consolidated the Pashtun tribes and
expanded the Afghan territory to Delhi (in modern-
day India) and the Arabian Sea. Thereafter, Pashtuns
dominated the Afghan government for much of the
modern era.
In the 19th and early 20th centuries, incursions by the British, who were then based in
colonial India, led to three Anglo–Afghan Wars. These wars occurred as part of the “the
Great Game,” a prolonged battle for Central Asia waged between Russia and Britain. Due
to the strong resistance of Afghan armies, the British failed to fully colonize the country,
although they exerted various levels of control on Afghan leaders. In the late 19th
century, the British established the Durand Line, the boundary that marks the modern
Afghan–Pakistani border. (At that time, the line designated the northwestern edge of
British-controlled India.) This demarcation created serious and longstanding tension, as it
divided a cohesive Pashtun area into two different regions. Opposition to the Durand Line
later prompted unsuccessful attempts to unify the Pashtun region and create an
independent state of “Pashtunistan.” Such efforts seriously strained relations between
Afghanistan and Pakistan in the 20th century. 21
The 20th Century

21
Historical Dictionary of Afghanistan, Third Edition. Adamec, Ludwig W. “Pashtunistan.” 2003. Lanham,
Maryland: The Scarecrow Press.
9
In 1919, after the end of the Third Anglo–Afghan War, Afghanistan gained its formal
independence. In the following decades, the nation experimented with political and social
reforms, including the adoption of a constitutional monarchy. Many of these reforms
were met with resistance by conservative factions. This period was marked by the
prolonged reign of the nation’s last king, Zahir Shah, who ruled from 1933 to 1973.
During a period of economic hardship, Zahir Shah was overthrown by a former prime
minister, Sardar Mohammad Daoud. Upon taking power, Daoud abolished the monarchy
and declared himself President of the new Republic of Afghanistan. His subsequent
efforts to address economic problems failed to quell political instability.
In 1978, the People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), a

communist group, seized power in a violent coup. The PDPA had
strong ties to the Soviet Union, which provided it with financial
assistance and military support. Various tribal insurgencies
mounted a fierce resistance against the communist government. In
1979, the Soviets invaded the country in an effort to solidify
communist rule in the region. Aided by the U.S. and other
countries, the mujahideen, or resistance fighters, fought for more
than a decade to end communist rule in Afghanistan. In 1989, the
Soviets officially withdrew from the war-torn country, leaving
hundreds of thousands dead and millions more displaced. However,
the Afghan communist government remained in power, and the
civil war continued. The communist government fell in 1992, but power struggles
between various competing factions prolonged the internal conflict. In 1996, the Taliban,
an extremist Islamic group dominated by Pashtuns, seized power over much of the
country, including the nation’s capital, Kabul. 22
The Taliban Regime and U.S. Intervention

During its time in power, the Taliban regime implemented policies that had a detrimental
effect on the country and its impoverished, war-weary population. The fundamentalist
group’s strict code of law deprived Afghans of basic human rights, with women, in
particular, subject to severe restrictions and punishments. During this time, many
minority groups were targeted for attacks and abuse. The Taliban also destroyed non-
Islamic cultural artifacts, such as two massive Buddha statues located outside the city of
Bamiyan. 23 Moreover, as the country’s infrastructure and economy remained in a state of
collapse, the resource-poor Taliban government offered few services to the populace.
After taking power, the Taliban allowed various terrorist organizations, including Osama
Bin Laden’s Al Qaeda network, to base their operations in Afghanistan. After the terrorist
attacks of 11 September 2001, the U.S. and a coalition of international forces entered
Afghanistan in order to remove the Taliban from power and combat the Al Qaeda forces
based in the country. The U.S.-led operation quickly toppled the Taliban regime,
22
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. “Country Profile: Afghanistan.” August 2008.
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Afghanistan.pdf
23
Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs, U.S. Department of State. “Background Note: Afghanistan.”
March 2010. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5380.htm
10
allowing other Afghan political groups to assume power. They formed a transitional
government and drafted a democratic constitution. On 9 October 2004, Afghanistan held
its first democratic presidential election. Hamid Karzai, an ethnic Pashtun, won the
election. Meanwhile, Taliban insurgents regrouped while taking refuge in areas outside
the limited control of the Afghan government, as well as in safe havens in nearby
Pakistan. 24 By December 2008, a resurgent Taliban had once again extended its influence
over a large share of the country. 25
In August 2009, the second national democratic presidential election, which drew charges
of corruption, resulted in a runoff between Karzai and his primary competitor, Abdullah
Abdullah. After Abdullah withdrew from the runoff vote, Karzai was appointed to
another five-year term as President by the Independent Election Commission (IEC). In
December 2009, the Obama administration called for a significant increase in troops for
combat operations in Afghanistan. 26 Major objectives for the surge included: defeating
Al Qaeda and eliminating its safe havens; suppressing the resurgent Taliban and
preventing it from overthrowing the Afghan government; and strengthening the capacity
of the Afghan government and its security forces. 27 The U.S.-led military operation is
ongoing, as Taliban and Al Qaeda forces continue to pose a threat to regional stability
and international security. 28
Government
The Afghan government is an Islamic republic.
Political reforms have produced a constitutional
framework that provides the country with a
democratically elected president and national
assembly. However, centralized Afghan governments
have historically lacked a strong influence outside the
capital due to the longstanding tradition of local tribal
rule in the country. In the past, local leaders tended
not to challenge the state, and in return they were left
alone by the government to administer their respective areas. This pattern largely persists
today, as the central government’s powers remain limited and local tribal leaders
continue to control many regions of the country. Military aid and reconstruction efforts
have helped strengthen the government’s capacity, but its ability to provide security and
services remains limited. Moreover, it continues to face serious challenges due to
24
25
Council on Foreign Relations. Bruno, Greg and Eben Kaplan. “The Taliban in Afghanistan.” 3 August
2009. http://www.cfr.org/publication/10551/
26
BBC News. “Barack Obama Orders 30,000 More Troops to Afghanistan.” 2 December 2009.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8389778.stm
27
Federation of American Scientists. Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress. Bowman,
Steve and Catherine Dale. “CRS Report: War in Afghanistan: Strategy, Military Operations, and Issues for
Congress.” 25 February 2010. http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/R40156.pdf
28
11
ongoing security threats, the lasting effects of decades of war, and the region’s
longstanding tribal divisions. 29 Corruption is also a serious issue. 30
On a regional level, the country is divided into provinces, districts, and sub-districts.
Officially, the provinces are overseen by governors, but local warlords in control of
militias hold considerable power. Traditionally, tribal councils known as loya jirgas
address issues at the local level. In general, Afghans are governed under Islamic or tribal
law. 31 Pashtun tribal law is known as Pashtunwali. This detailed code of conduct consists
of a number of principles ranging from hospitality and responsibility to revenge and the
preservation of honor. Such principles guide Pashtuns in their daily lives and determine
their moral and legal responsibilities to the community. During the Taliban’s years in
power, a strict interpretation of Islamic law became widespread; their code of law was
based, in part, on Pashtunwali. 32
Economy
Afghanistan is one of the poorest countries in the world. Economic
activity ground to a halt under the Taliban due to road blocks and
recurrent fighting. Although the region is rich in natural resources,
including fossil fuels and minerals, its deposits have remained
largely unexploited. Industrial production in Afghanistan is
limited, as much of the country’s infrastructure is in ruin.
Agriculture and animal husbandry constitute the bulk of the
nation’s economy, as they have for centuries. In terms of crafts and
textiles, Afghanistan is famous for its exquisite hand-made rugs
and carpets, as well as for the production of karakul, a silky wool
made from the pelts of Karakul lambs.
Afghanistan was once self-sufficient in agricultural production, but

it has relied heavily on imports and external aid in recent decades. Droughts, prolonged
conflict, and loss of infrastructure have all severely limited the country’s conventional
agricultural sector. For example, many of the nation’s irrigation canals have been
destroyed, and widespread landmine use has made many areas unsuitable for farming or
grazing. Violence has also forced millions of Afghans to flee their lands, with many of
them taking refuge in nearby countries, such as Pakistan or Iran.
A problematic aspect of the Afghan economy is its heavy reliance on opium poppy
cultivation. 33 As a drought resistant plant, it has proved to be the ideal cash crop for
29
30
Federation of American Scientists. Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress. Katzman,
Kenneth. “CRS Report: Afghanistan: Post-Taliban Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy [p. 16].” 25
March 2010. http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL30588.pdf
31
32
33
BBC News. “Record for Afghan Poppy Planting.” 29 February 2008.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7271654.stm
12
impoverished Afghan subsistence farmers. Moreover, traffickers will extend credit to
poppy growers to tide them over until harvest time due to the certainty of the market. 34
As a result of these and other factors, poppy cultivation is pervasive in Afghanistan, the
source of the vast majority of the world’s opium. This drug trade, which generates
revenues that far exceed the Afghan government’s entire annual operating budget, soared
in recent years. Meanwhile, yields of traditional but typically less-lucrative crops, such as
wheat, declined. The opium trade has been a primary source of capital and financing for
the Taliban insurgency. 35 It is also tied to a substantial black market in which a variety of
goods are smuggled out of the country. In the absence of an alternative livelihood for
Afghan farmers, poppy cultivation remains difficult to eradicate. However, government
and coalition efforts to reduce cultivation have demonstrated success in recent years. In
2009, domestic opium cultivation decreased by 22% from the previous year, and the
number of poppy-free provinces rose to 20. 36 Nonetheless, the opium trade remains
strong and continues to pose a serious security threat. 37
Although it remains weak and undeveloped, the Afghan economy has improved since
2001, largely due to foreign aid and investment in the country. Much of this funding has
been channeled toward reducing poverty and rebuilding the nation’s infrastructure.
However, a variety of social and economic factors, including the country’s unstable
security situation, have hampered reconstruction and development efforts. In early 2010,
unemployment remained around 40%. 38
Ethnic Groups
As a historic crossroads for diverse peoples,
Afghanistan is home to a wide array of linguistic,
ethnic, and tribal groups. Many of these groups
are ethnically or linguistically related to peoples
in surrounding countries. The Pashtun people, the
largest ethnic group in Afghanistan, comprise
approximately 42% of the Afghan population. 39
Although they can be found in pockets throughout
the country, Pashtuns dominate a large crescent-shaped region that stretches from the
western frontier, across much of the south, to the eastern highlands. Pashtuns also
34
Asian Development Bank. ADB Review. Curtis, Grant. “Afghanistan’s Opium Economy.” December
2005. http://www.adb.org/Documents/Periodicals/ADB_Review/2005/vol37-6/opium-economy.asp
35
Reuters. “ISAF Chief Sees Afghanistan Drug Trade Rising in 2008.” January 2, 2008.
http://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSSP4364920080102
36
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Government of Afghanistan Ministry of Counter Narcotics.
“Afghanistan Opium Survey 2009: Summary Findings.” September 2009.
http://www.unodc.org/documents/crop-
monitoring/Afghanistan/Afghanistan_opium_survey_2009_summary.pdf
37
Council on Foreign Relations. Gavrilis, George. “The Good and Bad News about Afghan Opium.” 10
February 2010. http://www.cfr.org/publication/21372/good_and_bad_news_about_afghan_opium.html
38
39
13
populate the nearby northwestern region of Pakistan, across the Durand Line, or
Afghanistan’s eastern border.
Pashtuns generally speak Pashto, an Indo-European language. They are divided into
many subgroups, but there are two major tribes: the Ghilzai and the Durrani. Formerly
known as the Abdali, the Durrani have played a major role in governing the country
throughout the last few centuries. In general, Pashtuns earn their livelihood through
farming and animal husbandry. They are also known as fierce warriors. A number of
Pashtun tribes are nomadic. These tribes engage in a continuous migration throughout the
Afghan–Pakistani borderlands.
Comprising approximately 27% of the population, the Tajiks are the second largest ethnic
group in Afghanistan. 40 They speak Dari, a dialect of the Persian language. Tajiks live
mainly in the mountains of the northeast, in the west, and in larger cities such as Herat,
Kabul, and Mazar-e-Sharif. In general, they engage in agriculture or commerce, or they
work as artisans. As Dari has long been the administrative language of Afghanistan,
Tajiks have often served in court or government positions. 41 Afghan Tajiks do not
organize themselves by tribe. 42
The mountainous region of central Afghanistan is home to the Hazaras. The Hazaras
make up approximately 9% of the nation’s population. 43 The majority of them practice
Shi’a Islam, which is a minority religion in Afghanistan. The Hazara people speak
Hazaragi, a dialect of Persian mutually intelligible with Dari.
The Uzbeks are another relatively large ethnic group, accounting for approximately 9%
of the Afghan population. 44 Along with the Tajiks, the Uzbeks share the great plains of
the north with the Turkmen, Aimak, Kyrgyz, and many other ethnic groups that have
immigrated into Afghanistan from Central Asia. The Uzbeks and Turkmen speak Turkic
languages. Additional ethnic groups live in the eastern mountains. One such group is the
Pashai, whose 2,000 year-old language was rendered in written form for the first time in
2003. Many Pashai speak Pashto as well. 45 Nuristanis live in Nuristan, a northeastern
province formerly known as Kafiristan, or “Land of the Infidels.” Their lands were
40
41
Historical Dictionary of Afghanistan, Third Edition. Adamec, Ludwig W. “Tajik.” 2003. Lanham,
Maryland: The Scarecrow Press.
42
“Chapter 2: The Society and Environment: Social Structure: Ethnic Groups: Tajik.” 1997.
43
44
45
SIL International. Yun, Ju-Hong. “Pashai Language Development Project: Promoting Pashai Language,
Literacy, and Community Development.” 2003. http://www.sil.org/asia/ldc/parallel_papers/ju-
hong_yun.pdf
14
incorporated into Afghanistan in the late 19th century, when they were converted to
Islam. 46
Languages
Pashto, also known as Pashtu or Pakhtu, is one of Afghanistan’s two official languages.
Dari, the other official language, is more widely spoken, as it is the primary language of
communication between speakers of different tongues. Dari is especially dominant in the
north and west. (Many of the minority ethnic groups in the north are fluent in Dari or
various related dialects.) Pashto is dominant in the eastern and southern regions of the
country, as well as in the northwestern region of Pakistan. Pashto is spoken primarily by
Pashtuns, but not all Pashtuns speak it as their first language, and many non-Pashtun
groups (particularly those in the south and southeast) are capable Pashto speakers.
Both Pashto and Dari belong to the Iranian branch of the Indo-European linguistic group,
but they are not mutually understood. 47 Dari, the Afghan dialect of Persian-Farsi,
traditionally served as the language of the Afghan court. Thus, Afghanistan’s literary
heritage is largely preserved in the Dari language, the language of the literati. Pashtu
literature is largely represented by tribal histories and love poems. 48 However, Pashto
gained prominence in the 20th century as the Pashtun-dominated government promoted it
as the official national language. A variety of other languages are spoken among the
country’s many ethnic groups, including Balochi, Pashai, and the Turkic languages of
Turkmen and Uzbek. 49
46
Our Women are Free: Gender and Ethnicity in the Hindukush. Maggi, Wynne. “Chapter 1: Getting
There.” 2001. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
47
Historical Dictionary of Afghanistan, Third Edition. Adamec, Ludwig W. “Pashtu (Pakhtu).” 2003.
Lanham, Maryland: The Scarecrow Press.
48
Afghan Profile. Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Alexe, Dan. Taliban Forced Rift Between Country’s
Two Main Languages. 27 January 2002.
http://afghanprofile.net/index.php?Itemid=27&id=134&option=com_content&task=view
49
15
Profile Assessment
1. Prior to the 20th century, the term “Afghan” applied only to Pashto-speaking
peoples.
True. Pashtuns, who form the largest ethnic group in the country, have played a
significant role in Afghan history. Until the 20th century, the term “Afghan” applied
only to Pashto-speaking peoples
2. Islam arrived in Afghanistan in the 5th century C.E.
False. Arab Muslims swept into Afghanistan in the 7th century C.E. They spread the
practice of Islam, which remains the dominant religion in the region today.
3. The Durand Line now marks the modern Afghan–Pakistani border.
True. In the 19th century, the British established the Durand Line that now marks the
modern Afghan–Pakistani border. This boundary has created longstanding tensions
because it divides the Pashtun area into two different regions.
4. The Taliban took control of most of Afghanistan, including Kabul, in 1990.
False. By 1996, the ultra-conservative and largely Pashtun Taliban, were in control of
most of Afghanistan. The group was assisted by Pakistan’s military and the Gulf
States.
5. Hamid Karzai, the first democratically elected president of Afghanistan, is an

ethnic Pashtun.
True. In 2004, after the fall of the Taliban, Afghanistan held its first democratic
presidential election. Hamid Karzai, an ethnic Pashtun, won. As of 2008, he was still
in power.
16
Chapter 2 Religion
Introduction
Islam is the predominant religion in Afghanistan, where
approximately 99% of the population identify themselves as
Muslim. Islam is one of the few common bonds that unite the
diverse ethnic and tribal groups in the country. Most Afghan
Muslims follow the Sunni branch of Islam. There is also a
substantial minority population of Shi’a Muslims in the country.
They live primarily in the central provinces, but they can also be
found in the nation’s major cities. Ismaili Muslims, who form a sect
within the Shi’a branch of Islam, can be found in the central and
northeastern areas of the country.
Afghanistan is also home to a large number of Sufis, who practice a

mystical form of Islam. Both the Sunni and Shi’a schools in Afghanistan have Sufi
practitioners. The city of Herat and its surrounding area is a major center for Sufi
practice, but Sufi groups can be found throughout the country, including in the Pashtun-
dominated south and east. 50
Non-Muslims comprise only about 1% of the country’s population. There are small
minority populations of Hindus and Sikhs, whose sites of worship are located mainly in
the urban centers of Kabul, Jalalabad, and Kandahar. In the past, Afghanistan had a small
Jewish community, but its members have largely migrated to other countries as a result of
recent conflicts. There are also very small Christian and Buddhist populations. 51
Islam
Islam is a monotheistic religion, meaning its followers profess faith in a single God. In
the Muslim community, or ummah, God is known as Allah. The Arabic term islam means
“to submit” or “to surrender.” A Muslim, therefore, is one who submits to the will of
Allah. Muslims believe that Allah revealed his message to the Prophet Muhammad, a
merchant who lived in Arabia from 570 to 632 C.E. They consider Muhammad to be the
last of a long line of prophets that included Abraham (Ibrahim), Moses (Musa), and Jesus
(Esa). In this way, Muslims share some of the basic elements of the Judaic and Christian
traditions. However, they believe that the message relayed by Muhammad is the final and
definitive revelation of the faith. This message is recited in the Quran, the sacred
scriptures of Islam. Additional sacred texts include the Hadith, a collection of the sayings
of Muhammad, and the Sunnah, which describes the practices of Islam by way of
Muhammad’s example.
50
“Chapter 2: The Society and Environment: Religion: Islamic Expression in Afghanistan: Sufis.” 1997.
51
Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State. International Religious
Freedom Report 2008. “Afghanistan.” September 2008. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108497.htm
17
The essential beliefs and rites of the Islamic faith are encapsulated in the five pillars of
Islam. The first and foundational pillar is the sincere recitation of the shahada, or Islamic
creed: “There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is the prophet of Allah.” The
remaining pillars include: the performance of ritual prayers five times per day; the giving
of alms to the poor and needy, traditionally through a tax on income; fasting during the
holy month of Ramadan; and the undertaking of a pilgrimage to the Islamic holy city of
Mecca. 52 Muslims believe that Allah will judge them for their actions on earth, with the
consequences of spending their afterlife in heaven or hell. 53
Sunni and Shi’a Divide

Islam has two major branches: Sunni and Shi’a. The
two sects formed shortly after the initial spread of
Islam in the 7th century C.E. They divided over
disagreements about the selection process for the
successor, or caliph, to the Prophet Muhammad, who
died in 632 C.E. The Sunni, as they came to be
known, believed that Muhammad had not definitively
chosen a successor, so they decided that the first
caliph should be elected from among the leaders of
the Muslim community. They chose Abu Bakr, Muhammad’s father-in-law, as the first
caliph. The opposing group, later known as the Shi’a, believed that Muhammad had
designated his son-in-law, Ali ibn Abi Talib, as his successor. Accordingly, they believed
that only Muhammad’s descendents held rightful claims to the caliphate. The unresolved
issue of rightful succession created a deep divide between the two groups, leading to
infighting and the assassination of Ali. 54 While the two sects share the fundamental tenets
of Islam, their separation resulted in a divergence of practices and beliefs. Over time,
several additional sects emerged within the two major branches. Today, Sunnis comprise
approximately 85% of the global Muslim community. 55
In general, conflicts between the Sunni and Shi’a schools of Islam have not proven
destabilizing in Afghanistan. However, there is a history of persecution against Shi’a
Muslims in the country, particularly against the Hazaras. Tensions between Sunnis and
Shi’a occasionally lead to violent clashes in some of the central provinces, where
substantial numbers of Hazaras live. Pashtuns are predominantly Sunni Muslim, and
historically they have been involved in such conflicts. 56
52
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. “Islam: Fundamental Practices and Institutions of Islam: The Five
Pillars.” 2009. http://search.eb.com/eb/article-69149
53
BBC. “Religions: Islam: Beliefs: Basic Articles of Faith.” 3 September 2009.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/beliefs/beliefs.shtml
54
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. “Islam: Islamic Thought: Theology and Sectarianism.” 2009.
55
BBC. “Religions: Islam: Beliefs: Sunni and Shi’a.” 19 August 2009.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/subdivisions/sunnishia_1.shtml
56
18
Sufism
Sufism is a mystical form of Islam. The basic objective of its practice is to obtain a direct,
personal connection with Allah. Sufi practices include ritual prayer, meditation, and
various ascetic or ecstatic activities. The central figure in Sufi practice is the pir, or
spiritual leader. Pirs are thought to possess a special charismatic power, known as
karamat, as well as the ability to bestow blessings, or barakat. Pirs act as mentors and
spiritual guides to groups of students who form brotherhoods around their teachings. The
Qadiriyya order, led by Sayed Ahmad Gailani, is a popular brotherhood among Pashtun
tribes. 57
The Role of Religion in Government

Islam is the state religion of Afghanistan, and it has a
strong influence on the country’s government and
legal system. The Afghan constitution states that “no
law can be contrary to the beliefs and provisions of
the sacred religion of Islam.” It also requires the
President and Vice President of Afghanistan to be
Muslim. The constitution does, however, provide
freedom of religion, so long as non-Muslim religious
minorities practice their faith “within the limits of the
provisions of the law.” 58 It also provides the framework for the establishment of an
independent judiciary, 59 but Islamic and tribal traditions remain strong, even within the
formal court system.
For example, legal cases concerning familial issues—such as marriage, inheritance, and
property—are typically judged according to Islamic legal code, or Shari’a. Furthermore,
according to the constitution, any issue not addressed in the constitutional legal code is
subject to Islamic law. Blasphemy and conversion from Islam are two such issues that
fall outside the scope of the constitution and are thus judged according to Islamic law. In
Afghanistan, both of these acts are illegal, and according to some interpretations of
Shari’a, they are punishable by death. 60 In 2008, for example, an Afghan student who
allegedly distributed literature criticizing Islam was convicted of blasphemy and
sentenced to death. An appeals court later overturned his death sentence, but he
nonetheless received 20 years in prison. 61
57
The Fragmentation of Afghanistan, Second Edition. Rubin, Barnett R. “Chapter 2: Social Structure under
the Old Regime: Religion [pp. 39-40].” 2002. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
58
59
CBS News. Associated Press. Graham, Stephen. “A New Constitution for Afghanistan.” 26 January
2004. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/01/02/world/main591116.shtml
60
Freedom Report 2008. “Afghanistan.” 19 September 2008.
http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108497.htm
61
Los Angeles Times Online. King, Laura. “Afghan Student Gets 20 Years Instead of Death for
Blasphemy.” 22 October 2008. http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-afghanistan22-
2008oct22,0,7466691.story
19
Such a strict interpretation and application of Islamic law became more widespread as a
result of the Taliban’s years in power. 62 Overall, the country’s lack of a strong
independent judiciary has made it difficult to enforce certain provisions of the Afghan
constitution, including its stated commitment to human rights. 63 Islamic and tribal
traditions remain prevalent. As of 2006, approximately 90% of legal cases held
throughout the country’s many provinces were based on Islamic and tribal law. 64
Influence of Religion on Daily Life

The daily routine of Afghans is heavily influenced by Islam, which applies to all aspects
of life. Foremost among daily rituals, Muslims are obliged to perform a series of prayers,
known in Afghanistan as namaz (the second pillar of Islam). Traditionally, these prayers
are performed at five approximate times of the day: dawn, noon, mid-afternoon, sunset,
and evening. Muslims are called to prayer by the muezzin, who typically announces the
call for prayer from the minaret of the local mosque.
Exchange 1: When do you pray?

Visitor: When do you pray? tsa waKht lmoonz kawee?
Local: We pray at noon. da maaspishin po waKht key
Daily prayers may be performed alone or with other Muslims at mosques. Friday is the
Islamic holy day, when the Muslim community meets at the local mosque to participate
in group prayer. Held at noon, this communal prayer is traditionally limited to male
Muslims. On this day, special sermons are given by the mullahs, or clergy members. All
prayers must be offered in the direction of Mecca, the holy city of Islam, which is located
in Saudi Arabia. Stores, businesses, and government offices will likely be closed on
Fridays. 65
Prior to prayer, Muslims are required to perform ablution, known in Arabic as wudu, as a
form of ritual purification. This process typically involves washing one’s hands, face,
arms, neck, and feet, as well as rinsing out the mouth and nose. 66 Ablution is not solely
intended for purposes of physical cleanliness—although this, too, is important. Rather,
the rite is meant to spiritually and mentally prepare the participant to perform a holy
action in a pure and concentrated state. This state of ritual purity is thought to be broken
by any of several acts, such as defecating or urinating, breaking wind, or, for many
Muslims, simply touching a person of the opposite sex. The necessity of performing
multiple daily prayers encourages Muslims to maintain ritual purity throughout the day.
Mosques often have facilities where Muslims can perform ablution prior to prayer.
62
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. “Afghanistan: Government and Society: Political Processes: Informal
Institutions and Justice.” 2010. http://search.eb.com/eb/article-226133
63
Freedom Report 2008. September 2008. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108497.htm
64
65
Kwintessential: Cross Cultural Solutions. “Afghanistan: Language, Culture, Customs, and Etiquette.” No Date.
http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/resources/global-etiquette/afghanistan.html
66
The New Encyclopedia of Islam, 3rd edition. Glassé, Cyril. Wudu [pp. 553-555].” 2008. Lanham, MD:
Rowman and Littlefield.
20
Religion and Gender
Under the Taliban, women were banned from
entering mosques. After the Taliban was overthrown,
many Afghan women requested permission from the
government to worship in separate mosques. Their
request presented difficulties because according to
Islamic law, females are not allowed to assume the
role of mullah, or mosque leader. 67 Ultimately, in
2008, Afghan women gained the right to enter
mosques in Kabul, although they are only allowed to
attend certain mosques where they can pray in segregated spaces. 68 In general, mosques
in rural communities have not yet allowed women to worship in their facilities.
Traditionally, Afghan women have instead exercised their religious faith through
activities related with shrines, known as ziarats. Visits to such shrines are often made in
order to pray for blessings of a protective or curative nature.69 It is also common for
women to simply pray at home.
Religious Events and Holidays

Islamic events and festivals are observed according to the Islamic lunar calendar, which
is shorter than the standard Gregorian calendar used in the U.S. and internationally. The
dates of these events on the standard calendar thus change from year to year.
Ramadan
Ramadan (or Ramazan) is the ninth and holiest month of the Islamic calendar. It is during
this time that observant Muslims fulfill the third pillar of Islam, the undertaking of a fast
(known in Afghanistan as ruzah). This period is an opportunity for Muslims to
demonstrate their piety and devotion to the Islamic faith. Tradition requires that adults
abstain from eating, drinking, and smoking during daylight hours. Restrictions also apply
to sexual intercourse. Only the young, sick, elderly, and pregnant or nursing women are
exempt from participating in the fast.
In addition to fasting, many people spend their time during Ramadan performing extra
prayers. Muslims take care to avoid any wrongdoing during this time of piety. Ramadan
is also a time for giving charitable contributions to the homeless or to an established
organization like a mosque or the Red Crescent Society, which is similar to the Red
Cross. The majority of the restaurants are closed during the day, and the work schedule is
altered to release workers early.
67
IPS/Pajhwok. “Women Get to Sing and Want a Place in Mosques. 29 October 2004.
http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=26062
68
Asia Calling. Babakarkhail, Zubair. “Afghan Women Return to the Mosques. 27 September 2008.
http://www.asiacalling.org/index.php/bn/news/components/com_comment/joscomment/templates/index.php?option=co
m_content&view=article&id=712:afghan-women-return-to-the-
mosques&catid=101:afghanistan&Itemid=379&lang=bn
69
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Afghanistan: A Country Study. Blood, Peter R., ed. “Chapter 2:
The Society and Environment: Religion: Meaning and Practice. 1997. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-
bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+af0067)
21
Large meals are typically served after sunset to offset the rigorous demands of the
daytime fast, which can cause fatigue and irritability. The fasting period can be difficult
and may affect some people more than others. They may become easily agitated or react
more slowly. In general, the pace of everyday life slows considerably during this holy
month. Non-Muslims, including foreigners, are not required to fast, but they are expected
to refrain from eating, drinking, smoking, or chewing gum in public.
Eid
Eid al-Fitr or EidRamazan (“The Festival of the
Breaking of the Fast”) marks the end of Ramadan. (In
Pashto, this festival is known as Kurbaneyy Akhtar.)
Muslims celebrate the end of the fast with a large,
multi-day feast with family and friends. Eid al-Adha
or Eid-e-Qurban (“The Festival of Sacrifice”) is a
religious holiday held in the 12th month of the
Islamic calendar. (In Pashto, the name of this festival
is Loy Akhtar.) It traditionally marks the end of the
Muslim pilgrimage, or hajj, to Mecca. The festival commemorates Abraham’s
willingness to sacrifice his son in obedience to Allah. Muslim families typically slaughter
a goat or sheep and divide it into three shares, giving one share to relatives and another to
the poor.
People throughout Afghanistan spend the three-day Eid holidays calling on their close
friends and relatives. It is customary for people to wear new clothes and to prepare large
feasts during these festivals. The exchange of gifts is also common, although a family’s
wealth determines the extent of their celebrations.
Ashura
Ashura commemorates the martyrdom of Hussein ibn Ali, the son of Ali and grandson of
Muhammad, who was killed in the Battle of Karbala in 680 C.E. amid power struggles
for the caliphate. This day is recognized by all Muslims, but it is especially important to
the Shi’a community, which views Hussein as the rightful successor to the caliphate.
Ashura occurs on the 10th day of the Islamic month of Muharram, a period of mourning
for Shi’a Muslims. During this time, Shi’a Muslim men may scourge themselves with
various instruments until their backs bleed. Such acts of self-flagellation demonstrate the
Shi’a belief that only physical pain can truly reflect the grief felt by the Muslim world
when Hussein died. In Afghanistan, the celebration of Ashura is generally limited to
areas with large Shi’a populations. In recent years, Ashura festivals in Afghanistan have
been marred by conflicts between Sunni and Shi’a factions. 70
70
CNN. “Violence Mars Ashura Festival.” 10 February 2006.
http://www.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/asiapcf/02/09/ashura.wrap/index.html
22
Buildings of Worship and Sacred Sites
Mosques
A mosque, or masjid, is the traditional site of Muslim worship. Every village in
Afghanistan has at least one mosque, which serves a variety of purposes for the
community. In addition to holding prayer services, mosques are often used as a school
room for traditional Islamic education. In many villages the local mosque is also used for
general community meetings and, occasionally, as a guest house. Travelers may be
allowed to stay overnight in mosques, in which case villagers provide them with food and
drink. Foreigners may be invited into a mosque to meet with local leaders.
Shrines and Cemeteries

Shrines, or ziarats, are a common sight throughout
the country. These commemorative markers may
consist of tombs or reliquary complexes, or modest
mounds of dirt or stones. They typically honor saints,
venerated holy men (such as pirs), or martyrs
(shahids). Afghans believe that the ziarat of a pious
saint or martyr is a channel of communication with
Allah, and they usually go to these places to pray for
assistance.
Cemeteries are, of course, sacred places and they should be treated with respect. Afghans
avoid walking over tombs, and visitors should follow this practice. The shahid (martyr)
has special importance in both Islamic and Afghan society. When crossing cemeteries
anywhere in Afghanistan, visitors will encounter many tombs that are distinguished with
red or green flags. These are the final resting places of Afghan shahids who died
defending their country and their beliefs.
Behavior in Places of Worship

Muslims regard mosques as sacred spaces, and they should be respected as such. When
foreigners visit a mosque, they should ask for permission to enter.
Exchange 2: May I enter the mosque?

Visitor: May I enter the mosque? kawalaay sham che jomaat ta oor
nanowzom?
Local: Yes. ho
Under normal, non-combat circumstances, visitors should remove their shoes at the
doorway and place them in the designated area before entering.
Exchange 3: Must I take off my shoes before I enter the mosque?

Visitor: Must I take off my shoes before I majboor yam che leh jomaat ta de
enter the mosque? bandee iKhbul bochon raa
wokaagem?
Local: Yes. ho
23
In Afghanistan, women traditionally do not visit mosques. Some mosques may allow
women to pray in a segregated area. If a woman does enter a mosque, only her face,
hands, and feet can be visible, and her hair must be completely covered. Females should
cover their heads with scarves before entering a mosque.
Exchange 4: Do I need to cover my head?

Visitor: Do I need to cover my head? majboor yam che iKhbul sar pit
krim?
Local: Yes. ho
Visitors should take care not to disrupt or walk in front of Muslims in prayer; this is
thought to invalidate their prayers. The presence of dogs in a mosque is considered a
desecration.
24
Religion Assessment
1. The majority of Afghan Muslims are Shi’a.
False. Islam is the predominant religion in Afghanistan and most Afghan Muslims follow
the Sunni branch of Islam. However, there is a substantial minority population of Shi’a
Muslims.
2. There is a history of persecution of Shi’a Muslims in Afghanistan.
True. There is a history of persecution against Shi’a Muslims in the country, but
generally, conflicts between the Sunni and Shi’a schools of Islam have not proven
destabilizing.
3. Islam is Afghanistan’s state religion.
True. Islam is the state religion of Afghanistan, and it has a strong influence on the
government. The Afghan constitution requires that the president and vice president of
Afghanistan be Muslim.
4. Most legal issues in Afghanistan are judged according to Islamic law.
True. Approximately 90% of legal cases held throughout the country’s many provinces
were based on Islamic and tribal law. The Afghan constitution states, “No law can be
contrary to the beliefs and provisions of the sacred religion of Islam.”
5. Women are allowed to enter the majority of mosques in Afghanistan.
False. Females are permitted to enter only a few mosques in Kabul. Most mosques are
not open to female worshippers. Traditionally, Afghan women have prayed at shrines
known as ziarats.
25
Chapter 3 Traditions
Introduction
Afghan society is deeply rooted in Islamic and tribal
customs, many of which have been in practice for
centuries. Ranging from basic manners of interaction
to codes of honor and responsibility, these customs
make Afghanistan a conservative, traditional society.
Various attempts at social reform have been made in
Afghanistan in the modern era. In many cases, such
reforms were overturned following fierce resistance
from the nation’s tribal and Islamic fundamentalist
factions. 71 During the Taliban’s time in power, strict Islamic fundamentalism served as
the basis for Afghan law and social code. After the fall of the Taliban, social reforms
have once again been implemented, but traditional and fundamentalist practices remain
prevalent. Although attitudes vary throughout the country, such resistance to change
demonstrates the strength of Afghan traditions.
The foremost priority of the Pashtun social code is the preservation of individual and
familial honor, which are inextricably linked and valued above all else. Perceptions of
character not only affect everyday social relations, but also political and economic
matters within the community. Honor is especially contingent upon one’s adherence to
customary views and practices that enforce the clear distinction and segregation of the
sexes.
Greetings and Codes of Conduct

Afghans place great value on hospitality. They are generally quick to greet friends as well
as strangers. Greetings, especially between strangers, are typically offered in a formal
manner that is respectful of status and gender. A common greeting is the standard Arabic
blessing used throughout the Muslim world, “Assalamu alaikum,” and the response, “Wa
alaikum assalam.”
Handshakes are a typical greeting between men in Afghanistan. When exchanging
greetings, Afghans may also offer a slight bow and touch their hands to their heart as a
show of sincerity. 72
Exchange 5: Good morning.

Soldier: Good morning. sahaar mo po Khayr
Local: Good morning. sahaar mo po Khayr
It is customary to exchange a series of friendly greetings before conducting any business.
71
72
Kwintessential: Cross Cultural Solutions. “Afghanistan: Language, Culture, Customs, and Etiquette.” No
date. http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/resources/global-etiquette/afghanistan.html
26
Exchange 6: Good evening!
Soldier: Good evening! shpa mo po Khayr!
Local: Good evening! shpa mo po Khayr!
Titles are used to greet persons in formal situations.
Exchange 7: Hi, Mr. Hamidi.

Soldier: Hi, Mr. Hamidi. salaamo 'alaykum hameedee sayb
Local: Hello! wa 'alaykumo salaam!
Soldier: Are you doing well? Khee yaast?
Local: Yes. ho
If they are good friends or relatives, Afghan men may hug and kiss each other on the
cheek. They may also hold hands. In Afghan culture, these acts are demonstrations of
friendship, nothing more.
Women may greet each other with a handshake or simply exchange a verbal greeting.
Close female friends and relatives may hug and kiss each other on the cheek. They may
also hold hands.
Exchange 8: How are you?

Soldier: How are you? tsanga yaast?
Local: Fine, very well. manana, der Kheh
Afghan men and women do not make physical contact while greeting, as such contact is
perceived as taboo. Verbal greetings may be used in some circumstances, but it is more
common for men and women to not be introduced, especially in conservative areas
populated by Pashtuns.
Eye Contact
In Afghanistan, breaking eye contact during
conversation is a demonstration of modesty; it is not
seen as impolite or indicative of dishonesty or ill will.
Afghans consider staring or fixed gazes as a sign of
aggression. Such looks may also be interpreted as the
“evil eye,” which is considered extremely offensive.
Members of the opposite sex do not look each other
in the eye, including in some cases within the
extended family. 73 Male foreigners should avoid
making eye contact with Afghan women, as it could cause serious offense.
Right Hand vs. Left Hand
73
Centre for Intercultural Learning, Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada. “Cultural Information:
Afghanistan.” 15 October 2009. http://www.intercultures.ca/cil-cai/ci-ic-eng.asp?iso=af#cn-2
27
Afghans maintain an important distinction between the right and left hands. The right
hand is used for all public interactions, including shaking hands, eating, drinking, making
a payment, presenting or receiving a gift, and other actions. The left hand is traditionally
associated with matters of personal hygiene and is thus considered unclean. It is therefore
inappropriate to use the left hand for eating, passing things to others, or performing other
interactive motions. Even left-handed persons should observe this custom.
Male-Female Interactions
Afghan social codes are heavily influenced by Islamic and tribal customs that dictate the
maintenance of distinct boundaries between men and women. Foremost, the segregation
of men and women is common practice in Afghanistan, especially among the Pashtun.
Members of the opposite sex do not mix socially in public, especially if they are
unrelated. While circumstances vary according to location and family, many women may
be largely restricted to the home. Gender boundaries are also observed in the home,
among the extended family. Physical contact between unrelated men and women is taboo,
and even friendship between members of the opposite sex is seen as inappropriate.
Afghan men maintain an appropriate and respectful distance from

unrelated women in public. It is unacceptable for men to shake
hands or initiate any physical contact with women outside their own
families. It is also inappropriate for a man to address any female
directly or initiate a conversation with her. Men should instead
communicate through the woman’s husband or close male relatives.
It is a grave taboo for a man to compliment a woman on her beauty,

attire, or other related topics. Unless the person voicing such
sentiments is also female, this type of compliment may offend the
woman and her family. By the same token, Afghan men do not
welcome inquiries about their wives and daughters. One should ask
about their family as a whole instead.
Exchange 9: How is your family?

Soldier: How is your family? koraney da changa da?
Local: They are doing fine, thank you. Khada, manana
Gender Roles and Relationships

In Afghan society, women are traditionally seen as a valuable asset to the family and as a
symbol of the family’s honor and wealth. Unmarried women and girls are seen as
especially valuable due to their worth as potential brides. Brides fetch bride prices for the
family and establish social alliances with other families through marriage. Because a
female is a representative of the family, her actions reflect upon both herself and the
family as a whole. Men are responsible in this respect as well, but women are especially
tied to familial honor, which is valued above all else. Even incidents that are beyond a
woman’s control, such as cases of assault, can bring disgrace to both her and her family.
In this context, the segregation and seclusion of women is used as a means to protect and
28
control female family members. In other words, these practices are meant to shield
females from outside forces, such as tribal enemies or unfamiliar men, as well as prevent
them from performing any actions that could bring dishonor upon themselves and the
family. 74 This especially concerns female chastity and the preservation of virginity before
marriage.
Male family members are responsible for protecting and supervising their female
relatives, especially in public. In Afghanistan, as in many Muslim societies, the public
realm is seen as a male-dominated space, as well as a space that is prone to danger and
instability. It is common for many Afghan women to be restricted to their homes. When
venturing into public, women are typically required to be escorted by their male relatives.
Many Afghan women wear a chadri, a garment that covers the entire body, including the
face. This piece of clothing is meant to shield women from the gaze of unfamiliar
persons. This practice became more widespread under the strict rule of the Taliban, and it
remains common throughout many areas of Afghanistan.
Afghan society is patriarchal, meaning that females

are expected to defer to male family members in
virtually all matters. A woman’s individual rights are
therefore often subordinated to the will of her male
relatives. In extreme instances, “honor killings” are
known to occur in Afghanistan. These killings are
carried out in cases in which a woman or girl is
thought to have shamed her family. Serious offenses
include committing adultery, engaging in pre-marital
sexual relations, refusing an arranged marriage, running away from home, or suffering
rape. The death of the shamed woman in such a killing is thought to restore the family’s
honor. Male relatives usually carry out the killings themselves, and they are often
supported by the male community in doing so. 75
Officially, the Afghan constitution ratified in 2004 provides equal rights for women,
including access to the public sphere and expanded legal freedoms. However, many
women continue to face serious abuse or discrimination if they do not follow traditional
Islamic and tribal customs. 76 A woman’s observance of such traditions, either forced or
freely chosen, may vary according to her socioeconomic background and location. In any
case, veiling and seclusion remain common in many Afghan communities. 77 Overall,
women are fiercely protected in Afghan society, often to the point that they are fiercely
74
the Old Regime: Kinship, Qawm, Tribe, Ethnicity [pp. 22-25].” 2002. New Haven, CT: Yale University
Press.
75
IRIN, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. “Afghanistan: Honour Killings on the
Rise.” 15 September 2006. http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=61698
76
The World Bank. “Afghanistan: National Reconstruction and Poverty Reduction—The Role of Women
in Afghanistan’s Future [pp. 75-76].” March 2005.
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/AFGHANISTANEXTN/Resources/AfghanistanGenderReport.pdf
77
Culture and Customs of Afghanistan. Hafizullah Emadi. “Chapter 6: Family, Women, and Gender Issues:
Seclusion and Restriction [pp. 169-171].” 2005. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
29
controlled. This tendency has been reinforced in response to the unstable and dangerous
conditions that have characterized Afghanistan for the last three decades. 78
Social Codes: Pashtunwali

Pashtunwali is an ancient tribal code that is adhered
to by traditional Pashtun peoples, especially those
living in rural areas effectively beyond the reach of
the central government. 79 The code outlines the social
responsibilities of Pashtuns, and it traditionally serves
as the basis for local law in Pashtun communities.
Within these communities, it is often associated with
Islamic legal codes and traditions, even though there
are contradictions between the two. 80 The Taliban,
who are largely composed of Pashtuns, based their rule of law on a combination of
Pashtunwali and a strict interpretation of Islam. 81 The strength of the Pashtunwali
tradition varies according to region. The following are its major principles.
Honor (Nang)
For Pashtuns, and the Afghan people as a whole, honor is the defining characteristic of an
individual’s self-worth and reputation within society. The Afghan concept of honor is
closely related to courage (especially in battle), self-respect, and responsibility. A
Pashtun’s honor is deeply connected to that of his or her family and the tribe as a whole.
Without honor, a Pashtun is no longer respected or accepted within the Pashtun
community. Accordingly, Pashtuns are quick to defend their honor. Insults upon a
Pashtun’s honor are taken extremely seriously and may be cause for violence, including
murder and prolonged blood feuds between tribes. 82
Hospitality (Melmastia)
The generous display of hospitality is one of the most important principles in the
Pashtunwali code. Pashtun hospitality extends to both guests and strangers, who are
traditionally offered food, shelter, and, in some cases, gifts by their Pashtun hosts. Meals
prepared for guests will often be more lavish than those the Pashtun family regularly eats.
The Afghan concept of hospitality is closely related to another Pashtunwali principle,
nanawati. This principle requires the defense and protection of guests during their stay
78
in Afghanistan’s Future [p. 6].” March 2005.
79
the Old Regime: Kinship, Qawm, Tribe, Ethnicity [pp. 28-29].” 2002. New Haven, CT: Yale University
Press.
80
Afghan Legal History Project, Islamic Legal Studies Program, Harvard Law School. Kakar, Palwasha.
“Tribal Law of Pashtunwali and Women’s Legislative Authority [p. 2].” No date.
http://www.law.harvard.edu/programs/ilsp/research/kakar.pdf
81
82
“Tribal Law of Pashtunwali and Women’s Legislative Authority [pp. 3-4].” No date given.
30
with a Pashtun community. It may also involve the mediation of a dispute in which the
guest may be involved. For Pashtuns, it is a great honor to provide hospitality and
protection to their guests. 83
Protection of Women, Land, Honor, and Wealth (Namus)

The concept of namus has a broad meaning. In general, it applies to the protection of
sanctity and honor, which, in turn, are upheld through the protection of the tribe’s assets
and social customs. For example, any insult or attack upon the tribe’s territory or women
would be seen as a direct attack upon the tribe’s honor and sanctity. This extends to the
preservation of social codes within the community, which serve to maintain order and
tribal integrity.
Namus is especially tied to the protection of women and the preservation of their sanctity.
The concept of parda (purdah), or the veiling and seclusion of women, is closely linked
to namus, as is the general practice of segregating the sexes. These practices do not only
affect females. Male Pashtuns are required to respect the established gender boundaries,
and they may face shame, punishment, and even expulsion for not doing so. 84
In a very broad sense, namus may also refer to the protection of land, which is closely
linked with women in some Pashtun tribes. 85 Overall, Pashtuns fiercely protect their
women and territory, as their ability to do so reflects greatly upon their honor and
integrity.
Vengeance (Badal)
Badal is vengeance or retribution for insults or attacks made upon
one’s honor, family, or tribal assets. According to Pashtunwali, a
person who violates another’s namus is subject to punishment,
generally of an equivalent nature. It is a Pashtun’s duty to exact
revenge when his honor has been insulted, and other Pashtuns may
look down on him if he does not seek retaliation. This mandate for
retribution is strong among Pashtun communities, and it has led to
long-running blood feuds between tribes. However, conflict
mediation and reconciliation is possible through some channels,
including the jirga, or tribal council. 86
83
84
“Tribal Law of Pashtunwali and Women’s Legislative Authority [pp. 4-5].” No date.
85
Wardak.org. Essays on South Asian Society: Culture and Politics II. Glatzer, Bernt. “Being Pashtun -
Being Muslim: Concepts of Person and War.” 1998. Berlin: Das Arabische Buch.
http://www.wardak.de/tribes/being_pashtun.pdf
86
Khyber.org. “Pashtoonwali: Badal.” No date. http://www.khyber.org/culture/pashtoonwalai/badal.shtml
31
Tribal Council (Jirga)
The jirga is a council of tribal leaders, usually composed of elder men who are known for
their adherence to the Pashtunwali code. In some cases, it may consist of all the adult
males in the tribe. The jirga acts as the local legislative and judicial body and thus
oversees disputes or addresses important issues within the community. In judicial
matters, the council generally interviews those involved and considers relevant evidence.
Its members reach decisions based on consensus, and the persons involved in the matter
under consideration are required to abide by the council’s decision. This process provides
a relatively democratic and peaceful way to resolve disputes within or between tribes,
although the council’s decision may override a person’s individual rights, particularly in
the case of women. 87
Escort (Badragga)
The concept of badragga is important as it applies to strangers passing through Pashtun
tribal lands. Badraggas are armed escorts who accompany travelers (or even fugitives) on
their journeys through Pashtun territory. The traveler must first ask permission from the
tribe and pay for the services of the badragga. When under the escort of a badragga,
travelers are guaranteed safe passage. It is against Pashtunwali code for other Pashtun
tribes, including enemies of the traveler, to harm the traveler when under the protection
of the badragga of another tribe. 88
Hospitality and Gift-Giving

It is very important for Afghans, regardless of their
wealth, to show hospitality to all visitors. To do so is
a source of both pride and honor. Guests generally
receive the best an Afghan family has to offer, which
varies according to the family’s means. This applies
not only to Pashtuns, who follow the Pashtunwali
code, but all Afghan peoples.
Exchange 10: I really appreciate your hospitality.

Visitor: I really appreciate your hospitality. les taasoo da meelma paa leena dera
manana kom
Local: It is nothing. qaabelyat nalaree
In rural Afghanistan, villages generally have a hujra, or guest house, which is

traditionally open to friends as well as strangers. In some areas the guest house may be
owned by the village leader, or khan, while in other areas it may be maintained by the
village as a whole. In general, a stranger or traveler can go to these houses and be given
shelter and food. A hujra more commonly serves as a meeting room for male village
87
88
Afghanan.net. “Pashtunwali: Pashtunwali Terminology.” c.1999-2008.
http://www.afghanan.net/pashto/pashtunwali/terms.htm
32
members to receive male guests and friends. In this sense, it may act as meeting room for
the village council or as a site for social events. 89
The most basic and common form of Afghan hospitality is an invitation for tea. It is
customary for Afghans to drink at least three cups of tea. While guests should accept the
offer of tea, they may leave it without drinking and not cause offense. When visiting an
Afghan home for tea or a meal, it is appropriate to bring a small gift such as fruit or
pastries. Gifts are not expected, however, as it is the host’s honor to provide for the guest.
Gifts should be presented discreetly and with great modesty; they should not be given
immediately or in a showy manner. It is best to place the gift aside and leave it there for
the host. Such gifts will not be opened in front of the one who has provided it. When
giving gifts, foreigners should respect Islamic dietary customs that prohibit Muslims from
consuming pork or alcohol. 90
Exchange 11: This gift is for you.

Visitor: This gift is for you. da taaso ta yawa soghaatee da
Local: Thank you, but I cannot accept this. manana, magar zey na qablawom
Traditional Jobs and Economy

Agriculture and animal husbandry have historically
formed the basis of the Afghan economy. Most
Afghans continue to work as farmers and livestock
herders, or in related businesses. Major conventional
crops include cereals (such as wheat and barley),
cotton, fruits, and nuts. The cultivation of opium
poppies has become widespread due to the hardiness
and high market value of the crop. Cows, sheep,
goats, donkeys, and horses are typical breeds of
livestock. The first three are especially important for milk production. Other varieties
include camels, buffalo, and mules. 91 Some tribes, including Pashtun tribes in the
southeast, subsist as nomadic shepherds, migrating in search of grazing land. The
production of handicrafts and textiles, such as carpets, is another common economic
activity.
Exchange 12: Are you the only person in your family who has a job?
Soldier: Are you the only person in your po Khpol faameel ke taasee
family who has a job? yowazeeney kaar kawonke yaast?
Local: No. na
89
Khyber.org. “Pashtoonwali: Hujra.” No date. http://www.khyber.org/culture/pashtoonwalai/hujra.shtml
90
91
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. “Afghanistan: The Economy: Agriculture and Forestry.” 2010.
33
Traditional Dress
Following Islamic and tribal customs, traditional Afghan dress is
conservative. Afghan men generally wear full-length pants and a
long shirt that reaches down to their knees. The shirt is generally
not tucked into the pants, and both of these items are loose-fitting.
Vests are worn over the shirt, and it is common for men to carry a
shawl-like garment on their shoulders. This piece of cloth is often
used as a rug for prayer. Turbans, which consist of a long strip of
cloth wrapped around the head, are common among Pashtun men,
who often leave a loose end hanging. Skullcaps are another popular
form of headgear; they are generally worn underneath the turban. 92
Wool shirts and coats are worn in colder, high-altitude areas. 93
In public, Afghan women are often completely concealed in accordance with local
custom. In general, they wear baggy cotton pants and a long, loose-fitting shirt. A
headscarf or shawl is used to cover the hair and, when necessary, the face. (This garment
may be quickly placed over the face when a woman encounters an unfamiliar man.)
When in public, many Afghan women wear a chadri, an extensive, loose-fitting garment
that covers the entire body. Latticework openings near the eyes allow women to see out
of the chadri.
Foreigners should respect the Afghan tradition of conservative attire.
Exchange 13: How should I dress?

Visitor: How should I dress? tsa dool kaalee aghoostalee sham?
Local: Wear loose fitting clothes which daasee kaalee waaghoondee che
cover your body. praaKh wee aw haykal dee pit kree
It is advisable for women to carry a scarf in order to cover their hair or face in certain
situations.
Exchange 14: Is this acceptable to wear?

Visitor: Is this acceptable to wear? daa dool kaalee da aghoostoloo war
dee?
Local: Yes. ho
Neither men nor women should wear shorts in public. Women should avoid wearing
short skirts, short-sleeved shirts, and tight-fitting or low-cut blouses in public. Although
men commonly take their shirt off in hot weather in the U.S., this practice is considered
highly inappropriate in Afghanistan.
92
Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life, First Edition. Gall, Timothy L. “Pashtun.” 1998.
Detroit, MI: Gale Research.
93
Bosnia-Herzegovina/Pashtun.html
93
Culture and Customs of Afghanistan. Hafizullah Emadi. “Chapter 5: Social Customs, Cuisine, and
Traditional Dress: Clothing and Fashions [pp. 145-151].” 2005. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
34
Food
The Afghan region has been exposed to many
different culinary influences throughout its history.
As most Afghans are farmers and livestock herders,
cereals and animal products are staples of the
Afghan diet.
Exchange 15: This food is very good.

Visitor: This food is very good. daa Khowaro der sheh dee
Local: It’s Qorma-e Morgh. dee cherge qoorma dah
In general, an Afghan meal usually consists of tea, bread (naan), rice, and a main dish
containing some type of meat, such as lamb, chicken, or beef. Stews (qorma) are popular
dishes.
Exchange 16: What ingredients are used to make Qorma-e Morgh?

Visitor: What ingredients are used to make de day qoorma mawaad tsa dee?
Qorma-e Morgh?
Local: It is chicken meat sautéed in onions. dee cherge ghowha da che po
Spices, tomato sauce and a little peeyaazo ke sara shawe da. adweeya
water are added to it. jaat aw roomee baanjaan de logo
boo sara peeka achool shawee dee
Naan is especially important and is an essential part of the meal for any Afghan family,
regardless of wealth.
A popular Afghan dish is pilau (pilaf), which consists of rice, meat (typically lamb),
vegetables, and spices. Carrots, raisins, and lamb are the main ingredients in qabili pilau,
one of the nation’s most famous dishes, but there are many other variations of pilau.
Exchange 17: What is the name of this dish?

Visitor: What is the name of this dish? da Khoraak tsa noom laree?
Local: This is Qabili Palaw. da qaabelee palaw de
Kebabs, skewered chunks of seasoned meat, are another popular meal in Afghanistan,
although they are mostly found in urban centers. They are typically accompanied by naan
or, sometimes, vegetables. Meat dumplings, noodle soups, and lamb stews are also
popular. Fruits and nuts typically complement all meals, as they are common Afghan
agricultural products. Yogurt, eggs, and other animal products are also staples. Alcohol
and pork are strictly avoided in accordance with Islamic tradition. 94
94
Traditional Dress: Culinary Tradition [pp. 137-145].” 2005. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
35
Eating Habits
An invitation for a meal is a common form of Afghan hospitality. This will certainly
occur if one is visiting an Afghan village as a guest. Meals will often be given in the
village hujra, or guest house. In many cases, the host will slaughter an animal for the
meal as a sign of his generous hospitality. If the guest is male, the meal will likely be
attended only by men. Dining etiquette may vary according to region and family.
When entering an Afghan home for a meal, it is

customary to remove one’s shoes. Meals in Afghan
homes are usually served on a cloth on the ground,
and cushions may be provided for seating. The hosts
will generally direct the guest where to sit, and guests
should wait for them to do so. Guests should sit cross-
legged and take care not to show the soles of their
feet or point them at other persons. This is considered
offensive. 95 Before the meal, it is customary for each
person to wash their hands.
Afghans eat from a single large plate and use their right hand to take food from the dish.
The left hand is considered unclean, as it is associated with acts of personal hygiene.
Even if guests are left-handed, they should not take food from the communal plate with
their left hand or use it to consume food. Likewise, items should only be passed with the
right hand.
Each person may have an individual plate to place food upon. Afghans generally do not
use utensils, but they may offer them to foreigners. Eating with the utensils will not
offend the host. The most common eating method is to collect small portions of food with
the fingertips, at times rolling it into a ball, before eating it. Bread may also be used to
scoop food. Certain meals require bowls and spoons.
It is polite to compliment the quality of the food.
Exchange 18: This food tastes so good.

Visitor: This food tastes so good. da Khowara derah Kha maza kawee
Local: Thank you. manana
Guests should leave a small amount of food on their individual plate to show that they are
full. Otherwise, the host will continue to offer food, as it is customary for the host to
ensure that the guest is fully satisfied. Indeed, a host’s honor is tied to his ability to
provide for guests.
95
36
Non-Religious Holidays
Although Islamic holidays are the most important events of the
year, Afghans also celebrate a number of secular holidays and
festivals. The largest of these is Nowruz, a New Year’s celebration
that follows the solar calendar. This event typically falls on 21
March, the first day of spring. During this time, Afghans
traditionally decorate their homes and wear new clothing,
depending upon their means. Friends and families gather to
celebrate the holiday with special meals, including a sweet,
pudding-like dish known as samanak. A variety of local events and
festivals may be held on this day in various regions of the country.
As an ancient, pre-Islamic tradition, Nowruz was prohibited by the
Taliban during their time in power.
Exchange 19: Will you be celebrating the festival?

Visitor: Will you be celebrating New Year? taaso de newee kaal jeshin tar sara
kawee?
Local: Yes! ho!
Another important holiday is Jashn, or Independence Day, which is celebrated on 19

August. This event commemorates Afghanistan’s formal independence in 1919, when the
British relinquished control over the region. 96
During celebrations, it is not uncommon for Afghans to fire guns, especially in rural
areas. Gunshots may be fired, for example, to mark the end of Ramadan, the first day of
Eid, a marriage, or the birth of a child.
Weddings
Prior to marriage, an Afghan female’s interaction with members of the opposite sex is
often limited exclusively to her male relatives in the domestic realm. Marriages are
typically arranged between families, and thus there is no period of dating or courtship for
most couples. (Roughly 80% of Afghan women enter forced or arranged marriages.) 97
Afghan marriages represent a merger between families, not a private union between
individuals. The groom’s family pays a bride price, and the bride brings a dowry of larger
monetary value.
Under Taliban rule, wedding celebrations were austere. While weddings remain
traditional affairs in which parents select the partners of their children, the celebrations
are full of color and as lavish as budgets permit. Guests often bring their entire families.
In villages, it is necessary to invite everyone or risk losing face in the community. In the
cities, weddings have become big financial burdens to the groom’s family, which pays
96
Traditional Dress: Festivals and Leisure Activities [pp. 151-155].” 2005. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
97
37
for the often-lengthy celebration and its many related events. As the wedding ceremony is
an important display of social status, even poor Afghans will go to great lengths to
arrange an elaborate celebration. 98
Exchange 20: Congratulations on your wedding!

Visitor: Congratulations on your wedding! wadoo mo mobaarak sha!
Local: We are honored you could attend. staaso ishteraak kawel mog te
ifteeKhaar bahee
After negotiations and preparations for the wedding,

the ceremony is generally performed by a mullah, or
Muslim clergy member. The formal ceremony is
followed by an elaborate celebration and feast,
traditionally held at the bridegroom’s home. Today,
weddings in some areas, particularly in cities, may be
held in public wedding halls. The reception includes
music and dancing, and the bride traditionally
receives gifts from the wedding guests.
Exchange 21: I wish you both happiness.

Visitor: I wish you both happiness. dowaro ta de neyk marghee heela
kawoom
Local: We are honored. mog ta ifteeKhaar dey
Men and women generally celebrate in different rooms or banquet halls, as Islamic and
tribal custom requires them to be segregated. In some tribal communities, “proof” of the
bride’s virginity will be required on the wedding night; evidence to the contrary may
result in a broken marriage contract. 99
Funerals
Burials in Afghanistan are conducted according to Islamic custom. The body of the
deceased is first washed and then shrouded in clean linen. Women are shrouded in extra
linen in order to conceal their face and further cover their torso. In order to maintain the
segregation of the sexes, deceased men and women are not buried together.
Exchange 22: I would like to give my condolences to you.

Visitor: I would like to give my condolences zo ghowaarim che taaso aw taaso
to you and your family. kooranee ta iKhpalee Khwaa
Khoogee oraan dekram
Local: Thank you. manana
98
The New York Times. Semple, Kirk. “Big Weddings Bring Afghans Joy, and Debt.” 14 January 2008.
http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/14/world/asia/14weddings.html
99
in Afghanistan’s Future [p. 79].” March 2005.
38
In Pashtun communities, male and female mourners are segregated at the burial site.
Women often perform loud wailing as a demonstration of their grief. If related to the
deceased, Pashtun women are prohibited from wearing colored clothing or jewelry for
three days. After this period, widows may wear white or black. Male and female graves
are marked differently. Stones are lined on men’s graves from side to side, while on
women’s graves, they run from end to end. 100
Exchange 23: Please be strong.

Visitor: Please be strong. lotfan Khpal zaan satr wosaatee
Local: We will try. koshesh be oo wokroo
Weapons
Afghans traditionally keep personal weapons in their
homes. Since the onset of conflict in 1979, many
people have acquired sophisticated firearms, such as
assault rifles (AK-47s) and other military weapons,
including RPGs and heavy machine guns. In rural
Afghanistan, several generations of young men have
participated in military conflicts, either in the war
against the U.S.S.R. from 1979 to 1989, or in the
ensuing civil conflict. Many of these fighters
(mujahideen) kept their weapons for personal safety or as war trophies.
100
Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures, Vol. III: Family, Body, Sexuality, and Health. Joseph,
Suad and Afsaneh Najmabadi. “Funerary Practices: Iran and Afghanistan [pp. 119-120].” 2006. Leiden:
Brill.
39
Traditions Assessment
1. Walking hand in hand, hugging, and shaking hands are only allowed between people
of the same sex.
True. Pashtun customs limit the interaction between men and women. Forms of greeting
such as shaking hands and hugging are only allowed between people of the same sex.
2. It is acceptable for a man to speak to woman who is not related to him.
False. It is also highly inappropriate for a man to address any unrelated female directly or
initiate a conversation with her. Instead, he should communicate through her husband or
close male relatives.
3. Female family members are seen as symbolic of the family’s honor.
True. In Afghan society, women are traditionally seen as a symbol of the family’s honor.
Because a female is a representative of the family, her actions reflect upon both herself
and the family as a whole.
4. The code of Pashtunwali is still followed by many Pashtuns in Afghanistan.
True. Pashtunwali is an ancient tribal code that is adhered to by traditional Pashtun

peoples, especially those living in rural areas effectively beyond the reach of the central
government.
5. Pashtuns are very distrustful of strangers and often chase away any unknown visitors.
False. It is very important for Afghans, regardless of their wealth, to show hospitality to
all visitors. To do so is a source of pride and honor and a part of the Pashtunwali code
(melmastia).
40
Chapter 4 Urban Life
Introduction
City populations in Afghanistan are generally a
mixture of people from different ethnic and tribal
groups. Many of these urban residents have migrated
to the city in order to escape the violence, poverty,
and drought-ridden conditions that have afflicted
rural Afghanistan over the last several decades. In
2009, approximately 24% of the nation’s population
lived in urban areas. The majority of urban dwellers
live in the cities of Kabul (the capital), Herat,
Kandahar, Mazar-e-Sharif, Jalalabad, and Kunduz.
With the influx of migrants and the return of millions of refugees who fled the country
when the Taliban was in power, Afghan cities are experiencing a growth rate
significantly higher than that of the country as a whole. 101
Kabul, for example, which had a population of about one million in 2001, is now home to
an estimated five million people. 102 More than one million of these residents are former
refugees who have returned to Afghanistan from neighboring countries. 103 This
population influx has severely strained the city’s infrastructure and services. As a result,
in Kabul, as well as in the country’s other major cities, migrants have established large
informal settlements. Already heavily burdened and short of resources, municipal
governments often do not provide services to squatter settlements that lack legal status.
Yet, a large percentage of city residents may live in such makeshift communities. Some
three million of Kabul’s residents, for example, are thought to live in “illegal and
unplanned houses.” 104 Many of these residents work informal and low-paying jobs, if
they can find employment at all. 105 In turn, widespread unemployment and poverty have
contributed to an increase in criminal activity, especially robbery.
Afghan cities, most notably Kabul, have also experienced high-end development projects
since the fall of the Taliban. Some observers have noted that most of these projects have
benefited a small class of wealthy citizens and upper-level government and military
101
United Nations Population Fund. State of the World Population 2009: Facing a Changing World:
Women, Population and Climate. “Demographic, Social and Economic Indicators [p. 86].” 2009.
http://www.unfpa.org/swp/2009/en/pdf/EN_SOWP09.pdf
102
IRIN, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. “Afghanistan: Unsafe Housing Puts
Kabul Residents at Risk.” 15 July 2009. http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=85286
103
IRIN, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. “Afghanistan: Kabul Facing
“Unregulated” Urbanization.” 26 November 2007. http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=75508
104
105
Afghanistan Research Evaluation Unit. Beall, Jo and Stefan Schütte. “Urban Livelihoods in
Afghanistan.” August 2006.
http://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/DESTIN/pdf/AREU%20Urban%20Livelihoods%20SP%20FINAL%20PR
OOF%205Oct2006.pdf
41
officials. 106 Yet, overall, urban expansion and development in Afghanistan has suffered
from a general lack of proper planning and regulation. As a result, many cities have
serious deficiencies, such as a lack of waste treatment facilities. 107 Kabul, for example,
does not have a comprehensive public sewage system, and electricity is not regularly
available for most residents. Plans have been made to build a “Greater Kabul” to the
northeast of the current city in order to address the ongoing problem of unregulated
urbanization. Kabul’s population is expected to exceed 8 million by 2025. 108
Health Issues
Due to the lack of basic municipal services, urban
residents are exposed to health dangers related to
pollution, unsanitary living conditions, and lack of
shelter. Residents of informal settlements and slums
are at particular risk to these dangers. For example,
without access to improved water, poor urban
dwellers are often forced to use polluted water
resources, a cause of serious health problems. 109
Diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid are common food-
and water-borne diseases in Afghanistan.
Furthermore, as a result of an aging vehicle fleet and extremely poor gas quality, air
pollution is a major concern in cities, particularly Kabul. 110
Decades of conflict severely damaged the nation’s medical system, leaving much of its
infrastructure destroyed and causing most of its healthcare professionals to flee. 111 This
contributed to the deterioration of the general health of the Afghan population, as
determined by a number of indicators.
Exchange 24: Is the doctor in?

Soldier: Is Dr. Azizi in? daaktor 'azeezee dalta tashreef laree?
Local: No. na
106
The Washington Post. Gannon, Kathy. Associated Press. 11 November 2006. “Post-Taliban Kabul
Blossoms for the Rich.” http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-
dyn/content/article/2006/11/11/AR2006111100615.html
107
IRIN, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. “Afghanistan: Kabul Facing
“Unregulated” Urbanization.” 26 November 2007. http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=75508
108
109
OOF%205Oct2006.pdf
110
Post-Conflict and Disaster Management Branch, United Nations Environment Programme.
“Afghanistan’s Environment 2008: Executive Summary.” 2008.
http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/afg_soe_E.pdf
111
42
Most notably, the country has suffered from extremely high maternal, infant, and under-
five mortality rates. Since the fall of the Taliban, the nation’s healthcare system has
improved due to international aid and reconstruction efforts. Non-governmental
organizations, or NGOs, have played a major role in this process, as they have
established clinics in various locations throughout the country. 112
Exchange 25: Is there a hospital nearby?

Visitor: Is there a hospital nearby? po daa sha Khowa kee yo roghtoon
shta?
Local: Yes, in the center of town. ho, de Khaar po markaz ke dey
As part of the reconstruction effort, there is a particular need to train female doctors due
to customary views and practices that restrict female patients from receiving treatment
from male doctors. Under the Taliban, for example, many Afghan women were not
allowed to seek medical treatment in Kabul because they were subject to the strict
enforcement of seclusion and segregation. 113 Furthermore, while many residents now
have access to primary health care (including vaccinations), they lack access to most
forms of costly secondary care, such as surgery or emergency treatment. These forms of
treatment are often only available in private hospitals, which are too expensive for most
Afghans. 114
Exchange 26: Do you know what is wrong?

Visitor: Do you know what is wrong? po hejee che bada Khabara tsa da?
Local: No. na
In general, urban residents have access to better and

more advanced medical services than those living in
rural areas. Kabul, for example, is home to multiple
private clinics staffed with Western-trained medical
personnel. In case of emergency, foreign nationals are
advised to seek care at these clinics rather than from
public hospitals or unregulated private clinics, where
treatment may be inadequate and unreliable. In
general, patients are required to pay before receiving
any medical treatment. 115
112
Relief Web. The World Bank. Loevinsohn, Benjamin and Dastagir Sayed. “World Bank: Afghanistan
Health Sector Provides Lessons in Development.” 7 September 2008.
http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/db900sid/MUMA-7J9BCT?OpenDocument
113
The Nation. Block, Max. “Kabul’s Health Apartheid.” 4 October 2001.
http://www.thenation.com/doc/19971124/19971124block
114
Reuters. Lyn, Tan Ee. “Afghanistan Struggles to Provide Decent Healthcare.” 21 April 2008.
http://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSISL20255320080421
115
Bureau of Consular Affairs, U.S. Department of State. “Afghanistan: Country Specific Information.” 25
March 2010. http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1056.html
43
Education
Officially, primary education in Afghanistan is free and compulsory in areas where it is
available, but a comprehensive level of enrollment has never been achieved, even when
all the country’s schools have been open. This remains true today for urban Afghans, as
the educational opportunities for children in cities depend on the financial status of their
families. Children who live in squatter settlements are far less likely to be enrolled than
those from families of means, typically because their families need them to work instead.
A family’s proximity to a school is also a major factor in whether children receive an
education. In these, and many other cases, girls are more likely to be kept at home than
boys due to cultural norms that prioritize male education. 116
Exchange 27: Is there a school nearby?

Visitor: Is there a school nearby? po daa shaaKhowa ke yaw Khwanze
ishta?
Local: Yes. ho
Under the Taliban, girls were prohibited from attending schools, and many educational
institutions were closed. During this time, madrassas, Islamic schools that base their
education on interpretations of the Quran, became prominent. After the Taliban regime
was ousted, international efforts were made to repair the nation’s education system,
which was severely damaged by decades of war. As of 2010, an estimated seven million
Afghan children—including 2.6 million girls—were attending school. 117 As of 2007,
Afghanistan had seven functional universities, the most notable of which is Kabul
University. This school was closed for several years during the civil war, as well as
during subsequent conflict, but it reopened most recently in 2002. Overall, literacy levels
in the country remain low, especially for women. According to estimates made in 2006,
only 43% of Afghan men and 13% of Afghan women can read and write. 118 Illiteracy has
been identified as a major obstacle in training recruits for Afghan security forces. 119
116
OOF%205Oct2006.pdf
117
RAWA News. “No School for Almost Half of Afghan Children.” 6 March 2010.
http://www.rawa.org/temp/runews/2010/03/06/no-school-for-almost-half-of-afghan-children.html
118
119
National Public Radio. James, Frank. “Afghan Army’s 90% Illiteracy Rate Big Training Obstacle.” 16
September 2009. http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2009/09/afghan_armys_90_percent_illite.html
44
Telecommunications
Afghanistan has greatly expanded its
telecommunications sector since the Taliban regime
was ousted from power. In 2001, telephone
availability was minimal and cellular phone coverage
was nonexistent. By late 2009, however, Afghanistan
had more than 12 million telephone subscribers,
nearly all of whom used cellular phones. 120
Exchange 28: What is your telephone number?

Visitor: What is your telephone number? staaso de teeleefoon naambar tsa dey?
Local: My phone number is (144-356- izmaa teeleefoon naambar dey (yawo
9573) saloo chaloor chalweKht - dre sawoh
peenjash peta - peenja nawee dree
awyaa)
Cellular phone coverage reached over 70% of the country’s population in 2008, although
financial limitations have prevented many Afghans from subscribing to it. 121 The Taliban
has also disrupted coverage through attacks on cell towers and nightly blackouts on cell
phone service in areas that it controls. It has achieved the latter by intimidating service
providers—through attacks on infrastructure and personnel—to comply with its
demands. 122 The expansion and maintenance of cellular service has been identified as a
vital component of U.S. Military operations. Functional communication networks are
important for counteracting militant propaganda in insurgent-held areas, as well as
fostering economic development and communications between Afghan civilians and
security forces. 123
Exchange 29: May I use your phone?

Visitor: May I use your phone? kawalay sham staasee la teeleefoon
tsKha isteefaada wokrem?
Local: Sure. ho
120
The Wall Street Journal. Trofimov, Yaroslav. “Cell Carriers Bow to Taliban Threat.” 22 March 2010.
http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748704117304575137541465235972.html
121
The Washington Post. “Afghanistan's Communications Revolution.” Gross, David and Amir Zai
Sangin. September 8, 2008. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-
122
The Wall Street Journal. Trofimov, Yaroslav. “Cell Carriers Bow to Taliban Threat.” 22 March 2010.
http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748704117304575137541465235972.html
123
The Boston Globe. Bloomberg News. Lakshmanan, Indira A.R. “US Effort in Afghanistan Focuses on
Cellphone Use.” 3 April 2010.
http://www.boston.com/news/world/asia/articles/2010/04/03/us_effort_in_afghanistan_focuses_on_cellpho
ne_use/
45
Internet service has also expanded over the last decade, as over 500,000 Afghans have
access to the web, up from an estimated 1,000 users in 2000. Major urban centers have
some internet facilities available for public use, although irregular electricity service
often interrupts internet service. 124
Traffic and Transportation

Prolonged conflict in Afghanistan has damaged the
country’s existing transportation network and
slowed the development of new infrastructure.
Although reconstruction teams have made
considerable progress, many roads remain in a state
of disrepair and some forms of transportation are
wholly unavailable.
Exchange 30: Is there a train station nearby?

Visitor: Is there a train station nearby? pa dey shaa Khwa kee d orgaadee taam
zaay ishta?
Local: No. na
Foremost, Afghanistan lacks an operational railroad system, although a few short cross-
border railways are planned. Among the projects in development is a railway line running
from the northern city of Mazar-e-Sharif to the Uzbek border. 125 Most of Afghanistan’s
major national and private airlines have been deemed unsafe by various foreign
entities, 126 including the U.S. Government. 127
Exchange 31: Which road leads to the airport?

Visitor: Which road leads to the airport? koom sarak hawaay dagar ta zee?
Local: The road heading east. da sarak che Khatyiz ta zee
Since the fall of the Taliban, a tremendous surge in auto traffic has posed health and
safety concerns, particularly in urban areas such as Kabul. During the Taliban era, only
taxis, bicycles, and Taliban-operated trucks were evident in Kabul’s streets. 128
Exchange 33: Where can I get a cab?

Visitor: Where can I get a cab? cheree kawalaay sham che yo taksee
wooneesam?
124
125
126
127
Bureau of Consular Affairs, U.S. Department of State. “Afghanistan: Country Specific Information.” 25
128
The Washington Post. Associated Press. Gannon, Kathy. “Post-Taliban Kabul Blossoms for the Rich.”
11 November 2006. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-
46
Local: Over there. lahaa ghezaay na
By 2005, an automotive census revealed that there were more than 340,000 registered
vehicles in Kabul, approximately two-thirds of which were small cars. At that time, the
country also had an estimated 300,000 unregistered vehicles, most of them located in the
capital. 129 The number of vehicles in the country continues to grow as an influx of
foreign cash has fueled a thriving import business. Most imported cars are used and
salvaged vehicles that often do not meet basic safety and emissions standards, thereby
contributing to pollution. 130
Continuous road work and a high volume of vehicles have created immense traffic jams
in urban areas. Traffic is notoriously bad in Kabul, where there is a limited number of
working traffic lights. 131
Exchange 35: Will the bus be here soon?

Visitor: Will the bus be here soon? serwees ba dalta zhir wora see-ee?
Local: Yes. ho
Urban roads are often in poor condition and may be

unlit at night. Accidents are common as many Afghan
drivers are unlicensed and traffic rules are often
neither obeyed nor enforced. The mixture of vehicles,
pedestrians, cyclists, military convoys, and animals
provides for crowded and dangerous conditions for
both drivers and pedestrians. 132 Accidents involving
foreign nationals may quickly escalate into
confrontations. A deadly accident in 2006 in which a
U.S. military convoy killed Afghan civilians sparked riots that rapidly spread throughout
Kabul. 133
Violent crime has also become more common in city streets. Incidents of kidnapping,
vehicle theft, highway robbery, and drug-related violence have been widely reported. In
some cases, these acts have been carried out by persons masquerading as law
129
Asian Development Bank and the Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities Center. “Country Synthesis
Report on Urban Air Quality Management: Afghanistan.” December 2006.
http://www.cleanairnet.org/caiasia/1412/csr/afghanistan.pdf
130
Australian Broadcasting Corporation News. Reuters. “Dodgy Cars Clogging Kabul’s Roads.” 9 May
2009. http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2009/05/09/2565599.htm
131
RAWA News. The Canadian Press. Perkel, Colin. “Kabul Traffic Cops Fight to Keep City Moving but
Government Slow to Pay.” 21 January 2010. http://www.rawa.org/temp/runews/2010/01/21/kabul-traffic-
cops-fight-to-keep-city-moving-but-government-slow-to-pay.html
132
Bureau of Consular Affairs, U.S. Department of State.“Afghanistan: Country Specific Information.” 25
133
International Herald Tribune. Gall, Carlotta. “Convoy Crash Sparks Riots.” 31 May 2006.
http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/05/29/news/afghan.php
47
enforcement or Afghan Army officers. This surge of criminal activity has affected truck
and bus routes, and forced automobile drivers to take extra security precautions. 134
Exchange 36: Can you take me there?
Visitor: Can you take me there? kawalaay shee che maa halta
warasawee?
Local: Yes, I can. ho, kawalaay sham
Markets
In Afghan cities, shopping is traditionally done at open-air markets, or bazaars.
Exchange 37: Is the market nearby?
Visitor: Is the market nearby? bazaar dalta nazhde day?
Local: Yes, over there on the right. ho, halta shee laas ta day
These busy markets are usually located in old city centers and districts populated by
craftsmen and skilled artisans.
Exchange 38: How much longer will you be here?
Visitor: How much longer will you be tir koma waKhte poor taasee ba dalta
here? yaast?
Local: Three more hours. tir dryo nooro saa'too porey
A wide array of items can be purchased at bazaars, including textiles, jewelry,
handicrafts, foodstuffs, and various consumer goods.
Exchange 39: Do you have any more of these?
Visitor: Do you have any more of these? dedey po shaan laa noor ham laree?
Local: No. na
As bargaining is the norm, customers are expected to haggle over the price with the
vendor. Depending upon the item and vendor, the bargaining process may be lengthy and
involved.
Exchange 40: May I examine this close up?

Visitor: May I examine this close up? kawalaay sham daa la nazhday na
wooweenam?
Local: Sure. hatmee
Customers can familiarize themselves with the market and its practices by visiting a
number of different stalls and comparing prices and qualities of goods.
Exchange 41: Do you sell shawls?

Visitor: Do you sell shawls? taase patkee Khar tsaawee?
134
The Washington Post. Constable, Pamela. “As Crime Increases in Kabul, So Does Nostalgia for
Taliban.” 25 September 2008. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-
48
Local: Yes. ho
With an understanding of local pricing norms, foreigners will be able to better conduct
negotiations with vendors.
Exchange 42: Can I buy a carpet with this much money?

Visitor: Can I buy a carpet with this much dee day paysoo sara kawalaay sham che
money? yo qaaleena waKhlam?
Local: No. na
After a price has been agreed upon, the customer should follow through with the
transaction, as it is inappropriate to withdraw an offer that has been accepted.
Exchange 43: Can you give me change for this?

Visitor: Can you give me change for this? kowalaay shee che daa paysee maa ta
maayda kree?
Local: No. na
Restaurants
Restaurants and teahouses are popular social venues
in urban areas, although many Afghans may not have
the financial means to visit them.
Exchange 44: Are you still serving breakfast?

Visitor: Are you still serving breakfast? tir oosa pore laa naashta warkawee?
Local: Yes. ho
Food stalls or restaurants specializing in kebabs are common in cities. Care should be
taken when purchasing food at these stalls as conditions may be unsanitary.
Exchange 45: What type of meat is this?

Visitor: What type of meat is this? da tsa daal ghwaKha da?
Local: Lamb. doree da
Since the fall of the Taliban, the variety of available cuisine has expanded, especially in
Kabul, where Italian, French, German, and other styles of restaurants can be found.
Exchange 46: I would like coffee or tea.

Visitor: I would like coffee or tea. ze qahwa aw yaa chaay ghwaarim
Local: Very well. deer Kha
49
Again, such places are often too expensive for many Afghans to afford. 135
Exchange 47: I’d like some hot soup.

Visitor: I’d like some hot soup. lik taawda shorwa ghowaarim
Local: Very well. deer Kha
As in the majority of Afghan homes, utensils are not typically used when dining out at
restaurants.
Exchange 48: May I have a glass of water?

Visitor: May I have a glass of water? kawalaay shee che maa ta yo geelaas
oob raakree?
Local: Yes, right away. ho, hamdaa dastee
Instead, food is eaten using the right hand, or scooped up with bread.
Exchange 49: Do you have dessert?

Visitor: Do you have a dessert? do Khwaarloolaa na pas orostanay
Khoraak ham laree?
Local: Yes, we have ferni. ho, frinee laroo
When dining out in groups, it is customary for one person to pay the bill. This is
traditionally done by the person who organized the meal.
Exchange 50: Can I have my total bill, please?

Visitor: Can I have my total bill, please? kowalaay sham che de hisaab paana
waKhlam?
Local: Yes, of course. ho, hatmee
Paying individually is uncommon and may cause offense to Afghans.
Exchange 51: Put this all in one bill.

Visitor: Put this all in one bill. daa tool ba pa yo hisaab ke waachom
Local: Okay. ho
135
The Washington Post. Associated Press. Gannon, Kathy. “Post-Taliban Kabul Blossoms for the Rich.”
11 November 2006. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-
50
Cash is required for payment, as credit card services are mostly unavailable in
Afghanistan.
Exchange 52: Do you accept U.S. currency?

Visitor: Do you accept U.S. currency? taasee amreekaayee daalar qablawee?
Local: No we only accept Afghanis. na, moog faqat afghaanee paysee
qablawo
Street Vendors and Beggars

Due to a surging population and widespread
unemployment, informal street vendors and beggars
are common in urban areas. Beggars are often women
(especially widows) and small children.
Exchange 53: Give me money.

Local: Give me money. maa ta paysee raakra
Visitor: I don’t have any. za hits paysee nalarim
Street vendors will likely target foreign nationals, and they can be quite persistent
salesmen, especially the young boys.
Exchange 54: Please, buy something from me.

Local: Please, buy something from me. lotf ukree aw yo shay lemaana
waaKhlee
Visitor: Sorry, I have no money left. Khwashee na yam, paysee me Khlaasee
shwee dee
In November 2008, the Afghan government banned the practice of street-begging in

Kabul, citing its ties to child abuse and prostitution. Among those who have since been
arrested for begging are male drug addicts who have been deported from Iran and
Pakistan. Despite the government’s efforts to crackdown on begging, it remains
widespread. 136
136
IRIN, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. “Afghanistan: Crackdown on Kabul
Beggars Continues.” 10 September 2009. http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=86089
51
Urban Life Assessment
1. Almost one quarter of the Afghan population lives in cities.
True. Recent estimates place approximately 23% of the nation’s population in urban
areas. Afghan cities are experiencing a growth rate significantly higher than that of the
country as a whole.
2. Emergency care is available for most urban residents at public hospitals.
False. Many residents now have access to primary health care (including vaccinations),
but they lack access to costly secondary care such as emergency services, which are often
only available at private hospitals.
3. Urban dwellers can avoid the polluted water sources that many rural residents must
use.
False. Due to the lack of basic municipal services, poor urban dwellers are often forced
to use polluted water resources, a cause of serious health problems.
4. After the fall of the Taliban, girls began to outnumber boys in most schools.
False. As of 2006, an estimated eight million Afghan children were attending school, but
only three million were girls. In many cases, girls are more likely to be kept at home than
boys, mainly for cultural reasons.
5. All forms of transportation in Afghanistan have suffered from years of neglect and
conflict.
True. Prolonged conflict has damaged the country’s transportation network and slowed
the development of new infrastructure. Roads remain in a state of disrepair, trains no
longer run, and planes are deemed too risky to use by some foreign countries.
52
Chapter 5 Rural Life
Introduction
The central Afghan government has historically
lacked a strong presence in rural areas, which have
long been locally administered by ethnic or tribal
groups. This pattern persists today, and it carries
numerous consequences. Foremost, while rural
communities may remain relatively independent, they
generally lack access to resources and modern
services. While services such as electricity, waste
disposal, and water treatment are often limited in
urban areas, they are non-existent in many rural regions, especially in remote, isolated
villages. Healthcare and education are also often inadequate or only available at remote
distances. Other forms of infrastructure, such as paved roads or modern irrigation
systems, are also uncommon in rural areas.
As such, rural life in Afghanistan is deeply rooted in tradition. Tribes and families are
responsible for protecting their own, and they rely on ancient modes of subsistence to
survive. This situation often lends itself toward poverty and hardship, but also hardiness
and relative independence. Accordingly, remote rural areas have long served as a refuge
for insurgents who seek to evade government forces or influence. Specifically, the
Pashtun-dominated eastern and southern regions of the country have experienced heavy
insurgent activity in recent years. 137
Tribal Divisions
Afghanistan’s rural areas are often divided along tribal lines. A tribe’s area of control
may span official provincial borders. Among the Pashtun-dominated areas, the eastern
region of the country is heavily populated by the Ghilzai Pashtun tribes. The southern and
western areas of the country are largely dominated by Durranis, who form the other
major Pashtun tribe. 138 These areas are further divided among the sub-tribes of each of
these two major groups, although they also contain pockets of other ethnic and tribal
factions, such as the Hazaras and Tajiks. This tradition of fragmented tribal rule has
historically made it difficult for the central government to consolidate power.
137
Program for Culture and Conflict Studies, Naval Postgraduate School. The Culture and Conflict Review,
Vol. 2, No. 1. “Eastern Afghanistan Security/Poppy Map,” and “Southern Afghanistan Security/Poppy
Map.” January 2008. http://www.nps.edu/Programs/CCS/Journal/Jan08/Research_update.html
138
Program for Culture and Conflict Studies, Naval Postgraduate School. The Culture and Conflict Review,
Vol. 2, No. 1. “Eastern Afghanistan Tribal Map,” and “Southern Afghanistan Tribal Map.” January 2008.
http://www.nps.edu/Programs/CCS/Journal/Jan08/Research_update.html
53
Pashtuns also make a distinction between two types of Pashtun
tribal regions: those that are predominantly free from government
control (yaghistan) and those that receive greater oversight from the
state (hukamat). For the Pashtuns, these areas correspond,
respectively, with the mountainous tribal regions, which are more
remote and inaccessible (and thus more independent), and the
plains, which are exposed to greater government influence and
other external forces. In the hukamat areas, which extend to urban
centers, Pashtuns follow more modern socioeconomic practices,
such as paying taxes to the state and paying rent to wealthy
landowners. On the other hand, Pashtuns in the yaghistan generally
do not observe these practices. A Pashtun proverb speaks to the
difference between the two regions: “Honor (nang) ate up the mountains; taxes (qalang)
ate up the plains.” In other words, while taxes and rent may exhaust the resources of the
qalang Pashtuns, blood feuds and inter-tribal conflicts often exhaust the resources of the
nang Pashtuns. As the proverb suggests, Pashtuns in the yaghistan, or independent
regions, are more likely to follow a strict interpretation of the traditional Pashtun tribal
code, Pashtunwali. 139
Rural Economy
For centuries, most rural Afghans have subsisted as farmers and livestock herders.
However, as only 12% of the land in Afghanistan is arable, resources are limited.
Approximately 45% of the country is pasture land, which supports livestock owned by
settled farmers and nomadic herders. 140 Historically, the primary obstacle faced by
Afghan farmers has been a shortage of water, which is often most plentiful in the spring,
when snowmelt runs off the mountains. Long ago, farmers developed a variety of
techniques to capture water and channel it to their crops. In the northern plains, dams
were used to divert water into irrigation schemes. Throughout much of the rest of the
country, Afghans used a Persian technique known as the karez. The karez consists of an
underground tunnel intersected with numerous vertical shafts that open to the surface.
Fed by the shafts, the underground canal collects runoff from the hillside and carries it
toward the agricultural fields below. Both of these techniques demand frequent and labor-
intensive maintenance in order to function. 141
Exchange 55: Where do you work, sir?

Visitor: Where do you work, sir? saahiba chere kaar kawee?
Local: I am a farmer. ze o bazgar yam
139
The Fragmentation of Afghanistan, Second Ed. Rubin, Barnett R. “Chapter 2: Social Structure under the
Old Regime: Religion [p. 28].” 2002. New Haven: Yale University Press.
140
Relief Web. Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit. Wiley, Liz Alden. “Land Rights in Crisis:
Restoring Tenure Security in Afghanistan.” 31 March 2003.
http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/AllDocsByUNID/4aecf9d78aaba09cc1256d270042cf16
141
Government Publications Access, Paul V. Gavin Library, Illinois Institute of Technology. Federal
Research Division, Library of Congress. Afghanistan: A Country Study. Nyrop, Richard F. and Donald M
Seekins, eds. “Chapter 3: The Economy: Agriculture: Land Use Patterns.” 1986.
http://www.gl.iit.edu/govdocs/afghanistan/Agriculture.html
54
Prolonged conflict has left much of the country’s
irrigation infrastructure in total disrepair. It has also
made many farm and grazing lands unsafe, as land
mines and unexploded ordnance are scattered
throughout the countryside. Furthermore, severe
drought is a recurrent trend that frequently hampers
agricultural production. After the Taliban was
overthrown, reconstruction teams sought to combat
this trend by reducing crop vulnerability to
drought. 142 Such efforts have entailed making repairs to the irrigation system and
introducing drought-resistant seeds. A major factor identified in the further development
of the country’s agricultural sector is the need to make conventional crop farming more
financially attractive to Afghan farmers. Cultivation of the drought-resistant opium poppy
typically yields significantly higher returns than conventional food crops such as
wheat. 143 Thus, the task of reducing opium production remains challenging. As an expert
has observed, “To stop poppy production [requires] more than just law enforcement. It’s
a complex [process] of establishing the rule of law, building alternative livelihoods,
building access to markets, education—and all of these things are very difficult to deliver
in an unstable environment.” 144
Land Ownership
Afghanistan lacks a clear and consistent national policy for registering and validating
land ownership claims. This is due in large part to the population’s historical reliance on
informal customs and local legal systems. However, a history of unjust land distribution
policies—many of which benefited the Pashtun majority—has also complicated
matters. 145 Due to the limited availability of land, property disputes have been a common
cause of conflict within or between families, villages, and tribes. Such conflicts have
often stoked ethnic or tribal tensions and, in some cases, have led to violent clashes.
In the last three decades, this situation has worsened due to successive wars and frequent
changes in government. 146 Political and social upheaval led to large-scale migration and
routine changes in official land tenure policy. Foremost, as many Afghans were forced to
flee their lands, the status of their property often became unclear. In many cases, refugees
142
South Asia Department, Asian Development Bank. “Rebuilding Afghanistan’s Agricultural Sector.”
April 2003.
http://www.adb.org/Documents/Reports/Afghanistan/Agriculture/Rebuilding_Agriculture_Sector_AFG.pdf
143
McClatchy Newspapers. Nissenbaum, Dion. “Afghan Poppy Harvest is Next Challenge for U.S.
Marines.” 16 March 2010. http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2010/03/16/90477/afghan-poppy-harvest-is-next-
challenge.html
144
BBC News. Leithead, Alastair. “Poverty Feeds Afghan Drugs Trade.” 22 January 2008.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7201085.stm
145
Relief Web. Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit. Wiley, Liz Alden. “Land Rights in Crisis:
Restoring Tenure Security in Afghanistan.” 31 March 2003.
http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/AllDocsByUNID/4aecf9d78aaba09cc1256d270042cf16
146
IRIN News, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. “Afghanistan: New Report
Identifies Land Disputes as a Major Source of Conflict.” 12 May 2003.
http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=19920
55
have returned to Afghanistan to find their property inhabited or redistributed without their
permission, typically by those who assumed “squatter’s rights” in the owner’s absence.
Exchange 56: Do you own this land?

Visitor: Do you own this land? taaso de dey zmakit cheKhtan yaast?
Local: Yes. ho
In this context, it can be difficult for returnees to reassert their property rights, as their
land titles may be hard to verify or may be rejected outright by local leaders, sometimes
due to ethnic tensions. 147 Moreover, there are often multiple claims on a single plot of
land, making the issue difficult to resolve while leaving some members of the community
with no place to farm. Some people, such as local warlords, have taken advantage of the
unclear land tenure system to expand their own holdings at the expense of the less
powerful. Overall, as a considerable percentage of the population remains landless, such
disputes will remain a source of contention in the absence of an impartial resolution
mechanism and enforceable rule of law. 148
Nomadic Tribes
Afghanistan is home to several nomadic or semi-
nomadic groups, although their numbers have
decreased in recent years. Traditionally, Afghan
nomads are pastoralists who engage in seasonal
migration. They base their livestock herds in lowland
pastures during the winter and move them to higher
elevation grazing lands for the spring and summer.
Sheep and goats are the most common stock, and
dogs are used as fellow sheepherders. Belongings are
often transported on camels or donkeys. As they move from area to area, nomads sleep in
tents (typically made from black goat’s hair), trading animals and animal products for
other goods and foodstuffs with the villagers they encounter. In the past, their migratory
practices played a major role in regional trade. 149
Exchange 57: Do you know this area very well?

Visitor: Do you know this area very well? dee shaa Khowa sara Kheh baladyaat
laree?
Local: Yes. ho
147
Alertnet, Reuters. IRIN, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. “Afghanistan: Ethnic
Antagonism Spurs Land Disputes in North.” 11 September 2008.
http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/IRIN/158b7ec7af87f8512712132aeb2b3ba4.htm
148
Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre. Norwegian Refugee Council. Foley, Conor. “Land and
Property Disputes in Eastern Afghanistan [pp. 1-2].” 2004. http://www.internal-
displacement.org/8025708F004CE90B/(httpDocuments)/3E2AD065B3616B2D802570B7005876F4/$file/
Land_disputes_NRC_june04.pdf
149
“Chapter 2: The Society and Environment: Modes of Subsistence: Pastoralism.” 1997.
56
The Kuchi, a Pashtun group of nomads, is the largest and most well known nomadic tribe
in the country. Their population is estimated at roughly 1.5 million, but the number of
those who actually maintain a nomadic lifestyle may be much lower. 150 Traditionally, the
Kuchi moved their herds throughout the Afghan-Pakistani border region. However, their
way of life has been compromised by a number of pressures, including war, drought,
ethnic tension, environmental degradation, and changes in commerce and transportation.
As one Kuchi who had given up the nomadic lifestyle observed, “The grazing land is not
there, trade and transportation have changed so much. Kuchis are not needed.” 151 The
Kuchi who remain nomadic must contend with the prevalence of landmines.
Rural Health Care

Historically, access to health care in rural Afghanistan has been limited or non-existent.
This was the case even before the nation’s healthcare system was virtually destroyed
throughout decades of conflict. During this time, much of the country’s medical
infrastructure was decimated and most professional medical personnel fled the country. A
lack of healthcare and sanitation services, the physical effects of war, and the
maintenance of strict cultural taboos all contributed to the development of a number of
serious health risks for the country’s population. As a result, the country has suffered
from some of the world’s highest maternal, infant, and under-five mortality rates. For
example, it is estimated that in 2001, roughly one out of every four Afghan children died
before reaching the age of five. 152
Exchange 58: Is there a medical clinic nearby?

Visitor: Is there a medical clinic nearby? pe daa sha Khowa kee yo orooghton ya
kleeneek shta?
Local: Yes, over there. ho, halta
After coalition forces removed the Taliban from

power, efforts were made to expand medical services
to rural areas, with a focus on providing reproductive
health care. This was a priority since most Afghan
women give birth multiple times, usually without
professional assistance. The training of female
doctors and midwives was a central goal of these
initiatives, as cultural taboos often prevent Afghan
women from receiving health care services from
150
151
RAWA. Associated Press. Garwood, Paul. “Poverty, Violence Put Afghanistan’s Fabled Kuchi Nomads
on a Road to Nowhere.” 14 May 2006. http://www.rawa.org/nomad.htm
152
International Development Association, The World Bank. “IDA at Work: Afghanistan: Building on
Basics in Health Care.” June 2009. http://go.worldbank.org/9B2MX9BKU0
57
men. 153 As a result of such efforts, the percentage of rural Afghan women who received
professional medical care during pregnancy rose from an estimated 4.6% in 2003 to
32.2% in 2006. 154 Nonetheless, as of 2009, Afghanistan had the second-highest maternal
mortality rate in the world. 155 Despite signs of improvement, infant and under-five
mortality rates also remain extraordinarily high. 156
Of the rural Afghans who have access to medical services, most are served by small
healthcare facilities or mobile health clinics. These facilities have provided services to
rural residents who previously had to travel long distances for treatment. While the
number of minors receiving vital childhood immunizations has increased, further
progress has been hampered by several factors, including the ongoing instability in rural
areas. Many rural Afghans still need to travel to urban centers for treatment, although
they often cannot afford advanced or even basic health care.
Exchange 59: My arm is broken, can you help me?

Visitor: My arm is broken, can you help mat may maat shaway day, kawalaay
me? shee che maa sara marasta wokree?
Local: Yes, I can help you. ho, kawalaay sham che taaso sara
marasta wokrem
Broadly, the quality of care is sub-standard at Afghan hospitals, where staff, supplies, and
overall service capacity are generally insufficient. 157
Rural Education
Like the nation’s health services, Afghanistan’s
education system suffered greatly from prolonged
conflict and fundamentalist policies mandated by the
Taliban. Under the Taliban, girls were prohibited
from attending schools, female teachers were not
allowed to work, and many educational institutions
were closed. During this time, madrassas, Islamic
schools that base their curriculum on study of the
Quran, became prominent. Only boys were allowed to
attend these schools, which emphasized religion over conventional subjects such as math
and science. These factors contributed to widespread illiteracy in Afghanistan,
153
IRIN, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. “Afghanistan: Plight of ‘Forgotten
Women’ Needing Health Care in Rural Areas.” 2 March 2004.
http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=23844
154
Public Health News Center, Bloomberg School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University. “Substantial
Improvements Achieved in Afghanistan’s Health Sector.” 5 July 2007.
http://www.jhsph.edu/publichealthnews/press_releases/2007/Burnham_afghanistan.html
155
United Nations News Centre. “Afghanistan: Maternal Health Factors Improve, but High Death Rate
Continues – UN Report.” 26 January 2009.
http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=29663&Cr=maternal&Cr1
156
UNICEF. “Afghanistan: Statistics.” 2 March 2010.
http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/afghanistan_statistics.html
157
Reuters. Lyn, Tan Ee. “Afghanistan Struggles to Provide Decent Healthcare.” 21 April 2008.
http://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSISL20255320080421
58
particularly among women. As of 2006, only 43% of Afghan men and 13% of Afghan
women could read and write. 158
After the Taliban regime was ousted, efforts were made to repair the nation’s education
system, with emphasis placed on opening schools for girls. This process required the
construction of thousands of schools and extensive teacher training in order to meet the
demands of increased enrollment. 159 As of 2010, an estimated seven million Afghan
children—including 2.6 million girls—were attending school. While this figure
represented a huge increase from 2001, some five million children remained without
access to education. 160
Exchange 60: Do your children go to school?

Visitor: Do your children go to school? staaso kochneeyaan shoo-oon ta zee?
Local: Yes. ho
In rural areas, various factors continue to contribute to low enrollment rates, especially
for girls. Traditional gender stereotypes are strong in rural areas, where schooling is often
reserved for boys. Girls, on the other hand, are often required to stay home and contribute
to the household. Poverty, disability, and lack of local schools also prevent many children
from getting an education. In the southern and eastern provinces, a major cause for low
enrollment has been a spate of attacks on schools, female students, and teachers. As the
Taliban has resurged in these areas, they have attempted to restore their restrictive
policies concerning education, and they have used violent means to do so. Militants have
destroyed school buildings, killed teachers, and disfigured female students. 161 These
attacks have forced many schools to close and compelled many parents to keep their
children, especially their daughters, at home. 162
Gender Roles in Rural Areas

The respective roles of Afghan men and women vary
according to their socioeconomic background,
location, and age. A factor in determining these roles
is the extent to which the sexes are segregated in the
village, which varies from area to area. For Pashtun
peoples, segregation is typically more strictly
enforced by qalang Pashtuns (those who own land
158
159
UNICEF. Rafi, Mohammad. “Female Teachers Help to Rebuild Afghanistan’s Education System.” 8
June 2007. http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/afghanistan_39946.html
160
RAWA News. “No School for Almost Half of Afghan Children.” 6 March 2010.
http://www.rawa.org/temp/runews/2010/03/06/no-school-for-almost-half-of-afghan-children.html
161
Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Najibullah, Farangis. “Acid Attack on Afghan Schoolgirls Causes
Fear, Anxiety Among Parents.” 15 November 2008.
http://www.rferl.org/content/Acid_Attack_On_Afghan_Schoolgirls_Causes_Fear_Anxiety_Among_Parent
s/1349538.html
162
IRIN News, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. “Afghanistan: Attacks Deprive
300,000 Students of Education.” 22 September 2008. http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=80506
59
and live in the plains or urban areas) than by nang Pashtuns (those who live in remote,
typically mountainous regions). 163
When the sexes are thoroughly segregated, they each maintain their own spaces and
duties. In these cases, women are often restricted to the home, where they perform tasks
such as cooking, cleaning, child-rearing, and household maintenance. They also
commonly engage in handicrafts, horticulture, the processing of crops or animal products,
and other tasks that can be performed within the family compound. The management of
food resources is also often a woman’s duty, as is collecting water.
Men are generally responsible for ensuring the economic welfare of the family, providing
protection, instilling discipline, and engaging in social, political, and financial
interactions outside the home. 164 They are more likely than women to perform
agricultural duties and tend to livestock, but this is not always the case. For example, in
less segregated areas, women may be heavily involved in various tasks related to crop
production and animal husbandry. This includes activities that take place outside the
family compound, such as harvesting. Widows take on a wide range of duties, as they
must provide for their family without the assistance of a husband.
Transportation
Prolonged conflict in Afghanistan has severely
damaged the country’s existing transportation
network and slowed the development of new
infrastructure. Although reconstruction teams
have made substantial progress in building new
roads in certain areas, many roads remain in a
state of disrepair and some forms of transportation
are wholly unavailable. Afghanistan lacks an
operational railroad system, and being landlocked,
the nearest seaport is over 2,000 km (1,243 mi) away. 165 The Amu Darya River is the
only major waterway used for transport. 166
Road conditions are particularly poor in rural areas. Decades of war, floods, and lack of
proper maintenance have destroyed many of the nation’s roads and bridges, leaving large
sections of the country physically isolated. Roads in rural areas are unpaved and subject
to various extreme climatic conditions. In remote areas, there are often no roads at all,
only trails. Afghan vehicles are typically old and poorly maintained, and drivers are often
unlicensed. Traffic rules are not regularly obeyed or enforced. Pedestrians, animals, and
163
164
“Chapter 2: The Society and Environment: Gender Roles.” 1997. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-
165
The World Bank. “Afghanistan Transport Sector.” No date. http://go.worldbank.org/3058WF94E0
166
60
carts also present hazards to drivers. Many roads have yet to be completely cleared of
extant land mines, and roads and highways are often newly planted with improvised
explosive devices. Finally, criminal activity, particularly robbery, has become common
on highways outside urban areas. 167
A major goal in reconstruction efforts has been the development of an extensive highway
network linking Afghanistan’s major cities of Kabul, Kandahar, Herat, and Mazar-e-
Sharif. Known as the “Ring Road,” this project has made significant progress but
remained incomplete as of March 2010. 168 Its construction has been hampered by
insurgent activity, including bombings, shootings, and kidnappings. Described as “a
symbol of governance,” the road, once complete and secured, is expected to greatly
contribute to economic development. 169
Accurate, updated maps have been published since the fall of the Taliban. It may be
difficult to find an Afghan who can read a map, however. Most Afghans use
topographical features and the directions of sunrise and sunset for reference when they
travel. Distance is measured in travel time rather than kilometers or miles.
Markets in Rural Areas

An important tradition in rural Afghanistan is market day, when traders, craftsmen, and
farmers gather to engage in commerce. At these gatherings, farmers can sell their
marketable surplus and buy goods or resources that they cannot produce themselves. The
bazaar usually takes place in the largest town or village in the region. In addition to
promoting commerce, the market serves as a communal meeting place and a venue for
the exchange of information between those who have few other opportunities to meet.
Market day can draw large crowds. Afghans living in more remote villages must leave
their homes very early in the morning in order to set up for business before the market
opens, which usually occurs shortly after daybreak. The movement of large numbers of
people and goods on market day is common.
Self-Protection and Firearms

Centuries of inter-tribal strife and conflict have
instilled Afghans with a ready and dedicated sense of
personal and familial protection. Afghans under the
age of 30 have known little else besides conflict, be it
from Soviet occupation, civil war, tribal feuds,
terrorism, insurgency, or counter-insurgency. Under
these circumstances, large stores of weapons have
been brought into the country, and Afghans have been forced to defend themselves in the
167
Bureau of Consular Affairs, U.S. Department of State.“Afghanistan: Country Specific Information.” 25
168
169
The Wall Street Journal. Wonacott, Peter. “Afghan Road Project Shows Bumps in Drive for Stability.”
17 August 2009. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB125046546672735403.html
61
absence of any rule of law. This is particularly the case in rural areas, where the
government lacks a strong security presence and local militias wield power. As a result,
gun ownership is commonplace, despite wide-scale disarmament efforts. 170 Many men in
rural towns and villages routinely carry firearms. These weapons are often old and of
Soviet origin, but some Afghans may possess modern weaponry. In most cases, weapons
are carried for self-defense purposes. For example, because the country lacks public
transportation networks, it is not uncommon for Afghans to walk long distances between
villages. During these treks, Afghans often carry AK-47 assault rifles or other weapons.
Exchange 62: Did these people threaten you?

Soldier: Did these people threaten you? de Khalko taaso ta gwaKh karey dey?
Local: No. na
Rural Leadership
In rural areas, local leaders may include tribal chiefs (khans), warlords, village elders
(who often form a council), or prominent religious figures, such as mullahs or pirs.
Exchange 63: Does your leader live here?

Soldier: Does your leader live here? speen zheeree aw yaa staaso da kelee
mashir dalta zhwand kawee?
Local: Yes. ho
In traditional Pashtun tribal areas, the village council, or jirga, is the reigning legislative
and judicial body. In other areas, the local leader may be a wealthy landowner.
Exchange 64: Can you take me to your leader?

Soldier: Can you take me to your leader? kawalaay shee che maa daKhpl kelee
ma shir ta bozee?
Local: Yes. ho
Meetings with local leaders or councils may take

place in the village hujra, or guest house. These guest
houses may be located at the home of the village
khan, or they may be maintained by the village.
Mosques may also be used for meetings.
170
IRIN, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. Guns Out of Control: The Continuing
Threat of Small Arms. “Afghanistan: Where the Rule by the Gun Continues.” May 2006.
http://www.irinnews.org/InDepthMain.aspx?InDepthId=8&ReportId=34289&Country=Yes
62
Exchange 65: Respected leader, we need your help.
Soldier: Respected leader, we need your mohtaram mashir sahib, moog staaso
help / advice / opinion. marastee / naseehat / 'aqeedeya ta
zaroorat laroo
Local: Yes. ho
Checkpoints
Checkpoints are common throughout Afghanistan, and Afghans who travel are familiar
with them.
Exchange 66: Where is the nearest checkpoint?

Visitor: Where is the nearest checkpoint? de palatano kantrolee markaz che dalta
nazhdee wee, cherey dey?
Local: It’s two kilometers. la day zay na dowa keelo metra larey
As a result of unclear jurisdictional boundaries, some

checkpoints within close proximity of each other may
be administered by different regional leaders. 171
Exchange 67: Please get out of the car.

Soldier: Please get out of the car. marhamat wokree aw la mortor na sha ta
see
Local: OK. sha
In general, Afghans will anticipate the need to step out of the vehicle and show
identification, if available.
Exchange 68: Show us the car registration.

Soldier: Show us the car registration. de Khpal motar da raajistir sanadoona
raata woKh-ee
Local: OK. Kha
171
The New York Times. Gall, Carlotta and Craig S. Smith. “A Nation Challenged: Warlords; Checkpoints
as Flash Points: Rival Flags Stir Afghan Fear.” 4 February 2002.
http://www.nytimes.com/2002/02/04/world/nation-challenged-warlords-checkpoints-flash-points-rival-
flags-stir-afghan-fear.html
63
Unrelated males and females should be kept in separate areas for body pats, which should
be conducted by a person of the same gender.
Exchange 69: Is this all the ID you have?

Soldier: Is this all the ID you have? daa tol istaaso de pezhandelo sanadoona
dee?
Local: Yes. ho
Checkpoints are a target of insurgents. Afghans may feel tension when dealing with local
enforcement agents of a different ethnic background.
Exchange 70: Are you carrying any guns?

Soldier: Are you carrying any guns? zaan sara toopok laree?
Local: Yes. ho
Landmines
From the Soviets to the Taliban, numerous factions
have made extensive use of landmines in
Afghanistan. High estimates have placed the number
of landmines scattered throughout the country in the
millions, although more conservative estimates limit
this figure to several hundred thousand. 172 There is
also widespread abandoned and unexploded ordnance
in the country. Although contamination is pervasive,
eastern and southern Afghanistan are the most
affected areas, particularly the provinces of Helmand and Kandahar. 173 While demining
efforts have made significant progress, it will take a stable security situation and many
years of additional surveying and demining before the roads and fields of Afghanistan
can be considered free of explosive hazards.
In many cases, only the locals know where mine fields are located in the region. These
areas are sometimes marked with red-painted rocks, although many hazardous areas
remain unmarked. 174 Even in marked areas, floods and other climatic factors can change
the location of land mines, making it difficult to pinpoint their exact location. Not only
open areas but entire abandoned villages and other structures may be mined. As of 2008,
an estimated 70,000 Afghans had been injured or killed by landmines since 1990. 175
172
Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Recknagel, Charles. “Afghanistan: Land Mines From Afghan-Soviet
War Leave Bitter Legacy (Part 2).” 13 February 2004. http://www.rferl.org/content/article/1051546.html
173
Landmine Monitor, International Campaign to Ban Landmines. Landmine Monitor Report 2009.
“Afghanistan.” 2009. http://www.the-
monitor.org/index.php/publications/display?act=submit&pqs_year=2009&pqs_type=lm&pqs_report=afgha
nistan&pqs_section=
174
Landmine Monitor, International Campaign to Ban Landmines. Landmine Monitor Report 2007.
“Afghanistan.” 2007. http://www.icbl.org/lm/2007/afghanistan
175
IRIN, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. “Afghanistan: Mine Clearance Making
Good Progress – UN Agency.” 21 July 2008. http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportID=79351
64
Exchange 71: Is this area mined?
Soldier: Is this area mined? daa mantiqa mayn laree?
Local: Yes. ho
Landmine contamination has displaced Afghan communities and prevented them from
farming and herding in certain areas. 176
176
IRIN, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. “Afghanistan: Landmines Impede
Civilians’ Return to Volatile Arghandab.” 22 June 2008.
http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportID=78869
65
Rural Life Assessment
1. Rural communities in Afghanistan generally lack access to resources and services.
True. Services such as electricity, waste disposal, paved roads, and water treatment are
often non-existent in rural regions. Healthcare and education are also often inadequate or
only available at remote locations.
2. In Afghanistan, approximately 45% of the land can be used for farming.
False. In Afghanistan, only 12% of the land is arable. Approximately 45% of the country
consists of pastureland, which supports livestock owned by farmers and nomadic herders.
3. The largest nomadic group in Afghanistan is a Pashtun tribe.
True. The Pashtun group of nomads known as the Kuchi is the largest and most well-
known nomadic tribe in the country. Traditionally, they ranged throughout the Afghan-
Pakistan border region.
4. Due to extremely high maternal, infant, and under-five mortality rates, new rural health
initiatives have focused on women and children.
True. Afghanistan has some of the highest maternal, infant, and under-five mortality
rates in the world. Consequently, international efforts have focused on reproductive
health care and childhood immunizations.
5. In rural areas, boys and girls have equal access to education.
False. In rural areas, conservative attitudes keep many girls out of school. In addition,
insurgents have attacked female students, their schools, and their teachers, so many
families fear sending their daughters to school.
66
Chapter 6 Family Life
Introduction
The family is the essential unit in Afghan society, and
its welfare and propagation are the central concerns of
its members. As Afghanistan has historically lacked
comprehensive public welfare, security, and
education systems, the family has long served as the
primary social support network for the Afghan
people. As a result, extensive family networks are
common. These networks serve the economic and
social interests of the extended family or tribe, and
they are often integral in political or commercial affairs. Nepotism, or the patronage of
family members, is commonly practiced, and marriage is used as a means to build further
alliances. 177
Because personal and familial honor are intertwined in Afghan culture, an individual’s
identity is closely tied to those of his or her family members. The reputation and actions
of each family member reflect upon the family as a whole. Ideally, this creates a tight
bond between relatives, but it can also have negative consequences, such as in the case of
honor killings. Overall, the Western notion of individual self-sufficiency is neither
practical nor socially acceptable in Afghan society. Living in a poor and conflict-ridden
country, most Afghan families need the assets, labor, and support of all of their members.
In many regions of the country, it is simply not possible to subsist on one’s own.
Exchange 72: Does your family live here?

Soldier: Does your family live here? staaso koraanee dalta zhowand kawee?
Local: Yes. ho
Afghan Homes
Traditional Afghan homes consist of rudimentary mud-brick or stone structures topped
with flat or domed roofs. In urban areas, families may live in modern houses or
apartments. Poor people who have migrated to the city often live in makeshift structures
in slums. Nomadic populations generally live in tents or, in some cases, yurts. In rural
areas, traditional mud-brick and stone houses predominate, although wooden structures
may be seen in some regions. Comprising clusters of houses, rural villages are
traditionally fortified with exterior walls and, in some cases, towers.
Traditional housing compounds for an extended Afghan family consist of a series of

individual structures built around a courtyard and surrounded by fortified walls. In
conservative areas where strict segregation of the sexes is practiced, these compounds
177
Culture and Customs of Afghanistan. Emadi, Hafizullah. “Chapter 6: Family, Women, and Gender
Issues: Concept of the Family [pp. 165-166].” 2005. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
67
have specific male and female spaces. 178 When entering a private residence in a non-
combat situation, foreigners should respect the differentiation of these spaces by
knocking before entering both exterior and interior doors.
Familial and Tribal Relations
Qawms
Afghan family networks extend into larger groupings based on
lineage, ethnicity, tribal affiliation, locality, or other shared traits or
interests. An Afghan’s basic network of affiliations is known as his
qawm. This term has a variety of usages, which vary according to
tribe, ethnic group, and region. Foremost, a person’s qawm is often
based on his or her kinship or tribal affiliation. In such cases, the
members of a qawm may trace their heritage to a common ancestor.
Qawms may also refer to location, such as a specific village or
region, or to one’s occupation or other socioeconomic
commonalities. 179 These groupings have historically served to
organize and identify Afghans and provide them with cooperative
social bonds and safety in numbers.
Exchange 73: Did you grow up here?

Soldier: Did you grow up here? taasee dalta loo shwee yaast?
Local: Yes. ho
Feuds
For Pashtuns, larger groupings such as clans, tribes, and tribal confederations have served
similar purposes, although divisions among them are often antagonistic. This may also be
the case within extended families and qawms.
Competition for power or resources is a common cause for conflict among groups. For
example, when the head of a family dies, conflicts may arise over the distribution of
resources among the brothers and male cousins of the family. Specifically, the allocation
or division of a plot of land is a major source of dispute in rural Afghanistan. Adult males
may also disagree as to who should become the family’s authority figure. In particular,
violent disputes between male cousins are quite common. (In Pashto, the term for hostile
dislike between two persons is tarburghanay, which is derived from the word tarbur,
meaning male cousin.) In any case, such conflicts may force extended families to divide
into separate households. 180
178
179
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Afghanistan: A Country Study. Blood, Peter R. , ed.
“Chapter 2: The Society and Environment: Social Structure.” 1997. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-
180
The Fragmentation of Afghanistan, Second Edition. Rubin, Barnett R. “Chapter 2: Social Structure
under the Old Regime: Kinship, Qawm, Tribe, Ethnicity [p. 23].” 2002. New Haven, CT: Yale University
Press.
68
Exchange 74: Are these people part of your family?
Soldier: Are these people part of your daa Khalik staase do koraaney gheree
family? dee?
Local: Yes ho
On a larger scale, a simple dispute between clans or tribes over the use of resources or a
breach of honor may lead to violent clashes. Sometimes these feuds can take years to
resolve. In an extreme case, a blood feud in a village in eastern Afghanistan lasted for 30
years and resulted in the deaths of over 300 men. During this time, the traditional roles of
men and women were reversed, as only women could safely venture into public. Men, on
the other hand, could not leave their homes for fear of being attacked by their rivals. 181
Nonetheless, it is not uncommon for tribal factions to unite against an outside threat, even
if they are involved in an internal feud.
The Typical Household
Extended Family
A traditional Afghan household contains a large
extended family. Usually, this consists of a husband
and wife, their sons, their sons’ wives and children,
and their unmarried daughters. Once married, a
woman moves into the home of her husband’s family;
thereafter she belongs to that family and must obey its
authority figures. Overall, it is common for various
combinations of grandparents, parents, children,
aunts, uncles, and cousins to live in the same
compound. Of course, the composition of a household may vary according to tribe and
socioeconomic status. Younger members of wealthy families are more likely to move out
and start their own households. 182
Exchange 75: How many people live in this house?

Soldier: How many people live in this po daa koor ke tso mara Khalk zhowand
house? kawee?
Local: Ten. las kasan
181
Telegraph. Coghlan, Tom. “Afghan Blood Feud Ends After 30 Years.” 3 June 2008.
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/afghanistan/2061531/Afghan-blood-feud-ends-after-30-
years.html
182
Issues: Concept of the Family [pp. 165-166].” 2005. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
69
Polygamy
In some cases, an Afghan man will have more than one wife. (Islamic law allows men to
marry up to four women at the same time.) However, this occurs on a limited basis in
Afghanistan, usually only when the man is wealthy (and thus has the resources to provide
for additional wives), or if his existing wife has not provided him with a son. In other
instances, a man will marry a second wife of his choosing after marrying the first in an
arranged marriage, or he will marry a young woman in the hopes of producing more
children. 183 In any of these cases, each wife is usually provided with her own private
room within the household, and, according to Islamic law, the husband must treat them
equally. 184
Exchange 76: Is this your entire family?

Soldier: Is this your entire family? daa staasee de koraaney tool gheree
dee?
Local: Yes. ho
Widows and Orphans

Many Afghan families have been affected by war,
illness, and lack of proper medical care. With large
numbers of Afghan men killed in conflict, widows are
common in Afghanistan. (In 2008, the number of
Afghan widows was estimated at over 1.5 million.) 185
In most instances, young widows try to remarry,
typically to another member of the extended family,
such as a brother or cousin of their deceased husband.
Sometimes, a man will take on a widow as a second
wife, or she will simply be retained within the larger household.
Exchange 77: Are you married?

Soldier: Are you married? wadeh dey karey dey?
Local: No. na
If such an arrangement is not possible, widows may be forced to provide for themselves
and their children, or they may become destitute and forced to beg. This often happens
when the family has lost many male members to war and sickness. Such circumstances
expose widows to a variety of ills. As an expert observed, “In Afghanistan’s patriarchal
society, the death of a husband not only diminishes a woman’s economic independence,
183
Issues: Institutions of the Family [pp. 166-168].” 2005. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
184
“Chapter 2: The Society and Environment: Family.” 1997. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-
185
IRIN, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. “Afghanistan: Bleak Prospects for
Country’s Estimated 1.5 Million Widows.” 30 January 2008.
70
but also damages her sense of social protection.” 186 In an effort to combat this trend,
Western aid organizations have aimed to help these women become productive citizens
by offering literacy classes and job skills training. 187
Orphans are also widespread in Afghanistan, largely due to high maternal mortality rates
and casualties of war. In 2010, some estimates placed the number of Afghan orphans at
2.1 million or more. 188
Gender Roles
Afghan families are patriarchal, meaning they are
headed by a male authority figure. This role is filled
by the father or, in the case of his death, the eldest
son. The patriarch and the other male adults of the
family are responsible for the family’s economic
security, safety, and strict adherence to traditional
social codes.
Exchange 78: Do you have any brothers?

Soldier: Do you have any brothers? taasee woroor laree?
Local: Yes. ho
As women are often restricted to the home, men act as the family’s representatives in the
public sphere. In urban areas, this involves working a paid job. In rural areas, men often
perform the majority of the agricultural labor that takes place outside the household
compound. Men also participate in local politics and serve in militias.
The eldest women in the family have authority in various domestic matters such as
allocation of chores. They are in charge of the younger women in the household. Child-
rearing, caring for the family, and the many tasks involved in operating the household are
their primary responsibilities. In some cases, they may work outside the home, although
this practice was banned under the Taliban and remains taboo in many communities.
Overall, women are required to submit to the will of their fathers, husbands, and other
male relatives. Failure to do so may result in domestic violence. 189
186
IRIN, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. “Afghanistan: Bleak Prospects for
Country’s Estimated 1.5 Million Widows.” 30 January 2008.
187
The Christian Science Monitor. Montero, David. “Afghan Women Start Businesses, Help Reconstruct a
Torn Nation.” 8 May 2006. http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/0508/p04s01-wosc.html
188
Public Affairs Office, International Security Assistance Force. Thomas, Jason. “Launch of Ghazni City
Hospital and Orphanage Brings Hope to Afghans.” 16 March 2010.
http://www.isaf.nato.int/en/article/news/ghazni-city-hospital-and-orphanage-brings-hope-to-afghans.html
189
71
Marriage and Divorce
In Afghanistan, marriages are social and economic contracts between families, rather
than romantic unions between individuals. Parents arrange marriages for their offspring,
with marriage between cousins a common and preferred practice among many Afghans.
(Such an arrangement keeps resources within the family.) Arranged marriages involving
minors remain common, despite laws that prohibit girls younger than 16 from marrying.
This is especially true in rural areas, where marriages are often arranged to settle disputes
or debts between families. 190 In any case, grooms are usually older than their brides; in
some cases, they may be significantly older.
In Afghanistan, divorce is uncommon due to the social

stigmatization that results from its occurrence. Islamic law grants
men the ability to divorce their wives simply by declaring their
intent to dissolve the union three times; the consent of the wife is
not required. This method is still used in Afghanistan, and it can
have devastating effects upon women. Both sexes involved in a
divorce will likely suffer social censure, but women also lose the
economic and social security provided by the extended family,
which remains the husband’s domain. It is more difficult for women
to remarry, especially if they are older and unable to produce
children. Women also lose custody of their older children,
particularly if they remarry. Men do, however, suffer some financial
loss, as they typically lose the bride price that was given to the wife as part of the
marriage contract. 191 Officially, women are allowed to initiate divorce for various
reasons, but this is less common as the effects of separation are often more damaging for
them. As a result, suicide among unhappily married wives is not uncommon, with
physical abuse being a primary motivating factor. 192
Life Stages
Birth
Once married, women are expected to produce many children. Because many Afghan
women lack access to proper medical care, childbirth can be dangerous. Afghanistan has
one of the world’s highest maternal mortality rates. The birth of a child is a joyous event,
especially when the child is a boy. In many areas, celebrations include the firing of guns
and a feast with family and friends. Celebrations are also held when a baby boy is
circumcised, a practice mandated by Islamic custom. 193
190
IRIN, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. March 16, 2005. “Afghanistan: Law on
Forced Marriages Still Widely Flouted.” 16 March 2005.
http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=28332
191
Issues: Divorce [pp. 179-181].” 2005. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
192
IRIN, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. “Afghanistan: Women Reluctant to Seek
Marital Redress Through the Courts.” 21 August 2007.
193
Issues: Child Rearing [pp. 177-178].” 2005. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
72
Status of the Elderly
The elderly are well-respected and cared for by their offspring, and they maintain
important roles within the family throughout old age. For example, elderly women often
help raise the family’s young children, and they are frequently in charge of allocating
food resources. 194 Overall, older members have authority over younger ones, with the
eldest male having authority over the family as a whole.
Status of Children
Children are highly valued, with boys having a much
higher status than girls. This is due to several reasons.
Foremost, Afghan families are patrilineal, which
means that familial descent is traced through the male
line. Inheritance passes to the male offspring as well.
Afghan women are supposed to receive a portion of
the inheritance, but this does not always occur.195 In
this way, male offspring propagate the family and
accumulate its wealth, whereas female offspring
become members of other families through marriage. Overall, this makes investment in
boys seem more socially and economically practical than investing in girls.
Exchange 80: Are these your children?

Soldier: Are these your children? daa staasee kochneeyaan dee?
Local: Yes. ho
While children may be doted upon by family elders, misbehavior is often met with
corporal punishment, with the goal of instilling respect for authority. 196 Mothers may be
more indulgent toward boys in order to cultivate their loyalty, which will be tested upon
the son’s marriage. Both boys and girls contribute to the household from a young age. In
addition to performing household and agricultural chores, boys may seek paid
employment outside the home (in areas where it is available). Girls typically help their
female elders in cooking, washing, and caring for younger family members. Educational
opportunities vary according to a family’s means and location, with priority given to
sending boys to school. With high rates of infant and under-five mortality, Afghan
families frequently suffer the loss of children.
194
195
196
IRIN, UN Office for the Cooridination of Humanitarian Affairs. “Afghanistan: Domestic Violence
Against Children Widespread – Study.” 26 February 2008.
73
Naming Conventions
On an everyday basis, Afghans usually use only their
first name. In formal situations, they are identified by
both their first name and their father’s name.
Even if the first name has two or more parts, it is

considered to be one first name. (Afghans do not use
middle names.) For example, Ahmad Youness walade
Muhammad Moqim translates to Ahmad Youness son
of Muhammad Moqim. Ahmad Youness is the first
name, and walade means “son of.”
For Pashtuns, first names are often the names of valued objects or qualities, such as
Batoor, one of many male names meaning “brave,” or Sarbaz, which means “eagle.” For
girls, names such as Ranrha, meaning “light,” or Gulalai, which means “beautiful,” are
common. Last names are often Pashtun tribal names. 197
Today, the practice of using a family name is becoming more popular among Afghans
who have traveled abroad or have had contact with international visitors. 198 Some are
using their tribe’s name as their family name. Foreigners should be aware of possible
spelling variations when transliterating names from Pashto to the English alphabet. A
name spelled differently on two documents may nonetheless refer to the same person.
197
Khyber.org. “Pashto Names.” No date. http://www.khyber.org/culture/names/names.shtml
198
The Cultural Orientation Resource Center, Center for Applied Linguistics. Robson, Barbara, et al. The
Afghans: Their History and Culture. “Language and Literacy.” 2002.
http://www.cal.org/co/afghan/alang.html
74
Family Life Assessment
1. In rural areas, traditional mud-brick or stone houses are the norm.
True. Traditional Afghan homes consist of rudimentary mud-brick or stone structures,

typically topped with flat or domed roofs. In conservative areas, houses have specific
male and female spaces.
2. In Afghanistan, a feud between families is known as a qawm.
False. In Qawm has a variety of meanings, but it is basically a network of affiliations.

This can include kinship and tribal affiliations, as well as affiliations based on location or
shared occupation.
3. A typical Afghan household is made up of a nuclear family.
False. A traditional Afghan household contains a large extended family. Usually, this
consists of a husband and wife, their sons, their sons’ wives and children, and their
unmarried daughters.
4. Due to years of conflict and poor medical care, widows and orphans are common in
Afghanistan.
True. Recent estimates place the number of war widows in Afghanistan as high as 1.5
million. Due to high maternal mortality rates and the large number of war casualties,
there were an estimated 1.6 million orphans in the country.
5. Divorce is common in Afghanistan.
False. Even though Islamic law grants men the ability to divorce their wives simply by
declaring their intent to dissolve the union three times, divorce is uncommon due to the
social stigmatization that results from its practice.
75
Final Assessment
1. Pashtuns dominate the eastern and southern regions of Afghanistan
2. Pashtuns form the largest ethnic group in Afghanistan.
3. The Afghan state was founded by a Pashtun leader in the 18th century.
4. The majority of Pashtuns are Shi’a Muslims.
5. Shi’a Muslims in Afghanistan have avoided persecution by their Sunni neighbors.
6. Islam is the state religion of Afghanistan.
7. Pashtun beliefs prohibit men from belonging to Sufi groups.
8. Afghan families are patriarchal.
9. Displays of affection, such as hugging, are only appropriate between members of the
same sex.
10. Daughters are viewed as a valuable asset by their families.
11. Since the fall of the Taliban, millions of girls who were previously barred from
education are now attending school.
12. Less than 10% of all Afghans live in urban areas.
13. Many Afghans now have access to primary health care, such as vaccinations.
14. In Afghanistan, only about one tenth of the land can be used as pastureland.
15. In rural areas, the ancient tribal code of Pashtunwali is still closely followed.
16. Most marriages in Afghanistan are arranged by professional matchmakers.
17. Afghan men must gain permission from the local imam in order to get a divorce.
18. Feuds are a common occurrence among Pashtuns.
19. Afghan custom restricts a man from having more than one wife.
20. An Afghan’s network of affiliations is known as his qawm.
76
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What are the major geographic divisions of Afghanistan mentioned in the text?

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What are some of the major cities in Afghanistan discussed in the text?

What are some of the major cities in Afghanistan discussed in the text?

Table of Content

CHAPTER 2 RELIGION ........................................................................................................... 17

RELIGION ASSESSMENT ....................................................................................................... 25

FALSE. FEMALES ARE PERMITTED TO ENTER ONLY A FEW MOSQUES IN

CHAPTER 3 TRADITIONS ...................................................................................................... 26

TRADITIONS ASSESSMENT .................................................................................................. 40

CHAPTER 4 URBAN LIFE ....................................................................................................... 41

URBAN LIFE ASSESSMENT ................................................................................................... 52

CHAPTER 5 RURAL LIFE ....................................................................................................... 53

RURAL LIFE ASSESSMENT ................................................................................................... 66

FAMILY LIFE ASSESSMENT ................................................................................................. 75

FINAL ASSESSMENT ............................................................................................................... 76

The country’s various climatic regions demonstrate extreme variations in temperature.

The city’s population is dominated by Pashtuns, and it is in close proximity to Peshawar,

The Afghan State and the Colonial Era

The 20th Century

In 1978, the People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), a

The Taliban Regime and U.S. Intervention

Afghanistan was once self-sufficient in agricultural production, but

2. Islam arrived in Afghanistan in the 5th century C.E.

3. The Durand Line now marks the modern Afghan–Pakistani border.

4. The Taliban took control of most of Afghanistan, including Kabul, in 1990.

5. Hamid Karzai, the first democratically elected president of Afghanistan, is an

Afghanistan is also home to a large number of Sufis, who practice a

Sunni and Shi’a Divide

The Role of Religion in Government

Influence of Religion on Daily Life

Exchange 1: When do you pray?

Religious Events and Holidays

Shrines and Cemeteries

Behavior in Places of Worship

Exchange 2: May I enter the mosque?

Exchange 3: Must I take off my shoes before I enter the mosque?

Exchange 4: Do I need to cover my head?

1. The majority of Afghan Muslims are Shi’a.

2. There is a history of persecution of Shi’a Muslims in Afghanistan.

3. Islam is Afghanistan’s state religion.

4. Most legal issues in Afghanistan are judged according to Islamic law.

5. Women are allowed to enter the majority of mosques in Afghanistan.

Greetings and Codes of Conduct

Exchange 5: Good morning.

It is customary to exchange a series of friendly greetings before conducting any business.

Titles are used to greet persons in formal situations.

Exchange 7: Hi, Mr. Hamidi.

Exchange 8: How are you?

Right Hand vs. Left Hand

Afghan men maintain an appropriate and respectful distance from

It is a grave taboo for a man to compliment a woman on her beauty,

Exchange 9: How is your family?

Gender Roles and Relationships

Afghan society is patriarchal, meaning that females

Social Codes: Pashtunwali

Protection of Women, Land, Honor, and Wealth (Namus)

Hospitality and Gift-Giving

Exchange 10: I really appreciate your hospitality.