Philosophyn Finals Coverage
Philosophyn Finals Coverage
Philosophyn Finals Coverage
Man is an important subject in Philosophy & an understanding of the nature and condition of man is the
foremost goal of the discipline.
The word an is a general term w/c is commonly used to refer to the entire human race.
Other related terms include humanity, mankind & humankind
The word human refers to man as a species – homo sapiens sapiens[modern human beings]
Persons is a much more complex term w/c generally refers to a human being granted recognition of
certain rights, protection and responsibilities.
As w/ any major philosophical question, the concepts of man and human nature are much-discussed
and highly debated among philosophers and scientists. From these discussions & debates, various
perspectives have emerge regarding the nature of man.
ɸ view on the nature of Man
Biological Perspective
Considers man as a part of the natural world & a product of evolution
Modern humans [homo sapiens sapiens] – are considered one of the most successfully adapted
species on the planet
Humans also share w/ other animals the so-called primal instincts such as the instincts for
survival & reproduction
Human have progressed & developed additional traits and capabilities such as the capacity for
a) planning & intentional action
b) Innovation & creativity
c) Communication through language & writing
d) Technology
e) Symbolic interaction as evidenced by religion & art
Culture is considered man’s most significant achievement w/c sets apart the evolution of
humanity from other species on this planet
Psychological Perspective
Places emphasis on human behavior & thought processes in analyzing human nature
Man possesses mental faculties that enable him to possess awareness, a sense of self, & the
capacity to perceive and experience
The significant mental faculties & capabilities of man include:
a. The psyche – refers to the human mind & is divided into the conscious &
unconscious mind
- Conscious mind is the part w/c governs awareness
- Unconscious mind consists of latent or repressed emotions, thoughts & desires
b. rationality – or the state of being reasonable, the ability to understand experiences in
order to solve problems or do tasks, and engage in decision making and judgment.
c. Intelligence – or the ability to perceive information, store knowledge, and apply it
in various situations
d. introspection – or the ability to examine one’s own conscious thoughts, feelings,
and mental state, and the capacity for self-reflection.
Economic Perspective
Focuses on man’s ability to engage in productive activities in an effort to meet wants & needs
This perspective emerged in the 19th century and places emphasis on the “economic man”
[homo economicus] – who is driven by rationality and self-interest in his desire to possess
wealth.
It considers man as a productive being – his primary role is to produce & engage in labor
Economic forces are considered a greater influence on the actions of an than society or culture
Theological Perspective
Considers man as God’s creation
Man is considered to have a special relationship w/ the Creator, being created in His image &
given an immortal spirit
Man’s existence was brought about by the purposive creative act of God, and his ultimate
destiny is part of a divine plan
ɸ have proposed certain views as to its nature of the self
The self as Innate
The self is an essential part of the human being and self- awareness is natural & innate
One of the most unique traits of humans is the awareness of self. Like all other animals, human
beings possess sentience – the ability to feel & experience. Sentience is often seen as the ability
to perceive surroundings & react to stimulus such as pain. However, we humans not only
experience and react to the world around us. We are also able to look into ourselves and be
aware of our distinctness and uniqueness.
Religious views consider the concept of self as synonymous to the spirit or soul
The self as Emergent
Holds that awareness of the self is gained through interaction w/ the world & other human
beings
The self as Integrated and Developing
Holds that the self is composed of varied elements that change overtime
Varied notions w/c justify the recognition of personhood
The person as an “Autonomous being”
A human being is considered a person if he or she possesses the ability to determine his her life
through “reasoned free choice”
This view assumes that man possess reason, the capacity for reflection and the ability to engage
in decision making
Tis perspective is a major influence in determining the legal definition of a human “person” and
the conventional concept of an “adult”
The concept of the self is closely tied w/ the ideas of identity & personhood.
● Identity – is defined as the distinct personality of an individual
Personal identity is composed of a person’s unique physical characteristics, mental attributes,
experiences, memories, ideas, and views. Identity is said to persist through time, though certain aspects
of it may change.
● Personhood – is the recognition of a human person as a distinct entity – a person
The person as a “unified individual”
The human being has the inherent capacity to function as a person.
It emphasizes the potential of the human being & recognizes that each human possesses the
means to achieve his her capabilities
On this perspective – disable people, the unborn fetus, infants, and children are recognized as
persons although they may not fully possess the cognitive faculties of an adult.
The Person in Relation to others
Asserts that a human being becomes a person through interactions w/ other human beings
Remove him/her from society and he/she ceases to become a person
Karol Wojtyla [Pope John Paull II] asserts that the person is defined by his/her actions and
experiences, and through them achieves self-development and fulfillment.
There may be situations where a human being may not be recognized as a person. For instance,
people suffering from debilitating conditions that impair their judgment may lack the means to
make decisions for themselves. A person who suffers extensive brain damage or a comatose
individual may not be recognized as persons and thus other may be empowered to make
decisions on their behalf.
Throughout history, there have been instances where certain groups of people have not been
recognized as persons. In ancient times, slaves were considered property. Women were also not
granted recognition as persons during most of the ancient period. In ancient Greece, for
example, women were not considered citizens and had limited roles in society and government.
It was only in the late 19th century that women were given the right to vote and participate in
government.
There instances that the concept of “person” is extended to other entities aside from human
beings. In legal circles, organizations and corporations may be granted personhood as they are
given certain rights and may take action in court to protect their interests
Still, personhood remains largely applied to human beings.
The concept of the human person is especially important in law & politics as it is closely tied to
the concept of civil liberties and rights.
Being Human is to be aware of two specific elements:
1. Being a body as object.
2. Being a soul as subject.
The body
Has passive desires.
Sets limitations on life-projects.
The soul
The seat of freedom
Can transcends bodily limitations.
Man as Entanglement
In realizations, one is an entanglement of body and soul.
One is expected to struggle between these two elements.
One must also accept that we cannot fully control the world around us.
Being able to resolve and harmonize the directions of both the body and soul leads to
the realization of ourselves as “embodied, free, rational, creative, moral and finite.”
Man is Determined
How?
Cultural
Political
Religious
Sociological
Though he is determined by them, he is free to transcend and reinvent what is ‘determined.’
Understanding what it means to be human is dependent on the exchanges between the
transcendent capacity known as the voluntary soul and determined, involuntary body.
One views human consciousness connected with the body.
Man’s voluntary will is bounded and entangled by the limitations of an
involuntary body.
The voluntary element is thus “fundamentally reciprocal” with the involuntary
element, the involuntary serving as a “vehicle for the will.”
The Soul as the Essence of the Human Person
Plato and Aristotle accepted the distinction between the body and soul, but made the soul as the true
essence of the human person
Plato
The true essence of the person according to Plato was already present, prior to having a
body.
His previous existence was in the “world of forms.”
The soul taking on a human body was deemed an accident that imprisons a “free and
pure soul.”
For Plato, the human person and its source of movement ultimately derive from the
soul.
The soul is divisible into three distinct parts:
1. Reason
2. Spirit
3. Desire
Reason
Reason, the seat of the mind and the intellect, is the conscious part of the soul.
It allows the human person to provide the distinction between the real and the false.
It is expected to consider and perform wise decisions which make life properly
lived.
Spirit and Desire
Spirit is in charge of the motivation of the human person to action.
Its expected function is to carry out the dictates of reason in day-to-day living.
Desire, also known as emotion or appetite, is the part of the human person that desires bodily
pleasure.
Desire and bodily pleasure is regulated by reason and is deferred at certain times to
achieve appropriate pursuits.
Phaedrus’ Chariot and Morality and Virtue
In Plato’s Phaedrus the rational soul is characterized as a charioteer whose chariot is driven by
two horses: an unruly horse, and a disciplined and obedient horse.
The unruly horse characterizes desire.
The obedient horse characterizes spirit.
In respect to morality, Plato would utilize his theory on the soul as its basis.
Morality and virtue are special states of the soul.
For Plato, there are three main sources of motivation or desire:
1. Satisfying one’s instincts.
2. Preservation
3. Understanding and truth
These sources of motivation have some ability to affect one’s moral decisions.
Example: The Thirsty Man
A very thirsty man is wandering through the desert and sees a pool of water.
As he comes closer, he sees a sign that states that the water is poisonous.
Upon viewing the sign, the man enters a state of conflict within his soul.
Desire says to drink, but reason says not to.
Reason says that partaking of the water will worsen his situation and so he employs
spirit to overcome his desire.
Spirit however, can go either way depending on the pull between the two forces.
Though the soul should be prior in importance than the body, the body is heavily influenced by
the world of the senses and is more influenced than the world of forms.
Aristotle: “The soul cannot exist without a body.”
Aristotle agrees that the soul is the essence of the human person.
It functions as the principle of actuality, the source of movement, and is also known as
the form of the living thing.
However, the body is seen as important to the living thing and is inseparable to the soul.
“The soul cannot exist without a body” though it is not itself a body.
[Notice that for Plato, the soul existed without a body and entered it. So, it can exist
without a body for Plato]
The soul for Aristotle, is something which “belongs to” and “exists in” a body of a
specific kind.
Three Levels of Soul
There are three kinds of souls and their functions
1. Nutritive soul - growth and nutrition; belonging to plants
2. Sensitive soul - locomotion and perception; belonging to animals
3. Rational soul - thinking; belonging to human beings
The three souls are presented in a hierarchy from the one having the most functions or powers
at the top and the least functions at the bottom.
1. Plant Soul - Growth, Decay, Reproduction, Nutrition
2. Animal Soul - Growth, Decay, Reproduction, Nutrition, Locomotion, Sensation
3. Human Soul - Growth, Decay, Reproduction, Nutrition, Locomotion, Sensation, Reason
Reason, Excellence, Virtue and Happiness
For the Human Soul, adjustment to reason is what deems such a person with excellence and
virtue.
Aristotle’s theory of soul is very significant to his ethics.
The pursuit of happiness (the good life which is the target of ethics) must be in line
with what it means to be a Human Soul.
What is happiness?
The highest good.
“Proper to the nature of the person.”
An essential possibility.
Man can only attain happiness by performing what is his function - Reason.
Non-rational activity is neither proper nor, “within the human person’s control.”
It is not easy to partake of the life of Nous
What is rational to the human person or shall we say proper role of reason is finding the mean
in situations under the duress of emotions, habits or one’s usual way of going about.
To be good is also difficult since it is not easy to find the middle of every action or what is
proper to the situation.
“The best activity of the soul therefore must be the one that activates whatever is best in us.
It is the one that incorporates the levels of nutrition and reproduction, sensation, and reason.
At the very peak is nous or mind; the non-passive, purely active source of knowledge and
wisdom.
The best is the activity of the nous, the highest good and also the greatest happiness for a
human being.”
Interference
Though there are expectations of man to “perform virtuous acts,” people may do not do so at all
times.
The soul is again connected with the body, and the body interferes with the project of
reason.
Human Possibility for Fallibility
The body and the will are not without gaps or spaces. [is not seamless]
We exist dialectically.
We are free, yet constrained in boundaries that are beyond our control.
People have a “certain character along with an unconscious mind that defies their will.”
“The human being which is supposed to be the unified locus of the voluntary and the
involuntary appears instead as the intermediary of its antinomical structure -
‘suspended between a pole of infinitude and a pole of finitude.’”
This makes fallibility for the human being possible.
Fallibility: Knowing, Acting, and Feeling
Fallibility is the manifestation that allows evil to come in as “a fault, as an interruption or
distortion” in the will.
“Human beings experience fallibility in the dimensions of
1) knowing
2) acting
3) feeling
Fallibility in Knowing
In the dimension of knowing: Fallibility is the disproportion between sensibility and
understanding.
The split is due to a disproportion between what is expressed about “being and truth”
(understanding) and particular appearance of perspective (sensibility).
Seeing is one thing, but its meaning is another.
Thus the intermediary that bridges sensibility and understanding would be the pure
imagination in the form of “synthesis of presence and meaning in things.”
Fallibility in Acting
In the dimension of acting or activity, fallibility “is experienced in the disparity between
character and happiness.”
One’s character is seen as “the finitude that expresses the affective aspect of
perspective which motivates one’s practical dispositions to act.”
Character is not infinite and character expresses our moods or feelings which
are motives for action.
Character is acquired through personal assessments of the world and the world
of values surrounding us.
Fallibility in Acting and Happiness
Happiness
is the aim of the completion of our totality.
the point of view of every personal action.
However, it is not certain that we will be happy and that is because character as the
orientation of all one’s ways of being motivated only attains happiness if all motivations
end up towards realizing that character.
The disconnect here is that though our personality is our view of the total field of motivation.
Happiness is the end towards where all motivation moves to.
Disproportion between Passions and Affectivity
In the dimension of feeling, fallibility is caused by the disproportion between pleasure and
happiness.
Happiness is realized in the three human passions of having, power, and worth.
Having, power, and worth depend “on the intentions of the self or how they affect the
self.”
Intentionality and affectivity (feeling) are paradoxical, “cannot be seperated,”
and are the roots of fallibility.
In sense, one can never intend the object of intention without seperating the
inner effect it has within him or her.
Example: one cannot say “I love you” apart from the feeling of love.
Having, Power, Worth and Conflict
Pallauer describes various distortions between personal affectivity and the object of
intention
Having reduced to “what is mine.”
Power reduced to the ability to command others.
Worth reduced to esteem dependent on others.
Conflict is essentially then - the “disproportion between happiness and pleasure.”
“This conflict indicates the possibility of fallibility as something constitutive of
human condition. A human being experiences conflicts within him ‘between his
self , his character and his personality, his thinking and his feelings, etc.’”
Conclusion
The project of man is in conflict between two directions: fallibility and transcendence.
Willing can imagine valid conditions, and generate projects not grounded on particular
experiences which allows the human being to transcendence .
One can eventually find fallibility as not bad since it allows for the human being to
become creative.
Restlessness and insatiability of desire allow us to create our story.
Feeling allows me to continue my existence.
Human Activity, Transcendence, and Reflection
Human activity always allows for attention of one’s body.
Human activity is therefore tied down to the range of the involuntary, and thus poses
eminent fallibility.
Realizing that the self is defined and grounded in its concrete history “signals moments
of transcendence.”
His self-conscious activity helps to lead him into reflective activity.
To will gives one many possibilities and allows one to be grounded in one’s own project.
There is doubt and indecision.
Hesitation is present because of lack or involuntary aspects of the person.
Hesitation allows for that possibility.
Choice closes that possibility.
To will gives one many possibilities and allows one to be grounded in one’s own project.
There is doubt and indecision.
Hesitation is present because of lack or involuntary aspects of the person.
Hesitation allows for that possibility.
Choice closes that possibility.
3. FREEDOM
What is Freedom?
Is a social & political concept w/c has great significance in how people participate in
society.
Enlightenment thinkers believed that early an existed in a “natural state”& have
absolute freedom.
The establishment of societies required people to surrender some of their freedoms in
order to live in harmony w/ others & ensure survival of society
People entered into “social contract” w/c defined freedoms that they will be enjoying
as members of a society and the state.
In political & social context – freedom of an individual from oppression, compulsion,
or coercion from other persons, an authority figure, or from society itself.
Two types of Political Freedom
Positive liberty – a person taking control of his own life and fulfilling one’s potential
Negative liberty –freedom from external restraints, barriers, and other interferences
from other people.
The development of a number of political ideologies was influenced by varied ideas on
human liberty
Liberalism – upholds the preservation of individual rights and stress the role of the
government in protecting these civil liberties.
Libertarianism – believes that the individual, not the government, is the best judge in
upholding & exercising rights.
Socialism – considers freedom as the freedom to acquire economic resources &the
ability to work & act according to one’s desires.
Freedom also entails the recognition of certain rights & entitlements of person
Natural rights – w/c are innate in the person such as the right to life [these are
considered universal & inalienable ]
Legal rights – based on society’s customs & laws, & are enacted by legislation &
enforced by a government. [the enjoyment of these rights is based on citizenship]
Theological views – freedom from sin & living a life of righteousness. [Christians define
freedom in the context of living in accordance with the will of God]
In simplest sense
Freedom – the freedom to make choices in life
Philosophers relate human freedom to the concept of human agency.[the capacity of a
person to act & exert control over his/her behavior]
What makes us free? How does freedom shape our experience?
Two ways human freedom is expressed
Freewill – the capacity to choose fro alternative courses of action or decision
Free action – freedom to perform an action w/out any obstacles or hindrances
Faculties model – we have free will due to our intellect and that each human action is
based on rationality and sound judgment
Hierarchical model – free will is based on wants and desires, individual is faced with
various wants and desires that need to be met – a person exercise his free will when
he/she identifies one desire as acceptable and decides to act on it
Reasons-responsive view – an has free will because he/she is able to entertain reasons
not to enact a certain decision and act upon them when the need arises.
What can prevent us exercising our freedom? Human freedom has its constraints
Constraints on free action include external obstacle such as
o Prohibitions
o Laws
o social controls imposed by society
Constraints on freewill include certain methods that cloud the person’s judgment such
as manipulation & brainwashing.
People can also be coerced to perform actions against their will
A person can also be performing an action by disability or sickness, or by coercion
exerted by another person
Other external factors that may restrict free action include the weather, accidents, or
poverty.
Considering these constraints, it is then possible for people to exercise their free will
but are perverted to engage in free action
Example – a family may decide to go on vacation but a storm may force them to cancel
their plans at the last minute.
It is also possible for a person to freely act w/out freewill regarding his/her actions- as
a person forced to participate in hazing ritual to gain admission into an organizatio
does not have freewill.
Human freedom - Free will and existentialist philosophy.
1. Natural libertarians vs determinism.
2. Existentialism: Jean-Paul Sartre and Gabriel Marcel.
Natural Libertarian View and Its Anti-ThesisWe are natural libertarians - i.e. we
believe we have free will.
First Challenge to free will presented: Theologico-Philosophical point that God knows
all.
If God knows all, and, by extension, what we will do in future, then, by virtue of God’s
omniscience, we do not have a decision in whatever we do.
We are forced to do actions as a result of God’s knowledge.
If I don’t do the action that God already knows, God’s knowledge would not be
perfect.
Therefore, due to divine foreknowledge, we do not have free will.
Determinism – a philosophical view that believes that every event in the world is
brought about by underlying causes or factors
If man is indeed free – how can he exercise his free will & action in a world where
events are already determined by outside forces?
Natural DeterminismSecond Challenge to free will: Natural Determinism.
Everything is set up before human existence.
“Free will” is an illusion - a by-product of natural laws, genetics, and natural
environment.
The case of Robert Alton Harris.
Harris murdered two teenagers and it was argued that he was not responsible
for killing due to bad circumstances in his childhood.
His actions were a product of his heredity and environment.
St. Augustine’s Counter to Theological Determinism
St. Augustine would respond by saying that though God knows all, we are still free to
decide, otherwise Hell would not make sense.
“Love, and do what thou wilt”
Compatibalism
free will and determinism are mutually compatible and that it is possible to believe in
both without being logically inconsistent
it is possible for an agent to be determined in all her choices and actions and still make
some of her choices freely.
Harry G. Frankfurt
Compatibalism and the Priniciple of Alternative Possibilities (PAP) is exemplified by
Harry G. Frankfurt
“[A] person is morally responsible for what he has done only if he could have
done otherwise.”
Freedom = not being in a situation where you can only do one thing.
Criticism to PAP: “Frankfurt examples”; “Frankfurt-type examples.”
Even if there are no other choices, one can still be morally liable.
A captive forced to shoot someone could still be liable.
One can still “mentally will” oneself not to shoot, though physically forced to shoot.
Human Freedom in Existentialist Philosophy
Concerning human freedom/autonomy.
Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980) - free in isolation
Gabriel Marcel (1889-1973) - freedom within one’s community
Sartre
He would assert that it is only in contradiction that one can be free.
“Hell is other people.”
People’s action restrict our own actions.
Freedom can only be found when we can find a way to make others
actions not affect oneself.
Sartre's point was not to criticize other people but to point out the objectification and
loss of freedom that come along with needing the approval of others.
Humans are self-determining.
Man is what he makes of himself.
Essence Precedes Existence Inverted
What do we mean by saying that existence precedes essence?
“We mean that man first of all exists, encounters himself, surges up in the world – and
defines himself afterwards. If man as the existentialist sees him is not definable, it is
because to begin with he is nothing. He will not be anything until later, and then he will
be what he makes of himself. Thus, there is no human nature, because there is no God to
have a conception of it. Man simply is. Not that he is simply what he conceives himself to
be, but he is what he wills, and as he conceives himself after already existing – as he wills
to be after that leap towards existence. Man is nothing else but that which he makes of
himself…”
Thomas Flynn
Thomas Flynn and freedom having an ontological basis (existing).
Being is a presence-to-self not in-itself.
Presence-to-self is transcendence or nihilation to one’s self.
Means being is both awareness and control of one’s self.
Being in control means we are masters of ourselves.
Gabriel Marcel
Freedom entails engagement with others since man cannot understand “freedom”
apart in a vacuum.
Hence, self cannot be understood in isolation.
Esse est co-esse (One’s essence is to co-exist).
One cannot be said to “exist” in isolation.
With this in mind, one’s dealings with others defines oneself.
In his work, “Truth and Freedom”, Marcel writes concerning obligations.
Marcel says that freedom of the self is linked with obligations in society.
Obligations are not seen as coercive since this would be considered - ‘endanger
to the community.’
Summary
Natural Libertarians: There is free-will
Theologico/Philosophical Point: God Knows -> So, no freedom.
Hard determinists: Free-Will is an illusion.
Genetics and Environment determine actions.
Compatibilism/soft determinism
Free-will exists, but genetics and environment physically determine our
activities.
We are free but this freedom is limited because there are things outside of us that we
don’t have control
Our choice/s can shape our future – we are responsible of the freedom that we have