CCP-MT (1 1e) PDF

A Complete Course in Physics ( Mathematical Tools ) -
Extended First Edition
Manas Kalia and Rajat Kalia
17 January , 2019
2
Contents
I Trigonometry 13
1 Heights and Distances 15
2 Trigonometric Identities 17
3 Trigonometric Equations 19
4 Properties of Triangle 21
5 Inverse Trigonometry 23
II Logarithms 25
6 Logarithms Worksheet 27
III Dierentiation 31
7 Derivatives 33
7.1 Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
7.2 Basics of Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
7.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
7.4 Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
7.5 The Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
7.6 Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
7.7 Partial Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
7.8 Dierentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
7.9 Dierentiation of Implicit functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7.10 Dierentiation of Parametric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.11 Higher order derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.12 Logarithmic Dierentiation(Revisiting Logarithms) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
8 Limits 49
8.1 Rate of Change and Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
8.2 Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
8.3 The Precise Denition of a Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
8.4 Limit of a sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
8.5 Some important Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
8.6 Limits using Series expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
IV Application of Derivatives 67
9 Rate of Change 69
3
4 CONTENTS
10 Increasing and Decreasing Functions 75

11 Tangents and Normals 77
12 Approximations 81
13 Maxima and Minima 83
V Integrals 95
14 Indenite Integrals 97
14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
14.2 Some basic Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
14.3 Integration by substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
14.4 Integrals of Some Particular Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
14.5 Integration by Partial Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
14.6 Integration by Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
14.7 Integrals of some more types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
14.8 Problems for Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
15 Denite Integral 109

15.1 Some Properties of Denite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
16 Area under the curve 115

16.1 Area between Two Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
17 Application of Integrals 119

17.1 Volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
17.2 Lengths of Plane Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
17.3 Areas of Surfaces of Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
17.4 Polar Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
17.5 Curved Surface Area and Volume Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
VI Dierential Equations 145

18 Vectors 153
18.1 Scalars and Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
18.2 Unit Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
18.3 Vector Addition and Subtraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
18.4 Position and Distance Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
18.5 Vector Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
18.6 Components of a Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
18.7 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
18.8 PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
19 Coordinate Systems 165

19.1 Circular Cylindrical Coordinates (ρ, φ, z) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
19.2 Spherical Coordinates (r, θ, φ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
CONTENTS 5
20 Vector Calculus 171

20.1 Dierential Length , Area and Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
20.2 Line, Surface, And Volume Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
20.3 Del Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
20.4 Gradient of a Scalar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
20.5 Divergence of a Vector And Divergence Theorm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
20.6 Curl of a Vector And Stroke's Theorm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
20.7 Laplacian of a Scalar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
20.8 Classication of Vector Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
6 CONTENTS
Preface
This book is already well recieved in circles, while this time we are writing the solutions and also making
corrections to the few objective type questions prevelent in the rst edition. We assure this is a major
revision.
7
8 CONTENTS
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my parents and manas for their love and support.
Secondly I would like to thank Suraj for providing the 3D-Graphs created by Sher which I have used
in the book. Mostly it could create copyright issues if I had not got them. Thanks to both of them.
Further I would like to thank the owners of Thomas-Finney for not causing an issue earlier when I
din't have the work of Sher with me. Thanks for the goodwill to let the budding authors like me grow.
9
10 CONTENTS
Advanced Trigonometry and Logarithm
Tools
11
Part I
Trigonometry
13
Chapter 1
Heights and Distances

1.0.1 Problems for Practice
1.0.1.1 Subjective Problems
Example : Consider a regular Octagon, the unequal diagonals are in the ratio :
{ Hint: Let the centre to any vertex distance be r
2π
A0 A2 = 2rSin
8
3π
A0 A3 = 2rSin
8
4π
A0 A4 = 2rSin
8
2π 3π 4π
So the ratio is Sin : Sin : Sin
√ p √ 8 8 8
= 1/ 2 : 2 + 2/2 : 1
}
15
16 CHAPTER 1. HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES
Chapter 2
Trigonometric Identities
Q1: Prove the following Identities
2 cos 2n θ + 1
a)

= (2 cos θ − 1) (2 cos 2θ − 1) 2 cos 22 θ − 1 . . . . . . . . . 2 cos 2n−1 θ − 1
2 cos θ + 1
2.0.1.2 Single Answer MCQ's

Q1: If x = r sin α sin β cos γ , y = r sin α sin β sin γ , z = r sin α cos β , w = r cos α then x2 + y2 + z 2 + w2
is independent of
A) r, α, β, γ
B) r, α, β
C) α, β, γ
D) None of these
√
6a 1
Q2: If tan θ = − √ , then sec θ − tan θ is equal to
2 2 6a
√ 1
(A) 6a, √
6a
√ 1
(B) − 6a, √
6a
√ 1
(C) 6a, − √
6a
(D) None of these
π π π √
Q1: tan + 2 tan + 4 tan +8+8 3 is equal to
96 48 24
π
A) cot −6
96
π
B) cot
96
C) 32
D) None of these
2.0.1.3 Multiple Answer Type Questions
17
18 CHAPTER 2. TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
Chapter 3
Trigonometric Equations
33
Q1: The number of solutions of 8cosec
2
x
+ 8− cot
2
x
= , 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π is
2
A) 4
B) 6
C) 8
D) None of these
Q1: The number of distinct real solutions of
√
x2 + 3 (cosecx + cot x) − 3x + 3 x (cosecx + cot x) − x2 + 3 = 0 on −2π ≤ x ≤ 2π is
A) 1
B) 2
C) 4
D) None of these
Q3 : If−π ≤ θ ≤ π and r, θ satisfy r sin θ = 3 and r = 3 (2 + 3 sin θ) , then the number of ordered pairs
(r, θ), which are solutions is/are
A) 0
B) 1
C) 2
D) None of these
sin y sin z 17
Q4: If 0 ≤ x, y, z, t ≤ 2π and sin x + + = −t2 + 2t − , then the value of x+y+z is
2 3 6
3π
A)
2
5π
B)
2
7π
C)
2
9π
D)
2
19
20 CHAPTER 3. TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS

7π
Q1: If cos θ = a for exactly one value of θ 0, , then the value of 'a' can be
6
A) 0
√
3
B)
2
C) −1
1
D) −
2
Q2: If sin9 x + cos6 x = 1 in the interval −3π ≤ x ≤ 2π , then which of these statements is/are correct
A) The number of roots of the equation is 7.
B) The sum of roots is −4π

C) The ratio of the number of roots on the left side of zero to the number of roots on the
4
right side on the right side of zero, on the number line is .
3
D) None of these
Chapter 4
Properties of Triangle
Q1: The angles of a right angled triangle are in A.P. The ratio of the area of circumcircle of the triangle
to the area of the triangle is
2π
A) √
3
π
B) √
3
π
C)
3
D) None of these
π π
Q1: In a 4ABC , with sides a,b,c and ∠B = , ∠C = . The area of the triangle is
6 4
√
3−1 2
A) a
4
1 2
B) a
2
√
3+1 2
C) a
4
D) None of these
Q2. The area of 4ABC is

2
(b + c) − a2 . Then which of following statements is true
A) ∠A is acute
B) ∠A is right angle
C) ∠A is obtuse
D) None of these

4.0.0.3 Assertion-Reason Type Questions
1 1 1
Q1: Statement 1: If the sides of a triangle are 3,4,5 then the altitudes of the triangle are , , .
3 4 5
Statement 2: If the sides of a triangle are in A.P. then the altitudes of the triangle are in
H.P.
21
22 CHAPTER 4. PROPERTIES OF TRIANGLE
4.0.0.4 Linked Comprehension Type Questions

Comprehension 1: For a quadrilateral with sides a, b , c , d , semi-perimeter 's' and sum of any two
opposite angles = 2α , the area 4 is given by
42 = (s − a) (s − b) (s − c) (s − d) − abcd cos2 α
Now, we take a special quadrilateral which can be inscribed in a circle C1 and a circle C2 is inscribed
in it
Q1: The area of a special quadrilateral 4 is given by
p
A) s (s − a) (s − b) (s − c)
2
s
B)
3
√
C) abcd
√
D) 3abcd
Q2: The radius of the inscribed circle C2 is given by
4
A)
s
24
B)
s
34
C)
s
44
D)
s
Q3: Cosine of the angle between the diagonals of the special quadrilateral is given by
ab − cd
A) ±
s2
ac − bd
B) ±
4
ab − cd
C) ±
ab + cd
ac − bd
D) ±
ac + bd
B
Q4: If B is the angle between sides a and b of the special quadrilateral then tan is given by
2
r
ab
A)
cd
r
cd
B)
ab
ab
C)
cd
cd
D)
ab
Chapter 5
Inverse Trigonometry
π
Q1: The number of solutions of the equation sin−1 (1 − x) − 2 sin−1 (x) = is/are
2
a) One
b) Two
c) Three
d) None of these
1
Q2: If√ < x < 1 , the number of solutions of the equations
2

1 1 1
tan−1 − 1 + tan−1 + tan−1 + 1 = tan−1 (3x) is
x x x
A) 0
B) 3
C) 4
D) None of these
Q3: The equation cos−1 x = 3 cos−1 a has a solution for
A) all real values of a

B) all real values of a a≤1
satisfying
1
C) all real values of a satisfying ≤a≤1
2
√
1 3
D) all real values of a satisfying √ ≤ a ≤
2 2

5.0.1.3 Linked Comprehension Type Problems

5π 7π
Comprehension 1: A function f : , → (−1, 1) is dened by f (x) = sin x. Its inverse is
2 2
−1
denoted by f −1 (x) = sin x . Another function g : (2π, 3π) → (−1, 1) is dened by g (x) = cos x
. Its inverse is denoted by g −1 (x) = cos−1 x . An onto function h : (−1, 0) → Rh is given by
h (x) = f −1 (x) − g −1 (x) . Now answer the following questions.
23
24 CHAPTER 5. INVERSE TRIGONOMETRY
Q1: g −1 (−x) is given by
a) π − g −1 (x)
b) 5π − g −1 (x)
5π
c) − g −1 (x)
2
d) None of these
Q2: Set 'Rh ' is
nπo
a)
2

5π
b) , 3π
2
π
c) 0,
2
d) None of these
2x − 2−x

7π
Q3: If a function v : (−∞, 0] → 3π, is dened by v (x) = f −1 , then v(x) is
2 2x + 2−x
a) Injective Only
b) Surjective Only
c) Bijective
d) None of these.
Part II
Logarithms
25
Chapter 6
Logarithms Worksheet
log a p=
logb p
logb a
(Base Change Formula)
log a pq = loga p + loga q
log a pn = n loga p
Q1: Find the domains of denition of the following functions:
!
x3 x2 − 4
a)log
(x2 − 1) (x + 3)
√
b) log x
p
c) logx (2 − x)
Q2 Matrix 1: Under Column I , some equations are given . Under Column II, some solutions satisfying
some of the equations are given. Match the entry in Column I with the solution satisfying it in
Column II.{Note: [ ] is the Greatest Integer Function}
Column I Column II
π 1
(P)sin−1 x = sin−1 x + (A)-

6 2
(Q)ln |x| = |ln x| (B)1
3
(R)|[x]| = [|x|] (C)
2
(S)x2 − 3x + 2 > x2 − 3x + 2 (D)2

Q3 Comprehension 1: A function fn (x) is dened for all nN and fn+m (x) is dened as fn+m (x) =
2x − 1 x−1
fn (fm (x)) where f1 (x) = for xR − {−1}. Using this denition , f2 (x) = f1 (f1 (x)) =
x+1 x
2−x 1
for xR − {−1, 0}. Similarly f3 (x) = f1 (f2 (x)) = for xR − −1, 0, and so on. Based
1 − 2x 2
on the information, answer the questions below.
1: The domain of denition of g(x) = |ln(f34 (x))| is

1
a) (−∞, 1) − −1, 0,
2

1
b) (−∞, 1] − −1, 0,
2
c) (1, ∞) − {2}
d) None of these
27
28 CHAPTER 6. LOGARITHMS WORKSHEET

1
2: The complete solution set of |f71 (x)| >
is
f73 (x)
a) (−1, 1)
b) R − {2} − [−1, 1]
c) R − {−1, 1, 2}
d) None of these
3: The values of x for which |f56 (x)| > f56 (x) belong to the interval

1
a) ,2
2
b) (2, ∞)
c) (0, 1)
d) None of these
Q4: (i) Prove that for the logarithmic function y = ln |x| , if the argument takes values in a G.P. , then
the corresponding values of the function y are in A.P.
(ii)Prove that for the exponential function y = ex , if the argument takes values in a A.P.. , then
the corresponding values of the function y are in G.P.
The Dierentials
29
Part III
Dierentiation
31
Chapter 7
Derivatives
1 Before we go into the details of the concept of derivatives, let us rst do some hands on problems and
learn the use of derivatives.
7.1 Preliminaries
7.1.1 Overview of Functions
The amount of functions which we require in this course would be clear by the following example
x
Q: 3

For the function f (x) = , nd f (x + 3) , f (3x) ,3f (x) , 3f (3x + 3) , f x3 , (f (x))
x+2
x+3
Sol: f (x + 3) =
x+5
3x
f (3x) =
3x + 2
3x
3f (x) =
x+2
9x + 9
3f (3x + 3) =
3x + 5
3
x
f x3 = 3

x +2
3
x
(f (x))3 =
x+2
7.2 Basics of Derivatives

d
The derivative of a function f (x) is written as f (x).
dx
Rule : d
dx
(constant) = 0 [ Read as : Derivative of a constant = 0]
Q : Find the derivatives of the follwoing functions
a) f (x) = 1
b) f (x) = 5
√
c) f (x) = 3 4
d) f (x) = π
e) f (x) = e3
f) f (x) = 6!
33
34 CHAPTER 7. DERIVATIVES
π
g) f (x) = tan
3

−1 1
h) f (x) = sin −
2
i) f (x) = log10 16
Sol: All the derivatives are zero as the functions are constants. [ You don't need to worry about the expressions
like sin−1 and log . You are going to learn them in due course. For the time being this information would be handy:
1
Any function with constant argument is constant if dened. Here , sin−1 has a constant argument i.e − ]
2
Rule dxd (x ) = nx
n n−1
, where n is a real number.
Q: Find the derivatives of the following functions
a) f (x) = x
b) f (x) = x3
c) f (x) = x5
√
d) f (x) = x
√
e) f (x) = x
3
f) f (x) = xπ
1
g) f (x) =
x
d d 1
Sol: a) f (x) = (x )
dx dx
Now we apply the formula. Here n=1
d
⇒ (x) = 1.x0 = 1
dx
b) Applying the formula again here, for n=3
d 3
⇒ (x ) = 3.x3−1 = 3x2
dx
d 5
c) As in previous cases, (x ) = 5x4
dx
√ 1 1
d) f (x) = x can be written as x 2 . So, we apply the formula for n=
2
d √ 1 1 1 1 1
⇒ ( x) = x 2 −1 = x− 2 = √
dx 2 2 2 x
1
e) Here, n =
3
d √ 1 2 1
⇒ ( 3 x) = x− 3 = √ 3
dx 3 3 x2
d π
f) (x ) = πxπ−1 [ Remember that n needs not be a rational number or an integer. It can
dx
be an irrational number also like π .]
g) Here, for n = −1
d −1 1
⇒ (x ) = −1.x−1−1 = −x−2 = − 2
dx x
d d d d
Rule : (f1 (x) + f2 (x) + f3 (x)......... + fn (x)) = (f1 (x) + (f2 (x) + (f3 (x)......... +
dx dx dx dx
d
(fn (x)
dx
7.2. BASICS OF DERIVATIVES 35
d d d
Example x2 + x = x2 + (x) = 2x + 1
dx dx dx
d d
Rule : (c.f (x)) = c (f (x))
dx dx
d 2
d
Example 3x = 3. x2 = 3 (2x) = 6x
dx dx
a) f (x) = x3 + x2 + x
b) f (x) = 3x7 − 5x4 + x3
5 √
c) f (x) = 5x 2 + 8 x
5
√ √ √
d) f (x) = x + 2 x + 3 x + 4 x
3 4
d 2
e) f (x) = (x + 2x + 1)
dx
d 3 d 2 d
Sol. a) f / (x) = (x ) + (x ) + (x)
dx dx dx
⇒ f / (x) = 3x2 + 2x + 1
/ d d d 3
b) f (x) = (3x7 ) − (5x4 ) + (x )
dx dx dx
d d d 3
⇒ f / (x) = 3 (x7 ) − 5 (x4 ) + (x )
dx dx dx
⇒ f / (x) == 21x6 − 20x3 + 3x2
3 4
5 1 − 25 3 8 4
/
c) f (x) = 5 × × x2 + 8 × × x 5 = x 2 + x− 5
2 5 2 5
/ − 12 − 23 − 34
d) f (x) = 1 + x +x +x
e) f (x) = 2x + 2
⇒ f / (x) = 2
d
Rule : (f (x + c)) = f / (x + c)
dx
d 3
Example (x + 1)
dx
To evaluate this, let us rst of all assume f (x) = x3
3
⇒ f (x + 1) = (x + 1)
Now, f / (x) = 3x2
2
⇒ f / (x + 1) = 3 (x + 1)
2 3 4
a) f (x) = (x + 1) + (x + 2) + (x + 3) + (x + 4)
√ √ √
b) f (x) = (x + 1) + x+2+ 3x+3+ 4x+4
2 3
(x + 2π) (x + 3π)
c) f (x) = (x + π) + +
2! 3!
2
d) f (x) = (x − 1) − 2 (x − 2)
d d d d
Sol: a) f / (x) = (x + 1) +
2
(x + 2) +
3
(x + 3) +
4 2
(x + 4) = 1 + 2 (x + 2) + 3 (x + 3) +
dx dx dx dx
3
4 (x + 4)
1 −1 1 −2 1 −3
b) f / (x) = 1 + (x + 2) 2 + (x + 3) 3 + (x + 4) 4
2 3 2
2
/ (x + 3π)
c) f (x) = 1 + (x + 2π) +
2!
/
d) f (x) = 1 − 4 (x − 2)
d
Rule : (f (cx + d)) = f / (cx + d) .c
dx
d
Example 1: (3x + 2)2
dx
2
Now, to evaluate this derivative, let us assume f (x) = x .Its derivative, we already know,
/
i.e. f (x) = 2x .
d
Using the above rule, f (3x + 2) = f / (3x + 2) .3 = 2 (3x + 2) × 3 = 6 (3x + 2)
dx
d
Example 2: (1 − 2x)5
dx
5 / 4
Let, f (x) = x ⇒ f (x) = 5x
4 4
f / (1 − 2x) = 5 (1 − 2x) × (−2) = −10 (1 − 2x)
2 3 4
a)f (x) = (x + 1) + (2x + 1) + (3x + 1) + (4x + 1)
n n
b) f (x) = xn + (2x) + (3x)
2 3
c) f (x) = (2x + 1) − (3x − 1) − (1 − 4x)
m n p
d) f (x) = (1 − αx) + (2 − βx) − (3 − γx)
√ √ √
e) f (x) = 1 − 2x + 3 2 − 3x − 4 4x + 3
d d d d
Sol. a)f
/
(x) =
2 3 4 2
(x + 1)+ (2x + 1) + (3x + 1) + (4x + 1) = 1+2 (2x + 1) .2+3 (3x + 1) .3+
dx dx dx dx
3 2 3
4 (4x + 1) .4 = 1 + 4 (2x + 1) + 9 (3x + 1) + 16 (4x + 1)
n−1 n−1
b) f / (x) = nxn−1 + 2n (2x) + 3n (3x)
2
c) f / (x) = 2 − 6 (3x − 1) + 12 (1 − 4x)
m−1 n−1 p−1
d) f / (x) = −αm (1 − αx) − βn (2 − βx) + γp (3 − γx)
−1 −2 −3
e)f / (x) = − (1 − 2x) 2 − (2 − 3x) 3 − (4x + 3) 4
d
Rule : (f g) = f / g + g/ f [ The Product Rule]
dx
d √ 2
Example ( x. (x + 2) )
dx
√ 2 1 −1
To evaluate this, let us assume f (x) = x and g (x) = (x + 2) . Now, f / (x) = (x) 2
2
and g / (x) = 2 (x + 2)
√

d 1 − 12 2

⇒ (f g) = f / g + g / f = (x) . (x + 2) + (2 (x + 2)) . ( x) . The result can be
dx 2
furthur simplied if needed. [It should be noted that the result f / g + g / f can be written in various
equivalent forms like f g/ + gf / = g/ f + f / g etc.]
a) f (x) = x (x + 1)
b) f (x) = (x + 1) (x + 2)
c)f (x) = (2x + 1) (3x + 2)
7.2. BASICS OF DERIVATIVES 37
n
d) f (x) = xn (x + n)
5 6
e) f (x) = x3 (x + a) + (x + b) (x + 2b) − (x + c) (x + 2c)
2 3
f) f (x) = (3x + 1) (4x + 2)
3 3
g) f (x) = (2 − 3x) (3x − 4)
h) f (x) = (1 + x) (2 − x) − (1 + 2x) (2 − 4x) + (1 + 3x) (2 − 16x)
i) f (x) = (x + a) (x + b) (x + c)
m n p
j) f (x) = (x − α) (x − β) (x − γ)
3 4 5
k) f (x) = (2x − 1) (3x − 2) (4x − 3)
2 3 4
l) f (x) = (x − 1) (x − 2) (x − 3) (x − 4)
1 1 1
m) f (x) = (ax − b) m (c − dx) n (ex − f ) p
Sol. a)To be able to nd this derivative, let g (x) = x and h (x) = x + 1
⇒ f (x) = g (x) .h (x)

⇒ f / (x) = g / (x) .h (x) + h/ (x) .g (x)
⇒ f / (x) = 1. (x + 1) + 1. (x)
⇒ f / (x) = (x + 1) + x = 2x + 1
b) f / (x) = (x + 1) + (x + 2)
c) f / (x) = 2 (3x + 2) + 3 (2x + 1)
n n−1
d) f / (x) = nxn−1 (x + n) + nxn (x + n)
4 5 6 5
e) f / (x) = x3 + 3x2 (x + a) + 5 (x + b) (x + 2b) + (x + b) − (x + 2c) − 6 (x + c) (x + 2c)
3 2 2
f) f / (x) = 6 (3x + 1) (4x + 2) + 12 (3x + 1) (4x + 2)
2 3 3 2
g) f / (x) = −9 (2 − 3x) (3x − 4) + 9 (2 − 3x) (3x − 4)
h) f / (x) = − (1 + x) + (2 − x) − 2 (2 − 4x) + 4 (1 − 2x) + 3 (2 − 16x) − 16 (1 + 3x)
i) Let f (x) = g (x) .h (x)where g (x) = x + a and h(x) = (x + b) (x + c)
/ /
⇒ g (x) = 1 and h (x) = (x + b) + (x + c)
Also , f (x) = g (x) .h (x) + h/ (x) .g (x)
/ /
i.e. f / (x) = 1. (x + b) (x + c) + ((x + b) + (x + c)) . (x + a)

⇒ f / (x) = (x + a) (x + b) + (x + b) (x + c) + (x + a) (x + c)
The derivative of product of three functions can be written in a general form
d d d
(uvw) = u. (vw) + vw. (u)
dx dx dx

d d d d
⇒ (uvw) = u. v. w + w. v + vw. (u)
dx dx dx dx
d d d d
⇒ (uvw) = uv w + uw v + vw u
dx dx dx dx
/ m n p−1 m p n−1 n p m−1
j) f (x) = (x − α) (x − β) .p (x − γ) +(x − α) (x − γ) .n (x − β) +(x − β) (x − γ) .m (x − α)
2 4 5 3 3 5 3 4 4
k) f / (x) = 3.2 (2x − 1) (3x − 2) (4x − 3) +4.3 (2x − 1) (3x − 2) (4x − 3) +5.4 (2x − 1) (3x − 2) (4x − 3)
/ 2 3 4 3 4 2 4 2
l)f (x) = (x − 2) (x − 3) (x − 4) +(x − 1) (x − 3) (x − 4) .2 (x − 2)+(x − 1) (x − 2) (x − 4) 3. (x − 3) +
2 3 3
(x − 1) (x − 2) (x − 3) 4 (x − 4)
/ e 1 1 1
−1 d 1 1 1
−1 a 1 1
m)f (x) = (ax − b) m (c − dx) n (ex − f ) p − (ax − b) m (ex − f ) p (c − dx) n .+ (c − dx) n (ex − f ) p (ax −
p n m
/ /

d f f g−g f
Rule : = [ The Quotient Rule]
dx g g2
5
!
d (1 − 2x) 2
Example 3
dx (1 + 2x) 2
5 3
To evaluate this, let f (x) = (1 − 2x) 2 and g (x) = (1 + 2x) 2
5 3 3 1
⇒ f / (x) = (1 − 2x) 2 (−2) = −5 (1 − 2x) 2 . Similarly, g / (x) = 3 (1 + 2x) 2
2
Applying the rule, we get the derivative equal to,
5 3 3 1 5
!
d (1 − 2x) 2 −5 (1 − 2x) 2 . (1 + 2x) 2 − 3 (1 + 2x) 2 (1 − 2x) 2
3 = 2
dx
3
(1 + 2x) 2 (1 + 2x) 2
x+1
a) f (x) =
x+2
3
(x + 1)
b) f (x) = 2
(x + 2)
3
(3x − 1) (2x + 1)
c) f (x) = 2 + 2
(2x − 1) (3x + 1)
(ax − α) (bx − β) (cx − γ)
d) f (x) =
(ax + α) (bx + β) (cx + γ)
1. (x + 2) − 1. (x + 1) 1
Sol. a) f / (x) = 2 = 2
(x + 2) (x + 2)
2 2 3
3 (x + 2) (x + 1) − 2 (x + 1) (x + 2)
b) f / (x) = 4
(x + 2)
2 2 2 3
(2x − 1) .3 − 2 (2x − 1) (3x − 1) 6 (2x + 1) (3x + 1) − 6 (2x + 1) (3x + 1)
c) f / (x) = 4 + 4
(2x − 1) (3x + 1)
ax − α
d) Let us assume f (x) as the product of three terms u, v and w , where u = ,
ax + α
bx − β cx − γ
v= and w =
bx + β cx + γ
du (ax + α) a − (ax − α) a 2aα dv 2bβ dw 2cγ
= 2 = 2 . Similarly, = 2 and = 2
dx (ax + α) (ax + α) dx (bx + β) dx (cx + γ)
/ bx − β cx − γ 2aα ax − α cx − γ 2bβ ax − α bx − β 2cγ
Hence, f (x) = . . + . + .
bx + β cx + γ (ax + α)2 ax + α cx + γ (bx + β)2 ax + α bx + β (cx + γ)2
7.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric functions

d
Rule : (sin x) = cos x
dx
It can be proved using the rst principle , which is beyond the scope of this book. However
, interested students can read it from the corresponding NCERT book on Mathematics for
+2.
d
Rule : (cos x) = − sin x
dx
d d π π
(cos x) = sin − x = cos − x . (−1) = − sin x
dx dx 2 2
d
Rule : (tan x) = sec2 x
dx
7.3. DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 39

d d sin x
(tan x) =
dx dx cos x
d d
cos x. (sin x) − sin x. (cos x)
= dx dx
cos2 x
cos x. cos x − sin x. (− sin x)
=
cos2 x
1
= = sec2 x
cos2 x
d
Rule : (cot x) = −cosec2 x
dx
d d cos x
(cot x) =
dx dx sin x
sin x. (− sin x) − cos x. cos x
= 2
(sin x)
1
=− = −cosec2 x
sin2 x
π
Alternately, it can be proved by taking cot x = tan −x and then dierentiating both
2
sides.
d d π
(cot x) = tan −x
dx dx 2
2 π

= sec − x . (−1)
2
= −cosec2 x
d
Rule : (sec x) = sec x. tan x
dx

d d 1
(sec x) =
dx dx cos x
d d
cos x (1) − 1 (cos x)
= dx dx
cos2 x
sin x
= = sec x. tan x
cos2 x
d
Rule : (cosecx) = −cosecx. cot x
dx
1 π
It can be proved by taking either cosecx = or by taking cosecx = sec −x . The
sin x 2
students should try it themselves.
a) f (x) = sin 57o

b) f (x) = cos (3x + 2)
c) f (x) = tan (1 − 2x) . sec (3x)
sin (5x + 1)
d)f (x) =
cot (1 − 4x)
e) f (x) = sin x. cos x + tan x. sec x − cot x.cosecx
Sol. a) It can be observed that f (x) is a constant.

⇒ f / (x) = 0
b) f / (x) = − sin (3x + 2) .3 = −3 sin (3x + 2)
/ d d
c) f (x) = tan (1 − 2x) . sec (3x)+sec (3x) . tan (1 − 2x) = tan (1 − 2x) . sec (3x) . tan (3x) .3+
dx dx
sec (3x) . sec2 (1 − 2x) . (−2)

/ 1 logb p 2
d) f (x) = (cot (1 − 4x) . cos (5x + 1) .5−sin (5x + 1) . − loga p = cosec (1 − 4x) . (−4))
cot2 (1 − 4x) logb a
/ 2 2

e) f (x) = cos x. cos x+sin x.(− sin x)+sec x. sec x+tan x. tan x. sec x− −cosec x .cosecx−
cot x. (−cosecx. cot x)
⇒ f / (x) = cos2 x − sin2 x + sec3 x + tan2 x. sec x + cosec3 x + cot2 x.cosecx
7.4 Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Rule :
d x
dx
(e ) = ex
Rule :
d
dx
(ln x) =
1
x
a) f (x) = e3x−3
b) f (x) = ln (1 − 2x)
1
c) f (x) =
e2x
ln x
d) f (x) =
e4x
2x
e) f (x) = ln 2x.e
f) f (x) = cosecx. ln x.x3

ex + e−x
g) f (x) =
ex − e−x
Sol. a) Let g(x) = ex
Then f (x) = g(3x − 3)

⇒ f (x) = g / (3x − 3) .3
/
⇒ f / (x) = e3x−3 .3 = 3e3x−3

/ 1 −2
b) f (x) = .(−2) =
1 − 2x 1 − 2x
c) Now f (x) can be written in a simpler form i.e. f (x) = e−2x
⇒ f / (x) = e−2x .(−2) = −2e−2x
1
e4x . − ln x.e4x .4 1 − x ln x.4
/
d) f (x) =
x =
4x 2 xe4x
(e )

/ 2x 1 2x 1
e) f (x) = ln 2x.e .2 + e .2 = e2x 2 ln 2x +
2x x
/ d 3 d d
f )f x + cosecx.x3 . ln x + ln x.x3 cosecx
(x) = cosecx. ln x.
dx dx dx
1
⇒ f / (x) = cosecx. ln x.3x2 + cosecx.x3 . + ln x.x3 . (−cosecx. cot x)
x
7.5. THE CHAIN RULE 41
d d
ex − e−x ex + e−x − ex + e−x ex − e−x

g) f / (x) = dx dx
(ex − e−x )2
(ex − e−x ) (ex − e−x ) − (ex + e−x ) (ex + e−x )
⇒ f / (x) = 2
(ex − e−x )
−4
⇒ f / (x) = 2
(ex − e−x )
7.5 The Chain Rule

dy
If there exists a composite function y = f (g(x)) . Then can be expressed in a more convenient form
dx
dy df (g(x)) dg(x)
i.e = . . Ofcourse, the composite function can be further branched. In that case, the
dx dg(x) dx
chain would become longer.
dy dy du dv
A slightly easier to understand denition also exists viz = . .
dx du dv dx
The proposition would be more clear with a few examples

Example 1 : y = sin x3
⇒ y = f (g (x))where f (x) = sin (x)and g (x) = x3
⇒ f / (x) = cos x and g / (x) = 3x2
dy df (g(x)) dg(x)
⇒ = . = f / (g (x)) .g / (x)
dx dg(x) dx
dy
⇒ = cos x3 .3x2
dx
2
3
Example 2 : y = tan (ln x)
⇒ y = f (g (h (k (x)))) where f (x) = x2 , g (x) = tan x , h(x) = x3 and k (x) = ln x

dy
⇒ = f / (g (h (k (x)))) .g / (h (k (x))) .h/ (k (x)) .k / (x)
dx
dy
3

3

2 1
⇒ = 2 tan (ln x) . sec2 (ln x) .3 (ln x) .
dx x
2
a) f (x) = ex
b) f (x) = ln (cot x)

c) f (x) = cos 1 + x2
d) f (x) = e2 sin x
√
e)f (x) = x2 + x + 1
x
f) f (x) = ee
1 + x2

g) f (x) = sin
1 − x2
√

1
h) f (x) = ln x+ √
x
Sol. a) f / (x) = ex .2x

2
1
b) f / (x) = . −cosec2 x = − sec x.cosecx
cot x

c) f / (x) = − sin 1 + x2 .2x
d) f / (x) = e2 sin x .2 cos x

/ 1
e) f (x) = √ . (2x + 1)
2
2 x +x+1
/ ex x
f ) f (x) = e .e
1 + x2 d 1 + x2

/
g) f (x) = cos .
1 − x2 dx 1 − x2

1 + x2 1 − x2 2x − 1 + x2 . (−2x)

⇒ f / (x) = cos . 2
1 − x2 (1 − x2 )
1 + x2

4x
⇒ f / (x) = cos 2
. 2
1−x (1 − x2 )

/ 1 1 1 −3
h) f (x) = . √ − .x 2
√ 1 2 x 2
x+ √
x
7.6 Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

1
Theorem 1. To prove that the derivative of y = sin−1 x is √
1 − x2
Proof. We can prove this by the use of the Chain Rule and subsequent dierentiation
We have y = sin−1 x
⇒ sin y = x
Dierentiating both sides w.r.t. x , we get
dy
cos y. =1
dx
dy 1 1
⇒ = =√
dx cos y 1 − x2
Derivative of y = cos−1 x is −√
1
1 − x2
We have y = cos−1 x
⇒ cos y = x
dy
− sin y. =1
dx
dy 1 1
⇒ =− = −√
dx sin y 1 − x2
Derivative of y = tan−1 x is
1
1 + x2
We have y = tan−1 x
⇒ tan y = x
dy
sec2 y. =1
dx
dy 1 1 1
⇒ = = 2 =
dx sec2 y 1 + tan y 1 + x2
Derivative of y = cot−1 x is −
1
1 + x2
7.6. DERIVATIVES OF INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 43
We have y = cot−1 x
⇒ cot y = x
dy
−cosec2 y. =1
dx
dy 1 1 1
⇒ =− 2
=− 2 =−
dx cosec y 1 + cot y 1 + x2
−1 1
Derivative of y = sec x for x > 0 is √
x x2 − 1
We have y = sec−1 x
⇒ sec y = x
dy
sec y. tan y. =1
dx
dy 1 1
⇒ = = √
dx sec y. tan y x x2 − 1
Derivative of y = cosec−1 x for x>0 is - √

1
x x2 − 1
We have y = cosec−1 x
⇒ cosecy = x
x , we
Dierentiating both sides w.r.t. get
dy
−cosecy. cot y. =1
dx
dy 1 1
⇒ =− =− √
dx cosecy. cot y x x2 − 1
Q: Dierentiate the following trigonometric Inverse functions with respect to x
y = cos−1 3x2

a)
−1

b) y = tan x3 Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
−1
c) y = cot (ln x)
4

−1
d) y = sin e−x
−1

e) y = sin cos x3
dy 1
Sol. a) = −√ .6x
dx 1 − 9x4
dy 1
b) = .3x2
dx 1 + x6
dy 1 1
c) = 2 .x
dx 1 + (ln x)
dy 1 4
.e−x . −4x3

d) =q
dx 2
1 − e−x4
dy 1
e) =√ . − sin x3 .3x2
dx 1 − cos2 x3
7.7 Partial Derivatives

We dene a function of more than one variables with the help of an example
Let f (x, y, z, t) = x2 y 3 z 4 + t . Now the value of this function varies not only as a function of x but
also as a function of y , z and t. To nd the parital derivative w.r.t a particular variable, we treat all
the other variables as constants and dierentiate. In the present example, the parial derivative w.r.t
∂f
x is given by = 2xy 3 z 4 (Keeping y ,z and t as constants). Similarly , partial derivative w.r.t y is
∂x
∂f ∂f ∂f
= 3x2 y 2 z 4 , = 4x2 y 3 z 3 and = 1.
∂y ∂z ∂t
Q: Evaluate the following partial derivatives.
∂f ∂f ∂f
a) For f = x2 + y 3 + z ,
, nd and
∂x ∂y ∂z
−1 ∂f ∂f ∂f
b) For f = tan (xyz) , nd , and
∂x ∂y ∂z
xy ∂f ∂f ∂f
c) For f = e ln z , nd , and
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂f
Sol. a) = 2x
∂x
∂f
= 3y 2
∂y
∂f
=1
∂z
∂f 1
b) = 2 .yz
∂x 1 + (xyz)
∂f 1
= 2 .xz
∂y 1 + (xyz)
∂f 1
= 2 .xy
∂z 1 + (xyz)
∂f
c) = yexy ln z
∂x
∂f
= xexy ln z
∂y
∂f 1
= exy .
∂z z
7.8 Dierentials
The law of dierentials can be explained by the help of an example
IfT isa function
of four variables x, y ,z and t . Then
the dierential dT can be expressed as
∂T ∂T ∂T ∂T
dT = dx + dy + dz + dt
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
Q : Find df f = r2 sin θ cos φ
if

∂f ∂f ∂f
Sol. Now df = dr + dθ + dφ
∂r ∂θ ∂φ
∂f ∂f ∂f
So, we rst of all evaluate , and .
∂r ∂θ ∂φ
∂f
= 2r sin θ cos φ
∂r
7.9. DIFFERENTIATION OF IMPLICIT FUNCTIONS 45
∂f
= r2 cos θ cos φ
∂θ
∂f
= −r2 sin θ sin φ
∂φ
⇒ df = 2r sin θ cos φdr + r2 cos θ cos φdθ − r2 sin θ sin φdφ
Q : Find dη η = xyz + x2 y 2 z 2
if

∂η ∂η ∂η
Sol. Now dη = dx + dx + dx
∂x ∂x ∂x
∂η
= yz + 2xy 2 z 2
∂x
∂η
= xz + 2x2 yz 2
∂y
∂η
= xy + 2x2 y 2 z
∂z

⇒ dη = yz + 2xy 2 z 2 dx + xz + 2x2 yz 2 dx + xy + 2x2 y 2 z dx
7.9 Dierentiation of Implicit functions

Implicit functions are the functions in which one variable is not explicitly expressed in terms of the other
dy
variables. Example can be y = xey . Here y is a function of both x and y . To evaluate in such a
dx
case, the method of dierentials is used. e.g. in this case
∂ (xey ) ∂ (xey )

dy = dx + dy
∂x ∂y
⇒ dy = (ey ) dx + (xey ) dy
⇒ dy (1 − xey ) = ey dx
dy ey
⇒ =
dx 1 − xey
dy
Q : Find if x = y + y2 + y3
dx
Sol. You can either proceed by the method of dierentials or there is a slightly better approach as shown
below
Dierentiate both sides w.r.t y . This gives
dx
= 1 + 2y + 3y 2
dy
dy 1 1
⇒ = = .
dx dx 1 + 2y + 3y 2
dy
dy
Q : Find if x2 + y 2 + 2xy 2 + x + 3y + 5 = 0
dx
Sol. Dierentiating both sides w.r.t. x , we get
dy dy dy
2x + 2y + 2y 2 + 4xy +1+3 +0=0
dx dx dx
dy
⇒ 2x + 2y 2 + 1 + (2y + 4xy + 3) =0
dx
dy 2x + 2y 2 + 1
⇒ =−
dx 2y + 4xy + 3
7.10 Dierentiation of Parametric functions

The independent variables are expressed in terms of a new dependent variable. Such representation of a
curve or a body is called parametric representation
x = at2 , y = 2at is a parametric representation of the curve y 2 = 4ax . Here in the representation
e.g.
a third variable t has been introduced.
dy dy dx dy
To nd in such a case, we evaluate and rst and use chain rule to nd as follows:
dx dt dt dx
dy
dy dy dt dy 2a 1
= . = dt . In this particular example , = =
dx dt dx dx dx 2at t
dt
dy
Q: Find if x = a (t − sin t) and y = a (1 − cos t)
dx
dy dy dx
Sol. To evaluate , we rst of all nd and
dx dt dt
dy
= a sin t
dt
dx
= a (1 − cos t)
dt
dy a sin t sin t
⇒ = =
dx a (1 − cos t) 1 − cos t
dy
Q: Find if x = ekt and y = e−kt
dx
dy dy dx
Sol. To evaluate , we rst of all nd and
dx dt dt
dy
= e−kt (−k)
dt
dx
= ekt (k)
dt
dy e−kt (−k)
⇒ = = −e−2kt
dx ekt (k)
Q: If x and y are connected parametrically by the equations given in Exercises , without eliminating
dy
the parameter, Find .
dx
a) x = 2at3 , y = at5
b) x = a cos θ,y = b cos θ
c) x = sin t, y = cos 3t
1
d) x = t, y =
t
e) x = cos 2θ cos 3θ , y = sin 2θ sin 3θ
7.11 Higher order derivatives

The second order derivative of y w.r.t x can be represented as
d2 y
dx2
. It can be evaluated by
dy d2 y
dierentiating again w.r.t. x . If y and x are expressed parametrically, then can be
dx dx2
2

d y d dy d dy dt
evaluated with the help of chain rule i.e. = = . .
dx2 dx dx dt dx dx
7.11. HIGHER ORDER DERIVATIVES 47
The higher order derivatives can be found out in a similar manner by further dierentiating the
derivatives of y .
d2 y
Q: Find if y = x3 + 3x2 + 2x + 1
dx2
d2 y

dy d dy
Sol. It can be easily observed found out that = 3x2 + 6x + 2 . Now,
2
= =
dx dx dx dx
d
3x2 + 6x + 2 = 6x + 6
dx
d2 y
Q: Find if y 3 + x3 − 3x2 y = 0 .
dx2
Sol. Dierentiate the expression w.r.t x rst.
dy dy
⇒ 3y 2 + 3x2 − 6xy − 3x2 =0
dx dx
dy
⇒ 3y 2 − 3x2 + 3x2 − 6xy = 0...(I)
dx
dy 3x2 − 6xy 6xy − 3x2
⇒ =− 2 =
dx 3y − 3x2 3y 2 − 3x2
Dierentiating this expression (I) again w.r.t.
x , we get
d dy d
3y 2 − 3x2 + 3x2 − 6xy = 0
dx dx dx
d dy d2 y d
⇒ 3y 2 − 3x2 . + 3y 2 − 3x2 2
+ 3x2 − 6xy = 0
dx dx dx dx
2

dy dy 2 2 d y dy
⇒ 6y − 6x . + 3y − 3x + 6x − 6y − 6x =0
dx dx dx2 dx
2
dy dy d2 y
⇒ 6y − 12x. + (6x − 6y) + 3y 2 − 3x2 =0
dx dx dx2
2
dy dy
6y − 12x. + (6x − 6y)
d2 y dx dx
⇒ 2 =−
dx 3y 2 − 3x2
2
6xy − 3x2 6xy − 3x2

6y − 12x. + (6x − 6y)
d2 y 3y 2 − 3x2 3y 2 − 3x2
⇒ 2 =−
dx 3y 2 − 3x2
d3 y
Q: Find if x and y are expressed parametrically as x = e−t and y = t3 .
dx3
dy dx
Sol. We rst of all nd and
dt dt
dy dx
= 3t2 and = −e−t
dt dt
dy 3t2
⇒ = − −t = −3et t2
dx e
d2 y

d dy dt d dt
⇒ 2 = . = −3et t2 .
dx dt dx dx dt dx
d
d2 y −3et t2
⇒ 2 = dt
dx dx
dt

d2 y −3 et t2 + 2tet
⇒ 2 = −t
= 3e2t t2 + 2t
dx −e
Proceeding furthur in a similar manner
d2 y

d
d3 y dx2
dt
=
dx 3 dx
dt
d
d3 y 3e2t t2 + 2t
⇒ 3 = dt = −6e3t t2 + 3t + 1

dx −e −t
d2 y
Q: If y = 5 cos x3 sin x, prove that +y =0
dx2
Q: If y = 3 cos (ln x) + 4 sin (ln x) , show that x2 y2 + xy1 + y = 0
7.12 Logarithmic Dierentiation(Revisiting Logarithms)

Let us rst learn the basic denition of logarithms. First of all , we have a exponential equation of the
form aα = b . This equation can be written in the logarithmic form as α = loga b. So, we understand
that logarithms is just another way of writing an equation which has exponents involved in it.
Logarithms have few basic properties :
log a p=
logb p
logb a
(Base Change Formula)
log a pq = loga p + loga q
log a pn = n loga p
v(x)
Now suppose, we have a function of the form, y = f (x) = [u (x)] .
By taking logarithm (to base e) the above may be rewritten as
ln y = v (x) ln [u (x)]
Using chain rule we may dierentiate this to get
1 dy 1 0 0
. = v (x) . .u (x) + v (x) ln [u (x)]
y dx u (x)
The main point to be noted in this method is that f (x) and u(x) must always be positive as otherwise
their logarithms are not dened.
Q: Dierentiate the following functions w.r.t. x

s
(x − 3) x2 + 8
a) f (x) =
x2 + 3x + 4
b) f (x) = xsin x , x > 0
c) f (x) = cos x. cos 2x. cos 3x
cos x
d) f (x) = (ln x)
x
e) f (x) = (ln x) + xln x
x √
f) f (x) = (sin x) + sin−1 x
dy
Q: Find , if y x + xy + xx = ab . [Hint: Take u = y x , v = xy ,w = xx ]
dx
d du dv dw
Q: If u, v and w are functions of x, then show that (u.v.w) = .v.w + u. .w + u.v. by use of
dx dx dx dx
logarithmic dierentiation.
Chapter 8
Limits
Before we get our hands dirty with the real stu, let's try some easy limit's to get the idea as to what
we are going to learn in this chapter.
Example Find the limits:

(i) lim x3 − x2 + 1
x→1
(ii) lim x (x + 1)
x→3
(iii) lim 1 + x + x2 + .......... + x10
x→−1
3 0
x − 4x2 + 4x

00
(iv) lim [ form ] [Introduction to L' Hospital Rule ]
x→2
x2 − 4 0
x−2 1
(v) lim − 3
x→1 x2 − x x − 3x2 + 2x
Rule(1) For any positive integer n ,
xn − an
lim = nan−1
x→a x − a

x15 − 1
a) lim
10
√ −1
x→1 x
1+x−1
b) lim
x→0 x
Rule(2) The following are two important limits
sin x
i) lim =1
x→0 x
1 − cos x
ii) lim =0
x→0 x
sin 4x
a) lim
x→0 sin 2x
tan x
b) lim
x→0 x
Q: Evaluate the following limits :
a) lim (x + 3)
x→3

22
b) lim x −
x→π 7
c) limπr2
r→1
4x + 3
d) lim
x→4 x−2
49
50 CHAPTER 8. LIMITS
x10 + x5 + 1
e) lim
x→−1 x−1
5
(x + 1) − 1
f) lim
x→0 x
3x2 − x − 10
g) lim
x→2 x2 − 4
x4 − 81
h) lim
x→3 2x2 − 5x − 3
ax + b
i) lim
x→0 cx + 1
1
z3 − 1
j) lim 1
−1
z→1 z 6
ax2 + bx + c
k) lim , a + b + c 6= 0
x→1 cx2 + bx + a
1 1
+
l) lim
x 2
x→−2 x + 2
sin ax
m) lim
x→0 bx
sin ax
n) lim a, b 6= 0
x→0 sin bx
sin (π − x)
o) lim
x→π π (π − x)
cos x
p) lim
x→0 (π − x)
cos (2x − 1)
q) lim
x→0 cos (x − 1)
ax + x cos x
r) lim
x→0 b sin x
s) lim x sec x
x→0
sin ax + bx
t) lim a, b, a + b 6= 0
x→0 ax + sin bx
u) lim (cosecx − cot x)

x→0
tan 2x
v) lim
π x− π
x→
2 2
(
2x + 3, x≤0
Q: Find lim f (x) and lim f (x) , where f (x) =
x→0 x→1 3 (x + 1) , x > 0
(
x2 − 1, x≤1
Q: Find lim f (x) , where f (x) = 2
x→1 −x − 1, x > 1

 |x|
, x 6= 0
Q: Evaluate lim f (x),
x→0
where f (x) =
0,
x
x=0
x
 , x 6= 0
Q: Evaluate lim f (x),
x→0
where f (x) = |x|
0, x=0
8.1. RATE OF CHANGE AND LIMITS 51
Q: Find lim f (x)

x→5
, where f (x) = |x| − 5

a + bx, x < 1

Q: Suppose f (x) = 4,

x=1
b − ax, x > 1

and if lim f (x) = f (1) , what are possible values of a and b?

x→1
Q: If a1 , a2 , ........, an be xed real numbers and dene a function
f (x) = (x − a1 ) (x − a2 ) ...... (x − an ).
What is lim f (x) ? For some a 6= a1 , a2 , ........an , compute lim f (x).

x→a1 x→a

|x| + 1, x < 0

Q: If f (x) = 0,

x = 0.
|x| − 1, x > 0

For what value(s) of a does lim f (x) exists ?

x→a
f (x) − 2
Q: If the function f (x) satises lim
x→1 x2 − 1
=π , evaluate lim f (x).
x→1

2
mx + n, x < 0

Q: If f (x) =

nx + m, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 . For what integers m and n does both lim f (x) and lim f (x) exist
x→0 x→1
 3
nx + m, x > 1
?
8.1 Rate of Change and Limits

8.1.1 Average Rate of Change and Secant Lines
Given an arbitrary function y = f (x), we calculate the average rate of change of y w.r.t. x over the interval
[x1 , x2 ] by dividing the change in the value of y , 4y = f (x2 ) − f (x1 ), by the length 4x = x2 − x1 = h
of the interval over which the change occurs.
Denition: Average rate of change over an Interval.
4y f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
The average rate of change of y = f (x) w.r.t. x over the interval [x1 , x2 ] is =
4x x2 − x1
Geometrically, the rate of change of f over [x1 , x2 ] is the slope of the line through the points
P(x1 , f (x1 )) and Q(x2 , f (x2 )). In geometry, a line joining two points of a curve is a secant to the
curve. Thus , the average rate of change of f from x1 to x2 is identical with the slope of secant PQ.
8.1.2 Average and Instantaneous Speed

A moving body's average speed is found by dividing the distance covered by the time elapsed.
Example-1: Finding an Average Speed
A rock breaks loose from the top of a tall cli. What is it's average speed
a) during the rst 2 sec of fall.
b) during the 1-sec interval between second 1 and second 2.
Sol. The average speed of the rock during a given time interval is the change in distance, 4y , divided
by the length of the time interval, 4t. (For our convenience , we take the y coordinate axis in the
negative direction , taking the y coordinate as zero, when t=0 )
1 1
4y × 9.8 × 22 − × 9.8 × 02
a) For the rst 2 sec : = 2 2 = 9.8m/s
4t 2−0
1 1
4y × 9.8 × 22 − × 9.8 × 12
b) From sec 1 to sec 2 : = 2 2 = 14.7m/s
4t 2−1
So, it is clear that if we set to = 1 , the value of average speed gets closer to 9.8 m/s as we
4y
reduce the magnitude of h. Let's expand the R.H.S. of for to = 1 .
4t
We have,

4y 4.9 t2o + 2to h + h2 − 4.9t2o
= = 9.8 + 4.9h
4t h
So, we see that as h becomes smaller , the average speed aproaches its limiting value.
[ The limiting case of average value gives the derivative . This method is called the First
Principle of Dierentiation ]
Example-2 The Average Growth Rate of a Laboratory Population
(a) Figure shows how a population of fruit ies (Drosophila) grew in a 50-day experiment. The number
of ies was counted at regular intervals, the counted values plotted with respect to time, and the points
joined by a smooth curve (colored blue in Figure ). Find the average growth rate from day 23 to day 45.
(b) The Growth Rate on Day 23
Sol: To answer this question, we examine the average rates of change over increasingly short time
intervals starting at day 23. In geometric terms, we nd these rates by calculating the slopes of secants
from P to Q, for a sequence of points Q approaching P along the curve (Figure ).
The values in the table show that the secant slopes rise from 8.6 to 16.4 as the t-coordinate of Q
decreases from 45 to 30, and we would expect the slopes to rise slightly higher as t continued on toward
23. Geometrically, the secants rotate about P and seem to approach the red line in the gure, a line that
goes through P in the same direction that the curve goes through P. We will see that this line is called
the tangent to the curve at P. Since the line appears to pass through the points (14, 0) and (35, 350), it
has slope
350 − 0
= 16.7 ies/day (approximately)
35 − 14
On day 23 the population was increasing at a rate of about 16.7 ies day.
Example-3 : A point moves rectilinearly in one direction. Fig. shows

the distance s traversed by the point as a function of the time t. Using the plot nd:
(a) the average speed of the point during the time of motion;
(b) the maximum speed;
(c) the time moment to at which the instantaneous speed is equal to the mean speed averaged over
the rst to seconds.
8.1.3 Behaviour of a function near a point

x2 − 1
Let's look at the behaviour of a function f (x) = near the point x = 1.
x−1
The given formula denes f for all real numbers except x=1 ( we cannot divide by zero). For any
x 6= 1 , we can simplify the formula by factoring the numerator and canceling common factors:
(x − 1) (x + 1)
f (x) = =x+1 for x 6= 1.
x−1
The graph of f is thus the line y = x + 1 with the point (1, 2) removed. This removed point is shown
as a hole in gure. Even though f (1) is not dened, It is clear , that we can make the value of f (x) as
close as we want to 2 by choosing x close enough to 1.
a
We say that f(x) approaches the limit 2 as x approaches 1, and we write
x2 − 1
lim f (x) = 2 , or lim =2
x→1 x→1 x − 1
Note: The limit does not depend on how the function is dened at xo . It would be clear through the
following example.
Example:
limf (x) = 2
x→1
even though f is not dened at x=1
limg (x) = 2
x→1
even though g (x) = 1 at x=1
limh (x) = 2
x→1
also h (x) = 2 at x=1 . So , h (x) is the only function for which the limit and the
value of the function are same.
Exercise
Q1: For the function g(x) graphed here, nd the following limits or explain why they do not
exist.
a) lim g (x)
x→1
b) lim g (x)
x→2
c) lim g (x)
x→3

Q2 : For the function (t) graphed here, nd the following limits or explain why they do not
exist.
a) lim f (t)
x→−2
b) lim f (t)
x→−1
c) lim f (t)
x→0
Q3: The accompanying gure shows the plot of distance fallen versus time for an object that
fell from the lunar landing module a distance 80 m to the surface of the moon.
a. Estimate the slopes of the secants P Q1 , P Q2 , P Q3 and P Q4 and arranging them in a

table.
b. About how fast was the object going when it hit the surface?
Q4: Find the average rate of change of the function over the given intervals.
(x) = x 3
+1
a) [2,3]
b) [-1,1]
Explore the rate of change of function for a very small interval close to x = 1.
8.2 Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws

8.2.1 Limit Laws
If L, M, c and k are real numbers and
lim f (x) = L and lim g (x) = M , then
x→c x→c
1. The Sum Rule : lim (f (x) + g (x)) = L + M . i.e. The limit of sum of two functions is the sum of
x→c
their limits.
2. Dierence Rule : lim (f (x) − g (x)) = L − M . i.e. The limit of the dierence of two functions is
x→c
the dierence of their limits.
3. Product Rule : lim (f (x) .g (x)) = L.M i.e. The limit of a product of two functions is the product
x→c
of their limits.
4. Constant Multiple Rule : lim (k.f (x)) = k.L .i.e. The limit of a constant times a function is the
x→c
constant times the limit of the function.
8.2. CALCULATING LIMITS USING THE LIMIT LAWS 57

f (x) L
5. Quotient Rule : lim = , M 6= 0 .i.e. The limit of a quotient of two functions is the
x→c g (x) M
quotient of their limits, provided the limit of the denominator is not zero.
r/s
6. Power Rule : If r and s are integers with no common factor and s 6= 0 , then lim (f (x)) = Lr/s
x→c
provided that Lr/s is a real number. (If s is even, we assume that L > 0 ) i.e. The limit of a
rational power of a function is that power of the limit of the function, provided the latter is a real
number.
8.2.2 The Sandwich Theorem

Suppose that g (x) ≤ f (x) ≤ h (x) for all x in some open interval containing c, except possibly at x=c
itself. Suppose also that lim g (x) = lim h (x) = L . Then lim f (x) = L .
x→c x→c x→c
x2 x2
Example: Given that 1− ≤ u (x) ≤ 1 + for all x 6= 0 nd lim u (x) , no matter how complicated
4 2 x→0
u is.
sin θ
Application : To prove that lim =1,θ in radians by using the identity sin θ < θ < tan θ
x→0 θ
Proof. The plan is to show that the right-hand and left-hand limits are both 1. Then we will know that
the two-sided limit is 1 as well. To show that the right-hand limit is 1, we begin with positive values of
π
less than . Notice that
2
Area 4OAP < Area sector OAP < Area 4OAT .

We can express these areas in terms of θ as follows:
1 1
Area 4OAP = * base * height = sin θ
2 2
1 2 θ
Area sector OAP = r θ =
2 2
1
Area 4OAT = tan θ
2
1 θ 1
Thus , sin θ < < tan θ
2 2 2
1
This last inequality goes the same way if we divide all three terms by the number ( sin θ ) which is
2
π
positive since 0 < θ < .
2
θ 1
1< < .
sin θ cos θ
Taking reciprocals reverses the inequalities:
sin θ
1> > cos θ
θ
Since, lim cos θ = 1 , the sandwich theorm gives
x→0+
sin θ
lim =1
x→0+ θ
(sin θ)
Recall that sin θ and θ are both odd functions . Therefore, f (θ) = is an even function, with a
θ
graph symmetric about the y-axis . This symmetry implies that the left-hand limit at 0 exists and has
the same value as the right-hand limit:
sin θ sin θ sin θ
lim = 1 = lim . So, lim =1
θ→0− θ θ→0+ θ θ→0 θ
8.3. THE PRECISE DEFINITION OF A LIMIT 59
8.3 The Precise Denition of a Limit

Now that we have gained some insight into the limit concept, working intuitively with the informal
denition, we turn our attention to its precise denition. We replace vague phrases like gets arbitrarily
close to in the informal denition with specic conditions that can be applied to any particular example.
With a precise denition we will be able to prove conclusively the limit properties given in the preceding
(x) (x)
section, and we can establish other particular limits important to the study of calculus. To showthat
the limit of as x → x0 equals the number L, we need to showthat the gap between and L can
(x)
be made as small as we choose if x is kept close enough to Let us see what this would require if we
specied the size of the gap between and L.
Example : Consider the function y = 2x − 1 near x0 = 4. Intuitively it is clear that y is close to 7 when
x is close to 4, so lim (2x − 1) = 7. However, how close to does x have to be so that diers from 7
x→4
by, say, less than 2 units?
8.3.1 The Epsilon-Delta Denition

Denition

Let (x) be dened on an open interval about x0 except possibly atx0 itself. We say that the
limit of (x) as x approaches x0 is the number L, and write lim f (x) = L if, for every number > 0
x→x0
there exists a corresponding number δ>0 such that for all x, 0 < |x − x0 | < δ ⇒ |f (x) − L| < .
One way to think about the denition is to suppose we are machining a generator shaft to a close

tolerance. We may try for diameter L, but since nothing is perfect, we must be satised with a diameter
(x) somewhere between L− and L+ . The δ is the measure of how accurate our control setting for x
must be to guarantee this degree of accuracy in the diameter of the shaft. Notice that as the tolerance
for error becomes stricter, we may have to adjust δ . That is, the value of how tight our control setting
must be, depends on the value of
√ the error tolerance.
Example : For the limit lim x − 1 = 2 , nd a δ > 0 that works for = 1 . That is , nd a δ > 0
x→5 √
such that for all x , 0 < |x − 5| < δ ⇒ x − 1 − 2 < 1 .
(
x2 , x 6= 2
Example : Prove that lim f (x) = 4 if f (x) =
x→2 1 , x=2
8.4 Limit of a sequence

Q: Find lim xn if
x→∞
3n2 + 5n + 4
a) xn =
2 + n2
5n + 2n2 − 3n + 7
3
b) xn =
4n3 − 2n + 11
1 + 2 + 3........ + n
c) xn =
n2
2 3
3n + n − 2
d) xn =
4n2 + 2n + 7
2n3 + 2n2 + 1

e) xn =
4n3 + 7n2 + 3n + 4
2n3 1 − 5n2

Q: Find lim
x→∞ 2n2 + 3
+ .
5n + 1
Q: Find lim xn if
x→∞
√ √
a) xn = 2n + 3 − n − 1
√ √
b) xn = n2 + n + 1 − n2 − n + 1
2
√
c) xn = n n − n2 + 1
√3
d) xn = n2 − n3 + n
√ √
n2 + 1 + n
e) xn = √ 4 √
n3 + n − n
q q
3 2 3 2
f ) xn = (n + 1) − (n − 1)
1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + 5 − 6 + ......... − 2n
g) xn = √ √
n2 + 1 + 4n2 − 1
1 1 1 1
h) xn = + + + .............. +
1.2 2.3 3.4 n (n + 1)
8.5 Some important Techniques

x 1
1
Rule(1) lim 1+ α
= lim (1 + α) = e = 2.71828......
x→∞ x α→0
ln (1 + x)
Rule(2) lim =1 [L' Hospital]
x→0 x
ax − 1
Rule(3) lim = ln a (a > 0)
x→0 x
8.5.1 Exercises
Q: Find the limits:
4x5 + 9x + 7
a) lim
x→1 3x6 + x3 + 1
x3 + 3x2 − 9x − 2
b) lim
x→2 x3 − x − 6
x+1
c) lim √
x→−1 6x2 + 3 + 3x
xp − 1
d) lim (given that p and q integers)
x→1 xq − 1
8.5. SOME IMPORTANT TECHNIQUES 61
√
9 + 5x + 4x2 − 3
e) lim
x→0 x
√
3
10 − x − 2
f ) lim
x→2 x−2
√ √
x + 7 − 3 2x − 3
g) lim √ √
x→2 3 x + 6 − 2 3 3x − 5

x−3
h) lim loga √
x→3 x+6−3
x3 − x2 − x + 1
i) lim
x→1 x3 − 3x + 2
√ √
x + 8 − 8x + 1
j) lim √ √
x→1 5 − x − 7x − 3
Q: Find the limits:
x3 x2

a) lim −
x→∞ 3x2 − 4 3x + 2
√
b) lim 2
9x + 1 − 3x
x→+∞
√ √ √
2 x+33x+55x
c) lim √ √
x→+∞ 3x − 2 + 3 2x − 3
√
d) lim 2x2 − 3 − 5x
x→−∞
√
e) lim x x2 + 1 − x
x→+∞
√
2x2 + 3
f ) lim
x→+∞ 4x + 2
√
2x2 + 3
f.1) lim
x→−∞ 4x + 2
g) lim 52x/(x+3)
x→∞
Q: Find the limits:
2x − 2
a) lim √
3
x→1 26 + x − 3
x+1
b) lim √
x→−1 4 x + 17 − 2
√
1+ 3x
c) lim √
x→−1 1 + 5 x
√
k
1+x−1
d) lim ( k positive integer )
x→0 x
π
sin x −
e) lim √
6
π 3 − 2 cos x
x→
6
cos x
f ) lim q
π 3 2
x→ (1 − sin x)
2
2 sin2 x + sin x − 1
g) lim
π 2 sin2 x − 3 sin x + 1
x→
6
Q: Find the limits:
1 − cos x
a) lim
x→0 x2
tan x − sin x
b) lim
x→0 x3
cos (πx/2)
c) lim
x→1 1−x
Q: Find the limits:
7x
1
a) lim 1+
x→∞ x
1
b) lim (1 + x) 3x
x→0
x
x
c) lim
x→∞ 1 + x
mx
k
d) lim 1+
x→∞ x
ln (1 + x)
e) lim
x→0 3x − 1
e4x − 1
f ) lim
x→0 tan x
ln (a + x) − ln a
g) lim
x→0 x
ex − e−x
h) lim
x→0 sin x
ln x − 1
i) lim
x→e x − e
8.6 Limits using Series expansion

8.6.1 Some important Series
x x2 x3
1) ex = 1 + + + + ...........................
1! 2! 3!
x x2 x3
2) e−x = 1 − + − + ...........................
1! 2! 3!
2 3
(loga) x (loga) x2 (loga) x3
3) ax = 1 + + + + ...........
1! 2! 3!
x2 x3
4) log (1 + x) = x − + − ...............
2 3
x2 x3
5) log(1 − x) = −x − − − ...............
2 3
x3 x5
6) sin x = x − + − ..................
3! 5!
x2 x4
7) cos x = 1 − + + ................
2! 4!
x3 2x5
8) tan x = x − + − ............
3 15
8.6. LIMITS USING SERIES EXPANSION 63
x3 9x5
9) sin−1 x = x + + + ..........
3! 5!
x3 x5 x7
10) tan−1 x = x − + − .................
3 5 7
x2
11) n
(1 + x) = 1 + nx + n(n − 1) + .........
2!
8.6.2 Exercises
Q: With the aid of the principle of substitution of equivalent quantities nd the limits:
sin 5x
a) lim
x→0 ln (1 + 4x)
1 − cos x
b) lim x
x→0
1 − cos
2
ln cos x
c) lim √
x→0 4 1 + x2 − 1
√
1 + x + x2 − 1
d) lim
x→0 sin 4x 2 2
sin 2x + sin−1 x − tan−1 x
e) lim
x→0 3x
3 sin x − x2 + x3
f ) lim
x→0 tan x + 2 sin2 x + 5x4
2 4
(sin x − tan x) + (1 − cos 2x) + x5
g) lim
x→0 7 tan
√
7
x + sin6 x + 2 sin5 x
sin x ln (1 + 3x)
3
h) lim √ √
x→0 tan−1 x 2 e5 3 x − 1

1 − cos x + 2 sin x − sin3 x − x2 + 3x4

i) lim
x→0 tan3 x − 6 sin2 x + x − 5x3
sin 3x
j) lim
x→0 ln (1 + 5x)
ln (1 + sin 4x)
k) lim
x→0 esin 5x − 1
esin 3x − 1
l) lim
x→0 ln (1 + tan 2x)
tan−1 3x
m) lim
x→0 sin−1 2x
ln (2 − cos 2x)
n) lim
x→0 ln2 (1 + sin 3x)
√
1 + sin 3x − 1
o) lim
x→0 ln (1 + tan 2x)

ln 1 + 2x − 3x2 + 4x3
p) lim
x→0 ln (1 − x + 2x2 − 7x3 )
√
1 + x2 − 1
q) lim
x→0 1 − cos x
Test (Limits)
Time Allowed : 40 Minutes ______________________ Maximum Marks : 40
Please read the instructions carefully. You will be alloted 5 minutes specically for this purpose.
Instructions
A. General
1. Blank papers, clipboards, log tables, slide rules, calculators, cellular phones, pagers, and
electronic gadgets in any form are not allowed.
2. Do not break the seals of the question-paper booklet before instructed to do so by the
invigilators.
B. Question paper format and Marking Scheme :

1. This question paper consists of 4 questions carrying 10 marks each.
Q1: Q: Evaluate the following limits :
tan 2x
a) lim
π x− π
x→
2 2
b) lim (cosecx − cot x)
x→0
Q2: Find lim xn if

n→∞
1 + 2 + 3........ + n
a) xn =
n2
2n + 2n2 + 1
3

b) xn =
4n3 + 7n2 + 3n + 4
Q3: Find lim xn if
x→∞
1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + 5 − 6 + ......... − 2n
a) xn = √ √
n2 + 1 + 4n2 − 1
√ √
n2 + 1 + n
b) xn = √4 √
n3 + n − n
Q4: With the aid of the principle of substitution of equivalent quantities nd the limits:
2 4
(sin x − tan x) + (1 − cos 2x) + x5
a) lim
x→0 7 tan7 x + sin6 x + 2 sin5 x
1 − cos x + 2 sin x − sin3 x − x2 + 3x4
b) lim
x→0 tan3 x − 6 sin2 x + x − 5x3
65
Part IV
Application of Derivatives
67
Chapter 9
Rate of Change
Example 1: Find the rate of change of the area of a circle per second with respect to its radius r when r
= 5 cm.
Example 2 The volume of a cube is increasing at a rate of 9 cubic centimetres per second. How fast
is the surface area increasing when the length of an edge is 10 centimetres ?
Example 3 A stone is dropped into a quiet lake and waves move in circles at a speed of 4cm per
second. At the instant, when the radius of the circular wave is 10 cm, how fast is the enclosed area
increasing?
Example 4 The length x of a rectangle is decreasing at the rate of 3 cm/minute and the width y is
increasing at the rate of 2cm/minute. When x =10cm and y = 6cm, nd the rates of change of (a) the
perimeter and (b) the area of the rectangle.
9.0.1 Solve the exercise below:

Q1. Find the rate of change of the area of a circle with respect to its radius r when (a) r = 3 cm (b) r
= 4 cm
Q2. The volume of a cube is increasing at the rate of 8 cm3/s. How fast is the surface area increasing
when the length of an edge is 12 cm?
Q3. The radius of a circle is increasing uniformly at the rate of 3 cm/s. Find the rate at which the area
of the circle is increasing when the radius is 10 cm.
Q4. An edge of a variable cube is increasing at the rate of 3 cm/s. How fast is the volume of the cube
increasing when the edge is 10 cm long?
Q5. A stone is dropped into a quiet lake and waves move in circles at the speed of 5 cm/s. At the
instant when the radius of the circular wave is 8 cm, how fast is the enclosed area increasing?
Q6. The radius of a circle is increasing at the rate of 0.7 cm/s. What is the rate of increase of its
circumference?
Q7. The length x of a rectangle is decreasing at the rate of 5 cm/minute and the width y is increasing
at the rate of 4 cm/minute. When x = 8cm and y = 6cm, nd the rates of change of (a) the
perimeter, and (b) the area of the rectangle.
Q8. A balloon, which always remains spherical on ination, is being inated by pumping in 900 cubic
centimetres of gas per second. Find the rate at which the radius of the balloon increases when the
radius is 15 cm.
Q9. A balloon, which always remains spherical has a variable radius. Find the rate at which its volume
is increasing with the radius when the later is 10 cm.
69
70 CHAPTER 9. RATE OF CHANGE
Q10. A ladder 5 m long is leaning against a wall. The bottom of the ladder is pulled along the ground,
away from the wall, at the rate of 2cm/s. How fast is its height on the wall decreasing when the
foot of the ladder is 4 m away from the wall ?
Q11. A particle moves along the curve 6y = x3 + 2. Find the points on the curve at which the y-
coordinate is changing 8 times as fast as the x-coordinate.
Q12. The radius of an air bubble is increasing at the rate of 1/2 cm/s. At what rate is the volume of
the bubble increasing when the radius is 1 cm?
3
Q13. A balloon, which always remains spherical, has a variable diameter (2x + 1) . Find the rate of
2
change of its volume with respect to x.
Q14. Sand is pouring from a pipe at the rate of 12 cm3 /s. The falling sand forms a cone on the ground
in such a way that the height of the cone is always one-sixth of the radius of the base. How fast is
the height of the sand cone increasing when the height is 4 cm?
9.0.2 Problems for practice

Subjective Problems
Q1: A ladder 13m long is leaning against a wall. Its upper edge is pulled upwards at a rate of 12cm/s.
Its lower edge slides on the ground. What is the rate of change of the angle θ ,which the ladder
makes with the ground, w.rt. time , when the foot of the ladder is 12m away from the wall.

Comprehension 1: A Scientist at CERN labs recently designed a gadget to measure the variations
of pressure of Helium gas with change in its volume. The gadget consists of a hollow frustrum(of
a cone) with constant base angle 45o and variable dimensions. The frustrum is closed at bottom
and open at top. A spherical ball with variable radius r is dropped inside the frustrum from the
open face. The ball expands to t the frustrum and touches it at the top edge and the centre
of the base{as shown in the Figure}. Helium gas is then put in the cavity between the ball and
frustrum. The ball now contracts and the frustrum also contracts maintaining a constant angle
45o and touching the ball only at the top edge and the centre of the base.{Note: The area of the

portion of sphere outside the frustrum is 2πr2 1 − √1 }
2
Q1: Express the volume of the frustrum in terms of r.

1
a)
3 πr2 + √12
3

1 3 √1
b) πr
3 2 − 2
1
√
c) πr
3
3
7 + 19
4 2
d) None of these
Q2: The volume of the portion of sphere outside the frustrum is
1 3
√ 5
a)
3 πr 2 2− 4
1 3
√
b) πr
3 2− 2
√
1 3 2− 2
c) πr
3 2
d) None of these
Q3: What is the rate of change of the volume of the cavity w.r.t. r
71
5 7
√
a) πr2 2 + 2 2
7
√
b) πr2 5 + 2 2
√
c) πr2 3 + 5 2
d) None of these.
Q4: The pressure of the gas inside the cavity varies as P V γ = k (a constant) , then the rate of change
dr
of Pressure of the gas inside the cavity w.r.t. time is { at the instant when = −2 units/sec , r
dt
= 3 units }
2γk 1
a) √ γ+1 . 32γ
[π(3+5 2)]
6γk 1
b) √ γ .
[π(5+ 72 2)] 32γ+1
2γk 1
c) √ γ−1 . 2γ+1
(3+5 2) 3
d) None of these
9.0.2.2 Hints and Solutions

Linked Comprehension Type Questions
Comprehension 1
Answers: Q1) C , Q2) A ,Q3) B ,Q4) B.
{Hint: Q1) Let r1 be the radius of the top opening, r2 be the radius of the base and h be the height of the frustrum.
From adjoining diagram, it is clear that
√

r 1
r1 = √ , r2 = r( 2 + 1) & h = r 1 + √
2 2
1
We know that the volume of a frustrum is V = πh(r12 + r22 + r1 r2 )
! !2 3 !
1 1 r √ 2 r √
⇒ V = πr 1+ √ √ + r 2+1 + √ .r( 2 + 1)
3 2 2 2
√
⇒ V = 31 πr3 7 + 19
4
2
Q2: To nd the volume of the portion of sphere outside the frustrum, we rst nd the volume of 3Dimensional Portion
of the sphere shown in gure
Let it's volume be v and the upper Curved Surface Area be a

v a Ω
Using the concept of Solid Angle, = {= } (where V is the Volume of the Complete Sphere , A is the Surface
V A 4π
Area of the Sphere and Ω is the solid angle)

v 2πr2 1 − √1
2
⇒ 4 =
3
πr3 4πr2
2
⇒ v = πr3 1 − √1
3 2
Alternatively, this Volume can be found out by generating dirential cones of base area dA and slant height r.These
dirential cones are generated by joining the boundaries of the dirential area with the centre of the sphere . The volume
of one such cone will be
1
dV = rdA
3
Adding these dirential cones, we get the volume of the portion of sphere as
1 1 2
= πr3 1 −
which is the same as found above.

1 √1
v= ra = r.2πr2 1 − √
3 3 2 3 2
Now we need to subtract the volume of the cone from this volume to get the required volume of the portion of sphere
outside the frustrum.
r 2 r

1
Vcone = π √ .√
3 2 2
Vportion = v − Vcone
73
2 3 1 r 2 r
Vportion = πr 1 − √1 − π √ .√
3 2 3 2 2
√
Vportion = 3 πr 2 − 4 2
1 3 5
{The student may note that the concept of Solid angle can be developed intuitively without any prior knowledge of
the concept}
Q3: From the gure , it is clear that
Vcavity = VF rustrum + VP ortion − VSphere
√ 1 3 √ 4
2 + 3 πr 2 − 45 2 - πr3

⇒ VCavity= 31 πr3 7 + 19 4 3
7√

1 3
⇒ VCavity = πr 5+ 2
3 2
√

dVCavity 7
⇒ = πr2 5 + 2
dr 2
Q4:P V γ = k
k
⇒P = γ
V
k
⇒P = γ
7√

1 3
πr 5+ 2
3 2
dP k −3γ dr
⇒ = γ . 3γ+1 . = 6γk
7
√ γ . 2γ+1 }
1
7√ dt [π(5+ 2 2)] 3

dt 1 r
π 5+ 2
3 2
Chapter 10
Increasing and Decreasing Functions

Denition 1: Let I be an open interval contained in the domain of a real valued function f. Then f is
said to be
(i) increasing on I if x1 < x2 in I ⇒ f (x1 ) ≤ f (x2 ) for all x1 , x2 I.
(ii) strictly increasing on I if x1 < x2 in I ⇒ f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) for all x1 , x2 I.
(iii) decreasing on I if x1 < x2 in I ⇒ f (x1 ) ≥ f (x2 ) for all x1 , x2 I.
(iv) strictly decreasing on I if x1 < x2 in I ⇒ f (x1 ) > f (x2 ) for all x1 , x2 I.
Denition 2[Which we will use in practrice] : Let f be continuous on [a, b] and dierentiable on the
open interval (a,b). Then
(a) f is increasing in [a,b] if f 0(x) > 0 for each x (a, b)
(b) f is decreasing in [a,b] if f 0(x) < 0 for each x (a, b)
(c) f is a constant function in [a,b] if f 0(x) = 0 for each x (a, b)
Remark : (i) f is strictly increasing in (a, b) if f 0(x) > 0 for each x (a, b)
(ii) f is strictly decreasing in (a, b) if f 0(x) < 0 for each x (a, b)
(iii) A function will be increasing (decreasing) in R if it is so in every interval of R.
Example 1: Find the intervals in which the function f given by f (x) = x2 4x + 6 is (a) strictly
increasing (b) strictly decreasing
Example 2: Find the intervals in which the function f given by f (x) = 4x3 6x2 72x+30 is (a) strictly
increasing (b) strictly decreasing.
10.0.1 Exercise
1. Show that the function given by f (x) = 3x + 17 is strictly increasing on R.
2. Show that the function given by f (x) = e2x is strictly increasing on R.
75
76 CHAPTER 10. INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS
3. Find the intervals in which the function f given by f (x) = 2x2 3x is (a) strictly increasing (b) strictly
decreasing
4. Find the intervals in which the function f given by f (x) = 2x3 3x2 36x + 7 is (a) strictly increasing
(b) strictly decreasing
5. Find the intervals in which the following functions are strictly increasing or decreasing: (a) x2 + 2x5
(b) 106x2x2 3 2
(c) 2x 9x 12x +1 (d) 69xx2 (e) (x + 1)3 (x3)3
2x
6. Show that y = log (1 + x) − , x > −1 is an increasing function of x throughout its domain.
2+x
7. Find the values of x for which y = [x(x2)]2 is an increasing function.
Chapter 11
Tangents and Normals

Recall that the equation of a straight line passing through a given point (x0 , y0 ) having nite slope m is
given by y y0 = m(xx0 ).
dy
Note that the slope of the tangent to the curve y = f (x) at the point (x0 , y0 ) is given by
dx (xo ,yo )
. So the equation of the tangent at (xo , yo ) to the curve y = f (x) is given byy y0 = f 0(x0 )(xx0 ) .
Also, since the normal is perpendicular to the tangent, the slope of the normal to the curve y = f (x) at
−1
(x0 , y0 ) is , if f 0(x0 ) 6= 0 . Therefore, the equation of the normal to the curve y = f (x) at (x0 , y0 )
f 0 (x0 )
−1
is given by y y0 = (x − x0 ) i.e. (y − y0 )f 0(x0 ) + (x − x0 ) = 0 .
f 0 (x0 )
Note If a tangent line to the curve y = f (x) makes an angle θ with x-axis in the positive direction, then
dy
= slope of the tangent = tan θ .
dx
Particular cases
(i) If slope of the tangent line is zero, then tan θ = 0 and so θ = 0 which means the tangent line is
parallel to the x-axis. In this case, the equation of the tangent at the point (x0 , y0 ) is given by y = y0 .
(ii) If θ π
2
, then tan θ ∞ , which means the tangent line is perpendicular to the x-axis, i.e.,
parallel to the y-axis. In this case, the equation of the tangent at (x0 , y0 ) is given by x = x0
Example 1 Find the slope of the tangent to the curve y = x3 x at√x = 2.
Example 2 Find the point at which the tangent to the curve y = 4x − 3 − 1 has its slope 2/3 .
2
Example 3 Find the equation of all lines having slope 2 and being tangent to the curve y + =0
x−3
.
x2 y 2
Example 4 Find points on the curve + = 1 at which the tangents are (i) parallel to x-axis (ii)
4 25
parallel to y-axis.
77
78 CHAPTER 11. TANGENTS AND NORMALS
x−7
Example 5 Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y= at the point where it
(x − 2) (x − 3)
cuts the x-axis.
2 2
Example 6 Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the curve x 3 3
+ y = 2 at (1, 1).
3 3
Example 7 Find the equation of tangent to the curve given by x = a sin t, y = b cos t at a point
π
where t= .
2
11.0.1 Exercise
1. Find the slope of the tangent to the curve y = 3x4 4x at x = 4.
x−1
2. Find the slope of the tangent to the curve y = , x 6= 2 at x = 10.
x−2
3
3. Find the slope of the tangent to curve y = x x + 1 at the point whose x-coordinate is 2.
3
4. Find the slope of the tangent to the curve y = x 3x + 2 at the point whose x-coordinate is 3.
3 3 π
5. Find the slope of the normal to the curve x = a cos θ , y = a sin θ at θ =
4
2 π
6. Find the slope of the normal to the curve x = 1 − a sin θ , y = b cos θ at θ =
2
3 2
7. Find points at which the tangent to the curve y = x 3x 9x + 7 is parallel to the x-axis.
2
8. Find a point on the curve y = (x2) at which the tangent is parallel to the chord joining the
points (2, 0) and (4, 4).
9. Find the point on the curve y = x3 11x + 5 at which the tangent is y = x11.
1
10. Find the equation of all lines having slope 1 that are tangents to the curve y= , x 6= 1.
x−1
1
11. Find the equation of all lines having slope 2 which are tangents to the curve y= , x 6= 3.
x−3
1
12. Find the equations of all lines having slope 0 which are tangent to the curve y= 2 .
x − 2x + 3
x2 y 2
13. Find points on the curve + =1 at which the tangents are (i) parallel to x-axis (ii) parallel
9 16
to y-axis.
14. Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the given curves at the indicated points: (i)
y = x4 6x3 + 13x2 10x + 5 at (0, 5) (ii)y = x4 6x3 + 13x2 10x + 5 at (1, 3) (iii) y = x3 at (1, 1) (iv)
π
y = x2 at (0, 0) (v) x = cos t , y = sin t at t = .
4
2
15. Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve y = x 2x + 7 which is (a) parallel to the line
2xy + 9 = 0 (b) perpendicular to the line 5y 15x = 13 .
3
16. Show that the tangents to the curve y = 7x + 11 at the points where x = 2 and x = 2 are
parallel.
17. Find the points on the curve y = x3 at which the slope of the tangent is equal to the y-coordinate
of the point.
18. For the curve y = 4x3 2x5 , nd all the points at which the tangent passes through the origin.
19. Find the points on the curvex2 + y 2 2x3 = 0 at which the tangents are parallel to the x-axis.
2 3 2 3
20. Find the equation of the normal at the point (am , am ) for the curve ay = x .
3
21. Find the equation of the normals to the curve y = x + 2x + 6 which are parallel to the line
x + 14y + 4 = 0.
2 2
22. Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the parabola y = 4ax at the point (at , 2at).
2 2
23. Prove that the curves x = y and xy = k cut at right angles if 8k = 1.
x2 y 2
24. Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the hyperbola − = 1 at the point (x0 , y0 ).
√ a2 b2
25. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = 3x − 2 which is parallel to the line 4x−2y+5 =
0.
79

11.0.2.1 Multiple Answer MCQ's
Q1: The point(s) on the curve y2 + 4 = 8x , where the tangent makes equal intercepts with the axes ,
is/are

5
a) ,4
2

5
b) , −4
2

5
c) ,4
4

5
d) ,2
4
11.0.2.2 Matrix Match Type Problems

Matrix 1: Under Column I, equations of some curves are listed. Under Column II, equations of some
lines are listed. An entry in Column I is linked to an entry in column II , if the entry in Column
II is either a tangent or a normal to the curve given in the entry in Column I.
Column I Column II
P)y2 − 6y − 4x + 21 = 0 A)x = 2
Q)x2 − 4x + 4y − 4 = 0 B)y = 3
R)x2 + y2 − 4x − 6y + 5 = 0 C)y = x + 1
S)x2 + y2 − 6y + 7 = 0 D)y = x + 5
E)y + x = 5
11.0.2.3 Answers
3.3.1.1(Multiple Answer MCQ's)
Q1: A,B
3.3.1.2(Matrix Match Type Problems)
Matrix 1:
(P)7−→B,C,E
(Q)7−→A,C,E
(R)7−→A,B,C,D,E
(S)7−→B,C,D,E
80 CHAPTER 11. TANGENTS AND NORMALS
Chapter 12
Approximations
Let ∆x denote a small increment in x. Recall that the increment in y corresponding to the increment in
x, denoted by Δy, is given by ∆y = f (x + ∆x)f (x). We dene the following
(i) The dierential of x, denoted by dx, is dened by dx = ∆x.
dy
(ii) The dierential of y, denoted by dy, is dened by dy = f 0(x)dx or dy = 4x .
dx
In case dx = Δx is relatively small when compared with x, dy is a good approximation of Δy and we

denote it by dy ≈ Δy. √
Example 1 : Use dierential to approximate 36.6 .
1
Example 2 : Use dierential to approximate (25) 3
Example 3: If the radius of a sphere is measured as 9 cm with an error of 0.03 cm, then nd the
approximate error in calculating its volume.
81
82 CHAPTER 12. APPROXIMATIONS
Chapter 13
Maxima and Minima

Let us consider the following problems that arise in day to day life.
(i) The prot from a grove of orange trees is given by P (x) = ax + bx2 , where a,b are constants and
x is the number of orange trees per acre. How many trees per acre will maximise the prot?
(ii) A ball, thrown into the air from a building 60 metres high, travels along a path given by h (x) =
x2
60 + x − , where x is the horizontal distance from the building and h(x) is the height of the ball .
60
What is the maximum height the ball will reach?
(iii) An Apache helicopter of enemy is ying along the path given by the curve f (x) = x2 + 7. A
soldier, placed at the point (1, 2), wants to shoot the helicopter when it is nearest to him. What is the
nearest distance?
In each of the above problem, there is something common, i.e., we wish to nd out the maximum
or minimum values of the given functions. In order to tackle such problems, we rst formally dene
maximum or minimum values of a function, points of local maxima and minima and test for determining
such points.
Denition : Let f be a function dened on an interval I. Then
(a) f is said to have a maximum value in I, if there exists a point c in I such that f (c) > f (x)
, for all xI .
The number f (c) is called the maximum value of f in I and the point c is called a point of
maximum value of f in I.
(b) f is said to have a minimum value in I, if there exists a point c in I such that f (c) < f (x),
for all xI .
The numberf (c), in this case, is called the minimum value of f in I and the point c, in this
case, is called a point of minimum value of f in I.
(c) f is said to have an extreme value in I if there exists a point c in I such that f (c) is either
a maximum value or a minimum value of f in I. The number f (c), in this case, is called an
extreme value of f in I and the point c is called an extreme point.
Denition 1 : [ First Derivative Test ] Let f be a function dened on an open interval I. Let f be
continuous at a critical point c in I. Then
(i) If f 0(x) changes sign from positive to negative as x increases through c, i.e., if f 0(x) > 0 at
every point suciently close to and to the left of c, and f 0(x) < 0 at every point suciently
close to and to the right of c, then c is a point of local maxima.
83
84 CHAPTER 13. MAXIMA AND MINIMA
(ii) If f 0(x) changes sign from negative to positive as x f 0(x) < 0

increases through c, i.e., if
at every point suciently close to and to the left of c, and f 0(x) > 0 at every point suciently
close to and to the right of c, then c is a point of local minima.
(iii) If f 0(x) does not change sign as x increases through c, then c is neither a point of local
maxima nor a point of local minima. Infact, such a point is called point of inection.
Denition 2 : [Second Derivative Test] Let f be a function dened on an interval I and c in I. Let f be
twice dierentiable at c. Then
(i) x = c is a point of local maxima if f 0(c) = 0 and

f (c) < 0 The value f (c) is local
maximum value of f .
(ii) x = c is a point of local minima if f 0(c) = 0 and

f (c) > 0 In this case, f (c) is local
minimum value of f .
(iii) The test fails if f 0(c) = 0 and

f (c) = 0. In this case, we go back to the rst derivative
test and nd whether c is a point of local maxima, local minima or a point of inexion.
Example 1: Find two positive numbers whose sum is 15 and the sum of whose squares is
minimum.
Example 2: Let AP and BQ be two vertical poles at points A and B, respectively. If AP =

16 m, BQ = 22 m and AB = 20 m, then nd the distance of a point R on AB from the point
A such that RP 2 + RQ2 is minimum.
Example 3: If length of three sides of a trapezium other than base are equal to 10cm, then
nd the area of the trapezium when it is maximum.
Example 4: Prove that the radius of the right circular cylinder of greatest curved surface area
which can be inscribed in a given cone is half of that of the cone.
13.0.1 Exercise
1. Find two numbers whose sum is 24 and whose product is as large as possible.
85
2. Find two positive numbers x and y such that x + y = 60 and xy 3 is maximum.
3. Find two positive numbers x and y such that their sum is 35 and the product x2 y 5 is a maximum.
4. Find two positive numbers whose sum is 16 and the sum of whose cubes is minimum.
5. A square piece of tin of side 18 cm is to be made into a box without top, by cutting a square from
each corner and folding up the aps to form the box. What should be the side of the square to be
cut o so that the volume of the box is the maximum possible.
6. A rectangular sheet of tin 45 cm by 24 cm is to be made into a box without top, by cutting o square
from each corner and folding up the aps. What should be the side of the square to be cut o so
that the volume of the box is maximum ?
7. Show that of all the rectangles inscribed in a given xed circle, the square has the maximum area.
8. Show that the right circular cylinder of given surface and maximum volume is such that its height is
equal to the diameter of the base.
9. Of all the closed cylindrical cans (right circular), of a given volume of 100 cubic centimetres, nd the
dimensions of the can which has the minimum surface area?
10. A wire of length 28 m is to be cut into two pieces. One of the pieces is to be made into a square
and the other into a circle. What should be the length of the two pieces so that the combined area
of the square and the circle is minimum?
11. Prove that the volume of the largest cone that can be inscribed in a sphere of radius R is 8/27 of
the volume of the sphere.
12. Show that the right circular cone of least curved surface and given volume has an altitude equal to
√
2 time the radius of the base.
13. Show that the semi-vertical angle of the cone of the maximum volume and of given slant height is
√
tan−1 2 .
14. Show that semi-vertical angle of right circular cone of given surface area and maximum volume is

−1 1
sin
3

Q1: A thin rectangular sheet is inscribed in a sphere of radius R . What can be its maximum area.
Q2: A cylinder of height h is inscribed in a right circular cone having base radius R and semi verticlal
π
angle α . What is the rate of change of volume of cylinder w.r.t. α at the instant when α= 4.

Q1: From a military base located at the origin, a Surface-to-Surface Missile(STSM) was red onto a
target city located at (8,0) along the path y = 8x − x2 . Sometime later, a Radar located in the
target city detected the missile and an Anti-Ballistic Interceptor Missile(ABIM) was red from the
√ 2 to intercept the missile. Ironically, the ABIM made substantial
city along the path y= 8x − x2
damage to the military base and the target city was also destroyed. What was the maximum
distance between the trajectories of the two missiles?
a) 4 units
b) 8 units
c) 12 units
d) 16 units

Comprehension 1: A circular sheet of radius R is taken and a sector of angle θ is cut out of it. A cone
is made of this cut-out sector(Curved Surface only). The volume of the cone depends on the angle
θ of the sector.
Q1: The angle θ for which the volume of the cone generated is the maximum is
1
A) √ .2π
2
r
2
B) .2π
3
r
3
C) .2π
4
D)None of these
Q2: The Volume of the cone with the maximum volume is
√
3 3
A) πR
4
1 3
B) √ πR
6 2
2 3
C) √ πR
9 3
D)None of these
Q3: The semi-vertical angle of the cone with maximum volume is
π
A)
6
π
B)
4
π
C)
3
D)None of these
Comprehension
2: S is an ellipse in the Cartesian plane with its major axis parallel to x-axis, having

1 1
centre at , 1 , eccentricity √ and passing through the intersection of y = f (x) and the line
2 2
2x + y = 1 . Further f (x) is a polynomial satisfying the property relation f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y)
∀x, y and f (1) = c , where 0 ≤ c ≤ 32
87
Q1: The minimum possible area of the ellipse is
√
π 2
a)
11
√
2 2π
b)
11
√
π 2
c)
9
d) None of these
Q2: The equation of auxillary circle for the ellipse of maximum area, is
2
1 2 1
a) x− + (y − 1) =
2 4
2
1 2
b) x− + (y − 1) = 2
2
2
1 2 17
c) x− + (y − 1) =
2 9
d) None of these
Q3:
f (x)
lim f 1 + f / (x) for x>0 , is
c→0+
a) 1
b) 0
c) 17
d) None of these

Q1) C
Linked Comprehension Type Problems

Comprehension 1:
Answers: Q1) B Q2)C Q3)D
θ θ
{Hints:Q1) The area of the sector is A = .πR2 = R2
2π 2
When the cone is generated from the sector, its Curved Surface Area will be equal to the area of the sector.
θ 2
⇒ πrR = R
2
θ
⇒r= R
2π
s 2
√

θ
Also h = R2 − r2 = R2 − R
2π
1
V (Volume of the Cone) = πr2 h
3
2 s 2
1 θ θ
⇒V = π R R2 − R
3 2π 2π
1 R3 2
q
⇒V= π θ (2π)2 − θ2
3 (2π)3
 
dV 1 R3 (−2θ)  θ2
q
⇒ = π (2π)2 − θ2 + q
2θ

3 (2π)3

dθ 2 (2π)2 − θ2
 
2 2 3
1 R3  2θ (2π) − θ + −θ 
= π
3 (2π)3
 q 
(2π)2 − θ2
As is clear, the points θ = 0 & θ = 2π will yield a minima each. There will be an intermediate maxima
between these two points.
⇒The point of maxima will lie at θcorresponding to

2 (2π)2 − θ2 − θ2 = 0
⇒ 2 (2π)2 − 3θ2 = 0
r
2
⇒θ= .2π
3
Q2: Volume of the cone is given by
2 s 2
1 θ θ
V = π R R2 − R
3 2π 2π
r
2
Substituting θ= .2π
3
2
V = √ πR3 units
9 3
89
Q3: It can be observed from the gure that for the semi-vertical angle φ,
r
sin φ =
R

θ
R
2π
⇒ sin φ =
R
r
θ 2
⇒ sin φ = =
2π 3
r
2
⇒ φ = sin−1 }
3
Comprehension 2:
Answers: Q1) C Q2)B Q3)A
{ Hint: Q1: It can be easily veried that f (x) = cx

Solving it with 2x + y = 1 gives
1 c
x= ,y=
c+2 c+2
The equation of ellipse will be
 1 2
x− 2
 2 + y−1 =1
 
a b
1 a2
Now, since the eccentricity is √ , b2 = a2 (1 − e2 ) i.e. b2 =
2 2
Hence the equation of ellipse becomes
2
1
x−
2 (y − 1)2
+ =1
a2 a2
2
1 c
Now, x = ,y= lies on it
c+2 c+2
1 2
2
1 c
− −1
c+2 2 c+2
⇒ + =1
a2 a2
2
2 c2 + 32
⇒a =
4 (c + 2)2
πa2
Area of ellipse =πab = √
2
d πa2

Area→ min ⇒ √ =0
dc 2
c2 + 32

d
i.e. π √ =0
dc 4 2 (c + 2)2
π (c − 16)
⇒ √ =0
2 (c + 2)3
This gives c = 16 . Also it may be noted that the derivative is negative in the left neighbourhood of c = 16
and positive on the right neighbourhood of c = 16 . Hence, c = 16 is a point of minima.
√
πa2 π 2
⇒ Amin = √ =
2 9
Q2: It is easy to observe that maxima of A can occur at c = 0 or c = 32
At c = 0 , a2 = 2
32 × 33 1
At c = 32 , a2 = <
4 × (34)2 4
Hence, the maximum occurs at c = 0
The equation of auxillary circle is
1 2

x− + (y − 1)2 = a2
2
1 2

i.e. x− + (y − 1)2 = 2
2
Q3: for x > 0 , is
f (x)
lim f 1 + f / (x)

c→0+
cx
= lim (c (1 + c))
c→0+
lim ln(c(1+c)).cx
= ec→0+
ln (c (1 + c))
lim .x
c→0+ 1
=e c
Applying L'Hospital Rule
2c + 1
(c (1 + c))
lim .x
c→0+ 1
− 2
=e c
= e0 = 1 }
Test (Applications of Derivatives)
Time Allowed : 2 Hours ______________________ Maximum Marks : 200
Instructions
A. General
invigilators.

Q1. A stone is dropped into a quiet lake and waves move in circles at the speed of 5 cm/s. At the
instant when the radius of the circular wave is 8 cm, how fast is the enclosed area increasing?
Q2. The length x of a rectangle is decreasing at the rate of 5 cm/minute and the width y is increasing
at the rate of 4 cm/minute. When x = 8cm and y = 6cm, nd the rates of change of (a) the
perimeter, and (b) the area of the rectangle.
Q3. A particle moves along the curve 6y = x3 +2. Find the points on the curve at which the y-coordinate
is changing 8 times as fast as the x-coordinate.
Q4. Sand is pouring from a pipe at the rate of 12 cm3 /s. The falling sand forms a cone on the ground
in such a way that the height of the cone is always one-sixth of the radius of the base. How fast is
the height of the sand cone increasing when the height is 4 cm?
Q5. Find the intervals in which the function f given by f (x) = 4x3 6x2 72x+30 is (a) strictly increasing
(b) strictly decreasing.
Q6. Show that the function given by f (x) = e2x is strictly increasing on R.
2x
Q7. Show that y = log (1 + x) − , x > −1 is an increasing function of x throughout its domain.
2+x
2 2
Q8. Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the curve x + y3 = 2
3 at (1, 1).
π
Q9. Find the equation of tangent to the curve given by x = a sin3 t, y = b cos3 t at a point where t=
2
.
Q10. Find the equation of the normal at the point (am

2
, am3 ) for the curve ay 2 = x3 .
91
Q11.. Prove that the curves x = y2 and xy = k cut at right angles if 8k 2 = 1.

x2 y 2
Q12. Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the hyperbola − =1 at the point (x0 , y0 ).
a2 b2
√
Q13. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y= 3x − 2 which is parallel to the line 4x−2y+5 =
0 .
1
Q14. Use dierential to approximate (25) 3
Q15. If the radius of a sphere is measured as 9 cm with an error of 0.03 cm, then nd the approximate
error in calculating its volume.
Q16. Example 4: Prove that the radius of the right circular cylinder of greatest curved surface area
which can be inscribed in a given cone is half of that of the cone.
Q17. Find two positive numbers x and y such that their sum is 35 and the product x2 y5 is a maximum.
Q18 A rectangular sheet of tin 45 cm by 24 cm is to be made into a box without top, by cutting o
square from each corner and folding up the aps. What should be the side of the square to be cut
o so that the volume of the box is maximum ?
Q19. Prove that the volume of the largest cone that can be inscribed in a sphere of radius R is 8/27 of
the volume of the sphere.
Q20. Show that semi-vertical angle of right circular cone of given surface area and maximum volume is

−1 1
sin
3
Types of Integrals
93
Part V
Integrals
95
Chapter 14
Indenite Integrals
As earlier, lets do some hands on problems before we get into the intricacies of the topic.
14.1 Introduction
When we talk of integral , it may mean either an Indenite Integral or a Denite Integral. In
PHYSICS, we would usually be interested in the Denite Integral . Mathematically , integration is the
F (x) has a derivative f (x), then F (x) would be one of the
reverse of dierentiation . i.e. If a function
possible integrals off (x) . Now when we say, one of the possible inegrals, we may emphasize that all the
possible functions F (x) belong to the same Family of Curves
and dier from each other by a constant
0 0
only. We would be using a general symbol C with the function F (x) to imply the whole family of curves
which have a derivative f (x) .
14.2 Some basic Integrals

´ x dx = nx + 1 + C
n+1
n
, where n is a real number.
´ cos xdx = sin x + C

´ sin xdx = − cos x + C
´ sec xdx = tan x + C
2
´ cosec xdx = − cot x + C

2
´ sec x. tan xdx = sec x + C

´ cosecx. cot xdx = −cosecx + C
´ √1dx− x = sin x + C
2
−1
´ 1 +dxx = tan x + C
2
−1
´ x√xdx− 1 = sec x + C
2
−1
´ e dx = e + C
x x
´ x1 dx = ln |x| + C
´ f (x) dx = F (x) + C
If , then
´
f (ax + b) dx =
F (ax + b)
a
+C
97
98 CHAPTER 14. INDEFINITE INTEGRALS
´ (f (x) ± g (x)) dx = ´ f (x)dx ± ´ g (x) dx + C

Q: Find the antiderivatives of the following functions:
a) f (x) = 3x2 + 5x + 6
√ 1
b) f (x) = x+ √
x
3
c) f (x) = 4x3 −
x4
d) f (x) = ax2 + bx + c
√
e) f (x) = sin x + cos x + x (1 − x)
7 5
x − 7x − x
f) f (x) = √3
x
g) f (x) = sec x (sec x + tan x)
h) f (x) = tan2 x
2 − 3 sin x
i) f (x) =
cos2 x
1 1
j) f (x) = + + eax
x2 x
1 1
k) f (x) = √ +
9−x 2 16 + 9x2
14.3 Integration by substitution

´
The given integral f (x) dx can be transformed into another form by changing the independed variable
x to t ´ x = g (t)
by substituting
Consider F (x) = f (x) dx
dx
Put x = g (t)so that = g 0 (t)
dt
0
We write, dx = g (t)dt .
´ ´
Thus , I = f (x) dx = f (g (t)) g 0 (t)dt
This change of variable formula is one of the important tools available to us in the name of integration
by substitution. It is often important to guess what will be the useful substitution. Usually, we make a
substitution for a function whose derivative also occurs in the integrand.
Example : Integrate the following functions w.r.t. x:
i) sin mx
(ii) 2xsin(x2 + 1)
√ √
tan4 x sec2 x
(iii) √
x
sin tan−1 x
(iv)
1 + x2
Some results obtained by the method of substitution
´
i)
´ tanxdx = log|secx| + C
ii)
´ cotxdx = log|sinx| + C
iii)
´ secxdx = log|secx + tanx| + C
iv) cosecxdx = log|cosecxcotx| + C
14.3.1 Exercise
Q: Find the following integrals:
14.3. INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION 99
´
(i) sin3 x cos2 xdx
´ sin x
(ii) dx
sin (x + a)
´ dx
(iii)
1 + tan x
Q: Integrate the functions in Exercises
2x
1.
1 + x2
2
(log x)
2.
x
1
3.
x + x log x
4. sin x sin (cos x)
5. sin (ax + b) cos (ax + b)
√
6. ax + b
√
7. x x + 2
√
8. x 1 + 2x2
√
9. (4x + 2) x2 + x + 1
1
10. √
x− x
x
11. √ , x > 0
x+4
1
3
5
12. x − 1 3 x
x2
13.
3
(2 + 3x3 )
1
14. m , x>0
x (log x)
x
15.
9 − 4x2
16. e2x+3
x
17.
ex2
−1
etan x
18.
1 + x2
e2x − 1
19.
e2x + 1
e2x − e−2x
20.
e2x + e−2x
21. tan2 (2x − 3)
22. sec2 (7 − 4x)
sin−1 x
23. √
1 − x2
2 cos x − 3 sin x
24.
6 cos x + 4 sin x
1
25.
2
cos2 x (1 − tan x)
√
cos x
26. √
x
√
27. sin 2x cos 2x
cos x
28. √
1 + sin x
29. cot x log sin x
sin x
30.
1 + cos x
sin x
31.
2
(1 + cos x)
1
32.
1 + cot x
1
33.
1 − tan x
√
tan x
34.
sin x cos x
2
(1 + log x)
35.
x
2
(x + 1) (x + log x)
36.
x
x3 sin tan−1 x4

37.
1 + x8
14.4 Integrals of Some Particular Functions

´

dx 1 x − a
Rule(1) = log
+C
x2 − a 2 2a x + a
´

dx 1 x + a
Rule(2) = log
+C
a2 − x2 2a x − a
´ dx 1 −1 x
Rule(3)

= tan +C
x2 + a 2 a a
´ dx √
Rule(4)

√ = log x + x2 − a2 + C
x2 − a2
´ dx x
Rule(5) √ = sin−1 +C
a2 − x2 a
´ dx √
Rule(6)

√ = log x + x2 + a2 + C
x2+a2
14.4.1 Exercise
´ dx
a)
x2
− 16
´ dx
b) √
2x − x2
´ dx
c)
x2 − 6x + 13
´ dx
d)
2
3x + 13x − 10
14.4. INTEGRALS OF SOME PARTICULAR FUNCTIONS 101
´ dx
e) √
5x2 − 2x
´ x+2
(i)
2x2 + 6x + 5
´ x+3
(ii) √
5 − 4x + x2
3x2
a)
x6+1
1
b) √
1 + 4x2
1
c) q
2
(2 − x) + 1
1
d) √
9 − 25x2
3x
e)
1 + 2x4
x2
f)
1 − x6
x−1
g) √
x2 − 1
x2
h) √
x6 + a6
sec2 x
i) √
tan2 x + 4
1
j) √
2
x + 2x + 2
1
k)
9x2 + 6x + 5
1
l) √
7 − 6x − x2
1
m) p
(x − 1) (x − 2)
1
n) √
8 + 3x − x2
1
o) p
(x − a) (x − b)
4x + 1
p) √
2x2 + x − 3
x+2
q) √
x2 − 1
5x − 2
r)
1 + 2x + 3x2
6x + 7
s) p
(x − 5) (x − 4)
x+2
t) √
4x − x2
x+2
u) √
x2 + 2x + 3
x+3
v)
x2 − 2x − 5
5x + 3
w) √
2
x + 4x + 10
14.5 Integration by Partial Fractions

We will only be discussing one type , in which concepts of vedic mathematics can be incorporated. Other
type of partial fractions will be discussed in the mathematics course in higher classes. The technique
will be explained with the help of following examples.
14.5.1 Exercise
Integrate the rational functions in Exercises
x
1.
(x + 1) (x + 2)
1
2.
2
x −9
3x − 1
3.
(x − 1) (x − 2) (x − 3)
x
4.
(x − 1) (x − 2) (x − 3)
2x
5.
2
x + 3x + 2
1 − x2
6.
x (1 − 2x)
1
7.
4
x −1
1
8. [Hint: multiply numerator and denominator by xn1 and put xn = t ]
x (xn + 1)
x2
9.
(x2 + 1) (x2 + 4)
(3 sin x − 2) cos x
10.
5 − cos2 x − 4 sin x
14.6 Integration by Parts

´ ´ ´ ´
Rule(*) f (x)g(x)dx = f (x) g(x)dx [f 0(x) g(x)dx]dx
Ö
Ö
The integral of the product of two functions = (rst function) (integral of the second function)
Integral of [(dierential coecient of the rst function) (integral of the second function)]
´
Example : Find
´ x cos xdx
Example : Find
´ logxxdx
Example : Find xe dx
´ x sin−1 x
Example : Find √ dx [Hint: Put sin−1 x = θ and then integrate by parts]
2
´ x1 − x
Example : Find e sin xdx
14.7. INTEGRALS OF SOME MORE TYPES 103
´
Corollary ex [f (x) + f 0(x)]dx = ex f (x) + C
Integral of the type
´ x

−1 1
Example: e tan x + dx
1 + x2
´ x2 + 1 ex

Example :
2 dx
(x + 1)
14.6.1 Exercise
1. x sin x
2. x sin 3x
3. x2 ex
4. x log x
5. x log 2x
6. x2 log x
7. x sin1 x
8. x tan1 x
9. x cos1 x
10. (sin1 x)2
x cos−1 x
11. √
1 − x2
12. x sec2 x
13. tan1 x
14. x(log x)2
15. (x2 + 1) log x
16. ex (sin x + cos x)
xex
17.
2
(1 + x)

1 + sin x
18. ex
1 + cos x

1 1
19. ex − 2
x x
(x − 3) ex
20.
3
(x − 1)
21. e2x sin x

2x
22. sin−1
1 + x2
14.7 Integrals of some more types

´√ x√ 2 a2 √
Rule(1)

x2 a2 dx = x − a2 − log x + x2 − a2 + C
2 2
´√ x√ 2 a2 √
Rule(2)

x2 + a2 dx = x + a2 + log x + x2 + a2 + C
2 2
´√ 1 √ 2 a2 x
Rule(3) a2 − x2 dx = x a − x2 + sin−1 + C
2 2 a
´√
Example : Find x2 + 2x + 5dx
´√
Example : Find 3 − 2x − x2 dx
√
1. 4 − x2
√
2. 1 − 4x2
√
3. x2 + 4x + 6
√
4. x2 + 4x + 1
√
5. 1 − 4x − x2
√
6. x2 + 4x − 5
√
7. 1 + 3x − x2
√
8. x2 + 3x
r
x2
9. 1+
9
14.8 Problems for Practice

Q1: Evaluate the following Integrals
´ x2 ex
a)
2 dx
(x + 2)
´ x2 ex
Sol: a)
2 dx
(x + 2)
´ x2 − 4 + 4

= 2 ex dx
(x + 2)
´
!
x−2 4
= + ex dx
x + 2 (x + 2)2
x−2 / 4
Now we know, if f (x) =
, then f (x) =
2
x+2 (x + 2)
´ x2 ex

x−2 x
Hence,
2 dx = x+2
e +C
(x + 2)

Q1: Evaluate the Integral
1
´

3 3m m
x4m + x2m + x m
x + 3xm + 6 dx for x>0
2
Q2: Evaluate the Integral
√
´
!
9x2 + 12x + 29
cosec−1 dx
3x + 2
14.8. PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE 105

´ dx
Q1: The integral equals
sin (x − a) cos (x − b)

1 sin (x − a)
a) ln +C
cos (a − b) cos (x − b)

1 cos (x − a)
b) ln +C
sin (a − b) cos (x − b)

1 cos (x − a)
c) ln +C
cos (a − b) sin (x − b)
d) None of these
´ 4x2 + 2x + 1
Q2: If dx = A ln |x| + B ln |2x − 1| + C ln |2x + 1| + D . Then, A+B−C equals
x (2x − 1) (2x + 1)
a) 0
b) 1
c) 3
d) None of these

Single Answer MCQ's
Q1: Answer : A
´ dx 1 ´ cos ((x − b) − (x − a))
{Hint: = dx =
1 ´ cos (x − a) cos (x − b) + sin (x − a) sin (x − b)
dx =
sin (x − a) cos (x − b) cos (a − b) sin (x − a) cos (x − b) cos (a − b) sin (x − a) cos (x − b)
´ cos (x − a) ´ sin (x − b)

1 1 1 sin (x − a)
dx + dx = (ln |sin (x − a)| − ln |cos (x − b)|)+C = ln +
cos (a − b) sin (x − a) cos (x − b) cos (a − b) cos (a − b) cos (x − b)
C }
Q2:Answer : A
4x2 + 2x + 1
{Hint:We rst of all make the partial fractions of . If we want to do it with the method
x (2x − 1) (2x + 1)
of vedic mathematics, we must make the coecients of all the x equal in all the fractions. We make it equal
to 2 for our convenience.
2 4x2 + 2x + 1

a b c
i.e = + +
2x (2x − 1) (2x + 1) 2x 2x − 1 2x + 1
2 (1) 2 (3) 2 (1)
⇒a= = −2 ,b== 3 and c = =1
(−1) (1) (1) (2) (−1) (−2)
´ 4x2 + 2x + 1 ´

2 3 1
⇒ dx = − + + dx
x (2x − 1) (2x + 1) 2x 2x − 1 2x + 1
3 1
= − ln |x| + ln |2x − 1| + ln |2x + 1| +Integration Constant
2 2
3
Comparing this with the given equation A ln |x| + B ln |2x − 1| + C ln |2x + 1| + D , we get A = −1, B =
2
1
and C =
2
3 1
⇒ A + B − C = −1 + − = 0}
2 2
Test ( Integrals )
Time Allowed : 1 Hour ________________________ Maximum Marks : 60
Instructions
A. General
invigilators.

Evaluate the following Integrals.
´

2 − 3 sin x
Q1: dx
cos2 x
´
Q2: cosecxdx
´ 1
Q3: m dx
x (logx)
´ (x + 1) (x + logx)2
Q4: dx
x
´ dx
Q5:
cos (x − a) cos (x − b)
´ x+2
Q6: √ dx
x2+ 2x + 3
107
Chapter 15
Denite Integral
´b
Steps for calculating
a
f (x) dx .
´
(i) Find the indenite integral f (x) dx . Let this be F(x). There is no need to keep integration
´b b
constant C because if we consider F(x) + C instead of F(x), we get
a
f (x) dx = [F (x) + C]a =
[F (b) + C] − [F (a) − C] = F (b) − F (a) . Thus, the arbitrary constant disappears in evaluating the
value of the denite integral.
´b
(ii) Evaluate F (b)F (a) = [F (x)]ba , which is the value of a
f (x) dx . We now consider some examples
Q: Evaluate the following integrals:
´3
a)
2
x2 dx
√
´9 x
b)  dx
4
3 2

30 − x 2 
´2 xdx
c)
1 (x + 1) (x + 2)
π
´4
d) 0 sin3 2t cos 2tdt
Q: Evaluate the denite integrals in Exercises .
´1
1.
−1
(x + 1) dx
´3 1
2.
2 x
dx
´2
3.
1
(4x3 5x2 + 6x + 9)dx
´5 x
4.
4
e dx
π
´4
5. 0 tan xdx
π
´4
6. π cosecxdx
6
´1 dx
7.
0
√
1 − x2
´ 1 dx
8.
0 1 + x2
´ 3 dx
9.
2 x2 − 1
109
110 CHAPTER 15. DEFINITE INTEGRAL
π
´2 2
10. 0 cos xdx
´ 3 xdx
11.
2 x2 + 1
´ 1 2x + 3
12.
0 5x2 + 1
dx
´ 1 x2
13.
0
xe dx
´2 5x2
14.
1 x2 + 4x + 3
π
´4
15. 0 2 sec2 x + x3 + 2 dx
´π 2 x 2 x

16.
0
sin − cos dx
2 2
´ 2 6x + 3
17.
0 x2 + 4
dx
´1
x πx
18.
0
xe + sin dx
4
15.1 Some Properties of Denite Integrals

We list below some important properties of denite integrals. These will be useful in evaluating the
denite integrals more easily.
´b ´b
P0 :
a
f (x) dx = f (t) dt
a
´b á á
P1 :
a
f (x) dx = − b f (x) dx . In particular, a f (x) dx = 0
´b ć ´b
P2 :
a
f (x) dx = a f (x) dx + c f (x) dx
´b ´b
P3 :
a
f (x) dx = a f (a + b − x) dx
á á
P4 :
0
f (x) dx = 0 f (a − x) dx (Note that P4 is a particular case of P3 )
´ 2a á á
P5 :
0
f (x) dx = 0 f (x) dx + 0 f (2a − x) dx
( á
´ 2a 2 0 f (x) dx, if f (2a − x) = f (x)
P6 :
0
f (x) dx =
0, if f (2a − x) = −f (x)
´1 á
P7 : (i)
á
f (x) dx = 2 0 f (x) dx, if f is an even function i.e. if f (−x) = f (x)
−1
(ii)
−a
f (x) dx = 0 , if f is an odd function i.e. if f (−x) = −f (x)
π
´4 2
Example 1 : Evaluate π sin xdx
−
4
´ 1 x sin x
Example 2 : Evaluate
0 2
dx
´ 1 1 + 5cos x4
Example 3 : Evaluate
−1
sin x cos xdx
π
´2 sin4 x
Example 4 : Evaluate 0 dx
sin4 x + cos4 x
π
´3 dx
Example 5 : Evaluate π √
1 + tan x
6
π
´2
Example 6 : Evaluate log sin xdx
0
15.1.1 Exercise
By using the properties of denite integrals, evaluate the integrals in Exercises
π
´2 2
1. 0 cos xdx
π √
´2 sin x
2. 0 √ √ dx
sin x + cos x
π 3
´2 sin 2 x
3. 0 dx
3 3
sin 2 x + cos 2 x
π
´2 cos5 xdx
4. 0 5
sin x + cos5 x
´1 n
5.
0
x (1 − x) dx
π
´4
6. 0 log (1 + tan x) dx
´2 √
7.
0
x 2 − xdx
π
´2
8. 0 (2 log sin x − log sin 2x) dx
π
´2 2
9. π sin xdx
−
2
´ π xdx
10.
0 1 + sin x
π
´2 7
11. π sin xdx
−
2
´ 2π
12.
0
cos5 xdx
π
´ 2 sin x − cos x
13. 0 dx
1 + sin x cos x
´π
14.
0
log (1 + cos x) dx
√
á x
15.
0
√ √ dx
x+ a−x

´2

4x − 4
Q1: 0
tan−1 dx equals
4 + 2x − x2
a) 0
b) 1
π
c) −
4
π
d)
3
´ t2 √
Q2: If for t>0 , the denite integral
0
3
x 2 f (x) dx = 2t5 . Then f 2 equals
√
2 2
a)
´ −e−2 log |x|

Q3: −e2
dx equals
x
a) 2
b) -2
c) 4
d) -4
´ tan x 1
Q4: lim
x→0 x
dt equals
t3
a) 0
1
b)
2
1
c)
3
d) None of these
´ log x
Q5: If
1
t5 f (t) dt = log (x) − 1 , then f (2)equals
a) 0
b) 1
1
c)
2
1
d)
32
15.2.0.2 Multiple Answer MCQ's

2
Q1: f (x) is a twice direntiable function on (−∞, ∞) such that f (x) = f (2 − x) and f/ √ =0 ,
7
then
A) f / (1) = 0
B )f / (x) vanishes at least thrice in [0, 2].
´1
C)
−1
f (x + 1) tan xdx = 0
´1 π ´2 π
D)
0
f (t) esin 2 t dt = 1 f (2 − t) esin 2 t dt
15.2.0.3 Matrix Match type Problems

Matrix 1: In Column I, some expressions containing Integrals are given.In Column II, some values are
given . Match the expression in Column I with the values in Column II.
Column I C II
´ 45 3

ln x 2 dx
(P) ´ 3√5 (A)0
5
√
5
x ln (x2 ) dx
√ #!3
´ ´ 7√2
"
1
x+ 2
(Q) 16 (B)1
√
0
2
x3 dx − √
− 2
dx
16
where [ ] is the greatest integer function.
´ ´ −3 −(t+2)
(R) 5 e(5x−2) dx + −2 (C)2
3 3 3
2
5
e dt
5
´2 5 ´

(S) 23 (x + 1)
(D)3
1
cos2 sin2 32x5 dx

−1
dx + 4 2
0
243

Single Answer MCQ's
Q1 a) A
´2

−1 4x − 4
{ Hint : a)Let I= 0
tan dx
4 + 2x − x2
 
´2 x−1 
⇒I= tan−1   dx

0 x x2
1+ −
2 4
 x x 
´2 − 1−
⇒ I = 0 tan−1  2 x 2  dx
x
1+ 1−
2 2
x x
Now , we know that ∀x (0, 2), both and 1 − lie in the interval (0, 1).
2 2
´2 x x
⇒ I = 0 tan−1 − tan−1 1 − dx
2 2
´2 x ´2 x
⇒ I = 0 tan−1 dx − 0 tan−1 1 − dx
2 2
´b ´b
Now, applying the property,
a
f (x) dx = a f (a + b − x) dx on the second integral, we get
´2 ´2

x (2 − x)
⇒ I = 0 tan−1 dx − 0 tan−1 1 − dx
2 2
´2 x ´2 x
⇒ I = 0 tan−1 dx − 0 tan−1 dx = 0
2 2
Multiple Answer MCQ's
Q1: A, B, C ,D
Matrix Match type Problems

Matrix 1:
Chapter 16
Area under the curve
From Fig , we can think of area under the curve as composed of large number of very thin vertical strips.
Consider an arbitrary strip of height y and width dx, then dA (area of the elementary strip)= ydx,
where, y = f(x).
This area is called the elementary area which is located at an arbitrary position within the region
which is specied by some value of x between a and b. We can think of the total area A of the region
between x-axis, ordinates x = a, x = b and the curve y = f (x) as the result of adding up the elementary
areas of thin strips across the region PQRSP. Symbolically, we express
´b ´b ´b
A= a
dA = a
ydx = a
f (x) dx
The area A of the region bounded by the curve x = g (y), y-axis and the lines y = c, y = d is given
by
115
116 CHAPTER 16. AREA UNDER THE CURVE
x = 3
´d ´d
A= c
xdy = c g (y) dy
Here, we consider horizontal strips as shown in the Fig .
2 2 2
Example 1 Find the area enclosed by the circle x + y = a .
2 2
x y
Example 2 Find the area enclosed by the ellipse + 2 =1
a2 b
16.0.1 Exercise
1. Find the area of the region bounded by the curve y2 = x and the lines x = 1, x = 4 and
the x-axis.
2. Find the area of the region bounded by y 2 = 9x, x = 2, x = 4 and the x-axis in the rst
quadrant.
3. Find the area of the region bounded by x2 = 4y , y = 2, y = 4 and the y-axis in the rst
quadrant.
x2 y2
4. Find the area of the region bounded by the ellipse + =1 .
16 9
x2 y2
5. Find the area of the region bounded by the ellipse + =1 .
4 9
√
6. Find the area of the region in the rst quadrant enclosed by x-axis, line x= 3y and the
circle x2 + y 2 = 4.
a
7. Find the area of the smaller part of the circle x2 + y 2 = a2 cut o by the line x= √ .
2
8. The area between x = y2 and x=4 is divided into two equal parts by the line x = a, nd
the value of a.
9. Find the area of the region bounded by the parabola y = x2 and y=x .
10. Find the area bounded by the curve x2 = 4y and the line x = 4y 2.
2
11. Find the area of the region bounded by the curve y = 4x and the line x = 3.
16.1 Area between Two Curves

For setting up a formula for the integral, it is convenient to take elementary area in the form of vertical
strips. As indicated in the Fig , elementary strip has height f (x)g(x) and width dx so that the elementary
area
Example Find the area of the region bounded by the two parabolas y = x2 and y 2 = x.
2 2
Example Find the area lying above x-axis and included between the circle x + y = 8x and inside of
the parabola y 2 = 4x.

Q1: For x ≥ 0 , the curve y = x2 sin x forms alternate humps and ditches with respect to the x axis.
Find the ratios of the areas of the second hump and the rst ditch.
118 CHAPTER 16. AREA UNDER THE CURVE
Chapter 17
Application of Integrals
17.1 Volumes
17.1.1 Volumes by Slicing and Rotation About an Axis
The volume of a solid of known integrable cross-sectional area A(x) from x = a to x = b is the integral
of A from a to b,
´b
V = a
A (x) dx
Example 1 : Volume of a Pyramid
A pyramid 3 m high has a square base that is 3 m on a side. The cross-section of the pyramid
perpendicular to the altitude x m down from the vertex is a square x m on a side. Find the volume of
the pyramid.
119
120 CHAPTER 17. APPLICATION OF INTEGRALS
Example 2 : Cavalieri's Principle
Cavalieri's principle says that solids with equal altitudes and identical cross-sectional areas at each
height have the same volume . This follows immediately from the denition of volume, because the
cross-sectional area function A(x) and the interval [a, b] are the same for both solids.
Example 3 : Volume of a Wedge
°
A curved wedge is cut from a cylinder of radius 3 by two planes. One plane is perpendicular to the
axis of the cylinder. The second plane crosses the rst plane at a 45 angle at the center of the cylinder.
Find the volume of the wedge.
17.1. VOLUMES 121
17.1.2 Solids of Revolution: The Disk Method
The solid generated by rotating a plane region about an axis in its plane is called a solid of revolution.
To nd the volume of a solid like the one shown in Figure, we need only observe that the cross-sectional
area A(x) is the area of a disk of radius R(x), the distance of the planar region's boundary from the axis
of revolution. The area is then
2 2
A (x) = π (radius) = π [R (x)]
So the denition of volume gives
´b ´b 2
V = a
A (x) dx = a
π [R (x)] dx
This method for calculating the volume of a solid of revolution is often called the disk method because
a cross-section is a circular disk of radius R(x).
Example 4 : A Solid of Revolution (Rotation About the x-Axis)
√
The region between the curve y= x , 0≤x≤4 , and the x-axis is revolved about the x-axis to
generate a solid. Find its volume.
Example 5 : The circle x2 + y 2 = a2 is rotated about the x-axis to generate a sphere. Find its volume.
Example 6 : A Solid of Revolution (Rotation About the Line y=1 )

√
Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region bounded by y = x and the lines
y = 1, x = 4 about the line y = 1.
Example 7 : Rotation About the y-Axis
Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region between the y-axis and the curve
17.1. VOLUMES 123
2
x= ,1 ≤ y ≤ 4 , about the y-axis.
y
Example 8 : Rotation About a Vertical Axis
Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region between the parabola x = y2 + 1 and
the line x=3 about the line x = 3.
17.1.3 Solids of Revolution: The Washer Method
The cross-sections of the solid of revolution generated here are washers, not disks, so the integral
´b
a
A (x) dx leads to a slightly dierent formula.
If the region we revolve to generate a solid does not border on or cross the axis of revolution, the solid
has a hole in it . The cross-sections perpendicular to the axis of revolution are washers (the purplish
circular surface in Figure ) instead of disks. The dimensions of a typical washer are
Outer Radius = R (x)
Inner Radius = r (x)
The washer's area is
2 2
A (x) = π [R (x)] − π [r (x)]
Consequently, the denition of volume gives
Example 9 A Washer Cross-Section (Rotation About the x-Axis)

The region bounded by the curve y = x2 + 1 and the line y = −x + 3 is revolved about the x-axis to
generate a solid. Find the volume of the solid.
Example 10 : A Washer Cross-Section (Rotation About the y-Axis)

17.1. VOLUMES 125
The region bounded by the parabola y = x2 and the line y = 2x in the rst quadrant is revolved
about the y-axis to generate a solid. Find the volume of the solid.
17.1.4 Volumes by Cylindrical Shells

Example 1 : Finding a Volume Using Shells
The region enclosed by the x-axis and the parabola y = f (x) = 3x − x2 is revolved about the vertical
line x = −1 to generate the shape of a solid (Figure ). Find the volume of the solid.
Example 2 : Cylindrical Shells Revolving About the y-Axis

√
The region bounded by the curve y= x the x-axis, and the line x=4 is revolved about the y-axis
to generate a solid. Find the volume of the solid.
Example 3 : Cylindrical Shells Revolving About the x-Axis

√
The region bounded by the curve y= x the x-axis, and the line x=4 is revolved about the x-axis
to generate a solid. Find the volume of the solid.
17.2. LENGTHS OF PLANE CURVES 127
17.2 Lengths of Plane Curves

´q 2 2
For a plane curve, the length of the curve can be found as (dx) + (dy)
For a parametric Curve.
Example 1 : The Circumference of a Circle

Find the length of the circle of radius r dened parametrically by
x = r cos t and y = r sin t , 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π
Example 2 Applying the Parametric Formula for Length of a Curve
Find the length of the astroid
x = cos3 t, y = sin3 t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π
Example 3 : Applying the Arc Length Formula for a Graph

Find the length of the curve
√ 3
4 2
y= x2 − 1 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
3
17.3 Areas of Surfaces of Revolution

17.3.1 Revolution about x-axis
Example 1 Applying the Surface Area Formula

√
Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the curve y = 2 x, 1 ≤ x ≤ 2 , about the x-axis
(Figure).
17.3.2 Revolution about y-axis
Example 2 Finding Area for Revolution about the y-Axis
The line segment x=1−y , 0≤y ≤1 is revolved about the y-axis to generate the cone in Figure .
Find its lateral surface area (which excludes the base area).
17.3.3 Parametrized Curves
Example 3 Applying Surface Area Formula
The standard parametrization of the circle of radius 1 centered at the point (0, 1) in the xy-plane
x = cos t , y = 1 + sin t , 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π
Use this parametrization to nd the area of the surface swept out by revolving the circle about the
x-axis .
17.3. AREAS OF SURFACES OF REVOLUTION 129
17.3.4 The Dierential Form
Example 4 Using the Dierential Form for Surface Areas

1
Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the curve y = x3 , 0≤x≤ about the x-axis
2
(Figure).
17.3.5 The Theorems of Pappus
Example 5 Volume of a Torus
The volume of the torus (doughnut) generated by revolving a circular disk of radius a about an axis
in its plane at a distance b≥a from its center (Figure )
Example 6 Locate the Centroid of a Semicircular Region
17.4 Polar Coordinates

In this section, we study polar coordinates and their relation to Cartesian coordinates. While a point in
the plane has just one pair of Cartesian coordinates, it has innitely many pairs of polar coordinates.
17.4.1 Denition of Polar Coordinates

To dene polar coordinates, we rst x an origin O (called the pole) and an initial ray from O . Then
each point P can be located by assigning to it a polar coordinate pair (r, θ) in which r gives the directed
distance from O to P and gives the directed angle from the initial ray to ray OP.
17.4. POLAR COORDINATES 131
Some properties
i) Polar Coordinates are not unique
ii) Polar Coordinates can have -ve r-values
π
Example 1 : Find all the polar coordinates of the point P 2,
6
Example 2 : Graph the sets of points whose polar coordinates satisfy the following conditions
π
i) 1≤r≤2 and 0≤θ≤
2
π
ii) −3 ≤ r ≤ 2 and θ=
4
π
iii) r≤0 and θ=
4
2π 5π
iv) ≤θ≤ ( no restriction on r )
3 6
17.4.2 Relating Polar and Cartesian Coordinates
x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, x2 + y 2 = r2
Example Find a polar equation for the circle

2
x2 + (y − 3) = 9
Ans. r = 6 sin θ
Example Replace the following polar equations by equivalent Cartesian equations, and identify their
graphs.
i) r cos θ = −4
ii) r2 = 4r cos θ
4
iii) r=
2 cos θ − sin θ
17.4.3 Graphing in Polar Coordinates

This section describes techniques for graphing equations in polar coordinates.
Symmetry
Example : A Cardioid
Graph the curve r = 1 − cos θ
17.4.4 Areas and Lengths in Polar Coordinates

17.4.4.1 Area of the Fan-Shaped Region Between the Origin and the Curve r = f (θ) ,
α≤θ≤β
´β 1 2
A= α 2
r dθ
Example : Find the area of the region in the plane enclosed by the cardioid r = 2 (1 + cos θ)
17.4.4.2 Area Between Polar Curves (Area of the region 0 ≤ r1 (θ) ≤ r ≤ r2 (θ) , α ≤ θ ≤ β )
´β 1 2
A= α 2
r2 − r12 dθ
Example : Find the area of the region that lies inside the circle r = 1 and outside the cardioid
r = 1 − cos θ
17.4.4.3 Length of a Polar Curve
We can obtain a polar coordinate formula for the length of a curve r = f (θ) , α ≤ θ ≤ β , by parametrizing
the curve as x = r cos θ = f (θ) cos θ , y = r sin θ = f (θ) sin θ , α ≤ θ ≤ β
The parametric length formula, then gives the length as
s
´β
2 2
dx dy
L= α
+ dθ
dθ dθ
The equation becomes
s
´β
2
dr
L= α
r2 + dθ
dθ
Example : Find the length of the cardioid r = 1 − cos θ
17.4.5 Area of a Surface of Revolution
To derive polar coordinate formulas for the area of a surface of revolution, we parametrize the curve
r = f (θ) , α ≤ θ ≤ β with Equations above and apply the surface area equations for parametrized
curves .
17.5. CURVED SURFACE AREA AND VOLUME PROBLEMS 137
Example : Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the right-hand loop of the lemniscate
r2 = cos 2θ about the y-axis.
17.5 Curved Surface Area and Volume Problems
R
Q: A cork ball of radius R is taken and it is cut with a knife at a distance from the centre . Find the
2
volume of the smaller of the cut portions.
Sol: To calculate the volume of the portion of ball, we divide it into dirential cylinders. Let us keep
a single parameter θ to exress the radius and height of the dirential cylinders. The parameter
π R
θ varies from to0 as the distance of the cylinder from the centre varies from 0 to and the
3 √ 2
R 3
radius varies from to 0. The distance h of the dirential cylinder from the centre is given by
2
h = R cos θ
⇒ dh = −R sin θdθ( The height of the dirential cylinder)
Also, r = R sin θ(Radius of the dirential cylinder)

Note that dθ is so small that the curve on the edges will vanish and the gure will be a cylinder.
Hence we can nd the volume of the dirential cylinder
2
⇒ dV = πr2 dh = π (R sin θ) (−R sin θdθ)
⇒ dV = −πR3 sin3 θdθ
´0
⇒ V = π −πR3 sin3 θdθ
3
´ π
⇒ V = πR3 3
0
sin3 θdθ
´ π
⇒ V = πR3 sin θ 1 − cos2 θ dθ
3
0
´ π ´π
⇒ V = πR3 03 sin θdθ − 03 sin θ cos2 θdθ
π !
− cos3 θ 3

π
3
⇒ V = πR [− cos θ]0 −
3
3 0

3 1 1 1
⇒ V = πR − −1 + −1
2 3 8
5
⇒V = πR3
24

Comprehension 1: An unnamed space project, by a major space organization is in the form of a cone
with a paraboloid cavity at the bottom. The parabolic cavity has its focus at the centre of the base
of the cone and it touches the the outer curved surface of the cone at the base edge. The height of
0 0
the cavity is a . The body of the project is made of solid Lead and a coating of carbon of thickness
2µm is made on both the curved surfaces(CSA of cone and the paraboloid cavity). A diagram is
given to make the situation more clear.
Q1: The height of the space project is
3
a) a
2
b) 2a
c) 4a
d) None of these.
Q2: The volume of lead in the project is
2 3
a) πa
3
b) πa3
4 3
c) πa
3
d) None of these
Q3: The total amount of Carbon used in the project is
8 2 √
πa 3 2 − 2 × 10−6 m3

a)
3
8 2 √
5 2 − 2 × 10−6 m3

b) πa
3
8 2 √
7 2 − 2 × 10−6 m3

c) πa
3
d) None of these
Comprehension 2: Two adjacent BSNL towers have the following specications. One is located in
Sector-36, Chandigarh and forms a Hemi-Spherical cell of radius 300m . Second one is located in
Village Attawa and forms a hemi-spherical cell of radius 400m. Both the towers are at a distance
of half a kilometer.[It may be assumed that the Transmitters are at ground level.]
Q1: The angle of intersection of the cells is
π
a)
6
π
b)
3
π
c)
2
d) None of these
Q2: The maximum height at which a person carrying a mobile phone can stand to recieve signals from
both the towers is
a)90m
b)160m
c)240m
d) None of these
Q3: The volume of the portion which recieves signals from both the towers is
92
a) π × 105 m3
3
5 3
b)92π × 10 m
92
c) π × 105 m3
5
d)None of these

Linked Comprehension type problems
Comprehension 1: Answers Q1) B Q2) A Q3) C
{Hint: Let us choose a coordinate axis as shown in the gure.
a) The parabola is a downward facing parabola with with vertex at (0, a) and focus at O(0, 0). Its equation
is given by x2 = −4a (y − a).[ We are working in the cross-sectional plane only.] . We know that the latus
rectum of the parabola is of length 4a. This means the points where the parabola touches the cone have
co-ordinates (2a, 0) and (−2a, 0). The slope of tangent at these two points can be found out by direntiating
the curve
dy
2x = −4a
dx
dy x
⇒ =−
dx 2a

dy
⇒ = −1
dx (2a,0)
Hence the cone has a base angle of 45o .i.e the height of the project is 2a.
1 1 8
b) The volume of the cone is equal to VCone = πrbase
2 h = π (2a)2 (2a) = πa3
3 3 3
Now our concern is to nd the volume of the cavity. To do this, we devide the cavity into dirential cylinders
of radius x and height dy.
The volume of a dirential cylinder is

dV = πx2 dy
á
⇒ VCavity = πx2 dy
0
á
⇒ VCavity = π 0 (−4a (y − a)) dy [ We know the equation of the parabola as x2 = −4a (y − a)]
á
a
y2 a2

⇒ VCavity = −4aπ 0 (y − a) dy = −4aπ − ay
= −4aπ − = 2πa3
2 0 2
8 2
Hence, VLead = VCone − VCavity = πa3 − 2πa3 = πa3
3 3
√ √
c) The curved surface area of the cone is πrcone lcone = π (2a) 2 2a = 4 2πa2
The curved surface area of the cavity can be found out by taking dirential elements as shown in the gure.
It may be noted that x co-ordinate is decreasing, i.e. dx is negative.

s 2 r
dy x 2
q
Dirential surface area = 2πx (−dx)2 + (dy)2 = 2πx dx2 + dy2 = 2πx |dx|
p
1+ = 2πx (−dx) 1+ − =
dx 2a
π √
− 2x 4a2 + x2 dx
2a
Integrating this dirential area, we get the Curved Surface Area of the Parabolic Cavity as
 2a
 π 4a2 + x2 32

´0 π √ ´ π √ π ´ 2a √
C.S.Area = 2a − 2x 4a2 + x2 dx = 0 2a
2x 4a2 + x2 dx = 2x 4a2 + x2 dx = 

 =

2a 2a 2a 0  2a 3
y
" √ # 2 0
π h 3 3i 16 2 − 8
8a2 2 − 4a2 2 = πa2

3a 3
" √ # " √ #
√ 16 2 − 8 28 2 − 8 4 √
Hence, the total C.S.A is 4 2πa2 + πa2

= πa2 = πa2 7 2 − 2
3 3 3
4 √ 8 √
⇒The amount of carbon used is C.S.A

×2µm3 = πa2 7 2 − 2 × 2 × 10−6 m3 = πa2 7 2 − 2 ×
3 3
10−6 m3 }
Comprehension 2 : Answers : Q1)C Q2)C Q3) A
{Hint: The adjoining gure clearly explains all the parameters required for nding the angle between the cells
a)It may be noted that (300)2 + (400)2 = (500)2 . Hence, the intervening angle is 90o
b) We may redraw the gure as shown below
300 3
cos α = =
500 5
4
⇒ h = 300 × sin α = 300 × = 240m
5
c) If we complete the spheres , the required volume will be half of the intersecting portions of the spheres.
1
Vreqd = ×Common portion of the complete spheres
2
3 4
We know cos α = . On similar lines , we can nd cos β =
5 5
1
Vlef t + Vright [ where Vlef t is the volume of the portion of right cell subtending an angle 2β

⇒ Vreqd =
2
at the center of the right cell. Similar is the case with Vright .
´β
β !
− cos3 θ

From the cork ball example done earlier, we know that Vlef t = 3
0 πRright sin3
θdθ = 3
πRright [− cos θ]β
0 − =
0 3

4 1 64 14
3
πRright − −1 + −1 = π (400)3
5 3 125 375
´
α
cos3 θ

3 1 27
On similar grounds Vright = 0α πRlef
3 3 3 α
t sin θdθ = πRlef t [− cos θ]0 − −
3
= πRlef t − −1 + −1 =
3 0 5 3 125
52
π (300)3
375
!
1 1 π (100)3 3 92
4 × 14 + 33 × 52 = π × 105 m3 }

⇒ Vreqd = Vlef t + Vright =
2 2 375 3
Part VI
Dierential Equations
145
147
17.5.2 Formation of a Dierential Equation whose General Solution is given

Example Form the dierential equation representing the family of curves y = mx, where, m is arbitrary
constant.
Example Form the dierential equation representing the family of curves y = a sin (x + b), where a,
b are arbitrary constants.
Example Form the dierential equation representing the family of ellipses having foci on x-axis and
centre at the origin.
Example Form the dierential equation of the family of circles touching the x-axis at origin.
Example Form the dierential equation representing the family of parabolas having vertex at origin
and axis along positive direction of x-axis.
17.5.3 Methods of Solving First Order, First Degree Dierential Equations

17.5.3.1 Dierential equations with variables separable
The dierential equation then has the form
dy
= h (y) .g (x)
dx
If h (y) 6= 0, separating the variables, equation can be rewritten as
dy
= g(x)dx
h(y)
Integrating both sides , we get
´ dy ´
= g(x)dx
h(y)
dy x+1
Example Find the general solution of the dierential equation = , (y 6= 2)
dx 2−y
dy 1 + y2
Example Find the general solution of the dierential equation =
dx 1 + x2
dy
Example Find the particular solution of the dierential equation = −4xy 2 given that y = 1, when
dx
x = 0.
17.5.3.2 Homogeneous dierential equations

dy y
To solve a homogeneous dierential equation of the type = F (x, y) = g
dx x
We make the substitution y = v.x
Dierentiating equation with respect to x, we get
dy dv
=v+x
dx dx
dy
Substituting the value of from equation , we get
dx
dv
v+x = g(v)
dx
dv
x = g (v) − v
dx
Separating the variables in equation, we get
dv dx
=
g (v) − v x
Integrating both sides of equation , we get
´ dv ´ dx
= +C
g (v) − v x
dy
Example Show that the dierential equation (xy) = x + 2y is homogeneous and solve it.
dx
148
y dy y
Example Show that the dierential equation x cos = y cos +x is homogeneous and solve
x dx x
it.
17.5.3.3 Linear dierential equations
dy
A dierential equation of the from + Py = Q where, P and Q are constants or functions of x only,
dx
is known as a rst order linear dierential equation. Some examples of the rst order linear dierential
equation are
dy
+ y = sin x
dx

dy 1
+ y = ex
dx x

dy y 1
+ =
dx x log x x
Another form of rst order linear dierential equation is
dx
+ P1 x = Q1
dy
where, P1 and Q1 are constants or functions of y only. Some examples of this type of dierential
equation are
dx
+ x = cos y
dy
dx −2x
+ = y 2 e−y
dy y
dy
(*) Lets consider + Py = Q
dx
´
P dx
The function g(x) = e is called Integrating Factor (I.F.) of the given dierential equation.
Multiplying g (x) in equation , we get
´ ´ ´
P dx dy P dx P dx
e + Pe y = Qe
dx
dy
Example Find the general solution of the dierential equation − y = cos x
dx

17.6.0.1 Matrix Match type Problems
Matrix 1: Under Column I, some families of curves are mentioned. Under Column II, the dirential
equations reprsenting them are given. Match the curves in Coloumn I with the dirential equations
which can possibly represent them under Column II.
Column I Column II
(P) A circle of arbitrary radius (A) (x − y)2 1 +
2
y/
'a' in the second quadrant tou-
2
= x + yy /
ching both the coordinate axes.
(Q) A circle of arbitrary radius (B) (x + y)2
2
1 + y/
'b' in the fourth quadrant tou-
2
= x + yy /
ching both the coordinate axes.
(R) A circle of arbitrary radius (C) (x + y)2
2
1 + y/
1
'c' , touching the lines x = −2c
2
= x + yy /
9
and y = 2c
(S) A circle of arbitrary radius (D) (3x + y)2 1 + y/ 2

'd' touching the lines x = 2d

2
= x + yy /
and y = −2d
(E) (x + 3y)2
2
1 + y/
2
= x + yy /

Matrix Match type Problems
Matrix 1:
150
Vectors Algebra, 3D Geometry and
Vector Calculus
151
Chapter 18
Vectors
18.1 Scalars and Vectors

18.1.1 Scalar
A scalar is a quantity that has only magnitude.
Quantities such as time, mass, distance, temperature, entropy, electric potential, and population are
scalars.
18.1.2 Vector
A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction.
Vector quantities include velocity, force, displacement, and electric eld intensity. Another class of
physical quantities is called tensors, of which scalars and vectors are special cases. For most of the
time, we shall be concerned with scalars and vectors. To distinguish between a scalar and a vector it is
→
− →
−
customary to represent a vector by a letter with an arrow on top of it, such as A and B, or by a letter
in boldface type such as A and B. A scalar is represented simply by a letter e.g., A, B, U, and V.
18.2 Unit Vector

A vector A has both magnitude and direction. The magnitude of A is a scalar written as A or |A|. A
unit vector Â along A is dened as a vector whose magnitude is unity (i.e., 1) and its direction is along
A, that is,
→
− →
−
A A
Â = →− =
|A| A
→
−
Note that |Â| = 1 . Thus we may write A as
→
−
A = AÂ
→
−
which completely species A in terms of its magnitude A and its direction Â.
→
−
A vector A in Cartesian (or rectangular) coordinates may be represented as
(Ax , Ay , Az ) or Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂
153
154 CHAPTER 18. VECTORS
where Ax , Ay and Az are called the components of A in the x, y , and z directions respectively; î, ĵ
and k̂ are unit vectors in the x, y , and z directions, respectively. For example, î is a dimensionless vector
of magnitude one in the direction of the increase of the x−axis. The unit vectors î, ĵ and k̂ (ax , ay and
az ) are illustrated in Figure (a), and the components of A along the coordinate axes are shown in Figure
(b). The magnitude of vector A is given by
q
A= A2x + A2y + A2z
→
−
and the unit vector along A is given by
Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂
Â = q
A2x + A2y + A2z
18.3 Vector Addition and Subtraction

Two vectors A and B can be added together to give another vector C; that is, C = A + B
The vector addition is carried out component by component. Thus, if A = (Ax , Ay , Az ) and B =
(Bx ,By ,Bz ).
C = (Ax + Bx )î + (Ay + By )ĵ + (Az + Bz )k̂

Vector subtraction is similarly carried out as
D = A - B = A + (-B) = (Ax − Bx )î + (Ay − By )ĵ + (Az − Bz )k̂
Graphically, vector addition and subtraction are obtained by either the parallelogram rule or the
head-to-tail rule as portrayed in Figures . The three basic laws of algebra obeyed by any giveny vectors
A, B, and C, are summarized as follows:
18.4. POSITION AND DISTANCE VECTORS 155
where k and l are scalars.
18.4 Position and Distance Vectors

A point P in Cartesian coordinates may be represented by (x, y, z).
The position vector →
−
rp (or radius vector) of point P is as (he directed distance from the origin O
to P: i.e.
→
−
rp = xî + y ĵ + z k̂
The position vector of point P is useful in dening its position in space. Point (3, 4, 5), for example,
and its position vector 3î + 4ĵ + 5k̂ are shown in Figure .
The distance vector is the displacement from one point to another.
If two points P and Q are given by (xP , yP , zP ) and (xQ , yQ , zQ ), the distance vector (or separation
−
r−→ − → − →
vector) is the displacement from P to Q as shown in Figure ; that is, P Q = rQ − rP = (xQ − xP )î +
(yQ − yP )ĵ + (zQ − zP )k̂
EXAMPLE If A = 10i - 4j + 6k and B = 2i + j, nd:
(a) the component of A along j,
(b) the magnitude of 3A - B,
(c) a unit vector along A + 2B.
EXAMPLE Points P and Q are located at (0, 2, 4) and ( - 3 , 1, 5). Calculate
(a) The position vector P
(b) The distance vector from P to Q
(c) The distance between P and Q
(d) A vector parallel to PQ with magntude of 10
EXAMPLE A river ows southeast at 10 km/hr and a boat ows upon it with its bow pointed in
the direction of travel. A man walks upon the deck at 2 km/hr in a direction to the right and
perpendicular to the direction of the boat's movement. Find the velocity of the man with respect
to the earth.
18.5 Vector Multiplication

When two vectors A and B are multiplied, the result is either a scalar or a vector depending on how
they are multiplied. Thus there are two types of vector multiplication:
→
− →−
1. Scalar (or dot) product: A .B
→
− →
−
2. Vector (or cross) product: A×B
Multiplication of three vectors A, B, and C can result in either:

→
− → − → −
3. Scalar triple product: A .( B . C )
or
→
− →
− → −
4. Vector triple product: A × (B × C )
18.5.1 Dot Product

The dot product of two vectors A and B, wrilten as A B. is dened geometrically as the product of
the magnitudes of A and B and the cosine of the angle between them.
Thus:
A B = AB cos θAB
where AB is the smaller angle between A and B. The result of A B is called either the scalar product
because it is scalar, or the dot product due to the dot sign. If A = (Ax , Ay , Az ) and B = (Bx , By , Bz ),
then
A B = AX BX +Ay By +AZ BZ which is obtained by multiplying A and B component by component.

A B = 0.
Two vectors A and B are said to be orthogonal (or perpendicular) with each other if
Note that dot product obeys the following:
(i) Commutative law: AB=BA

(ii) Distributive law: A (B + C) = A B + A C
A A = |A|2 = A2
(iii) Also note that
î.ĵ = ĵ.k̂ = k̂.î = 0

î.î = ĵ.ĵ = k̂.k̂ = 1
18.5.2 Cross Product

→
− →
−
The cross product of two vectors A and B written as A×B is a vector quantity whose magnitude is
the area of the parallelogram formed by A and B and is in the direction of advance of a right-handed
screw as A is turned into B.
Thus
→
− → −
A × B = AB sin θAB n̂
where n̂ is a unit vector normal to the plane containing A and B. The direction of n̂ is taken as the
direction of the right thumb when the ngers of the right hand rotate from A to B as shown in Figure .
The vector multiplication is also called vector product because the result is a vector. If A =
(Ax , Ay , Az ) B = (Bx , By , Bz ) then

→
− → −

î ĵ k̂
A × B = Ax Ay Az = (Ay Bz − Az By ) î + (Az Bx − Ax Bz ) ĵ + (Ax By − Ay Bx ) k̂
Bx By Bz
which is obtained by "crossing" terms in cyclic permutation, hence the name cross product.
18.5. VECTOR MULTIPLICATION 157
Note that the cross product has the following basic properties:
(i) It is not commutative:
→
− → − →
− → −
A × B 6= B × A
It is anticommutative:
→
− → − →
− → −
A × B = −B × A
(ii) It is not associative:
→
− →
− → − →
− → − →
−
A × (B × C ) = ( A × B ) × C
(iii) It is distributive:
→
− →
− → − →
− → − → − → −
A × (B + C ) = A × B + A × C
(iv) A × A = 0
Also note that
î × ĵ = k̂
ĵ × k̂ = î
k×ˆ î = ĵ
18.5.3 Scalar Triple Product

Given three vectors A, B, and C, we dene the scalar triple product as
→
− →− → − → − → − → − →
− →− → −
A. B × C = B. C × A = C . A × B
→
− →
− →
−
obtained in cyclic permutation. If A = (Ax , Ay , Az ), B = (Bx , By , Bz ), and C = (Cx , Cy , Cz ), then
A (B X C) is the volume of a parallelepiped having A, B, and C as edges and is easily obtained by
nding the determinant of the 3 X 3 matrix formed by A, B, and C;
that is,

Ax Ay Az

A. (B × C) = Bx By Bz

Cx Cy Cz
Since the result of this vector multiplication is scalar, eq. is called the scalar triple product.
18.5.4 Vector Triple Product

For vectors A, B, and C, we dene the vector tiple product as
→
− →
− → − →
− →− → − →
− →− → −
A × (B × C ) = B ( A • C ) − C ( A • B )
18.6 Components of a Vector

A direct application of vector product is its use in determining the projection (or component) of a vector
in a given direction. The projection can be scalar or vector. Given a vector A, we dene the scalar
component AB of A along vector B as
→
−
AB = A cos θAB = A .B̂
The vector component AB of A along
B is
simply the scalar component in eq. multiplied by a unit
−→ →
−
vector along B; that is, AB = AB B̂ = A .B̂ B̂
EXAMPLE Given vectors A = 3i + 4j + k and B = 2j - 5k, nd the angle between A and B.
EXAMPLE Three eld quantities are given by P = 2i - k, Q = 2i - j + 2k , R = 2i - 3j + k
Determine
(a) (P + Q) × (P − Q)
(b) Q R×P
(c) P • Q × R
(d) sin θQR
(e) P × (Q × R)
(f ) A unit vector perpendicular to both Q and R
(g) The component of P along Q
EXAMPLE Derive the cosine formula
a = b + c2 − 2bc cos A
2 2
and the sine formula

sin A sin B sin C
= =
a b c
using dot product and cross product, respectively.
EXAMPLE Show that points P1 (5, 2, -4), P2 (1, 1, 2), and P3 (-3, 0, 8) all lie on a straight line.
Determine the shortest distance between the line and point P4 (3, - 1 , 0).
18.7. REVIEW QUESTIONS 159
18.7 Review Questions

Q1: Identify which of the following quantities is not a vector:
(a) force,
(b) momentum,
(c) acceleration,
(d) work,
(e) weight.
Q2: Which of the following is not a scalar eld?
(a) Displacement of a mosquito in space
(b) Light intensity in a drawing room
(c) Temperature distribution in your classroom
(d) Atmospheric pressure in a given region
(e) Humidity of a city
Q3: The rectangular coordinate systems shown in Figure are right-handed except:
Q4: Which of these is correct?
(a) A × A = |A|2
( b ) A×B+B×A=0
(c) A•B•C=B•C•A
(d) ˆ ĵ = k̂
i.
(e) k̂ = î − ĵ where k̂ is a unit vector.
Q5: Which of the following identities is not valid?
(a) a(b + c) = ab + bc
(b) a×(b + c) = a × b + a × c
(c) a•b=b•a
(d) c • (a × b) = −b • (a × c)
(e) Â.B̂ = cos θAB
Q6: Which of the following statements are meaningless?

(a) A B + 2A = 0
(b) A B + 5 = 2A
(c) A(A + B) + 2 = 0
(d) A A + B B = 0
Q7: Let F = 2i - 6j + 10k and G = i + Gyj + 5k. If F and G have the same unit vector, Gy is
(a) 6
(b) 0
(c) - 3
(d) 6
Q8 Given that A = i + αj + k and B = αi + j + k, if A and B are normal to each other, α is

(a) - 2
(b) 1
(c) -1/2
(d) 2
(e) 0 1.9
Q9: The component of 6i + 2j - 3k along 3i - 4j is
(a) -12i - 9j - 3k
(b) 30i - 40j
(c) 10/7
(d) 2
(e) 10
Q10: Given A = - 6i + 3j + 2k , the projection of A along j is

(a) -12
(b) - 4
(c) 3
(d) 7
(e) 12
18.8 PROBLEMS
Q1 Find the unit vector along the line joining point (2, 4, 4) to point ( - 3 , 2, 2).
Q2 Let A = 2i + 5j - 3k , B = 3i - 4j, and C = i + j + k.

(a) Determine A + 2B.
(b) Calculate |A - 5C|.
(c) For what values of k is |k B| = 2?

(d) Find (A × B)/(A • B).
Q3 If
18.8. PROBLEMS 161
A = 2i + j - 3k
B=j-k
C = 3i + 5j + 7k
Determine:
(a) A - 2B + C
(b) C - 4(A + B)
2A − 3B
(c)
|C|
(d) A • C − |B|2
1 1 1
(e) B × ( A + C)
2 3 4
Q4 If the position vectors of points T and S are 3i - 2j + k and 4i - 6j + 2k, respectively, nd:
(a) the coordinates of T and S,
(b) the distance vector from T to S,
(c) the distance between T and S.
Q5 If
A = 5i + 3j +2k
B = -i + 4j +6k
C = 8i +2j,
nd the values of α and β such that αA + βB + C is parallel to the y-axis.
Q6 Given vectors
A = αi + j + 4k
B = 3i + β j - 6k
C = 5i - 2j + γ k,
determine α,β and γ such that the vectors are mutually orthogonal.
Q7 (a) Show that
(A • B)2 + (A × B)2 = (AB)2

(b) Show that
j×k k×i i×j

i= , j= , k=
i.j × k j.k × i k.i × j
Q8 Given that
P = 2i - j - 2k
Q = 4i + 3j + 2k
R = -i + j + 2k
nd:
(a) | P + Q - R|,
(b) P • Q × R,
(c) Q × P • R,
(d) (P × Q) • (Q × R),
(e) (P × Q) × (Q × R),
(f ) cos θP R ,
(g) sin θP Q .
Q9 Given vectors T = 2i - 6j + 3k and S = i + 2j + k, nd: (a) the scalar projection of T on S, (b)

the vector projection of S on T, (c) the smaller angle between T and S.
Q10 A = -i + 6j + 5k and B = i + 2j + 3k , nd: (a) the scalar projections of A on B, (b) the

If
B on A, (c) the unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing A and B.
vector projection of
Q11 Calculate the angles that vector H = 3i + 5j - 8k makes with the x - , y - , and z-axes.
Q12 Find the triple scalar product of P, Q, and R given that
P = 2i - j + k ,
Q=i+j+k
and
R = 2i, + 3k
Q13 Simplify the following expressions:
(a) A × (A × B)
(b) A × [A × (A × B)]
Q14 Show that the dot and cross in the triple scalar product may be interchanged, i.e., A • (B × C) =
(A × B) • C.
Q15 Points P1 (l, 2, 3) , P2 (-5, 2, 0), and P3 (2, 7, -3) form a triangle in space. Calculate the area of the
triangle.
Q16 The vertices of a triangle are located at (4, 1, -3), ( - 2 , 5, 4), and (0,1,6). Find the three angles
of the triangle.
Q17 Points P, Q, and R are located at ( - 1 , 4, 8), ( 2 , - 1 , 3), and ( - 1 , 2, 3), respectively. Determine:
(a) the distance between P and Q, (b) the distance vector from P to R, (c) the angle between QP
and QR, (d) the area of triangle PQR, (e) the perimeter of triangle PQR.
*Q18 If r is the position vector of the point (x, y, z) and A is a constant vector, show that:
(a) (r − A) • A = 0 is the equation of a constant plane
(b) (r - A) r = 0 is the equation of a sphere

(c) Also show that the result of part (a) is of the form Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 where
D = −(A2 + B 2 + C 2 ), and that of part (b) is of the form x2 + y 2 + z 2 = r 2 .
*Q19 (a) Prove that P = cosθ1 i + sinθ1 j and Q = cosθ2 i + sinθ2 j are unit vectors in the xy-plane
respectively making angles θ1 and θ2 with the x-axis.
(b) By means of dot product, obtain the formula for cos(θ2 − θ1 ) . By similarly formulating
P and Q, obtain the formula for cos(θ2 − θ1 ).
1
(c) If θ is the angle between P and Q, nd |P - Q| in terms of θ .
2
18.8. PROBLEMS 163
Q20 Consider a rigid body rotating with a constant angular velocity w radians per second about a xed
axis through O as in Figure . Let r be the distance vector from O to P, the position of a particle in the
body. The velocity u of the body at P is|u| = dω = |r| sin θ|ω| or u =ω × r . If the rigid body is rotating
with 3 radians per second about an axis parallel to i - 2j + 2k and passing through point (2, 3, 1),
determine the velocity of the body at (1, 3,4).
Q21 Given A = x2 yi − yzj + yz 2 k, determine:

(a) The magnitude of A at point T(2, -1,3)
(b) The distance vector from T to 5 if S is 5.6 units away from T and in the same direction
as A at T
(c) The position vector of S
Q22 E and F are vector elds given by E = 2xi + j + yzk and F = xyiy2 j + xyzk. Determine:
(a) | E | a t ( l , 2 , 3)
(b) The component of E along F at (1, 2, 3)
(c) A vector perpendicular to both E and F at (0, 1 , - 3 ) whose magnitude is unity
Chapter 19
Coordinate Systems
19.1 Circular Cylindrical Coordinates (ρ, φ, z)
The circular cylindrical coordinate system is very convenient whenever we are dealing with problems
having cylindrical symmetry.
A point P in cylindrical coordinates is represented as (ρ, φ, z ) and is as shown in Figure .
Observe Figure closely and note how we dene each space variable: ρ is the radius of the cylinder
passing through P or the radial distance from the z-axis: φ, called the azimuthal angle is measured from
the x-axis in the xy-plane; and z is the same as in the Cartesian system. The ranges of the variables are
0≤ρ<∞
0 ≤ φ < 2π
−∞ < z < ∞
→
−
A vector A in cylindrical coordinates can be written as (Aρ , Aφ , Az ) or Aρ ρ b + Aφ φb + Az b
k
where ρ
b , φb and b
k are the unit vectors in the ρ, φ, and z -directions as illustrated in Figure.
→
− 1
2 2 2 2
The magnitude of A is = Aρ + Aφ + Az
Notice that the unit vectors ρb, φb, and k

b are mutually perpendicular because our coordinate system
is orthogonal;ρ
b points in the direction of increasing ρ ,φb in the direction of increasing φ, and k
b in the
positive z-direction. Thus,
ρ̂.ρ̂ = φ̂.φ̂ = k̂.k̂ = 1
ρ̂.φ̂ = φ̂.k̂ = k̂.ρ̂ = 0
165
166 CHAPTER 19. COORDINATE SYSTEMS
ρ̂×φ̂ = k̂
φ̂ × k̂ = ρ̂
k̂ × ρ̂ = φ̂
where eqs. are obtained in cyclic permutation.
The relationships between the variables (x, y, z) of the Cartesian coordinate system and those of the
cylindrical system (ρ, φ, z ) are easily obtained from Figure.
Cartesian to Cylindrical
p
ρ= x2 + y 2
y
φ = tan−1
x
z=z
Cylindrical to Cartesian
x = ρ cos φ
y = ρ sin φ
z=z

The relationships between î, ĵ, k̂ and ρ̂, φ̂, k̂ are obtained geometrically from the following Figure.

ρ̂, φ̂, k̂ → î, ĵ, k̂
î = cos φρ̂ − sin φφ̂
ĵ = sin φρ̂ + cos φφ̂
k̂
= k̂
î, ĵ, k̂ → ρ̂, φ̂, k̂
ρ̂ = cos φî + sin φĵ
φ̂ = − sin φî + cos φĵ
19.2. SPHERICAL COORDINATES (R, θ, φ) 167
k̂ = k̂
Finally, the relationships between (Ax , Ay , Az ) and (Aρ , Aφ , Az ) are obtained by simply substituting
equations and collecting terms. Thus
→
A = (Ax cos φ + Ay sin φ) ρ̂ + (−Ax sin φ + Ay cos φ) φ̂ + Az k̂
or
Aρ = Ax cos φ + Ay sin φ
Aφ = −Ax sin φ + Ay cos φ
Az = Az
In matrix form, we have the transformation of vector A from (Ax , Ay , Az ) to (Aρ , Aφ , Az ) as
    
Aρ cos φ sin φ 0 Ax
 Aφ  =  − sin φ cos φ 0   Ay 
Az 0 0 1 Az
The inverse of the transformation (Aρ , Aφ , Az )→(Ax , Ay , Az ) is obtained as
   −1  
Ax cos φ sin φ 0 Aρ
 Ay  =  − sin φ cos φ 0   Aφ 
Az 0 0 1 Az
or
    
Ax cos φ − sin φ 0 Aρ
 Ay  =  sin φ cos φ 0   Aφ 
Az 0 0 1 Az
An alternative way of obtaining above equation is using the dot product. For example:
  
î.ρ̂ î.φ̂ î.k̂
 
Ax ρ̂
 Ay  = 
 ĵ.ρ̂ ĵ.φ̂ ĵ.k̂   φ̂ 

Az k̂.ρ̂ ˆˆ.φ
k k̂.k̂ k̂
19.2 Spherical Coordinates (r, θ, φ)

The spherical coordinate system is most appropriate when dealing with problems having a degree of
spherical symmetry.
From Figure , we notice that r is dened as the distance from the origin to point P or the radius
of a sphere centered at the origin and passing through P; θ (called the colatitude) is the angle between
the z-axis and the position vector of P; and φ is measured from the x-axis (the same azimuthal angle in
cylindrical coordinates). According to these denitions, the ranges of the variables are
0≤r<∞
0≤θ≤π
0 ≤ φ < 2π
→
−
A vector A in spherical coordinates may be written as
(Ar , Aθ , Aφ ) or Ar r̂ + Aθ θ̂ + Aφ φ̂ where r̂,θ̂ and φ̂ are unit vectors along the r- , θ− and φ− directions.
→
−
The magnitude of A is
→
− 1
| A | = (A2r + A2θ + A2φ ) 2
The unit vectors r̂ , θ̂ and φ̂ are mutually orthogonal; r̂ being directed along the radius or in the
direction of increasing r, θ̂ in the direction of increasing θ, and φ̂ in the direction of increasing φ. Thus,
r̂.r̂ = θ̂.θ̂ = φ̂.φ̂ = 1

r̂.θ̂ = θ̂.φ̂ = φ̂.r̂ = 0
r̂ × θ̂ = φ̂
θ̂ × φ̂ = r̂
φ̂ × r̂ = θ̂
The space variables (x, y, z) in Cartesian coordinates can be related to variables (r, θ, φ) of a spherical
coordinate system. From Figure it is easy to notice that
p
r= x2 + y 2 + z 2 ,
p
−1 x2 + y 2
θ = tan
z
−1 y
φ = tan
x
or
x = r cos θ cos φ
y = r sin θ sin φ
z = r cos θ
The unit vectors i , j , k and r̂, θ̂ , φ̂ are related as follows :
i = sin θ cos φr̂ + cos θ cos φθ̂ − sin φφ̂
j = sin θ sin φr̂ + cos θ sin φθ̂ + cos φφ̂
k = cos θr̂ − sin θθ̂
or
r̂ = sin θ cos φi + sin θ sin φj + cos θk

θ̂ = cos θ cos φi + cos θ sin φj − sin θk
φ̂ = − sin φi + cos φj
The components of vector A = (Ax , Ay , Az ) and A = (Ar , Aθ , Aφ ) are related by substituting
equations and collecting terms. Thus,
A = (Ax sin θ cos φ + Ay sin θ sin φ + Az cos θ) r̂+(Ax cos θ cos φ + Ay cos θ sin φ − Az sin θ) θ̂+(−Ax sin φ + Ay cos φ) φ̂
and from this, we obtain
Ar = Ax sin θ cos φ + Ay sin θ sin φ + Az cos θ

Aθ = Ax cos θ cos φ + Ay cos θ sin φ − Az sin θ
Aφ = −Ax sin φ + Ay cos φ
In matrix form, the (Ax , Ay , Az ) −→ (Ar , Aθ , Aφ ) vector transformation is performed according to
19.2. SPHERICAL COORDINATES (R, θ, φ) 169
The inverse transformation(Ar , Aθ , Aφ ) −→ (Ax , Ay , Az ) is similarly obtained. Thus,
Alternatively, we may obtain above eqs. using the dot product. For example,
    
Ar r̂.i r̂.j r̂.k Ax
 Aθ  =  θ̂.i θ̂.j θ̂.k   Ay 
Aφ φ̂.i φ̂.j φ̂.k Az
Chapter 20
Vector Calculus
20.1 Dierential Length , Area and Volume

Dierential elements in length, area, and volume are useful in vector calculus. They are dened in the
Cartesian, cylindrical, and spherical coordinate systems.
20.1.1 Cartesian Coordinates

Dierential Displacement
→
−
dl = dxî + dy ĵ + dz k̂
Dierential normal area is given by
−
→
dS = dydz î/dxdz ĵ/dxdy k̂
Dierential volume is given by
dv = dxdydz
171
172 CHAPTER 20. VECTOR CALCULUS
→
− −
→
Notice that dl and dS are vectors while , dv is a scalar.
20.1.2 Cylindrical Coordinates

Dierential displacement is given by
→
−
dl = dρρ̂ + ρdφφ̂ + dz k̂
Dierential normal area is given by
−
→
dS = ρdφdz ρ̂/dρdz φ̂/ρdρdφk̂
Dierential volume is given by
dv = ρdρdφdz
20.1. DIFFERENTIAL LENGTH , AREA AND VOLUME 173
20.1.3 Spherical Coordinates

The dierential displacement is
→
−
dl = drr̂ + rdθθ̂ + r sin θdφφ̂
−dS→ = r 2
sin θdθdφr̂/r sin θdrdφθ̂/rdrdθφ̂
dv = r 2
sin θdrdθdφ
Q1: Consider the object shown in Figure . Calculate

(a) The distance BC
(b) The distance CD
(c) The surface area ABCD
(d) The surface area ABO
(e) The surface area AOFD
(f ) The volume ABDCFO
Q2: Refer to Figure ; disregard the dierential lengths and imagine that the object is part of a spherical
shell. It may be described as 3 ≤ r ≤ 5 , 60◦ ≤ θ ≤ 90◦ , 45◦ ≤ φ ≤ 60◦ where surface r = 3 is the
same as AEHD, surface θ = 60◦ is AEFB, and surface φ = 45◦ is ABCD. Calculate
(a) The distance DH
(b) The distance FG
(c) The surface area AEHD
(d) The surface area ABDC
(e) The volume of the object
20.2 Line, Surface, And Volume Integrals

The familiar concept of integration will now be extended to cases when the integrand involves a vector.
By a line we mean the path along a curve in space. We shall use terms such as line, curve, and contour
interchangeably.
A dl is the integral of thc tangential component of A along curve L.

´
The line integral L
If the path of integration is a closed curve such as abca in Figure , eq. becomes a closed contour
integral
Adl
¸
L
which is called the circulation of A around L.
20.2. LINE, SURFACE, AND VOLUME INTEGRALS 175
Given a vector eld A, continuous in a region containing the smooth surface S, we dene the surface
integral or the ux of A through S as
AdS
´
ϕ= S
which is referred to as the net outward ux of A from S. Notice that a closed path denes an open
surface whereas a closed surface denes a volume.
We dene the integral
´
v
ρv dv
as the volume integral of the scalar ρv over the volume v. The physical meaning of a line, surface, or
volume integral depends on the nature of the physical quantity represented by A or ρv .
→ →
Q: Given that F = x2bi + xy ĵ − y 2 k̂ , Find the circulation of F around the (closed) path shown in Fig.
Q: Calculate the circulation of A = ρ cos φρ̂ + z sin φk̂ around the edge L of the wedge dened by
0 ≤ ρ ≤ 2 , 0 ≤ φ ≤ 60o , z = 0 and shown in Figure .
20.3 Del Operator

→
−
The del operator, written ∇, is the vector dierential operator. In Cartesian coordinates,
→
− ∂ ∂ ∂
∇= î + ĵ + k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z
This vector dierential operator, otherwise known as the gradient operator, is not a vector in itself,
but when it operates on a scalar function, for example, a vector ensues. The operator is useful in dening
→
−
1. The gradient of a scalar V, written, as ∇V
2. The
→
− → −
→
− →
divergence of a vector A, written as ∇
−
A
3. The curl of a vector A, written as ∇ × A
2
4. The Laplacian of a scalar V, written as ∇ V
The del operator in cylindrical coordinates
→
− ∂ 1 ∂ ∂
∇= ρ̂ + φ̂ + k̂
∂ρ ρ ∂φ ∂z
The del operator in spherical coordinates is
→
− ∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂
∇= r̂ + θ̂ + φ̂
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
20.4. GRADIENT OF A SCALAR 177
20.4 Gradient of a Scalar

The gradient of a scalar eld V is a vcctor that represents both the magnitude and the direction of the
maximum space rate of increase of V.
A mathematical expression for the gradient can be obtained by evaluating the dierence in the eld
dV between points Pl and P2 of Figure where V1 , V2 , and V3 are contours on which V is constant. From
calculus,
l
where d is the dierential displacement from P1, to P2 and θ is the angle between G and dl. From
eq. , we notice that dV/dl is a maximum when
θ l
= 0, that is, when d is in the direction of G. Hence,
dV dV
= =G
dl max
dn
where dV/dn is the normal derivative. Thus G has its magnitude and direction as those of the
maximum rate of change of V. By denition, G is the gradient of V. Therefore
→
− ∂V ∂V ∂V
gradV = ∇V = î + ĵ + k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z
→
− ∂V 1 ∂V ∂V
∇V = ρ̂ + φ̂ + k̂
∂ρ ρ ∂φ ∂z
→
− ∂V 1 ∂V 1 ∂V
∇V = r̂ + θ̂ + φ̂
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
Q: Determine the gradient of the following elds and compute its value at the specied point.
a) V = e(2x+3y) cos 5z, (0.1, −0.2, 0.4)

b) T = 5ρe−2z sin φ, (2, π/3, 0)
sin θ sin φ
c) Q= , (1, π/6, π/2)
r2
Q: Find the angle at which line x = y = 2z intersects the ellipsoid x2 + y 2 + 2z 2 = 10 .
Q: Calculate the angle between the normals to the surfaces x2 y + z = 3 and x ln z − y 2 = −4 at the
point of intersection (−1, 2, 1) .
20.5 Divergence of a Vector And Divergence Theorm

We have noticed that the net outow of the ux of a vector eld A from a closed surface S is obtained
¸
from the integral A • dS .
The divergence of A at a given point P is thc outward ux per unit volume as the volume shrinks
about P.
Hence,
¸
→
− S
A.dS
div A = ∇.A = lim
4v→0 4v
where 4v is the volume enclosed by the closed surface S in which P is located. Physically, we may
regard the divergence of the vector eld A at a given point as a measure of how much the eld diverges
or emanates from that point.
Q: Determine the divergence of this vector eld:
P = x2 yz î + xz k̂
Q: Determine the divergence of the following vector eld and evaluate it at the specied points.
A = yzi + 4xyj + yk at (1, - 2 , 3 )
Q: If G(r) =10e−2z (ρρ̂ + k̂) , determine the ux of G out of the

entire surface of the cylinder ρ =1, 0 ≤
→
− 1 ∂ 1 ∂A ∂A
z ≤ 1. Conrm the result using the divergence theorem ∇.A = (ρAρ ) + + .
ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂φ ∂z
20.6 Curl of a Vector And Stroke's Theorm

The curl of A is an axial (or rotational) vector whose magnitude is the maximum circulation of A per
unit area as the area lends to zero and whose direction is the normal direction of the area when the area
is oriented so as to make the circulation maximum.
That is,
¸
→
− A.dl
Curl A= ∇ ×A= lim n̂
4S→0 4S
where the area 4S is bounded by the curve L and an is the unit vector normal to the surface 4S
and is determined using the right-hand rule.
The physical signicance of the curl of a vector eld is evident in eq. above; the curl provides the
maximum value of the circulation of the eld per unit area (or circulation density) and indicates the
direction along which this maximum value occurs. The curl of a vector eld A at a point P may be
regarded as a measure of the circulation or how much the eld curls around P. For example, Figure (a)
shows that the curl of a vector eld around P is directed out of the page. Figure (b) shows a vector eld
with zero curl.
20.7. LAPLACIAN OF A SCALAR 179
Stokes's theorem states that the circulation of a vector Field A around a (closed) path L is equal lo
the surface integral of the curl of A over the open surface S bounded by L. (see Figure ) provided that
→
−
A and ∇ ×A are continuous on S.
20.7 Laplacian of a Scalar

The Laplacian of a scalar eld V, written as ∇2 V is the divergence of the gradient of V.
A scalar eld V is said to be harmonic in a given region if its Laplacian vanishes in that region. In
other words, if
∇2 V = 0
is satised in the region, the solution for V in eq. is harmonic (it is of the form of sine or cosine).
We have only considered the Laplacian of a scalar. Since the Laplacian operator ∇2 is a scalar
2
operator, it is also possible to dene the Laplacian of a vector A. In this context, ∇ A should not be
viewed as the divergence of the gradient of A, which makes no sense. Rather, ∇2 A is dened as the
gradient of the divergence of A minus the curl of the curl of A. That is,
20.8 Classication of Vector Fields

A vector eld is uniquely characterized by its divergence and curl. Neither the divergence nor curl of a
vector eld is sucient to completely describe the eld. All vector elds can be classied in terms of
their vanishing or nonvanishing divergence or curl as follows:
→
−
A vector eld A is said to be solenoidal (or divergenceless) if ∇ • A = 0.
→
−
A vector eld A is said to be irrotational (or potential) if ∇ × A = 0.
Test
Time Allowed : 2 Hours ________________________ Maximum Marks : 100
Instructions
A. General
invigilators.

→ →
Q1: Given that F = x2bi + xy ĵ − y 2 k̂ , Find the circulation of F around the (closed) path shown in Fig.
Q2: Find the angle at which line x = y = 2z intersects the ellipsoid x2 + y 2 + 2z 2 = 10 .
Q3: Calculate the angle between the normals to the surfaces x2 y + z = 3 and x ln z − y 2 = −4 at the
point of intersection (−1, 2, 1) .
Q4: Determine the gradient of the following elds and compute its value at the specied point.
181
a) V = e(2x+3y) cos 5z, (0.1, −0.2, 0.4)

b) T = 5ρe−2z sin φ, (2, π/3, 0)
sin θ sin φ
c) Q= , (1, π/6, π/2)
r2
Index
A G
Application of Derivatives, 67 Gradient of a Scalar, 177
Approximations, 81 Graphing in Polar Coordinates, 133
Area Between Polar Curves, 135
Area between Two Curves, 116 H
Area of a curve dened in polar co-ordinates, 134 Higher order derivatives, 46
Area of a Surface of Revolution, 136 Homogeneous dierential equations, 147
Area under the curve, 115

Areas and Lengths in Polar Coordinates, 134
I
Increasing and Decreasing Functions, 75
Areas of Parametrized Curves, 128
Integrals, 95
Areas of Surfaces of Revolution, 127
Integration by Partial Fractions, 102
Average and Instantaneous Speed, 52
Integration by Parts, 102
Average Rate of Change and Secant Lines, 51
Integration by substitution, 98
C Irrotational Field, 180
Circular Cylindrical Coordinates, 165

Components of a Vector, 158
L
Laplacian Of a Scalar, 179
Cross Product, 156
Length of a Polar Curve, 135
Curl of a Vector, 178
Lengths of Plane Curves, 127
D Limit Laws, 56
Limit of a sequence, 59
Denite Integral, 109
Limits, 49
Denition of Polar Coordinates, 130
Limits using Series expansion, 62
Del Operator, 176
Line Integral , 174
Derivatives, 33
Linear dierential equations, 148
Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Func-
Logarithmic Dierentiation, 48
tions, 40
Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions, 42
M
Derivatives of Trigonometric functions, 38
Maxima and Minima, 83
Dierential Equations, 145
Methods of Solving First Order, First Degree Dif-
Dierential equations with variables separable, 147
ferential Equations, 147
Dierential Length , Area and Volume, 171
Dierentials, 44 P
Dierentiation of Implicit functions, 45 Partial Derivatives, 44
Dierentiation of Parametric functions, 46 Polar Coordinates, 130
Divergence Of a Vector, 177 Position and Distance Vectors, 155
Divergence Theorm, 177 Potential Field, 180
Dot Product, 156
R
E Rate of Change, 69
Elements in Cartesian Coordinates, 171 Relation between Polar and Cartesian Coordinates,
Elements in Cylindrical Coordinates, 172 132
Elements in Spherical Coordinates, 173
S
F Scalar, 153
Flux, 175 Scalar Triple Product, 157
Formation of a Dierential Equation, 147 Solenoidal Field, 180
183
184 INDEX
Solids of Revolution: The Disk Method, 121

Solids of Revolution: The Washer Method, 124
Spherical Coordinates, 167
Stroke's Theorm, 178
Surface Area for Revolution about x-axis, 127
Surface area for Revolution about y-axis, 128
Surface Integral, 175
T
Tangents and Normals, 77
The Chain Rule, 41
The Dierential Form for Surface Areas, 129
The Epsilon-Delta Denition, 59
The Product Rule of dierentiation, 36
The Quotient Rule for dierentiation, 37
The Sandwich Theorem, 57
The Theorems of Pappus, 130
U
Unit Vector, 153
V
Vector, 153
Vector Addition, 154
Vector Multiplication, 156
Vector Subtraction, 154
Volumes by Cylindrical Shells, 125
Volumes by Slicing and Rotation About an Axis,
119

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A Complete Course in Physics ( Mathematical Tools ) -

Extended First Edition

Manas Kalia and Rajat Kalia

10 Increasing and Decreasing Functions 75

15 Denite Integral 109

16 Area under the curve 115

17 Application of Integrals 119

VI Dierential Equations 145

19 Coordinate Systems 165

20 Vector Calculus 171

Heights and Distances

2.0.1.2 Single Answer MCQ's

2.0.1.3 Multiple Answer Type Questions

Q1: The number of distinct real solutions of

3.0.0.2 Multiple Answer Type Questions

A) The number of roots of the equation is 7.

B) The sum of roots is −4π

Q2. The area of 4ABC is

4.0.0.2 Multiple Answer Type Questions

4.0.0.4 Linked Comprehension Type Questions

Q1: The area of a special quadrilateral 4 is given by

Q2: The radius of the inscribed circle C2 is given by

Q3: The equation cos−1 x = 3 cos−1 a has a solution for

A) all real values of a

5.0.1.2 Multiple Answer Type Questions

Q1: g −1 (−x) is given by

Q2: Set 'Rh ' is

 log a pq = loga p + loga q

Q1: Find the domains of denition of the following functions:

1: The domain of denition of g(x) = |ln(f34 (x))| is

7.2 Basics of Derivatives

Q : Find the derivatives of the follwoing functions

Q: Find the derivatives of the following functions

Q: Find the derivatives of the following functions

Q: Find the derivatives of the following functions

Q: Find the derivatives of the following functions

⇒ f (x) = g (x) .h (x)

i.e. f / (x) = 1. (x + b) (x + c) + ((x + b) + (x + c)) . (x + a)

Q: Find the derivatives of the following functions

7.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric functions

Q: Find the derivatives of the following functions

a) f (x) = sin 57o

Sol. a) It can be observed that f (x) is a constant.

7.4 Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

f) f (x) = cosecx. ln x.x3

Sol. a) Let g(x) = ex

Then f (x) = g(3x − 3)

⇒ f / (x) = e3x−3 .3 = 3e3x−3

7.5 The Chain Rule

⇒ y = f (g (h (k (x)))) where f (x) = x2 , g (x) = tan x , h(x) = x3 and k (x) = ln x

Sol. a) f / (x) = ex .2x

d) f / (x) = e2 sin x .2 cos x

7.6 Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Dierentiating both sides w.r.t. x , we get

 Derivative of y = cosec−1 x for x>0 is - √

Q: Dierentiate the following trigonometric Inverse functions with respect to x

7.7 Partial Derivatives

7.9 Dierentiation of Implicit functions

Dierentiate both sides w.r.t y . This gives

15 Denite Integral 109

VI Dierential Equations 145

log a pq = loga p + loga q

Q1: Find the domains of denition of the following functions:

1: The domain of denition of g(x) = |ln(f34 (x))| is

Dierentiating both sides w.r.t. x , we get

Derivative of y = cosec−1 x for x>0 is - √

Q: Dierentiate the following trigonometric Inverse functions with respect to x

7.9 Dierentiation of Implicit functions

Dierentiate both sides w.r.t y . This gives

7.10 Dierentiation of Parametric functions

7.12 Logarithmic Dierentiation(Revisiting Logarithms)

log a pq = loga p + loga q

Q: Dierentiate the following functions w.r.t. x

Q: If a1 , a2 , ........, an be xed real numbers and dene a function

Denition: Average rate of change over an Interval.

8.3 The Precise Denition of a Limit

8.3.1 The Epsilon-Delta Denition

Denition : Let f be a function dened on an interval I. Then

(i) x = c is a point of local maxima if f 0(c) = 0 and

(ii) x = c is a point of local minima if f 0(c) = 0 and

(iii) The test fails if f 0(c) = 0 and

{ Hint: Q1: It can be easily veried that f (x) = cx