3 Fluid-Mechanics PDF

FLUID MECHANICS
10ME46/15ME44
ATME COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
VISION
Development of academically excellent, culturally vibrant, socially responsible and globally
competent human resources.
MISSION
 To keep pace with advancements in knowledge and make the students competitive
and capable at the global level.
 To create an environment for the students to acquire the right physical, intellectual,
emotional and moral foundations and shine as torch bearers of tomorrow's society.
 To strive to attain ever-higher benchmarks of educational excellence.
DEPARTMENT OFMECHANICAL ENGINEERING
VISION
To impart excellent technical education in mechanical engineering to develop technically

competent, morally upright and socially responsible mechanical engineering professionals.
MISSION:
 To provide an ambience to impart excellent technical education in mechanical

engineering.
 To ensure state of-the- art facility for learning, skill development and research in
mechanical engineering.
 To engage students in co-curricular and extra-curricular activities to impart social &

ethical values and imbibe leadership quality.
PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEO’S)
After successful completion of program, the graduates will be
PEO 1: Graduates will be able to have successful professional career in the allied
areas and be proficient to perceive higher education.
PEO 2: Graduates will attain the technical ability to understand the need analysis,
design, manufacturing, quality changing and analysis of the product.
PEO 3: Work effectively, ethically and socially responsible in allied fields of

mechanical engineering.
PEO 4: Work in a team to meet personal and organizational objectives and to

contribute to the development of the society in large.
PROGRAM OUTCOMES (PO’S)
The Mechanical engineering program students will attain:
PO1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems
PO2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences
PO3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering

problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs
with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural,
societal, and environmental considerations
PO4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and

research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data,
and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions
PO5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations
PO6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge
to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent
responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice
PO7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional

engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development
PO8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities
and norms of the engineering practice
PO9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member
or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings
PO10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with

the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to
comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective
presentations, and give and receive clear instructions
PO11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of

the engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a
member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary
environments
PO12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological
change
PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSO’S)
After successful completion of program, the graduates will be
PSO 1: To comprehend the knowledge of mechanical engineering and apply them to

identify, formulate and address the mechanical engineering problems using latest
technology in a effective manner.
PSO 2: To work successfully as a mechanical engineer in team, exhibit leadership quality

and provide viable solution to industrial and societal problems.
PSO 3: To apply modern management techniques and manufacturing techniques to produce

products of high quality at optimal cost.
PSO 4: To exhibit honesty, integrity, and conduct oneself responsibly, ethically and legally,
holding the safety and welfare of the society paramount.
COURSE SYLLABUS
IV SEM
FLUID MECHANICS
Subject Code: 10ME36B / 46B IA Marks: 25

Hours/Week: 04 Exam Hours: 03
Total Hours: 52 Exam Marks:
100
PART – A
UNIT-1
Properties of Fluids: Introduction, Types of fluid, Properties of fluids, viscosity,
thermodynamic properties, surface tension, capillarity, vapour pressure and cavitation
06 Hours
UNIT-2
Fluid Statistics: Fluid pressure at a point, Pascal’s law, pressure variation in a static fluid,
absolute, gauge, atmospheric and vacuum pressures, simple manometers and differential
manometers. Total pressure and center of pressure on submerged plane surfaces; horizontal,
vertical and inclined plane surfaces, curved surface submerged in liquid. 07 Hours
UNIT-3
Buoyancy and Fluid Kinematics:
Buoyancy, center of buoyancy, metacentre and metacentric height, conditions of equilibrium
of floating and submerged bodies, determination of Metacentric height experimentally and
theoretically. Kinematics: Types of fluid flow, continuity equation in 2D and 3D (Cartesian
Co-
ordinates only), velocity and acceleration, velocity potential function and stream function.
07 Hours
UNIT-4
Fluid Dynamics: Introduction equation of motion, Euler’s equation of motion, Bernoulli’s
equation from first principles and also from Euler’s equation, limitations of Bernoulli’s
equation.
06 Hours
PART-B
UNIT-5
Fluid Flow Measurements: Venturimeter, orificemeter, pitot-tube, vertical orifice, V-Notch
and rectangular notches. Dimensional Analysis : Introduction, derived quantities, dimensions
of
physical quantities, dimensional homogeneity, Rayleigh’s method,Buckingham theorem,
dimensionless numbers, similitude, types of similitudes. 07 Hours
UNIT-6
Flow through pipes: Minor losses through pipes. Darey’s and Chezy’s equation for loss of
head due to friction in pipes. HGL and TEL. 06 Hours
UNIT-7
Laminar flow and viscous effects : Reyonold’s number, critical Reynold’s number, laminar
flow through circular pipe-Hagen Poiseille’s equation, laminar flow between parallel and
stationary plates. 06 Hours
UNIT-8
Flow past immersed bodies: Drag, Lift, expression for lift and drag, boundary layer concept,
displacement, momentum and energy thickness. Introduction to compressible flow: Velocity
of sound in a fluid, Mach number, Mach cone, propagation of pressure waves in a
compressible fluid. 07 Hours
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Fluid Mechanics, Oijush.K.Kundu, IRAM COCHEN, ELSEVIER, 3rd Ed. 2005.
2. Fluid Mechanics, Dr. Bansal, R.K.Lakshmi Publications, 2004.
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. Fluid Mechanics and hydraulics, Dr.Jagadishlal: Metropolitan Book Co-Ltd., 1997.
2. Fluid Mechanics (SI Units), Yunus A. Cengel John M.Oimbala, 2nd Ed., Tata McGraw
Hill, 2006.
3. Fluid Mechanics, John F.Douglas, Janul and M.Gasiosek and john A.Swaffield, Pearson
Education Asia, 5th ed., 2006
4. Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Power Engineering, Kumar.D.S, Kataria and Sons., 2004
5. Fluid Mechanics -. Merle C. Potter, Elaine P.Scott. Cengage learning
FLUID MECHANICS
MODULE-I
BASICS OF FLUID MECHANICS
CONTENTS
1.1 Fundamental Concepts
1.2 Branches of Mechanics
1.3 Properties of fluids
1.4 Problems
1.5 Vapour pressure
1.6 Viscosity
1.6.1 Newton’s law of viscosity
1.6.2 Kinematic viscosity
1.6.3 problems
1.7 surface tension
1.8 Capillarity
1.9 Compressibility
1.10 Pressure and its measurements
1.11 Pascal s law
1.12Manometers
1.13 problems
Objectives:
 To have a working knowledge of basic properties of fluids and its effects with examples.
 To understand the continuum effects.
 To study the pressure measuring devices
 To understand the basic flow characteristics.
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Fundamental Concepts
 Mechanics: Deals with action of forces on bodies at rest or in motion.
 State of rest and Motion: They are relative and depend on the frame of reference. If the position with
reference to frame of reference is fixed with time, then the body is said to be in a state of rest. Otherwise,
it is said to be in a state of motion.
 Scalar and heater quantities: Quantities which require only magnitude to represent them are called
scalar quantities. Quantities which acquire magnitudes and direction to represent them are called vector
quantities.
 Eg: Mass, time internal, Distance travelled Scalars Weight,

Displacement, Velocity Vectors
 Displacement and Distance
Dept of Mechanical Engg, ATMECE, Mysuru

Page 1
FLUID MECHANICS
Velocity and Speed: Rate of displacement is called velocity and Rate and distance travelled is called
Speed. Unit: m/s
Acceleration: Rate of change of velocity is called acceleration. Negative acceleration is called retardation.
Momentum: The capacity of a body to impart motion to other bodies is called momentum.
The momentum of a moving body is measured by the product of mass and velocity the moving body
Momentum = Mass x Velocity

Unit: Kgm/s
• Newton’s first law of motion: Everybody continues to be in its state of rest or uniform motion unless
compelled by an external agency.
• Inertia: It is the inherent property the body to retain its state of rest or uniform motion.
• Force: It is an external agency which overcomes or tends to overcome the inertia of a body.
• Newton’s second law of motion: The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the
magnitudes of the applied force and takes place in the direction of the applied force.
• Measurement of force:
g = 9.81 m/s2
V
m m
F u

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FLUID MECHANICS
Time interval = t
Change in momentum in time‘t’ = mv – mu
F α mv − mu
v−uFαmt
F α ma
F = K ma
If F = 1 When m = 1 and u =
1 then K = 1
∴ F = ma.
Unit: Newton (N)
• Weight: Gravitational force on the body. It is a vector quantity.
F = ma
W = mg

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FLUID MECHANICS
Unit: Newton (N)
• Volume: Measure of space occupied by the

body.Unit: m3
1 m3 = 1000 litre
• Work: Work done = Force x Displacement Linear motion.
Work done = Torque x Angular displacement Rotatory motion.
Unit: Nm or J
• Energy: Capacity of doing work is called energy.

Unit: Nm or J
Potential energy = mgh
Kinetic energy = ½ mv2 or ½ mrω2 ω = Angular velocity
Power: Rate of doing work is called Power.
Power: = Force x displacement

time
= Force x VelocityLinear Motion.

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FLUID MECHANICS
2ΠNT
P= Rotatory Motion.
60
• Matter: Anything which possess mass and requires space to occupy is called
matter.
• States of matter:
Matter can exist in the following states
♦ Solid state.
♦ Fluid state.
♦ Solid state: In case of solids intermolecular force is very large and hence moleculesare not free to move.
Solids exhibit definite shape and volume. Solids undergo certain amount of deformation and then attain state
of equilibrium when subjected to tensile, compressive and shear forces.
♦ Fluid State: Liquids and gases together are called fluids. In case of liquids Intermolecular force is
comparatively small. Therefore liquids exhibit definite volume. But they assume the shape of the container
Liquids offer very little resistance against tensile force. Liquids offer maximum resistance against compressive
forces. Therefore, liquids are also called incompressible fluids. Liquids undergo continuous or prolonged angular
deformation or shear strain when subjected to tangential force or shear force. This property of the liquid is called
flow of liquid. Any substance which exhibits the property of flow is called fluid. Therefore liquids are considered
as fluids
In case of gases intermolecular force is very small. Therefore the molecules are free to move along any
direction. Therefore gases will occupy or assume the shape as well as the volume of the container.
Gases offer little resistance against compressive forces. Therefore gases are called compressible fluids.
When subjected to shear force gases undergo continuous or prolonged angular deformation or shear strain. This
property of gas is called flow of gases. Any substance which exhibits the property of flow is called fluid.
Therefore gases are also considered as fluids.
1.2 Branches of Mechanics:
Mechanics

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FLUID MECHANICS
Solid Mech. Fluid Mech.
Rigid Mech. of Fluid Fluid Fluid

Body Deformable Statics Kinematics Dynamics
Mech. Bodies
Statics Dynamics
Kinematics Kinetics
• Fluid Statics deals with action of forces on fluids at rest or in equilibrium.
• Fluid Kinematics deals with geometry of motion of fluids without considering the
cause of motion.
• Fluid dynamics deals with the motion of fluids considering the cause of motion
1.3 Properties of fluids:
Mass density or Specific mass (ρ):

Mass density or specific mass is the mass per unit volume of the
fluid.
∴ ρ= Mass

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FLUID MECHANICS
Volume
ρ =Mor dM
V dV
Unit: kg/m3 or kgm3

With the increase in temperature volume of fluid increases and hence mass
density decreases.
In case of fluids as the pressure increases volume decreases and hence mass
density increases.
Weight density or Specific weight (γ):
Weight density or Specific weight of a fluid is the weight per unit volume.
∴ γ = Weigh
t
Volume
γ =Wor dW
V dV
Unit: N/m3 or Nm-3.

With increase in temperature volume increases and hence specific weight
decreases.
With increases in pressure volume decreases and hence specific weight increases.
Note: Relationship between mass density and weight density

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FLUID MECHANICS
Specific gravity or Relative density (S):
It is the ratio of specific weight of the fluid to the specific weight of a standard fluid.
S γ of fluid
=
γ of s tan dard fluid
Unit: It is a dimensionless quantity and has no unit.
∴ Specific gravity or relative density of a fluid can also be defined as the ratio of mass
density of the fluid to mass density of the standard fluid. Mass density of standard water
is 1000 kg/m3.
ρ= S xγ
standard
4. Specific volume ( ∀ ): It is the volume per unit mass of the fluid.
 ∀= Volume
mass
∀ = VordVM dM
Unit: m3/kg
As the temperature increases volume increases and hence specific volume
increases. As the pressure increases volume decreases and hence specific volume
decreases.
Problems:
1. Calculate specific weight, density, specific volume and specific gravity and if
one liter of Petrol weighs 6.867N.

Page 8
FLUID MECHANICS
γ=W
V
V = 1Litre = 10−3 m3
= 6.867
10−3
W = 6.867N
γ = 6867N / m3
γ
S tan
S = dard
ρ=Sg
6867
= 6867 = ρ x 9.81
9810
∀= M=W/g
M
10−3
= M = 6.867 ÷ 9.81
0.7
∀ = 1.4x10−3m3/kg
M = 0.7 kg

Page 9
FLUID MECHANICS
3. Specific gravity of a liquid is 0.7 Find i) Mass density ii) specific weight. Also
find the mass and weight of 10 Liters of liquid.
S= S = 0.7
γ
γ = ρg V=?
S tan
dard
ρ=?
γ
0.7 = 6867 = ρ x 9.81 M=?

9810
W=?
ρ = 700 kg / m3 V = 10 litre
γ =6867N/m3
= 10x10−3m3
ρ γ=
S= V
S tan
dard
W
6867 =
ρ 10−2
0.7 =
1000

Page 10
FLUID MECHANICS
W = 68.67 N
ρ = 700kg / m3
or
M
ρ=
V W=mg
M
= 7 x 9.81
700 =
10x10 −3
W = 68.67 N
M = 7kg
1.5 vapour pressure
The process by which the molecules of the liquid go out of its surface in the form of
vapour is called Vaporisation.
There are two ways of causing Vaporisation.
a) By increasing the temperature of the liquid to its boiling point.
b) By reducing the pressure above the surface of the liquid to a value less than
Vapour pressure of the liquid.
To vacuum pump Closed
Vapours of

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FLUID MECHANICS
Air Liquid
Vapour
Pressure
Liquid Liquid
As the pressure above the surface of the liquid is reduced, at some point, there will be vaporisation of the
liquid. If the reduction in pressure is continued vapourisation will also continue. If the reduction in pressure is
stopped, vaporisation continues until vapours of the liquid exert certain pressure which will just stop the
vaporisation. This minimum partial pressure exerted by the vapours of the liquid just to stop vaporisation
is called Vapour Pressure of the liquid.
If the pressure over the surface goes below the vapour pressure, then, there will be vaporisation. But if the
pressure above the surface is more than the vapour pressure then there will not be vaporisation unless there
is heating.
Importance of Vapour Pressure:
1. In case of Hydraulic turbines sometimes pressure goes below the vapour pressure of the liquid. This leads to
vaporisation and formation of bubbles of liquid. When bubbles are carried to high Pressure zone they get
busted leaving partial vacuum. Surrounding liquid enters this space with very high velocity exerting large
force on the part of the machinery. This phenornenon is called cavitations. Turbines are designed such that
there are no cavitations.
2. In Carburettors and sprayers vapours of liquid are created by reducing the pressure below vapour pressure of
the liquid.
Unit of Vapour Pressure: N/m2 (Pascal - Pa)
Vapour Pressure of a fluid increases with increase in temperature.
1.6. Viscosity:

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FLUID MECHANICS
Viscosity is the property by virtue of which fluid offers resistance against the flow or
shear deformation. In other words, it is the reluctance of the fluid to flow. Viscous force
is that force of resistance offered by a layer of fluid for the motion of another layer over
it.
1.6.1 Newton’s law of viscosity:
Let us consider a liquid between the fixed plate and the movable plate at a
distance ‘Y’ apart , ‘A’ is the contact area (Wetted area ) of the movable plate , ‘F’ is the
force required to move the plate with a velocity ‘U’ According to Newton
Area of contact = A
F
U U
Movable Plate
Liquid
Fixed Plate Linear Non-linear

Velocity distribution or
velocity profile
♦ Fα A
♦
Fα
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FLUID
MECHANI
CS
1
Y
♦ Fα U
∴ FαAU
F= µ. AU
Y
‘µ’ is the constant of proportionality called Dynamic Viscosity or Absolute Viscosity or

Coefficient of Viscosity or Viscosity of the fluid.
F
= µ.U
A Y
∴τ=µU
Y
‘τ’ is the force required; per unit area called ‘Shear Stress’.
The above equation is called Newton’s law of viscosity.
Velocity gradient or rate of shear strain:

Dept of
Mechanic
al Engg,
ATMECE,
Mysuru
Page 14
FLUID MECHANICS
It is the difference in velocity per unit distance between any two layers.
If the velocity profile is linear then velocity gradient is given by U . If the velocity profile
Y
is non – linear then it is given by du .

dy
♦ Unit of force (F): N.
♦ Unit of distance between the tow plates (Y): m
♦ Unit of velocity (U): m/s
♦ Unit of velocity gradient : U=m / s= / s = s −1

Y m
♦ Unit of dynamic viscosity (τ): τ = µ . u
y
µ= τy
U
2
N/m.m
m/s
Ns
µ or µ P s
m2 a
NOTE:
In CGS system unit of dynamic viscosity is dyne . Sec and is called poise
(P). cm2

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FLUID MECHANICS
NS
If the value of is given in poise, multiply it by 0.1 to get it
in .
m2
1 Centipoise = 10-2 Poise.
♦ Effect of Pressure on Viscosity of fluids:
Pressure has very little or no effect on the viscosity of fluids.

♦ Effect of Temperature on Viscosity of fluids:
1. Effect of temperature on viscosity of liquids:Viscosity of liquids is due to cohesive

forcebetween the molecules of adjacent layers. As the temperature increases
cohesive force decreases and hence viscosity decreases.
2. Effect of temperature on viscosity of gases:Viscosity of gases is due to

molecularactivity between adjacent layers. As the temperature increases
molecular activity increases and hence viscosity increases.
1.6.2 Kinematics Viscosity:

It is the ratio of dynamic viscosity of the fluid to its mass density.
N
S
∴ KinematicVis cos ity =
/
m
2
k
Unit of KV: g
/
µ
KV
m
ρ 3

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FLUID MECHANICS
= NS x m3 µ
m 2 kg
F = ma
kg m s m3
= x x = m2 / s
s2 m2 kg
N = Kg.m / s2
∴ KinematicVis cos ity = m 2 / s

NOTE: Unit of kinematics viscosity in CGS system iscm2/sand is called stoke(S)
If the value of KV is given in stoke, multiply it by 10-4 to convert it into m2/s
1.6.3 Problems:
1. Viscosity of water is 0.01 poise. Find its kinematics viscosity if specific gravity is
0.998.
Kinematics viscosity = ? = 0.01P

S = 0.998 = 0.01x0.1
ρ NS
S=  = 0.001
ρ m2
s tan drad
∴ KV =µ
Dept of Mechanical Engg,

ATMECE, Mysuru
Page 17
FLUID MECHANICS
ρ 0.001
0.998 = =
1000 998
KV = 1 x 10−6 m 2 / s
ρ = 998 kg / m3
2. A Plate at a distance 0.0254mm from a fixed plate moves at 0.61m/s and requires a
force of 1.962N/m2 area of plate. Determine dynamic viscosity of liquid between the
plates.
U = 0.61 m/s
Y = 0.0254 mm
= 0.0254 x 10-3m
τ = 1.962 N / m2
µ =?
Assuming linear velocity distribution

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FLUID MECHANICS
1.962 = µ x
0.61
0.0254 x 10−3
µ = 8.17 x
10
−5N
S
m
2
3. A plate having an area of 1m2 is dragged down an inclined plane at 45 0 to horizontal

with a velocity of 0.5m/s due to its own weight. Three is a cushion of liquid 1mm
thick between the inclined plane and the plate. If viscosity of oil is 0.1 Pas find the
weight of the plate.
y = 1 mm = 1 x 10-3m
Plat
e
450 U = 0.5
m/s
0
W 45
A =1m2

Page 19
FLUID MECHANICS
U = 0.5m/s
Y = 1x10-3m
µ = 0.1NS/m2
W=?
F = W x cos 450
=Wx
0.707 F =
0.707W
τ=F
τ = 0.707W
1
τ = 0.707 W N / m2
Assuming linear velocity distribution,
τ = µ.U
Y
0.5
0.707W = 0.1 x
1 x 10−3
W = 70.72 N

Page 20
FLUID MECHANICS
4. A shaft of φ 20mm and mass 15kg slides vertically in a sleeve with a velocity of 5 m/s. The gap between the
shaft and the sleeve is 0.1mm and is filled with oil. Calculate the viscosity of oil if the length of the shaft is
500mm.
0.1 mm 0.1 mm
20
500
500
mm
mm

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FLUID MECHANICS
6. A circular disc of 0.3m dia and weight 50 N is kept on an inclined surface with a
slope of 450. The space between the disc and the surface is 2 mm and is filled with oil
of dynamics viscosity 1NS . What force will be required to pull the disc up the m 2
inclined plane with a velocity of 0.5m/s.
P
Motion
450
2 mm = 2 x 10-3 m = y
450
W = 150 N
1.7 Surface Tension:
Air
Surface tension is due to cohesion between the molecules of liquid and weak
adhesion between the molecules on the exposed surface of the liquid and molecules of air
A molecule inside the surface gets attracted by equal forces from the surrounding
molecules whereas a molecule on the surface gets attracted by the molecule below it.
Since there are no molecules above it, it experiences an unbalanced vertically downward
force. Due to this entire surface of the liquid expose of to air will have a tendency to
move in ward and hence the surface will be under tension. The property of the liquid
surface to offer resistance against tension is called surface tension.
• Consequences of Surface tension:

Page 22
FLUID MECHANICS
♦ Liquid surface supports small loads.
♦ Formation of spherical droplets of liquid
♦ Formation of spherical bubbles of liquid
♦ Formation of cylindrical jet of liquids.
Any liquid between contact surfaces attains curved surface as shown in figure.
The curved surface of the liquid is called Meniscus. If adhesion is more than cohesion
then the meniscus will be concave. If cohesion is greater than adhesion meniscus will be
convex.
Capacity rise Capillary fall
Cohesion< Adhesion Cohesion > Adhesion

Eg: Water Eg: Mercury
Capillarity is the phenomena by which liquids will rise or fall in a tube of small
diameter dipped in them. Capillarity is due to cohesion / adhesion and surface tension of
liquids. If adhesion is more than cohesion then there will be capillary rise. If cohesion is
greater than adhesion then will be capillary fall or depression. The surface tensile force
supports capillary rise or depression.

Page 23
FLUID MECHANICS
Note:
Angle of contact:
Surface Surface
θ θ
tension tension
Surface Surface
tension tension
The angle between surface tensile force and the vertical is called angle of contact.
If adhesion is more than cohesion then angle of contact is obtuse.
1.9 Compressibility:
It is the property by virtue of which there will be change in volume of fluid due to
change in pressure.
Let ‘v’ be the original volume and ‘dv’ be the change in volume due to change in
dv
pressure ‘dp’ , i.e., the ratio of change in volume to original volume is called
v
volumetric strain or bulk strain.
The ratio of change in pressure to the volumetric strain produced is called Bulk
modulus of elasticity of the fluid and is denoted by ‘K’

Page 24
FLUID MECHANICS
dp
Sometimes ‘K’ is written as K = − dv . –ve sign indicates that as there is
increase in pressure, there is decrease in volume. Reciprocal of Bulk modulus of

elasticity is called Compressibility of the fluid.
dv
∴ Compressibility =1= v
K dp
Unit of Bulk modulus of elasticity is N/m2 or Pa. Unit of compressibility is
m2/N.

Page 25
FLUID MECHANICS
1.10 PRESSURE AND ITS MEASUREMENTS:
Fluid is a state of matter which exhibits the property of flow. When a certain mass
of fluids is held in static equilibrium by confining it within solid boundaries, it exerts
force along direction perpendicular to the boundary in contact. This force is called fluid
pressure.
Pressure distribution:
It is the variation of pressure over the boundary in contact with the

fluid. There are two types of pressure distribution.
a) Uniform Pressure distribution.
b) Non-Uniform Pressure distribution.
(a) Uniform Pressure distribution:
If the force exerted by the fluid is same at all the points of contact boundary then
the pressure distribution is said to be uniform.

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FLUID MECHANICS
(b) Non –Uniform Pressure distribution:
If the force exerted by the fluid is not same at all the points then the pressure
distribution is said to be non-uniform.
 Intensity of pressure or unit pressure or Pressure:
Intensity of pressure at a point is defined as the force exerted over unit area
considered around that point. If the pressure distribution is uniform then intensity of
pressure will be same at all the points.
 Calculation of Intensity of Pressure:
When the pressure distribution is uniform, intensity of pressure at any points is

given by the ratio of total force to the total area of the boundary in contact.
∴ Intensity of Pressure ‘p’ = F
When the pressure distribution is non- uniform, then intensity of pressure at a

dF
point is given by .
dA
 Unit of Intensity of Pressure:
N/m2 or pascal (Pa).
Note: 1 MPa =1N/mm2

Page 27
FLUID MECHANICS
To study the variation of intensity of pressure in a static mass of fluid: or derive hydrostatic law of
pressure.
∂ p dy
∂ p dz p+ , dx .dz
p− , dx .dy ∂y 2
∂z 2
y z
∂ p dx
p− , dz .dy
∂x 2 ∂ p dx
dz
p+ x .dy
∂x 2
dy
dz

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FLUID MECHANICS
dx
∂p dy
∂ p dz
p− x dx .dz
p+ x dx .dy
∂y 2 ∂ z2
Self weight = γ x volume = γ x dx dy dz

Let us consider a point ‘M’ at a depth ‘y’ below the free surface of the liquid of specific weight ‘γ’. (dx
dy dz) is the elemental volume of the fluid considered around the point ‘M’.
Fx=0
∂ p dx ∂ p dx
+ p− . dy dz − P + . dy dz = 0
∂x 2 ∂x 2
∂ p dx ∂ p dx
i, e p − . −p − . =0
∂x 2 ∂ x2
− 2. ∂P . dx= 0
∂x 2
∴∂P = 0 ∂
x
∴Rate of change of intensity of pressure along x – direction is zero. In other

words there is no change in intensity of pressure along x – direction inside the fluid.
Fz=0
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FLUID MECHANICS
∂ p dz ∂ p dz
+ p− . dx dy − p + . = 0 dx dy = 0
∂z 2 ∂z 2
∴∂p = 0
∂z
∴ The Rate of change of intensity of pressure along z direction is zero.
In other words there is no change in intensity of pressure along z – direction.
Fy=0
∂ p dy
+ p− . dx dz − p +
∂y 2
∂ p dy ∂ P dy ∂ p
i.e. p − . −p − . . dy dx dz − γ dx dy dz = 0
∂y 2 ∂y 2
∂y 2
i, e −∂p dy = γdy
∂y
= γdy
∴∂p = − γ ∂
y
-ve sign indicates that the pressure increases in the downward direction i.e., as the depth
below the surface increases intensity of pressure increases.
∴∂p = γ
∂y

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FLUID MECHANICS
∴∂p=γ.
oyintegratin
g, p = γy +
C
at y = 0; p = pAtmospheric
patm = γ x0 + C
∴ C = patm
∴ p = γy +patm
The above equation is called hydrostatic law of pressure.
1.11 PASCAL ‘S LAW

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FLUID MECHANICS
Statement: Intensity of pressure at a point in a static mass of fluid is same along the
directions.
Proof:
ps ps dz ds
90 - θ
ds dy
(900) dy
px
θ
px dy
dz
θ θ
dz
dx dx
py dx dz
Let us consider three planes around a point as shown in figure. Figure shows
intensity of pressure and force along different directions. The system of forces should be
in equilibrium.
∴ Fx = 0
- px dy.dz + ps ds dz cos (900 ) = 0

ps ds sinθ = px dy
ps dy = px dy

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FLUID MECHANICS
ps = px
∴ Fy=0
- ps ds.dz cos θ + py dx dz = 0
py dx = ps ds cosθ
py dx = ps dx
p y = ps
∴ p x = p y = pz
∴ Intensity of pressure at a point is same along all the direction

1.12 Manometers:
Manometers are broadly classified into
a) Simple Manometers
b) Differential Manometers.
a) Simple Manometers
Simple monometers are used to measure intensity of pressure at a point.

They are connected to the point at which the intensity of pressure is required.
Such a point is called gauge point.
b) Differential Manometers
Differential manometers are used to measure the pressure difference

between two points. They are connected to the two points between which the
intensity of pressure is required.

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FLUID MECHANICS
1.13 Problems
1. Determine the pressure at A for the U- tube manometer shown in fig. Also calculate
the absolute pressure at A in kPa.
X
A 750mm
500m
m
Hg (S = 13.6)
Water
X
A 750mm
500m
m
Hg (S = 13.6)
Water
Let ‘hA’ be the pressure head at ‘A’ in ‘meters of water’.

hA+0.75−0.5 x13.6=0
hA=6.05 m of water
p =γ h
= 9.81x6.05
p =59.35 kPa ( gauge pressure)

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FLUID MECHANICS
p
abs= patm+pgauge
= 101.3 + 59.35
pabc=160.65 kPa
2. For the arrangement shown in figure, determine gauge and absolute pressure at the
point M.
250mm
X
M 750 mm
Mercury (13.6)
Oil (S = 0.8)
Let ‘hM’ be the pressure head at the point ‘M’ in m of water,
hM - 0.75 x 0.8 – 0.25 x 13.6 = 0
hM = 4 m of water
p=γh
p = 39.24 kPa
p abs = 101.3 + 39.24
p abs140.54 kPa

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FLUID MECHANICS
OUT COMES
1) 1. Identify and calculate the key fluid properties used in the analysis of fluid behaviour.
2) 2. To know the uses of manometers and its types
3) Concepts of hydrostatic law and Pascal’s law
Exercise
1) Define the basic properties of fluids along with SI units

2) Define vapour pressure and cavitations
3) Establish relationship among absolute, atmospheric and gauge pressure.
4) Derive an expression for hydrostatic law
FURTHER READING
 Fluid Mechanics, John F.Douglas, Janul and M.Gasiosek and john A.Swaffield, Pearson Education
Asia, 5th ed., 2006
 Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Power Engineering, Kumar.D.S, Kataria and Sons., 2004
 Fluid Mechanics -. Merle C. Potter, Elaine P.Scott. Cengage learning

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FLUID MECHANICS
MODULE-2
CONTENTS
2.1 Definition of Buoyancy

2.2 Centre of Buoyancy
2.3 Archimedes principle
2.4 Stability
2.5 Metacentre height
2.6 Fluid kinematic concepts
2.7 Velocity field
2.8 Types of fluid flow
2.9 Continuity equation
OBJECTIVES
1. To Calculate the forces exerted by a fluid at rest on submerged surfaces

2. Understand the forces of buoyancy.
3. To know the velocity changes and energy transfer in fluid flows
2.1 CONCEPT OF BUOYANCY

When a body is either wholly or partially immersed in a fluid, the hydrostatic lift
due to the net vertical component of the hydrostatic pressure forces experienced by the
body is called the “Buoyant Force” and the phenomenon is called “Buoyancy”.

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FLUID MECHANICS
Fig. Buoyancy
The Buoyancy is an upward force exerted by the fluid on the body when the
body is immersed in a fluid or floating on a fluid. This upward force is equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced by the body.
2.2 CENTER OF BUOYANCY
(a) Floating Body (b) Submerged Body
Fig. Center of Buoyancy
Center of Buoyancy is a point through which the force of buoyancy is supposed

to act. As the force of buoyancy is a vertical force and is equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by the body, the Center of Buoyancy will be the center of the fluid displaced.
2.3 ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE
The Buoyant Force (FB) is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the Submerged body and acts
vertically upwards through the centred of the displaced volume. Net weight of the submerged body = Actual
weight – Buoyant force.
The buoyant force on a partially immersed body is also equal to the weight of the
displaced liquid. The buoyant force depends upon the density of the fluid and
submerged volume of the body. For a floating body in static equilibrium, the buoyant
force is equal to the weight of the body.

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FLUID MECHANICS
2.4 STABILITY
Stable conditions of the floating body can be achieved, under certain conditions
even though (G) is above (B). When a floating body undergoes angular displacement
about the horizontal position, the shape of the immersed volume changes and so, the
Center of Buoyancy moves relative to the body.
Fig. Meta Center
Fig. (a) shows equilibrium position; (G) is above (B), FB and W are co-linear.
Fig. (b) shows the situation after the body has undergone a small angular displacement
(θ) with respect to the vertical axis. (G) remains unchanged relative to the body. (B) is
the Center of Buoyancy (Centroid of the Immersed Volume) and it moves towards the
right to the new position [B1]. The new line of action of the buoyant force through [B1]
which is always vertical intersects the axis BG (old vertical line through [B] and [G]) at
[M]. For small angles of (θ), point [M] is practically constant and is known as Meta
Center.
Meta Center [M] is a point of intersection of the lines of action of Buoyant Force
before and after heel. The distance between Center of Gravity and Meta Center (GM) is
called Meta-Centric Height. The distance [BM] is known as Meta-Centric Radius.
In Fig. (b), [M] is above [G], the Restoring Couple acts on the body in its
displaced position and tends to turn the body to the original position - Floating body is
in stable equilibrium.

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FLUID MECHANICS
If [M] were below [G], the couple would be an Over-turning Couple and the
body would be in Unstable Equilibrium.
If [M] coincides with [G], the body will assume a new position without any
further movement and thus will be in Neutral Equilibrium.
For a floating body, stability is determined not simply by the relative positions of
[B] and [G]. The stability is determined by the relative positions of [M] and [G]. The
distance of the Meta-Center [M] above [G] along the line [BG] is known as the Meta-
Centric height (GM).
GM=BM-BG
GM>0, [M] above [G]-----
-- Stable Equilibrium
GM=0, [M] coinciding with ------Neutral
[G] Equilibrium
GM<0, [M] below [G]------
- Unstable Equilibrium.

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FLUID MECHANICS
2.5 META-CENTRIC HEIGHTS
Consider a floating object as shown. It is given a small tilt angle(θ) from the
initial state. Increase in the volume of displacement on the right hand side displaces the
Center of Buoyancy from (B) to (B1)
Fig. Determination of Meta-centric Height.
The shift in the center of Buoyancy results in the Restoring Couple = W (BM tan θ);
Since FB= W; W=Weight of the body= Buoyant force= FB
This is the moment caused by the movement of Center of Buoyancy from (B) to (B1)
Volume of the liquid displaced by the object remains same.
Area AOA1=Area DOD1
Weight of the wedge AOA1(which emerges out)=Weight of the wedge DOD1(that was
submerged)
Let (l) and (b) be the length and breadth of the object. .
Weight of each wedge shaped portion of the liquid

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FLUID MECHANICS
There exists a buoyant force dFB upwards on the wedge (ODD1) and dFB downwards on
the wedge (OAA1) each at a distance of (2/3)(b/2)=(b/3) from the
center.
The two forces are equal and opposite and constitute a couple of magnitude,
dM= dF(2/3)b =[(wb2 l tan θ)/8](2/3)b =w(lb3/12)tan θ=wI tan θ Where, I is
Y Y
B Y Y
the moment of inertia of the floating object about the longitudinal axis.
This moment is equal to the moment caused by the movement of buoyant force from
(B) to (B1).
W(BM) tan θ=w(IYY) tan θ; Since W=wV, where V=volume of liquid displaced by the
object, wV(BM) tan θ=w IYY tan θ
Therefore,
BM= (IYY/ V) and GM = BM-BG= (IYY/ V) - BG
Where BM = [Second moment of the area of the plane of flotation about the centroidal
axis perpendicular to the plane of rotation / Immersed Volume]
2.6 FLUID KINEMATICS
Fluid Kinematics gives the geometry of fluid motion. It is a branch of fluid

mechanics, which describes the fluid motion, and it’s consequences without
consideration of the nature of forces causing the motion. Fluid kinematics is the study of
velocity as a function of space and time in the flow field. From velocity, pressure
variations and hence, forces acting on the fluid can be determined.
2.7 VELOCITY FIELD

Velocity at a given point is defined as the instantaneous velocity of the fluid
particle, which at a given instant is passing through the point. It is represented by
V=V(x,y,z,t). Vectorially, V=ui+vj+wk where u,v,w are three scalar components of
velocity in x,y and z directions and (t) is the time. Velocity is a vector quantity and
velocity field is a vector field.

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FLUID MECHANICS
FLOW PATTERNS
Fig. Flow Patterns
Fluid Mechanics is a visual subject. Patterns of flow can be visualized in several

ways. Basic types of line patterns used to visualize flow are streamline, path line, streak
line and time line.
(a) Stream line is a line, which is everywhere tangent to the velocity vector at a given
instant.
(b) Path line is the actual path traversed by a given particle.
(c) Streak line is the locus of particles that have earlier passed through a prescribed
point.
(d) Time line is a set of fluid particles that form a line at a given instant.

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FLUID MECHANICS
2.8 TYPES OF FLUID FLOW

1. Uniform and Non-uniform flows
2. Laminar and Turbulent flows
3. Compressible and Incompressible flows
4. Rotational and Irrotational flows
5. One, Two and Three dimensional flows
STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW
Steady flow is the type of flow in which the various flow parameters and fluid properties at any point
do not change with time. In a steady flow, any property may vary from point to point in the field, but
all properties remain constant with time at every point.[∂V/∂ t] x,y,z= 0; [∂p/ ∂t] x,y,z =0. Ex.:
V=V(x,y,z); p=p(x,y,z) . Time is a criterion.
Unsteady flow is the type of flow in which the various flow parameters and fluid properties at any
point change with time. [∂V/∂t]x,y,z≠0 ; [∂p/∂t]x,y,z≠0, Eg.:V=V(x,y,z,t), p=p(x,y,z,t) or V=V(t), p=p(t) .
Time is a criterion
Uniform Flow is the type of flow in which velocity and other flow parameters at any instant of time
do not change with respect to space. Eg., V=V(x) indicates that the flow is uniform in ‘y’ and ‘z’
axis. V=V (t) indicates that the flow is uniform in ‘x’, ‘y’ and ‘z’ directions. Space is a criterion.
Uniform flow field is used to describe a flow in which the magnitude and direction of the velocity
vector are constant, i.e., independent of all space coordinates throughout the entire flow field (as
opposed to uniform flow at a cross section). That is, [∂V/ ∂s]t=constant =0, that is ‘V’ has unique value
in entire flow field
Non-uniform flow is the type of flow in which velocity and other flow parameters at any instant
change with respect to space.
[∂V/ ∂s]t=constant is not equal to zero. Distance or space is a criterion
LAMINAR AND TURBULANT FLOWS
Laminar Flow is a type of flow in which the fluid particles move along well-defined paths or stream-
lines. The fluid particles move in laminas or layers gliding smoothly over one another. The behavior
of fluid particles in motion is a criterion.
Turbulent Flow is a type of flow in which the fluid particles move in zigzag way in the flow field.
Fluid particles move randomly from one layer to another. Reynolds number is a criterion. We can
assume that for a flow in pipe, for Reynolds No. less than 2000, the flow is laminar; between 2000-
4000, the flow is transitional; and greater than 4000, the flow is turbulent.

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FLUID MECHANICS
COMPRESSIBLE AND INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

Incompressible Flow is a type of flow in which the density (ρ) is constant in the flow field. This
assumption is valid for flow Mach numbers with in 0.25. Mach number is used as a criterion. Mach
Number is the ratio of flow velocity to velocity of sound waves in the fluid medium
Compressible Flow is the type of flow in which the density of the fluid changes in the flow field.
Density is not constant in the flow field. Classification of flow based on Mach number is given
below:
M < 0.25 – Low speed
M < unity – Subsonic
M around unity – Transonic
M > unity – Supersonic
M >> unity, (say 7) – Hypersonic
ROTATIONAL AND IRROTATIONAL FLOWS

Rotational flow is the type of flow in which the fluid particles while flowing along stream-lines also
rotate about their own axis.
Ir-rotational flow is the type of flow in which the fluid particles while flowing along stream-lines do
not rotate about their own axis.
ONE,TWO AND THREE DIMENSIONAL FLOWS

The number of space dimensions needed to define the flow field completely governs dimensionality
of flow field. Flow is classified as one, two and three-dimensional depending upon the number of
space co-ordinates required to specify the velocity fields.
One-dimensional flow is the type of flow in which flow parameters such as velocity is a function of
time and one space coordinate only.
For Ex., V=V(x,t) – 1-D, unsteady ; V=V(x) – 1-D, steady
Two-dimensional flow is the type of flow in which flow parameters describing the flow vary in two
space coordinates and time.
For Ex., V=V(x,y,t) – 2-D, unsteady; V=V(x,y) – 2-D, steady
Three-dimensional flow is the type of flow in which the flow parameters describing the flow vary in
three space coordinates and time.

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FLUID MECHANICS
For Ex., V=V(x,y,z,t) – 3-D, unsteady ; V=V(x,y,z) – 3D, steady
2.9 CONTINUITY EQUATION

Rate of flow or discharge (Q) is the volume of fluid flowing per second. For incompressible fluids
flowing across a section,
Volume flow rate, Q= A×V m3/s where A=cross sectional area and V= average
velocity.
For compressible fluids, rate of flow is expressed as mass of fluid flowing across a section per
second.
Mass flow rate (m) =(ρAV) kg/s where ρ = density.
Continuity equation is based on Law of Conservation of Mass. For a fluid flowing through a pipe, in
a steady flow, the quantity of fluid flowing per second at all cross-sections is a constant.
Let v1=average velocity at section [1], ρ1=density of fluid at [1], A1=area of flow at [1];
Let v2, ρ2, A 2 be corresponding values at section [2].
Rate of flow at section [1]= ρ1 A1 v1
Rate of flow at section [2]= ρ2 A2 v2
ρ1 A1 v1= ρ2 A2 v2
This equation is applicable to steady compressible or incompressible fluid flows and is called
Continuity Equation. If the fluid is incompressible, ρ 1 = ρ2 and the continuity equation reduces to A1
v1= A2 v2
For steady, one dimensional flow with one inlet and one outlet, ρ 1 A1 v1− ρ2
A2 v2=0
For control volume with N inlets and outlets

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FLUID MECHANICS
N
i=1 (ρi Ai vi) =0 where inflows are positive and outflows are negative . Velocities are normal to
the areas. This is the continuity equation for steady one dimensional flow through a fixed
control volume
N (
When density is constant, i=1 Aivi)=0
OUTCOMES
1 Understand and apply the principle s of pressure, buoyancy and floatation
2 Apply the knowledge of fluid kinematics
3 Apply the principle of kinematics.
EXERCISE
1 Define metacentre height
2 List and explain the types of fluid flow with suitable examples
3 Derive an expressions for floating body.

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FLUID MECHANICS
MODULE-3
CONTENTS
3.1 Fluid dynamics: basic concept
3.2 Equations of motion
3.3 Euler’s equation of motion
3.4 Bernoulli’s equation
3.5 Problems
3.6 Applications
3.7 Flow measurements
3.8 Problems on venturimeter
3.9 Orifice meter
3.10 Pitot tube
3.11 Notches
3.12 Energy losses in pipe flow
3.13 Laminar-Turbulent flow
3.14 Major energy losses
3.15 Darcy’s equation
3.16 Problems
3.17 Minor energy losses
3.18 Hydraulic energy line-Total energy line
OBJECTIVES
1 To understand flow the flow characteristics and dynamics of flow of fluid.
2 To discuss the main properties of laminar and turbulent flow
3 To understand the major and minor energy losses

Page 48
FLUID MECHANICS
3.1 Fluid dynamics: basic concept
The laws of Statics that we have learned cannot solve Dynamic Problems. There is no way to
solve for the flow rate, or Q. Therefore, we need a new dynamic approach to Fluid Mechanics.
3.2 Equations of Motion
The dynamics of fluid flow is the study of fluid motion with forces causing flow. The dynamic
behaviours of the fluid flow is analyzed by the Newton’s law of motion (F=ma), which relates
the acceleration with the forces. The fluid is assumed to be incompressible and non-viscous.
Mathematically, Fx = m.ax
In the fluid flow, following forces are present:
pressure force ‘Fp’
gravity force ‘Fg’
viscous force ‘Fv’
turbulent flow ‘Ft’

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FLUID MECHANICS
surface tension force ‘Fs’
• compressibility force ‘Fe’
• The pressure force ‘Fp’ is exerted on the fluid mass, if there exists a pressure gradient
between the 2 parts in the direction of flow.
The gravity force ‘Fg’ is due to the weight of the fluid and it is equal to ‘M g’. The
gravity force for unit volume is equal to ‘ g’.
• The viscous force ‘Fv’ is due to the viscosity of the flowing fluid and thus exists in the
case of all real fluid.
• The turbulent flow ‘Ft’ is due to the turbulence of the flow. In the turbulent flow, the
fluid particles move from one layer to other and therefore, there is a continuous
momentum transfer between adjacent layer, which results in developing additional
stresses(called Reynolds stresses) for the flowing fluid.
• The surface tension force ‘Fs’ is due to the cohesive property of the fluid mass. It is,
however, important only when the depth of flow is extremely small.
• The compressibility force ‘Fe’ is due to elastic property of fluid and it is important only
either for compressible fluids or in the cases of flowing fluids in which the elastic
properties of fluids are significant.
• If a certain mass of fluid in the motion is influenced by all the above mentioned forces,
thus according to Newton’s law of motion, the following equation of motion may be
written as
M a = Fg+ Fp+ Fv+ Ft+ Fs+ Fe =net force Fx ---- (1)
Further by resolving the various forces and the acceleration along the x, y and z directions, the
following equation of motion may be obtained.
Max= Fgx +Fpx +Fvx+ Ftx+Fsx+Fex

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FLUID MECHANICS
May= Fgy+Fpy+Fvy+Fty+Fsy+Fey ---- (1a)
Maz= Fgz+Fpz+Fvz+Ftz+Fsz+Fez
The subscripts x, y and z are introduced to represent the component of each of the forces and the
acceleration in the respective directions
3.3 Euler's equation of motion:

Statement: In an ideal incompressible fluid, when the flow is steady and continuous, sum of
the velocity head, pressure head and datum head along a stream line is constant.
Assumptions:
• The fluid is ideal and incompressible.
• Flow is steady and continuous.
• Flow is along streamline and it is 1-D.
• The velocity is uniform across the section and is equal to the mean velocity.
• Flow is Irrrotational.
• The only forces acting on the fluid are gravity and the pressure forces.

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FLUID MECHANICS
FLUID MECHANICS (10ME46B) MANJUNATH H S

Page 52
FLUID MECHANICS
Consider a streamline and select a small cylindrical fluid system for analysis as shown in Figs. 1(a) & (b) of
length ‘ds’ and c/s area ‘dA’ as a free body from the moving fluid,
Let, p = pressure on the element at ‘L’
p+dp = pressure on the element at M and
v= velocity of the fluid element.
The forces acting (tending to accelerate) the fluid element in the direction of stream line are as follows,
1) Net pressure force in the direction of flow is
p.dA-(p+dp) dA= - dp.dA------- (1)
2) Component of the weight of the fluid element in the direction of flow is
= - g.dA.ds.cos
= - g.dA.ds (dz/ds) (because cos =dz/ds)
= - g.dA.dz -- (2)
Mass of the fluid element = .dA.ds -- (3)

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FLUID MECHANICS
FLUID MECHANICS (10ME46B)
The acceleration of the fluid element
a= dv/dt = (dv/ds).(ds/dt)= v(dv/ds)
Now according to Newton law of motion
Force = mass * acceleration
Therefore -dp.dA - g.dA.dz= ( .dA.ds) (v.dv/ds) --- (4)
Dividing both sides by dA we get
-dp/ - gdz = vdv (divide by -1)
(dp/ )+vdv+gdz=0 ------ (A)
This is the required Euler’s equation for motion,
Bernoulli’s Equation from Euler’s equation for motion:
By Integrating Euler’s equation for motion, we get
1/ dp + vdv + gdz= constant
p/ + v2/2 + gz =constant dividing by ‘g’ we get
p/ g + v2/2g + z= constant
p/w+v2/2g+z =constant
In other words,
p1/w + v12/2g + z1 = p2/w2 + v22/2g + z2
As points 1 and 2 are any two arbitrary points on the streamline, the quantity
P/w + v2/2g + z = H = constant ------ B
Applies to all points on the streamline and thus provides a useful relationship between pressure
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FLUID MECHANICS
p, the magnitude V of the velocity, and the height z above datum. Eqn. B is known as
theBernoulli equation and the Bernoulli constant H is also termed the total head
3.4 Bernoulli’s equation from energy principle:
Statement: In an ideal, incompressible fluid, when the flow is steady and continuous,
thesum of pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy (or datum) energy is
constant along a stream line.
Mathematically, p/w + v2/2g + z = constant
Proof: Consider an ideal & incompressible fluid flowing through a non-uniform pipe as shown
in fig. 2. Let us consider 2 sections LL&MM and assume that the pipe is running full and there is
continuity of flow between the two sections.
Let p1=pressure at LL
V1=velocity of liquid at LL
Z1=height of LL above the datum

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FLUID MECHANICS
A1=area of pipe at LL and
Similarly, P2, v2, z2, A2 are the corresponding values at MM
Let the liquid b/w 2sections LL&MM move to L1L1&M1M1 through very small length dl1&dl2 as
shown in figure 2. This movement of liquid b/w LL&MM is equivalent to the movement of
liquid b/w L1L1&M1M1 being unaffected
W= wA1dl1=wA2dl2 … Volume of fluid
Or A1dl1=W/w and A2dl2=W/w
Therefore A1dl1=A2dl2
Work done by press at LL in moving the liquid to L1L1= force * distance=p1A1dl1
Similarly, work done by press at MM in moving the liquid to M 1M1= P2A2dl2 (negative sign
indicates that direction of p2 is opposite to that of p1)
Therefore, work done by the pressure

=p1A1dl1- p2A2dl2
=p1A1dl1-p2A2dl2 (because A1dl1=A2dl2)
=A1dl1 (p1-p2)
=W/w (p1-p2) (because A1dl1=W/w) Loss

of potential energy (PE) = W (Z1-Z2)
Gain of kinetic energy (KE) = W (v22/2g-v12/2g) = W/2g(v22-v12)
Also, loss of P.E+ work done by pressure = gain in K.E

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FLUID MECHANICS
Therefore W (z1-z2) +W/w (p1-p2) =W/2g (v22-v12)

or (z1-z2) +(p1/w-p2/w)=(v22/2g-v12/2g)
P1/w+v12/2g+z1=p2/w+v22/2g+z2
Which prove Bernoulli's equation
P/w = pressure energy per unit weight

= pressure head
v2/2g = Kinetic energy per unit weight

= kinetic head
Z = datum energy per unit weight
= datum head
3.5 Problems on Bernoulli’s Equation:
1. Water is flowing through a pipe of diameter 5cm under a pressure of 29.43N/cm 2 (gauge) and
with mean velocity of 2 m/s. Find the total energy per unit weight of the water at a cross-section,
which is 5m above the datum line.
Solution
Diameter of pipe = 5cm = 0.5 m
Pressure p = 29.43N/cm2 = 29.43 x 104 N/m2
Datum head z =5m
Total head = pressure head + kinetic head+ datum head
Pressure head= p/ g=29.43 x 104/1000 x9.81 =30m
Kinetic head=v2/2g = 2x2/2x9.81= 0.204m
Total head= p/ g+ v2/2g+z = 30+0.204+5 = 35.204 m

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2). A pipe through which the water is flowing, is having diameters 20 cm and 10 cm at the cross-
sections 1 and 2 respectively. The velocity of water at section 1 is given 40m/s. find the velocity
head at sections 1 and 2, and also rate of discharge.
Solution
D1=20 cm =0.2m,
A1= /4 x D12 = 0.0314 m2,
v1=4 m/s
D2=0.1m,
A2= /4 x D22 = 0.00785 m2
Velocity head at section 1
V12/ 2g = 4 x4 /2x9.81=0.815 m
Velocity head at section 2 = V22/2g
To find V2, apply continuity equation at sections 1&2
A1V1=A2V2
V2= A2V2/A2= 0.0314 x4/0.00785 =16.0 m/s Velocity head at sec.2 = V22/2g = 16 x16 /2 x9.81
V2= 83.047 m
Rate of discharge = A1V1or A2V2= 0.0314 x 4
=0.1256 m3/s
3) The water is flowing through a tapering pipe having diameter 300mm and 150mm at section 1
& 2 respectively. The discharge through the pipe is 40lit/sec. the section 1 is 10m above datum
and section 2 is 6m above datum. Find the intensity of pressure at section 2, if that at section 1 is
400kN/m2

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FLUID MECHANICS
Solution:
V2= Q/A2 = 0.04/0.01767 = 2.264m/sec
Fig. 3
At section 1
D1=300mm=0.3m, Area a1= /4*0.32=0.0707m2
Pressure p1=400kN/m2
Height of upper end above the datum, z1=10m
At section 2
D2=150mm=0.15m,
Area A2= ( /4)*0.152=0.01767m2
Height of lower end above the datum, z2=6m
Rate of flow (that is discharge)
Q=40lit/sec=40/1000 (1litre = 1 m3/sec) =0.04m3/sec
Intensity of pressure at section 2, p2
As the flow is continuous, Q = A1V1= A2V2 (Continuity equation)

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Therefore, V1= Q/A1 = 0.04/0.0707 = 0.566m/sec
And
Apply Bernoulli’s equation at sections 1 & 2,
We get, p1/w+v12/2g+z1=p2/w+v22/2g+z2
And p2/w = p1/w + (v12-v22/2g) + z1-z2
= (400/9.81) + 1/ (2*9.81)*(0.5662-2.2642)+(10-6)
= 40.77- 0.245+4 (as w = .g = 1000 x 9.81 N/m3)
= 44.525m = 9.81 kN/m3
P2 = 44.525 * w = 44.525 * 9.81 = 436.8 kN/m2
4) Water is flowing through a taper pipe of length 100 m, having diameter 600mm and 300mm at the upper end
and lower end respectively, at the rate of 50 lit/s. the pipe has a slope of 1 in 30. Find the pressure at the lower end
if the pressure at the higher level is 19.62 N/cm2.

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FLUID MECHANICS
Dia. At the lower end, D2=300mm =0.3m

A2= /4 x D22 = 0.07068 m2
Rate of flow, Q =50 lit/s, Q=50/1000=0.05 m3/s
Let the datum line is passing through the centre of the lower end, Then z2=0
As slope is 1 in 30 means z1=1/30 x100= 10/3 m
Q= A1V1=A2V2
V1=0.05/A1 =0.1768=0.177
m/s V2=0.05/A2=0.7074
=0.707 m/s
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at (1) and (2) we get
P1/ g + V12/ 2g +z1 = P2/ g + V22/ 2g +z2
19.62 x 104/1000 x 9.81 + 0.1772 /2 x 9.81 + 3.334= P2/ g +0.7072/2 x 9.81+ 0

20 + 0.001596 + 3.334= P2/ g +0.0254
23.335 – 0.0254 = P2/ 1000 x9.81

P2 =228573 N/m2
= 22.857 N/cm2
5) A pipe 200m long slopes down at 1 in 100 and tapers from 600mm diameter at the higher end
to 300mm diameter at the lower end, and carries 100 lit/sec of oil (specific gravity 0.8). If the
pressure gauge at the higher end reads 60 kN/m2. Determine,
i. Velocities at both ends.
ii. Pressure at the lower end. Neglect the losses

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FLUID MECHANICS
Fig. 5
Solution:
Given:Length of the pipe, l=

200mmDiameter of the pipe at the
higher end,
D1 =600mm= 0.6m, Area, A1 = ( /4)*0.62 =0.283 m2
Diameter of the pipe at the lower end,
D2 =300mm= 0.3m, Area, A2 = ( /4)*0.32 = 0.0707 m2
Height of the lower end, above datum Z2

=0 Rate of oil flow, Q=100lit/sec= 0.1
m3/sec Pressure at the higher end, p1
=60kN/m2
(i) Velocities, V1& V2
Now Q=A1V1 = A2V2
Where V1& V2 are the velocities at the higher and lower side respectively.
V1= Q/A1 =0.1/0.283= 0.353m/sec
V2= Q/A2=0.1/0.0707=1.414m/sec, and
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering. ATMECE

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FLUID MECHANICS
(ii) Pressure at the lower end, p2
Using Bernoulli’s equation for both ends of pipe, we have
p1/w+v12/2g+z1=p2/w+v22/2g+z2
60/(0.8*9.81)+0.3532/(2*9.81)+2=p2/(0.8*9.81)+(1.4142/2*9.81)+0
p2 /(0.8*9.81) = 9.54,
Pressure at lower end, p2= 74.8 kN/m2
6) Water is flowing through a pipe having diameter 300mm and 200mm at the bottom and upper end respectively.
The intensity of pressure at the bottom end is 24.525 N/cm 2 and at upper end is 9.81 N/cm2. Determine the
difference in datum head if the rate of flow through pipe is 40 lit/s.

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Fig. 6
Solution:
At Section (1), D1=300mm =0.3m
P1=24.525 N/cm2 =24.525 x 104 N/m2
Rate of flow = 40 lit/sec, Q=40/1000=0.04 m3/s
Now A1V1=A2V2=0.04
V1=0.04/A1 =0.5658 m/s; V2=0.04/A2=1.274 m/s

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P1/ g + V12/ 2g +z1= P2/ g + V22/ 2g +z2
24.525 x 104/1000 x 9.81 + 0.566 x 0.566 /2 x 9.81 + z1
=9.81 x104/1000 x9.81 +1.2742/2 x 9.81+ z2
25+0.32+ z1= 10 + 1.623 + z2
z2- z1=25.32-11.623=13.697=13.70 m,
Difference in head, z2- z1= 13.70 m
7) A non-uniform part of a pipe line 5 m long is laid at a slope of 2 in 5. Two pressure gauges
each fitted at upper and lower ends read 20 N/cm2 and 12.5 N/ cm2. If the diameters at the upper
end and lower end are 15 cm 10 cm respectively. Determine the quantity of water flowing per
second.
Fig.7

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FLUID MECHANICS
Solution:
L= 5 m, D1=15cm =0.15m
A1= /4 x D12 = 0.01767 m2
P1 =20 N/ cm2 =20x104 N/m2 ,
P2=12.5N/ cm2 =12.5x104 N/m2
Dia. At the lower end, D2=300mm =0.3m
A2= /4 x D22 = 0.00785 m2
Let the datum line is passing through the centre of the lower end
Then z2=0
As slope is 2 in 5 hence, z1=2/5 x5= 2 m
Q= A1V1=A2V2
V1 = A2V2/A1 =0.00785x V2 /0.01767
V1 = 0.444 V2
Applying Bernoulli’s eqn. at (1) and (2), we get
P1/ g + V12/ 2g +z1 = P2/ g + V22/ 2g +z2
7.645 + 2 = V22 /2g x 0.8028
V2=15.35 m/s

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FLUID MECHANICS
Discharge, Q= A2V2 = 0.00785 x 15.35 = 0.1205 m3/s
Q = 120.5 lit/s
3.6 Applications of Bernoulli’s equation:
Although Bernoulli’s equation is applicable in all problems of incompressible flow where

there is involvement of energy considerations. But we shall consider its application to the
following measuring devices.
1) Venturimeter
2) Orifice meter
3) Pitot tube
3.7 Flow Measurements
The Venturi effect is the reduction in fluid pressure that results when a fluid flows through a
constricted section of pipe. The Venturi effect is named after Giovanni Battista Venturi
(1746–1822), an Italian physicist.
Fig. 1: Venturi effect

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FLUID MECHANICS
The main advantages of the Venturimeter over the orifice plate are:
• Low head loss
• Less affected by upstream flow disturbance
• Good performance at higher
Even more robust
• Self-cleaning
• Less affected by erosion
The disadvantages compared to the orifice are
• Occupies longer length of pipe
• More expensive (manufacture and installation)
The simplest apparatus, built out of PVC pipe as shown in the photograph is a tubular setup known as a Venturi
tube or simply a venturi. Fluid flows through a length of pipe of varying diameter.
Fig. 2: Venturimeter - Experimental apparatus

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FLUID MECHANICS
3.8 Problems on Venturimeter
1) A horizontal venturimeter with inlet and throat diameters 30cm and 15cm respectively is used
to measure the flow of water. The reading of differential manometer connected to the throat and
inlet is 20cm of mercury. Determine the rate of flow. Take Cd=0.98.
Solution:
Given:
2
Dia at inlet, d1 =30cm, Area at inlet, a1= ( d1 )/4
= ( 302)/4 =706.85cm2
Dia at throat, d2 =15cm, Area at throat, a2 = ( 152)/4 =176.7cm2
Cd =0.98
Reading of differential manometer x = 20cm of mercury
Therefore difference of pressure head is given by
h =x [(sh/sw)-1]
Where sh=specific gravity of mercury =13.6,
sw=specific gravity of water(assumed) =1
h =20[(13.6/1)-1] =20*12.6cm =252.0 cm of water.
The discharge through venturimeter is given by

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Q = Cd*(a1a2/( a12-a22))*( 2gh)
= 0.98*(706.85*176.7/( 706.852176.72))*( 2*9.81*25)

= 86067593.36/( 499636.9-31222.9)
86067593.36/684.4
= 125756cm3/s=125756lit/s
Q = 125.756 lit./s
2) An oil of specific gravity 0.8 is flowing through a venturimeter having inlet diameter 20cm
and throat diameter 10cm. The oil(so = 0.8)-mercury differential manometer shows a reading of
25cm. Calculate the discharge of oil through the horizontal venturimeter. Take Cd=0.98.
Solution:
Given:
Specific gravity of oil, so =0.8
Specific gravity of mercury sh =13.6
Reading of differential manometer x =25cm
Therefore difference of pressure head, h =x [(sh/so) -1]
=25[(13.6/0.8) -1] cm of oil = 25[17-1] =400 cm of oil.
Dia at inlet, d1=20cm
Area at inlet, a1 = ( d12)/4 = ( 202)/4 =314.16cm2
Similarly at throat, d2 =10cm

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FLUID MECHANICS
a2 =( 102)/4 =78.54cm2
Cd = 0.98 (given)
Therefore discharge Q is given by
Q = Cd*(a1a2/( a12-a22))*( 2gh) =0.98*(314.16*78.54/(

314.162-78.542))*( 2*9.81*400) =21421375.68/ ( 98696-
6168)
=21421375.68/304 cm3/s
=70465cm3/s
Q =70.465 lit/s
3.9 Orifice Meter
An orifice meter is a conduit and a restriction to create a pressure drop. An hour glass is a form of
orifice.
A nozzle, venturi or thin sharp edged orifice can be used as the flow restriction. In order to use
any of these devices for measurement it is necessary to empirically calibrate them. That is, pass a
known volume through the meter and note the reading in order to provide a standard for
measuring other quantities.
Due to the ease of duplicating and the simple construction, the thin sharp edged orifice has been
adopted as a standard and extensive calibration work has been done so that it is widely accepted
as a standard means of measuring fluids.
Provided the standard mechanics of construction are followed no further calibration is required.
3.10 Pitot tube

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FLUID MECHANICS
Fig.
H= depth of tube in liquid
h=rise of liquid in the tube above the free surface
The Pitot tube (named after the French scientist Pitot) is one of the simplest and most useful
instruments ever devised. the tube is a small glass tube bent at right angles and is placed in flow
such that lower end, which is bent through 900is directed in the upstream direction as shown
in figure. The liquid rises in the tube due to conversion of kinetic energy into potential energy.
The velocity is determined by measuring the rise of liquid in the tube.
Consider two points (1) & (2) at the same level in such a way that the point (2) is just at the
inlet of the pitot tube and point (1) is far away from the tube
Let p1, v1& p2, v2 are pressure and velocities at point (1) & (2) respectively
H= depth of tube in liquid
h=rise of liquid in the tube above the free surface
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at point (1) & (2) we get
(p1/ g) +z1 + (v12/2g) = (p2/ g) +z2 + (v22/2g)
But z1= z2 as point 1 & are on the same line and v2=0
p1/ g= pressure head at (1) =H
p2/ g = pressure head at (2) =h+H
Substituting these values, we get
H+ v12/2g= h+H

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FLUID MECHANICS
h= v12/2g
or
v1= 2gh (theoretical velocity)
Therefore the actual velocity ( v1 ) act = Cv 2gh)
Cv =coefficient of pitot tube
3.11 Notches and weirs:
A notch is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of liquid through a small channel or atank. The
notch is defined as an opening in the side of the tank or a small channel in such a waythat the liquid
surface in the tank or channel is below the top edge of the opening.
3.12 Energy consideration in pipe flow
• Average velocity in a pipe
– Recall - because of theno-slip condition, the velocity at the walls of a pipe or ductflow is zero
– We are often interested only inVavg, which we usually call justV(drop thesubscript for convenience)
– Keep in mind that the no-slip condition causes shear stress andfrictionalong thepipe walls

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FLUID MECHANICS
3.13 Laminar and Turbulent Flows
Laminar flow:
• Can be steady or unsteady (steady means the flow field at any instant of time is the same as at any other
instant of time)
• Can be one-, two- or three dimensional
• Has regular, predictable behaviour
Turbulent flow:
• Is always unsteady.
Why? There are always random, swirling motions (vortices or eddies) in a turbulent flow
Note: however a turbulent flow can be steady in the mean. We call this a stationary turbulent flow.

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FLUID MECHANICS
3.14 Major energy loss:
This is due to friction and it is calculated by the following formula
• Darcy-weisbach equation
• Chezy’s equation
Minor energy loss:
This is due to:
• Sudden enlargement of pipe
• Sudden contraction of pipe
• Bend in pipe
• Pipe fittings
• An obstruction in pipe
3.15 Darcy-Weisbach equation for loss of head due to friction in pipes
Let, p1= pressure intensity at section 1-1
v1= velocity of flow at section 1-1
L= length of the pipe between section 1-1 & 2-2

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FLUID MECHANICS
d= diameter of circular pipe
f1= frictional resistance per unit wetted area/unit velocity
hf= loss of head due to friction,
and, p2 and v2= are values of pressure intensity and velocity at section 2-2
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between sections 1-1 & 2-2
Total head at 1-1 = total head at 2-2 + loss of head due to friction between 1-1 & 2-2
(p1/ g) +z1 + (v12/2g) = (p2/ g) +z2 + (v22/2g)
But, Z1= Z2 as pipe is horizontal
v1= v2 as diameter of pipe is same at 1-1 and 2-2
Therefore (p1/ g) = {(p2/ g)+hf} -----(1)
or hf= {(p1/w)-(p2/w)}
But hf is the head lost due to friction and hence intensity of pressure will be reduced in the
direction of flow by frictional resistance.
Now frictional resistance = frictional resistance/unit wetted area/ unit
velocity * wetted area * velocity2
F1=f1*( dL)*V2 [because wetted area= ( d*L), Velocity=V=V1=V2]

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FLUID MECHANICS
= f1*(P*L)*v2 ----(2) [since d=perimeter=P]
The forces acting on the fluid between sections 1-1 and 2-2 are:
• Pressure forces at section 1-1 = p1A [A=area of pressure]
• Pressure forces at section 2-2 = p2A
• Frictional force F1 as shown in Fig. 1.

Resolving these forces in horizontal direction
We have, p1A- p2 A - F1=0
(p1- p2) = F1= [f1*(P*L)*v2]/A [from equation (2)]
F1 = f1 * P* L* V2]
But from equation (1)
p1 – p2 = ghf
equating the value of (p1– p2), we get
ghf = f1 * P*L* V2/ A or
hf = f1 / g *P/A * L *V 2 -------(3)
In equation(3) (P/A)= wetted perimeter( d)/area ( d2)/4 = (4/d)
hf = f1 / g * 4/d* * L *V 2 -------(4)

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Putting f1/ g = f/2 where f is known as co efficient of friction
Equation (4) becomes hf = 4*f/2g *L V2/d -----(5)
hf =4fLV2/2gd ….. Darcy-Weisbach equation
Some times (5) is written as hf=(f* L V2)/2gd

Then f* is known as friction factor [as f* = 4f]
co efficient of friction f which is function of Reynolds number is given by f = 16/R e for Re <
2000(viscous flow)
= 0.079/Re1/4 for Re varying from 4000 to 106
Chezy’s formula for loss of head due to friction:
An equilibrium between the propelling force due to pressure difference and the frictional
difference gives
(P1-P2)A=f1PLV2 ÷ through out by w
(P1-P2)A/w = f1PLV2/w
Therefore, Mean velocity, V= (w/f1) * (A/P * hf/L)

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3.16 Problems:
1) In a pipe of diameter 350 mm and length 75 m water is flowing at a velocity of 2.8 m/s. Find
the head lost due to friction using :
(i) Darcy-Weisbach formula;
(ii) Chezy’s formula for which C = 55
Assume kinematic viscosity of water as 0.012 stoke .
Solution:
Diameter of the pipe, D = 350mm = 0.35 m
Length of the pipe, L = 75 m
Velocity of flow, V = 2.8 m/s
Chezy’s constant C = 55
Kinematic viscosity of water, = 0.012 stoke
= 0.012*10-4 m2/s
Head lost due to friction, hf :
(i)Darcy-Weisbach formula:
Darcy-Weisbach formula is given by , hf=4fLV2/2gD
where, f = co-efficeint of friction(a function of Reynolds numbe

Re = (v*D) / = (2.8*0.35) / 0.012*10-4 = 8.167*105
Therefore f = 0.0719/ (Re)0.25 [use when Re > 4000]
= 0.0719/ (8.167*105)0.25
= 0.00263
Therefore head lost due to friction,

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FLUID MECHANICS
hf=(4* 0.00263*75*(2.8)2) /2*9.81*0.35
hf = 0.9 m
(ii) Chezy’s formula:
mean velocity V = C (mi)
Where C = 55, m=A /P = ( *D2/4) /( *D) = D/4 = 0.35/4
= 0.0875 m
Therefore 2.8 = 55 (0.0875*i)
or 0.0875*i = (2.8/55)2 = 0.00259
i = 0.00296
But i = hf/L = 0.0296
Therefore hf/75 = 0.0296
hf = 0.0296*75
hf =2.22 m

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FLUID MECHANICS
2) water flows through a pipe of diameter 300 mm with a velocity of 5 m/s. If the co-efficient of
friction is given by f = 0.015 + (0.08/ (Re)0.3) where Re is the Reynolds number, find the head lost
due to friction for a length of 10 m. Take kinematic viscosity of water as 0.01 stoke.
Solution:
Diameter of the pipe, D = 300mm = 0.30 m
Length of the pipe, L = 10 m
Velocity of flow, V = 5 m/s
Kinematic viscosity of water, = 0.01 stoke
= 0.01*10-4 m2/s
Head lost due to friction, hf :
Co-efficient of friction, f = 0.015+ (0.08/ (Re)0.3)
But Reynolds number, Re= VD/µ = VD/
= 5*0.3/ 0.01*10-4 = 1.5*106
f = 0.015+ (0.08/ (1.5*106)0.3)

= 0.0161
Therefore head lost due to friction,
hf = 4fLV2/2gD=4*0.0161*10*52/(0.3*2*9.81)
hf = 2.735 m

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FLUID MECHANICS
3.17 Minor energy (head) losses:

The minor losses of energy are caused in the velocity of flowing fluid (either in
magnitude or direction).In case of long pipes these losses are usually quite small as
compared with the loss of energy due to friction and hence there are termed minor losses
which may even be neglected without serious error. However in small pipes these losses
may sometime overweigh the friction loss. Some of the losses of energy which may be
caused due to the change of velocity are indicated below,
3.18 Hydraulic gradient line (H.G.L)

It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head (p/w) and datum head (z)
of a flowing fluid in pipe with respect to some reference or it is line which is obtained by
joining the top of all vertical ordinates, showing the pressure head(p/w) of a flowing fluid
in a pipe from the centre of the pipe. The line so obtain is called the H.G.L.
It is known that the total head (which is also total energy per unit weight) with respect to
any arbitrary datum, is the sum of the elevation (potential) head, pressure head and
velocity head.
Total head = P/w+Z+v2/2g
When the fluid flows along the pipe there is loss of head (energy) and the total energy
decreases in the direction of flow. If the total energy at various parts along the axis of the
pipe is plotted and joined by a line, the line so determined is called the Energy gradient
(E.G.L) is also called total energy line (TEL).
OUTCOMES
 Apply the knowledge of fluid statics, kinematics and dynamics while addressing
problems of mechanical engineering problems.
 Apply the principle of fluid kinematics and dynamics.
EXERCISES
• Derive an expression for Bernoulli’s equation and mention the assumptions made
in it.
• What are losses occurring in pipe flow.
• Derive an expression due to sudden enlargement.

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MODULE- 4
CONTENTS
4.1 Fundamental dimensions
4.2 Dimension Quantities
4.3 Methods of dimensional analysis
4.4 problems
4.5 Buckingham’s theorem
4.6 Model analysis
4.7 Dimensionless numbers
Objectives
To check the dimensional homogeneity of the equation

Used to analyse the model analysis
Understand the concept of dynamic similarity.
• 4.1 Fundamental Dimensions
All physical quantities are measured by comparison which is made with respect to
a fixed value.
Length, Mass and Time are three fixed dimensions which are of importance in
fluid mechanics and fluid machinery. In compressible flow problems, temperature is also
considered as fundamental dimensions.
• Secondary Quantities or Derived Quantities
Secondary quantities are derived quantities or quantities which can be expressed

in terms of two or more fundamental quantities.

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FLUID MECHANICS
• Dimensional Homogeneity
In an equation if each and every term or unit has same dimensions, then it is said
to have Dimensional Homogeneity.
V = u + at
m/s m/s m/s2⋅ s LT-1 =

(LT-1) + (LT-2) (T)
• Uses of Dimensional Analysis
1. It is used to test the dimensional homogeneity of any derived equation.
2. It is used to derive equation.
3. Dimensional analysis helps in planning model tests.
4.2 Dimensions of quantities
1. Length L
2. Mass M
3. Time S
4. Area L2
8. M
o
5. Volume L3 m
e
nt
6. Velocity
u
m
7. Acceleration

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FLUID MECHANICS
9. Force
26. P
10. Moment or Torque re
ss
ur
11. Weight e
12. Mass density 27. St

re
ss
13. Weight density
28. E
14. Specific gravity
,
C
15. Specific volume ,
K
16. Volume flow rate

29. C
o
17. Mass flow rate m
pr
es
18. Weight flow rate si
bi
19. Work done lit
y
20. Energy
21. Power
22. Surface tension
23. Dynamic viscosity
24. Kinematic viscosity
25. Frequency

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FLUID MECHANICS
4.3 Methods of Dimensional Analysis
There are two methods of dimensional analysis.
1. Rayleigh’s method
2. Buckingham’s (Π – theorem) method
Rayleigh’s method
Rayleigh’s method of analysis is adopted when number of parameters or variables

are less (3 or 4 or 5).
Methodology
X1 is a function of
X2, X3, X4, ……, Xn then it can be written as
X1 = f(X2, X3, X4, ……, Xn)
X1 = K (X2a. X3b. X4c. ……)
Taking dimensions for all the quantities
[X1] = [X2]a [X3]b [X4]c ……
Dimensions for quantities on left hand side as well as on the right hand side are
written and using the concept of Dimensional Homogeneity a, b, c …. can be determined.

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FLUID MECHANICS
Then,
X1 = K ⋅ X2a⋅ X3b⋅ X4c⋅ ……
Problems
1: Velocity of sound in air varies as bulk modulus of elasticity K, Mass
K
density ρ. Derive an expression for velocity in form C =
ρ
• Solution:
C = f (K, ρ)
C = M ⋅ Ka⋅ ρb
M – Constant of proportionality
[C] = [K]a⋅ [ρ]b
[LMoT-1] = [L-1MT-2]a [L-3MTo]b C – Velocity – LMoT-1

K – Bulk modulus – L-1MT-2
[LMoT-1] = [L-a+(-36) Ma+b T-2a]
ρ - Mass density – L-3MTo
- a – 3b = 1
a+b=0-
2a = -1
1
a=
2
1
b=-
2
C = MK1/2 ρ-1/2
C= K
M
ρ
K
If, M = 1, C=ρ

Page 88
FLUID MECHANICS
• Problem 2: Find the equation for the power developed by a pump if it depends
onhead H discharge Q and specific weight γ of the fluid.
• Solution:
P = f (H, Q, γ)
P = K ⋅ Ha⋅ Qb⋅ γc [P]

= [H]a⋅ [Q]b⋅ [γ]c
[L2MT-3] = [LMoTo]a⋅ [L3M0T-1]b⋅ [L-2MT-2]c
2 = a + 3b – 2c
Power = L2MT-3
1=c
Head = LMoTo
– 3 = – b – 2c
Discharge = L3MoT-1
–3= –b–2
Specific Weight = L-2MT-2
b=–2+3
b=1
2=a+3–2
a=1
P = K ⋅ H1⋅ Q1⋅ γ1
P=K⋅H⋅ Q⋅γ
When, K=1
P=H⋅ Q⋅γ

Page 89
FLUID MECHANICS
• Problem 3: Find an expression for drag force R on a smooth sphere of diameter

Dmoving with uniform velocity V in a fluid of density ρ and dynamic viscosity µ..
• Solution:
R = f (D, V, ρ, µ)
R = K ⋅ Da⋅ Vb⋅ρc, µ d
[R] = [D]a⋅ [V]b⋅ [ρ]c⋅ [µ]d
[LMT-2] = [LMoTo]a⋅ [LMoT-1]b⋅ [L-3MTo]c⋅ [L-1MT-1]d
c+d=1
Force = LMT-2
c=1–d
Diameter = LMoTo
Velocity = LMoT-1
–b–d=–2
Mass density = L3MTo
b=2–d
Dynamic Viscosity = L-1MT-1
1 = a + b – 3c – d
1 = a + 2 – d – 3 (1 – d) – d
1 = a + 2 – d – 3 + 3d – d
a=2–d
R = K ⋅ D2-d⋅ V2-d⋅ρ1-d, µ d
D2 V2 ρ
R=K ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ µd
Dd Vd ρd
2 2 µd
R=K ⋅ ρV D
ρVD
2 2 µ
R = ρV D φ

Page 90
FLUID MECHANICS
ρVD
2 2 ρVD
R = ρV D φ
µ
R = ρV2 D2φ [NRe]
• Problem 4: The efficiency of a fan depends on the densityρdynamic

viscosityµ,angular velocity ω, diameter D, discharge Q. Express efficiency in terms
of dimensionless parameters using Rayleigh’s Method.
η - LoMoTo
ρ - L-3MTo
• Solution:
µ - L-1MT-1
η = f (ρ, µ, ω, D, Q)
η = K⋅ ρa⋅ µ b⋅ ωc⋅Dd⋅Qe ω - LoMoT-1
[η] = [ρ]a⋅ [µ]b⋅ [ω]c⋅ [D]d⋅ [Q]e D - LMoTo
Q - L3MoT-1
[LoMoTo] = [L-3MTo]a⋅ [L-1MT-1]b⋅ [LoMoT-1]c⋅ [LMoTo]d⋅ [L3MoT-1]e

= [L-3a-b+d+3e] [Ma+b] [T-b-c-e]
a+b=0
a=– b
– b–c–e=0
c=–b–e
– 3a – b + d + 3e = o
+ 3b – b + d + 3e =
0
d = – 2b – 3e
η=K
∴η=K
η=K

Page 91
FLUID MECHANICS
b e
µ Q
⋅ρ-b ⋅µ b
⋅ω-b-e ⋅D-2b-3e⋅Qe
⋅
1 1 2
b ρωD ωD13 2
⋅ ρ ⋅ µ ω ⋅ ω ⋅ D  ⋅D  Q
b b e 2 b 3 e
µ Q
η=φ 2, 3
ρωD ωD
4.5 Buckingham’s Π Theorem

If there are n – variables in a physical phenomenon and those n-variables contain
‘m’ dimensions, then the variables can be arranged into (n-m) dimensionless groups
called Π terms.
Explanation:
If f (X1, X2, X3, ……… Xn) = 0 and variables can be expressed using m
dimensions then.
f (Π1, Π2, Π3, ……… Πn - m) = 0
Where, Π1, Π2, Π3, ……… are dimensionless groups.
Each Π term contains (m + 1) variables out of which m are of repeating type and
one is of non-repeating type.
Each Π term being dimensionless, the dimensional homogeneity can be used to

get each Π term.

Page 92
FLUID MECHANICS
• Selecting Repeating Variables
1. Avoid taking the quantity required as the repeating variable.
2. Repeating variables put together should not form dimensionless group.
3. No two repeating variables should have same dimensions.
4. Repeating variables can be selected from each of the following properties.
a. Geometric property Length, height, width, area

b. Flow property Velocity, Acceleration, Discharge
c. Fluid property Mass density, Viscosity, Surface tension
4.6 MODEL ANALYSIS
Before constructing or manufacturing hydraulics structures or hydraulics

machines tests are performed on their models to obtain desired information about their
performance. Models are small scale replica of actual structure or machine. The actual
structure is called prototype.
• Similitude / Similarity
It is defined as the similarity between the prototype and it’s model.
• Types of Similarity
There are three types of similarity.
O Geometric similarity
O Kinematic similarity

Page 93
FLUID MECHANICS
O Dynamic similarity
• Geometrical Similarity
Geometric similarity is said to exist between the model and prototype if the ratio
of corresponding linear dimensions between model and prototype are equal.
Lp hp Hp
............ 
i.e.   L
r
Lm hm Hm
Lrscale ratio / linear ratio
Ap Vp
Lr2 Lr3
Am Vm
• Kinematic Similarity
Kinematic similarity exists between prototype and model if quantities such at

velocity and acceleration at corresponding points on model and prototype are same.
V1 V2 V3

p p p
........... 
  V
V1
m V2m V3m
r
Vr Velocity ratio

Page 94
FLUID MECHANICS
Dynamic Similarity
Dynamic similarity is said to exist between model and prototype if ratio of forces
at corresponding points of model and prototype is constant.
F1 F2 F3

p p p
= = ........... = F
F1
m F2m F3m
R
FR Force ratio
4.7 Dimensionless Numbers
∴ NRe
Following dimensionless numbers are used in fluid
mechanics.
1. Reynold’s number
2. Froude’s number
3. Euler’s number
4. Weber’s number
5. Mach number

Page 95
FLUID MECHANICS
1. Reynold’s number
It is defined as the ratio of inertia force of the fluid to viscous

force.
F
= i
Fv
Expression for NRe
Fi = Mass x Acceleration
Fi = ρ x Volume x Acceleration
Fi=ρx Volume x Change in velocity
Time
Fi = ρ x Q x V
Fi = ρAV2
FV Viscous force
FV = τ x A
FV = µ V A y
FV = µ V A
L
NRe= ρAV2 µ
V
A
L
ρVL
N
Re =
µ
In case of pipeline diameter is the linear dimension.

NRe = ρVD
µ

Page 96
FLUID MECHANICS
2. Froude’s Number (Fr)

It is defined as the ratio of square root of inertia force to gravity force.
Fr = Fi
F
g
Fi = m x a
Fi = ρ x Volume x Acceleration
Fi = ρAV2
Fg = m x g
Fg = ρ x Volume x g
Fg = ρ x A x L x g
ρAV2
Fγ
=
ρxAxLxg
V2
Fγ =
L
g
V
Fγ =
Lg

Page 97
FLUID MECHANICS
3. Euler’s Number (εu)
It is defined as the square root of ratio of inertia force to pressure force.
εu=FiFp
Fi = Mass x Acceleration
Velocity
Fi = ρ x Volume x
Time
Fi = ρ x Q x V
Fi = ρAV2
Fp = p x A
ρAV 2
εu = =V
pA
ρ
v
p
εu=
p

Page 98
FLUID MECHANICS
4. Weber’s Number (Wb)
It is defined as the square root of ratio of inertia force to surface tensile force.
Fi
Wb =
Fp
Fb = ρAV2
Fs = σ x L
ρAV2 ρL
Wb = =V
σL σ
V
Wb
= σ
ρL
5. Mach Number (M)
It is defined as the square root of ratio of inertia force to elastic

force.
F
M= i
Fe
Fi = ρAV2
Fe = K x A
K Bulk modulus of elasticity
A Area
ρAV 2
M=
KA
M V
=

Page 99
FLUID MECHANICS
OUT COMES
 Understand and apply the principles of fluid kinematics and dynamics.
 Identify and analyse the factor to be considered in model analysis
EXERCISE
1. Define the dimensional homogeneity

2. Uses of dimensional analysis
3. Define model analysis
4. What if similarity
5. Define dynamic similarity
MODULE – 5
CONTENTS
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Basic thermodynamic relations
5.3 Equation of continuity
5.4 Propagation of fluid
5.5 Velocity of sound in terms of bulk modulus
5.6 Problems
5.7 Stagnation properties
5.8 Flow past immersed bodies
5.9 Types of drag
OBJECTIVES
1. To appreciate the consequences of compressibility in gas flow and understand the effects
of friction.
2. Concept of dynamic similarity
3. To discuss the concept of boundary layer concept.
5.1 Introduction to compressible flow
It seen that density is depends directly on pressure and inversely on temperature. Thus density
changes in the flow can in fact occur. Such flows called compressible flows
Dept of Mechanical Engg,

ATMECE, Mysuru
Page 100
FLUID MECHANICS
Compressible flow is defined as the flow in which the density of the fluid does not remain
constant during flow. This means that the density changes from point to point in compressible
flow. But in case of incompressible flow, the density of the fluid is assumed to be constant. In
fluid flow measurements, flow passed immersed bodies, viscous flow etc,
A study of compressible flow is so important because of the wide range examples that exist:
• natural gas piped from producer to consumer,
• high speed flight through air,
• discharging of compressed gas tanks,
• flow of air through compressor,
flow of gases/steam through turbine, in machines , and many others
• Flow of gases through orifices and nozzles,
• Projectiles and airplanes flying at high altitudes with

high velocities, the density of the fluid changes during the flow.
5.2 Basic Thermodynamic Relations
Equation of state- is defined as the equation which gives the relationship between the
pressures, temperature specific volume of gas. For the perfect gas, the equation of state is
Where,
Vs = Specific volume or volume per unit mass = 1/
p = Absolute pressure of gas in kgf/m2 abs
T = Absolute temperature=(t+273)˚C ,absolute =Degrees Kelvin (˚K)
R = Gas constant in kgf-m/kg ˚K or (j/kg K)
• The value of gas constant R is different for each gas. For air having specific weight w
of 1.293 (12.68 ) at a pressure of 760 mm of Hg (or 10,332 kgf/ or 101,300 ) and
temperature 0˚C, the gas constant will be

Page 101
FLUID MECHANICS
5.3 Equation of Continuity:
In deriving the equation a1V1 = a2V2 = Q = constant, it was assumed that flowing fluid is
incompressible i.e. 1= 2, hence the volumetric rate of i.e. flow volumetric discharge passing
through any section
This is based on law of conservation of mass which states that matter cannot be created nor be
destroyed. Or in other words, the matter or mass is constant. For 1-D steady flow, the mass per
second = AV
Where = mass density, A = area of cross section, V= velocity
As mass or mass per second is constant according to law of conservation of mass, Hence
AV = constant ----(a)
Differentiating eqn. (a), d( AV) = 0 or d(AV) + AVd =0
or [AdV + VdA] + AV d =0 or AdV+ AVd =0
Dividing by AV, we get dV/V + dA/A + d / =0 - continuity equation in differential form
5.4 Propagation of Disturbances in Fluid and Sonic Velocity of Flow:

Both solid and fluid as transmitting media consist of molecules with a difference that in case of a
solid the molecules are close together and in a fluid the molecules are relatively apart. Whenever
a minor disturbance takes place, it is transmitted through a solid body instantaneously, but in
case of fluid its molecules change in position before the disturbance is transmitted or propagated.
Thus the propagation of disturbance depends upon the elastic properties of a fluid. This
propagation of disturbance is similar to the propagation of sound through a media. The speed of
propagation of sound in a media is known as acoustic or sonic velocity which is due to pressure
difference. The sonic velocity is considered as an important factor in compressible flow.
5.5 Velocity of sound in terms of bulk modulus.
Bulk modulus k is defined as K = (Increase in pressure/(Decrease in volume/Original volume)
= dp/-(dvs/vs) …(c)
Where dvs = Decrease in volume,
vs= Original volume
Negative sign is taken as with the increase of pressure, volume decreases
Now we know mass of the fluid is constant. Hence * volume = constant (since mass = * volume)
* vs= constant
Page 102
FLUID MECHANICS
Differentiating the above equation ( and vs are variables)
dvs+vsd =0 or dvs= -vsd or dvs/vs= dp/
substituting the value (-dvs/vs) in equation (c), we get K=dp/(d / ) = (dp/d ) or (dp/d ) = (K/ )
the velocity of sound wave is given by
dp K …..(d)
This This
C 
imag imag
e e
cann cann
ot ot
curre curre
ntly ntly
be be
displ displ
ay ed ay ed
. .
dρ ρ
Equation (d) gives the velocity of sound wave in terms of bulk modulus and density. This
equation is applicable for liquids and gases.
5.6 Problems on Mach number
1)Find the sonic velocity of the following fluid :
(i)Crude oil of specific gravity 0.8 and bulk modulus 153036 N/cm2
(ii)Mercury having a bulk modulus of 2648700 N/cm2
Solution:
Given:
(i) Crude oil: Specific gravity =0.8
Therefore density of oil, =0.8 * 1000=800 kg/m3
Bulk modulus, K = 153036 N/cm2 = 153036 *104 N/m2
Using the equation for sonic velocity, as
C = (k/ ) = ((153036 *104)/80

Page 103
FLUID MECHANICS
= 1383.09 = 1383 m/s
(ii) Mercury: Bulk modulus, K= 2648700 N/cm2 = 2648700 * 104 N/m2
Specific gravity = 13.
Density of mercury, =13.6 * 1000 =13600 kg/m3
The sonic velocity, C is : given by C = (k/ )
= ((2648700 * 104)/13600)
= 1395.55 m/s
2) Find the sonic velocity for the following fluids:
(i) Crude oil of specific gravity 0.8 and bulk modulus 1.5 GN/m 2
(ii) Mercury having a bulk modulus of 27 GN/m2
Solution:
Crude oil: Specific gravity =0.8
Therefore density of oil, =0.8 * 1000 =800 kg/m3
Bulk modulus, K = 1.5 GN/m2
Mercury: Bulk modulus, K= 27 GN/m2
Density of mercury, =13.6 * 1000 =13600 kg/m3
Sonic velocity, Coil , CHg :

Page 104
FLUID MECHANICS
Sonic velocity is given by the relation :
C = (k/ )
Coil = ((1.5 *109)/800) = 1369.3 m/s
CHg = ((27 *109)/13600) = 1409 m/s
3) Find the speed of the sound wave in air at sea-level where the pressure and temperature are
10.1043 N/cm2 (absolute) and 15oC respectively. Take R =287 J/kg K and k=1.4.

Page 105
FLUID MECHANICS
Solution: Given :
Pressure, p =10.1043 N/cm2
= 10.1043 * 104 N/m2
Temperature, t = 15oC
Therefore T = 273+15 = 288 K
R = 287 J/kg K, k=1.4.
For adiabatic process, the velocity of sound is given by
C= (kRT) = (1.4 * 287 *288)
= 340.17 m/s
4) Calculate the Mach number at a point on a jet propelled aircraft, which is flying at 1100 km/hour at
sea level where air temperature is 20oC. Take k = 1.4 and R = 287 J/kg K.
Solution: Given :
Speed of aircraft,V = 1100 km/hour
= (1100 * 1000)/(60 * 60) = 305.55 m/s
Temperature, t = 20oC
Therefore T = 273+20 = 293 K
k = 1.4, R = 287 J/kg K.
The velocity of sound is given by the equation
C = (kRT)
= (1.4 * 287 *293)
= 343.11 m/s

Page 106
FLUID MECHANICS
5.8 FLOWS PAST IMMERSED BODIES

Whenever a body is placed in a stream, forces are exerted on the body. Similarly, if the
body is moving in a stationary fluid, force is exerted on the body.
Therefore, when there is a relative motion between the body and the fluid, force is
exerted on the body.
Example: Wind forces on buildings, bridges etc., Force experienced by automobiles,

aircraft, propeller etc.,
5.9 TYPES OF DRAG
The type of drag experienced by the body depends upon the nature of fluid and the
shape of the body:
1. Skin friction drag
2. Pressure drag
3. Profile drag
4. Wave drag
5. Induced drag
Profile Drag or Total Drag is the sum of Pressure or Form drag and Skin
Friction drag.
Wave Drag: When a body like ship moves through a fluid, waves areproduced
on the surface of the liquid. The drag caused due to these waves is called as wave drag.
The wave drag is obtained by subtracting all other drags from the total drag
measurements. The drag, which is caused by change in pressure due to a shock wave in
supersonic flow, is also called as wave drag.
Induced Drag: When a body has a finite length (Ex., Wing of an airplane), the
pattern of flow is affected due to the conditions of flow at the ends. The flow cannot be
treated as two-dimensional, but has to be treated as three-dimensional flow. Due to this,
body is subjected to additional drag. This drag, due to the three dimensional nature of
flow and finite length of the body is called as Induced Drag.
Deformation Drag: If the body with a very small length (Ex., Sphere) movesat
very low velocity through a fluid with high kinematics viscosity (Re = (ρUL/µ) less
than 0.1), the body experiences a resistance to its motion due to the wide spread
deformation of fluid particles. This drag is known as Deformation Drag.

Page 107
FLUID MECHANICS
OUTCOMES
1. Understand the concept of boundary layer in fluid flow

2. Understand the concept of compressible flow
EXERCISE
1. List and explain the types of drags
2. Derive an expression for flow past immersed bodies.
FURTHER READING
 Fluid Mechanics, John F.Douglas, Janul and M.Gasiosek and john A.Swaffield, Pearson Education
Asia, 5th ed., 2006
 Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Power Engineering, Kumar.D.S, Kataria and Sons., 2004
 Fluid Mechanics -. Merle C. Potter, Elaine P.Scott. Cengage learning

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FLUID MECHANICS

DEPARTMENT OFMECHANICAL ENGINEERING

To impart excellent technical education in mechanical engineering to develop technically

 To provide an ambience to impart excellent technical education in mechanical

 To engage students in co-curricular and extra-curricular activities to impart social &

After successful completion of program, the graduates will be

PEO 3: Work effectively, ethically and socially responsible in allied fields of

PEO 4: Work in a team to meet personal and organizational objectives and to

PROGRAM OUTCOMES (PO’S)

The Mechanical engineering program students will attain:

PO1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

PO3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering

PO4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and

PO7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional

PO10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with

PO11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSO’S)

After successful completion of program, the graduates will be

PSO 1: To comprehend the knowledge of mechanical engineering and apply them to

PSO 2: To work successfully as a mechanical engineer in team, exhibit leadership quality

PSO 3: To apply modern management techniques and manufacturing techniques to produce

Subject Code: 10ME36B / 46B IA Marks: 25

 Mechanics: Deals with action of forces on bodies at rest or in motion.

 Eg: Mass, time internal, Distance travelled Scalars Weight,

 Displacement and Distance

Dept of Mechanical Engg, ATMECE, Mysuru

Momentum = Mass x Velocity

Dept of Mechanical Engg, ATMECE, Mysuru

Change in momentum in time‘t’ = mv – mu

Unit: Newton (N)

• Weight: Gravitational force on the body. It is a vector quantity.

Dept of Mechanical Engg, ATMECE, Mysuru

Unit: Newton (N)

• Volume: Measure of space occupied by the

• Work: Work done = Force x Displacement Linear motion.

Work done = Torque x Angular displacement Rotatory motion.

• Energy: Capacity of doing work is called energy.

Potential energy = mgh

Kinetic energy = ½ mv2 or ½ mrω2 ω = Angular velocity

Power: Rate of doing work is called Power.

Power: = Force x displacement

Dept of Mechanical Engg, ATMECE, Mysuru

Matter can exist in the following states

1.2 Branches of Mechanics:

Dept of Mechanical Engg, ATMECE, Mysuru

Solid Mech. Fluid Mech.

Rigid Mech. of Fluid Fluid Fluid

1.3 Properties of fluids:

Mass density or Specific mass (ρ):

Dept of Mechanical Engg, ATMECE, Mysuru

Unit: kg/m3 or kgm3

Weight density or Specific weight (γ):

Unit: N/m3 or Nm-3.

Dept of Mechanical Engg, ATMECE, Mysuru

Specific gravity or Relative density (S):

Unit: It is a dimensionless quantity and has no unit.

4. Specific volume ( ∀ ): It is the volume per unit mass of the fluid.

Dept of Mechanical Engg, ATMECE, Mysuru

Dept of Mechanical Engg, ATMECE, Mysuru