Bus 429 Corporate Planning

BUS 429 CORPORATE PLANNING
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCES
COURSE CODE: BUS429
COURSE TITLE: CORPORATE PLANNING
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BUS429 MODULE 2
MAIN
COURSE
CONTENTS PAGE
Module 1Planning As a Vital Function of

Management………………………………… 1
Unit 1 Overview of Management as Science,

Theory and Practice……………………….. 1
Unit 2 Planning as an important Management
Function…………………………………… 26
Unit 3 Corporate Planning, Strategic Planning and
Corporate Strategy Compared……………. 35
Unit 4 Objectives: The Foundation of Planning…. 46
Unit 5 Classification of Planning…………………. 56
Unit 6 Steps in Planning………………………….. 65
Module 2Essentials of Planning and Managing by

Objectives………………………………….. 70
Unit 1 Decision Making I…………………………. 70

Unit 2 Decision Making II………………………… 88
Unit 3 Management by Objectives………………... 108
Unit 4 Premising and Forecasting…………………. 114
Unit 5 The Role Of Corporate Planners In An
Organisation……………………………….. 124
Module 3Planning Tools and Techniques…………. 133
Unit 1 Operational Planning Tools I – Budget…….. 133

Unit 2 Operational Planning Tools II…………..….. 149
Unit 3 Operational Planning Tools III……………... 158
Unit 4 Operational Planning Tools IV…………..... 167
Module 4 Case Studies/Applications………………... 172
Unit 1 Essentials of Planning……………………… 172

Unit 2 Decision Making……………………………. 176
Unit 3 Planning Tools and Techniques……………. 181
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BUS429 CORPORATE PLANNING
COURSE
GUIDE
BUS429
CORPORATE PLANNING
Course Team Mr. Aliyu A. Hamza (Course Developer/Writer) –

NOUN
Prof. Onyemaechi J. Onwe (Course Editor)
Dr.(Mrs) Yemisi I. Ogunlela (HOD Administration,
FMS) – NOUN
Mrs. Ihuoma Ikemba-Efughi (Coordinator)-NOUN
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
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BUS429 MODULE 2
National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island, Lagos
Abuja Office
5 Dar es Salaam Street
Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse II, Abuja
e-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.nou.edu.ng
Published by
National Open University of Nigeria
Printed 2013
Reprinted 2015
ISBN: 978-058-892
All Rights Reserved
73
CONTENTS PAGE
Introduction………………………………………….. iv
What you will Learn in this Course…………………. iv
Course Aim…………………………………………… v
Course Objectives…………………………………….. v
Working through this Course………………………… v
Course Materials……………………………………… vi
Study Units…………………………………………… vi
Textbooks and References…………………………… vii
Assignment File……………………………………… vii
Assessment Schedule………………………………… vii
Tutor-Marked Assignment…………………………… vii
Final Examination and Grading……………………… viii
Course Marking Scheme…………………………….. viii
How to Get the Most from this Course………………. viii
Facilitation/Tutors and Tutorials……………………… ix
Summary………………………………………………. xi
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BUS429 MODULE 2
INTRODUCTION
BUS429: Corporate Planning is a first semester year four, three-credit

unit core course. It will be available for all students offering the
undergraduate programme in B.Sc. Business Administration in the
Faculty of Management Sciences.
This course is an introduction to corporate planning with tools and

techniques available to managers toward achieving organisational
effectiveness. In this course, you will be exposed the basic tools and
techniques available to managers for planning and decision making. The
course will also cover a number of topics including the functions of
planning, necessity for planning, importance of planning, problems
solving in organisational planning issues such as capital budgeting, new
product launches and acquisition. The role of a corporate planner as a
staff specialist and his relationship with line managers, actual planning
function and problems through the use of appropriate case materials are
also discussed in this course.
The course guide tells you briefly what the course is about, what course
materials you will be using and how you can work your way through the
study materials. It suggests some general guidelines for the amount of
time you are likely to spend on each unit of the course in order to
complete it successfully. It provides guidance on your tutor-marked
assignments, which will be made available to you at the Study Centre.
There are regular tutorial classes that are linked to the course. You are
advised to attend these sessions.
WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THIS COURSE
BUS429: Corporate Planning consists of four modules made up of 17

units. Specifically, the course discusses the following:
 overview of management as science, theory and practice

 planning as an important management function
 corporate planning and strategic planning
 objectives- foundation of planning
 classification of planning
 steps in planning
 decision making I
 decision making II
 management by objectives
 premising and forecasting
 operational planning tools I – budget
 operational planning tools II
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 operational planning tools III

 operational planning tools IV
 case studies/ applications
COURSE AIMS
This course aims to give you an understanding of the meaning of

corporate planning and how the theories and concepts can be applied in
business operations. It also aims to help you develop knowledge of tools
and techniques available for managers in planning for organisational
effectiveness. This course will expose you to the required knowledge
and skills that you are expected to exhibit as a corporate planner, an
entrepreneur, a teacher in private and public educational institutions.
COURSE OBJECTIVES
To achieve the aims set out, the course has overall objectives. Each unit
also has specific objectives. The unit objectives are always specified at
the beginning of a unit; you should read them before you start working
through the unit. You may want to refer to them during your study of the
unit to check your progress.
Below are the overall objectives of the course. By meeting these

objectives, you should have achieved the aims of the course as a whole.
On successful completion of the course, you should be able to:
 explain the relationship between planning and organisational

performance
  define corporate planning
 explain why do corporate plan fail and what can be done to
ensure its success
  explain when should a strategic plan be made
 define objectives and why are they considered the foundation of
 planning
 identify an organisation‟s stated objectives
  define the concept of brainstorming
 list the characteristics of decision making under the condition of
certainty
WORKING THROUGH THIS COURSE
To complete this course, you are required to read the study units, read
set books and read other materials provided by the National Open
University of Nigeria (NOUN). Each unit contains self-assessment
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BUS429 MODULE 2
exercises, and at a point in this course, you are required to submit

assignments for assessment purposes. At the end of the course, there
will be a final examination. The course should take you a total of 16 –
17 weeks to complete.
Below, you will find listed all the components of the course. What you
have to do and how you should allocate your time to each unit in order
to complete the course successfully on time.
The list of all the components of the course is as presented.
COURSE MATERIALS
Major components of the course are:
 Course Guide
 Study Units
 Textbooks and References
 Assignment File
 Presentation Schedule
STUDY UNITS
The study units in this course are as follows.
Module 1 Planning As a Vital Function of Management
Unit 1 Overview of Management as Science, Theory and

Practice
Unit 2 Planning as an important Management Function
Unit 3 Corporate Planning, Strategic Planning and Corporate
Strategy Compared
Unit 4 Objectives: The Foundation of Planning
Unit 5 Classification of Planning
Unit 6 Steps in Planning
Model 2 Essentials of Planning and Managing by Objectives
Unit 1 Decision Making I

Unit 2 Decision Making II
Unit 3 Management by Objectives
Unit 4 Premising and Forecasting
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Module 3 Planning Tools and Techniques
Unit 1 Operational Planning Tools I – Budget

Unit 2 Operational Planning Tools II
Unit 3 Operational Planning Tools III
Unit 4 Operational Planning Tools IV
Module 4 Case Studies/Applications
Unit 1 Essentials of Planning

Unit 2 Decision Making
Unit 3 Planning Tools and Techniques
ASSIGNMENT FILESS
There are many self-assessment exercises included in this course. These

exercises will enable you understand the course.
PRESENTATION SCHEDULE
The presentation schedule included in your course materials consists of

dates for the completion of the tutor-marked assignments (TMAs) and
tutorials. Remember, you are required to submit all your assignments by
the due date. You should guard against lagging behind in your work.
ASSESSMENTS
There are two aspects to the assessment of the course: self-assessment

exercises and the tutor-marked assignments. There is also a written
examination at the end of this course. In tackling the assignments, you
are expected to apply information, knowledge and techniques gathered
during the course. The assignments must be submitted to your tutor for
formal assessment in accordance with the deadlines stated in the
presentation schedule and the assignment file. The work you submitted
to your tutor will count for 30 per cent of your total course mark.
At the end of the course, you will need to sit for a final written
examination of „three hours‟ duration. This examination will also count
for 70 per cent of your total course mark.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
Each unit in this course has a tutor-marked assignment. It is compulsory

for you to answer four TMAs and submit them for marking at the study
centre. Each TMA is allocated a total of 10 marks. However, the best
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BUS429 MODULE 2
three of the four marks shall be used as your continuous assessment

score.
You will be able to complete your assignment from the information and
materials contained in your reading, references and study units.
However, it is desirable in all degree level education to demonstrate that
you have read and researched more widely than the required minimum.
Using other references will give you a broader viewpoint and may
provide a deeper understanding of the subject.
FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING
The final examination forBUS429: Corporate Planning will not be

more than three hours duration and has a value of 70 per cent of the total
course grade. The examination will consist of questions, which reflect
the types of self-assessment exercises and TMAs you have previously
encountered. All areas of the course will be assessed. Endeavour to
review your self-assessment exercise, TMAs and comments on them
before the examination. The final examination covers information from
all parts of the course.
COURSE MARKING SCHEME
This table shows how the actual course marking scheme is broken down.
Table 1 Course Marking Scheme
ASSESSMENT MARKS
Assignment 4 (TMAs) Best three marks of the 4 TMAs
@ 10 marks = 30 marks of course
= 30%
Final Examination 70% of overall course marks
Total 100% of course marks
COURSE OVERVIEW
This table brings together the units and the number of weeks you should
spread to complete them and the assignment that follow them are taken
into account.
Assessment
Unit Title of work Weeks (end of unit)
activity
Module I
1 Overview of Management as 1 Assignment 1
Science, Theory and Practice
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2 Planning As an important 1 Assignment 2

Management Function
3 Corporate Planning, Strategic 1
Planning and Corporate Strategy
Compared
4 Objectives: The Foundation of 1 Assignment 3
Planning
5 Classification of Planning 1
6 Steps in Planning 1
Module II
1 Decision Making I 1 Assignment 4
2 Decision Making II 1
3 Management by Objectives 1
4 Premising and Forecasting 1 Assignment 5
Module III
1 Operational Planning Tools I – 1 Assignment 6
Budget
2 Operational Planning Tools II 1
3 Operational Planning Tools III 1
4 Operational Planning Tools IV 1 Assignment 7
Module IV
1 Case Studies on Essentials of 1 Assignment 8
Planning
2 Case Studies on Decision Making 1
3 Case Studies on Planning Tools 1 Assignment 9
and Techniques
Revision
Total 17
HOW TO GET THE MOST FROM THIS COURSE

In distance learning the study units replace the university lecturer. This
is one of the great advantages of distance learning; you can read and
work through specially designed study materials at your own pace, and
at a time and place that suit you best. Think of it as reading the lecture
instead of listening to a lecturer.
In this same way that a lecturer might set you some reading to do, the
study units tell you when to read your set of books or other materials.
Just as a lecturer might give you an in-class exercise, your study units
provide exercises for your to do at appropriate points.
Each of the study units follows a common format. The first item is an
introduction to the subject matter of the unit and how a particular unit is
integrated with the other units and the course as a whole. Next is a set of
learning objectives. These objectives shall let you know what you
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BUS429 MODULE 2
should be able to do by the time you have completed the unit. You
should use these objectives to guide your study. When you have
finished, the units you must go back and check whether you have
achieved the objectives. If you make a habit of doing this you will
significantly improve your chances of passing the course. The main
body of the unit guides you through the required reading from other
sources.
Remember that your tutor‟s job is to assist you. When you need help, do
not hesitate to call and ask your tutor to provide it.
 Read this Course Guide thoroughly.

 Organise a study schedule. Refer to the ‘Course Overview’ for
more details. Note the time you are expected to spend on each
unit and how the assignments related to the units. Whatever
method you chose to use, you should decide on and write in
your own dates for working on each unit.

 Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything
you can to stick to it. The major reason that students fail is that
they get behind with their course work. If you get into
difficulties with your schedule, please let your tutor know before
it is too late for help.

 Turn to Unit one and read the introduction and the objectives
 for the unit.
 Assemble the study materials. Information about what you need
 for a unit is given in the ‘Overview’ at the beginning of each unit.
You will almost always need both the study unit you are working
 on and one of your set books on your desk at the same time.
 Work through the unit. The content of the unit itself has been
arranged to provide a sequence for you to follow. As you work
through the unit you will be instructed to read sections from
your set books or other articles. Use the unit to guide your
reading.

 Review the objectives for each study unit to confirm that you
have achieved them. If you feel unsure about any of the
 objectives, review the study material or consult your tutor.
 When you are confident that you have achieved a unit’s
objectives, you can then start on the next unit. Proceed unit by
unit through the course and try to pace your study so that you
 keep yourself on schedule.
 When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for
marking, do not wait for its return before starting on the next
unit. Keep to your schedule. When the assignment is returned,
pay particular attention to your tutor’s comments, both on the
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tutor-marked assignment form and also on what is written on

the assignment. Consult your tutor as soon as possible if you
have any questions or problems.
 After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare
yourself for the final examination. Check that you have achieved
the unit objectives (listed at the beginning of each unit) and the
course objectives (listed in this Course Guide).
FACILITATION/TUTORS AND TUTORIALS

There are eight hours of tutorials provided in support of this course. You
will be notified of the dates, time and location of these tutorials together
with the names and phone number of your tutor, as soon as you are
allocated a tutorial group.
Your tutor will mark, comment on your assignments and keep a close
watch on your progress and on any difficulties you might encounter as
they would provide assistance to you during the course. You must
submit your tutor-marked assignments to your tutor before the due date
(at least two working days are required). They will be marked by your
tutor and returned to you as soon as possible. Do not hesitate to contact
your tutor by telephone, e-mail, or discussion board if you need help.
The following might be circumstances in which you would find help
necessary.
CONTACT YOUR TUTOR IF:
 you do not understand any part of the study units or the assigned
 readings.
  you have difficulty with the self-assessment exercises.
 you have a question or problem with an assignment with your
tutor‟s comment on an assignment or with the grading of an
assignment.
Endeavour to attend the tutorials as scheduled. This is the only chance to

have face-to-face contact with your tutor and to ask questions, which are
answered instantly. You can raise any problem encountered in the
course of your study. To gain the maximum benefit from course
tutorials, prepare a question list before attending them. You will learn a
lot from participating in discussions actively.
SUMMARY
As earlier stated, the courseBUS429: Corporate Planning is designed
to introduce you to various techniques, guides, principles, practices and
so on relating to corporate planning as a means of ensuring
organisation‟s effectiveness.
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BUS429 MODULE 2
We hope you enjoy your study at the National Open University of

Nigeria (NOUN). We wish you every success in the future.
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MODULE 1 PLANNING AS A VITAL FUNCTION OF

MANAGEMENT
Unit 1 Overview of Management as Science, Theory and Practice

Unit 2 Definition of Planning
Unit 3 Corporate Planning, Strategic Planning and Corporate
Strategy Compared
Unit 4 Objectives: The Foundation of Planning
Unit 5 Classification of Planning
Unit 6 Steps in Planning
UNIT 1 OVERVIEW OF MANAGEMENT AS SCIENCE,

THEORY AND PRACTICE
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition and Nature of Management
3.2 Management as an Management Function
3.3 Managerial Skills and the Organisational Hierarchy
3.4 The Goals of All Managers and Organisations
3.5 Levels of Management
3.5.1 Top Management Level
3.5.2 Middle Management Level
3.5.3 Supervisory Management Level
3.6 Management: A Science or an Art
3.7 Evolution of Management Thought
3.7.1 Early Contributions to Management Thought
3.8 Managerial Roles
3.9 The System Approach to Management
3.10 Functions of Management
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Weihrich and Koontz (2005) observed that one of the most important
human activities is management. According to them, ever since people
began forming groups to accomplish aims they could not achieve as
individuals, management has been essential to ensure the coordination
of individual efforts. As society come to rely increasingly on group
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BUS429 MODULE 2
effort, and as many organised groups have become large, the task of
managers has been rising in importance.
In this unit, we shall discuss the nature of management and its

importance in any organisation. We shall also discuss managerial skills
and the organisational hierarchy as well as consider management from
the perspective of a science or an art. The roles of managers, systems
approach to management as well the basic functions of management will
be considered.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 define the concept of management

 highlight the importance of management to any organisation
 explain the managerial skills and the organisational hierarchy
 consider management from the perspective of a science or an art
 describe the systems approach to management
 discuss managerial skills and the organisational hierarchy
 enumerate and explain managerial roles
 list and explain the basic functions of management.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Definition and Nature of Management
Ikharehon (2006) defines management as a specific organ of a business

enterprise. To him, any business enterprise, no matter its legal structure,
must have a management to be alive. The enterprise has no effective
existence without managers in place. Weihrich and Koontz (2005) see
management as the process of designing and maintaining an
environment in which individuals, working together in groups,
efficiently accomplish selected aims. The term “management” according
to Robbins and Coulter (1998), refers to the process of coordinating and
integrating activities so that they are completed efficiently and
effectively with and through other people.
Management is the most expensive resource in business organisations

and the one that depreciates the fastest and needs the most constant
replenishment. It takes years to build a management team; however, it
can be destroyed in a short period of misrule. A manager is the dynamic,
life-giving element in every business and as such, without his
leadership, the resources of production remain untapped and never
become useful. The quality and performance of managers determine the
85
success of a business; indeed they determine its survival. In other words,

how well businesses are managed determine whether the business goals
will be reached or not. Management also determines how well the
enterprise and workers function. In other words, management directly
mirrors management‟s competence and structure.
Any business enterprise must build a true team and individual efforts
into a common effort. Each member of the enterprise contributes
something different, but they must all contribute towards a common
goal. In other words, their efforts must all pull in the same direction, and
their contributions must fit together to produce a whole-without gaps,
friction, or unnecessary duplication of effort.
Business performance therefore requires that each job be directed

towards the objectives of the whole business; and in particular, each
manager‟s job must be focused on the success of the whole. The
performance that is expected of the manager must be derived from the
performance goal of the business, his results must also be measured by
the in terms of performance, and his superior must know what
contribution to demand and expect of him and must judge him
accordingly.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
From your own perspective, how will you define the concept
“management?”
3.2 Management as an important Management Function
Weihrich and Koontz (2005) noted that managers are charged with the
responsibility of taking actions that will enable individuals contribute
their quota to the organisation objectives. Management, according to
them, thus applies to small and large organisations, profit and non-profit
enterprises, manufacturing as well as service industries. The term
“enterprise” refers to a business, government agency, hospital,
university, and any other type of organisation. Effective management is
the concern of the corporation head, the hospital administrator, the
government first-line supervisor, the Boy Scout leader, the church
leader, the baseball manager, and the university vice chancellor.
3.3 Managerial Skills and the Organisational Hierarchy
A manager constantly interacts with people, supervising and

communicating with them. His ability to develop an effective leadership
style is a significant factor in determining how successful he is in
carrying out the managerial functions. His leadership style is important
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BUS429 MODULE 2
in building a positive relationship with his employees and in helping to

create a favourable work climate within the firm. Katz (1974) identified
three kinds of skills for administrators. To these, according to him, may
be added a fourth – the ability to design solutions. The relative
importance of these skills may different at various levels in the
organisational hierarchy. As shown in figure 1.2, technical skills are of
greatest importance at the supervisory level, and human skills are
helpful in the frequent interactions with subordinates. Conceptual and
design skills, on the other hand, are usually not critical for lower-level
supervisors. At the middle management level, the need for technical
skills decreases, human skills are still essential, while conceptual skills
gain in importance.
At the top management level, conceptual and design abilities and human
skills are especially valuable, but there is relatively little need for
technical abilities. It is assumed, especially in large companies, that
chief executive officers (CEOs) can utilise the technical abilities of their
subordinates. In smaller firms, however, technical experience may still
be quite important.
Top
Level
Managers
Organis
Controll
Leadin
Middle
Planning
ing
ing
Level
g
Managers
First
Level
Managers
Fig. 1.1: Time spent in Carrying out Managerial Functions
Source: Mahoney, T.A., Jerdee, T.H. & Carroll, S.J. (1965). “The
Job(s) of Management.” Industrial Relations (February),
pp. 97 – 110 quoted in Weihrich & Koontz (2005).
Management: A Global Perspective.
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BUS 429 CORPORATE PLANNING
Fig. 1.2: Skills and Management Levels
Source: Weihrich & Koontz (2005). Management: A Global

Perspective.
3.4 The Goals of All Managers and Organisations
Non-business executives sometimes say that the aim of business

managers is simple – to make profit, but profit is really only a measure
of a surplus of sales receipts over expenses. For many businesses, an
important goal is the long-term increase in the value of their common
stock. In all organisations -whether business or non-business, the logical
and desirable aim of all managers should be to make profit. To this end,
managers must establish an environment in which people can
accomplish group goals with the least amount of time, money, materials
and personal dissatisfaction or in which they can achieve as much as
possible a desired goal with available resources. In a non-business
enterprise such as a ministry of extra-governmental organisation, as well
as units of a business that are not responsible for total business profits
(such as an accounting department), managers still have goals and
should strive to accomplish them with the minimum resources or to
accomplish as much as possible with available resources.
List and describe the managerial skills required in an organisational

hierarchy.
3.5 Levels of Management
Ikharehon (2006) states that a large-scale organisation requires many

managers, each with specific qualifications and specialties. It is
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BUS429
therefore apparent that their responsibilities and specialties differ

significantly, depending on their positions in the organisation. The
management of an organisation, according to him, may be described as
consisting of three levels, namely:
 top management level

 middle management level
 supervisory management level
3.5.1 Top Management Level
Top managers have job titles like chairman of the board, president, vice
chancellors, chief executive officer, and management director, among
others. Top managers are the chief policymaking officers of an
organisation. Their activities include:
(a) spending comparatively more time in reflection and deliberation

as well as read staff reports
(b) attending many meetings
(c) making contact with operating officials, deals with overall and
long-run goals rather than day-to-day problems
(d) making long-range plans;
(e) making policy, which serves as guides rather than directions
(f) setting goals and devising feedback control
(g) having public relations contacts with government officials,
national pressure groups and clients (customer) organisations
(h) visiting branches on consultative rather than punitive inspection
(i) evaluating personnel from the standpoint of choosing future
executives.
3.5.2 Middle Management Level
Middle managers are above the supervisors and below the top managers.
The job of middle management is to manage managers – to act as a
buffer between the top manager and the supervisors. Middle managers
spend most of their time analysing data, preparing information for
decisions, translating top management decisions into specific projects
for supervisors, and monitoring the supervisors‟ results. Other activities
include:
(a) maintaining closer contact with day-to-day results

(b) participating in operating decisions
(c) evaluating production results rather than programme
(d) evaluating personnel from the standpoint of immediate usefulness
rather than future potential
(e) making plans for achieving goals established by corporate level
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ENT 313 CORPORATE PLANNING
(f) implementing policy decisions within the limitation set by higher

echelons.
3.5.3 Supervisory Management Level
Supervisory managers have various titles such as foreman, section chief,

and so on. Supervisors are primarily managers of employees and
resources. The supervisor‟s job is the one most people who enter
management start with. The activities of this job include:
(a) planning day-to-day production within goals set from above

(b) assigning personnel to specific jobs and tasks
(c) monitoring hour-to-hour results
(d) reporting feedback information daily
(e) taking corrective action on-the-spot
(f) maintaining personal and immediate contact with production
personnel
(g) evaluating personnel from the standpoint of immediate needs
(h) implementing policy decisions within the limitations set by
higher echelons.
List the levels of management in an organisation and describe the

activities in each of them.
3.6 Management: A Science or an Art
Management, like all arts, makes use of underlying organised

knowledge (science) and applies it in the light of realities to gain a
desired practical result. According to him, art is the “know-how” to
accomplish a desired concrete result. This is what Chester Barnard has
called “behavioural knowledge” (Barnard, 1938 cited in Koontz, 1980).
The most productive art is always based on an understanding of the

science underlying it. Thus, science and art are not mutually exclusive,
but are complementary. As science improves, so should art, just as in the
physical and biological sciences. Physicians without knowledge of
science become witch doctors; but with science, they may become
skillful surgeons. In the same vein, executives who attempt to manage
without theory, and knowledge structured by it, must trust on luck or
intuition. However, with organised knowledge, they have better
opportunity to design a workable and sound solution to a managerial
knowledge. It should be noted that mere knowledge or principles or
theories, will not assure successful practice, because one must know
how to use them.
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Although the organisation of human beings for the attainment of

common objectives has been on for ages, a science of management is
just now developing. Since World War II, there has been an increasing
awareness that the quality of managing is important to modern life, and
this has resulted in extensive analysis and study of the management
process, its environment and techniques.
The importance of management is nowhere better dramatised than in the

case of many underdeveloped or developing countries. A review of this
problem in recent years by economic development specialists has shown
that provision of capital or technology does not ensure development.
The limiting factor in almost every case has been the lack of quality and
vigour on the part of managers.
Science helps in explaining phenomena. It is based on a belief in the

rationality of nature, that is, on the idea that relationships can be found
between two or more sets of events. The essential feature of science is
that knowledge has been discovered and systematised through the
application of scientific method. Scientific method involves determining
facts through observation of events or things and verifying the accuracy
of these facts through continued observation. Application of scientific
method to the development of principles does not totally eliminate
doubt. Every generalisation, however proved, may be subject to further
research and analysis.
It is often pointed out that the social sciences are “inexact” sciences, as
compared with the “exact” physical sciences. It is also sometimes
indicated that management is perhaps the most inexact of the social
sciences. The social sciences and management in particular, deal with
complex phenomena about which too little are known. Likewise, the
structure and behaviour of the atom are far less complex than the
structure and behaviour of groups of people, including both those inside
and those outside an enterprise.
However, we should not forget that even in the most exact sciences,
such as physics, there are areas where scientific knowledge does not
exist now and must be developed through speculations and hypothesis.
As much as it is known of bridge mechanics, bridges still fail as a result
of such things as vibrations set up from wind currents. And as we move
from the longer known areas of physics into the biological sciences, we
find that areas of exactness tend to diminish.
Since virtually all areas of knowledge have tremendous expanses of the

unknown, people working in the social sciences should not be defeatist.
A scientific approach to management cannot wait until an exact science
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of management is developed. Had the physical and biological sciences

thus waited, we might still be living in caves. Statistical proof of theory
and principles of management is desirable, but there is no use waiting
for such proof before giving credence to principles derived from
experience. After all, no one has been able to give statistical proof of the
validity of the Golden Rule, but people of many religions have accepted
this fundamental precept as a guide to behaviour for centuries, and there
are few who would doubt that its observance improves human conduct.
Is management a science or an art? Give tangible explanation to back up

your answer.
3.7 Evolution of Management Thought
Indeed many persons mostly practitioners attempted to bring some

orderly thought to management, but in a field of such importance, one
would have expected a stronger interest and faster growth of
management thought many years ago. The quest is: why the slowness in
development of management thought? The reasons according to
Ikharehon (2006) include the following.
First, the delay has been the preoccupation of economists with political
economy and the no managerial aspects of business. In their analysis of
business enterprise and the development of philosophical precepts
concerning business, the early economists generally followed the lead of
Adam Smith whose concern was for measures to increase the wealth of
a nation; of David Ricardo, whose emphasis was upon the distribution to
the factors of production; and of Alfred Marshal and others, who refined
some of the marginal analyses in competitive and monopolistic
marketing.
Second, one would have expected that political science would have been
the father of theory of management, since the administration of
programmes is one of the major tasks of government and since
government itself is the oldest comprehensive form of social
organisation. Rather, early political theorists were slow to turn their
attention to the problem of administration. They, like the early
economists, were too preoccupied with policymaking on a national and
international level, therefore, they largely overlooked the executive
process at least until in recent years.
Third, the delay to some extent has been due to the tendency to
compartmentalise the disciplines within the broad field of social
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sciences as in the failure to apply the research of sociologists to the area

of management.
Finally, there was for many years a widespread belief among managers
in business, government and other organisations that management is
susceptible to theory rather than management is totally an art. Hence, in
the past, business owners and managers preoccupied themselves with
technology, price among others.
3.7.1 Early Contributions to Management Thought
Different contributions of writers and practitioners have resulted in

different approaches to management, and these make up a “management
theory jungle” (Weihrich & Koontz, 2005). Highlighted below are the
summaries of the major contributions of management writers and
practitioners in a tabular format.
Table 1.1: Early Contributors to Management Thought
Name Year of Major

Major Contribution to
work Management
Frederick W. Shop Management
Acknowledged as the father of
Taylor (1903) scientific management. His
Principles of
primary concern was to raise
scientific productivity through greater
management efficiency in production and
(1911) increased pay for workers, by
Testimony before
applying the scientific method. His
the Special House
principles emphasise using
Committee (1912)
science, creating group harmony
and cooperation, achieving
maximum output, and developing
workers.
Henry L. 1901 Called for scientific selection of
Gantt workers and “harmonious
cooperation” between labour and
management. Developed Gantt
Chart and stressed the need for
training.
Frank and 1900 Frank is known primarily for his
Lillian time and motion studies. Lillian,
Gilbreth an industrial psychologist, focused
on the human aspects of work and
the understanding of workers‟
personalities and needs.
Modern Operational Management Theory
93
Henri Fayol Administration Referred to as the father of modern

Industrielle et management theory. Divided
Générale (1916) industrial activities into six
groups: technical, commercial,
financial, security, accounting, and
managerial. Recognised the need
for teaching management.
Formulated 14 principles of
management, such as authority
and responsibility, unity of
command, scalar chain and spirit
de corps.
Behavioural Sciences
Hugo 1912 Application of psychology to
Munsterberg industry and management.
Walter Dill 1910 – 1911 Application of psychology to
Scott advertising, marketing, and
personnel.
Max Weber Translations 1946, Theory of bureaucracy
1947
Vilfredo Books (1896 – Referred to as the father of the
Pareto 1917) social systems approach to
organisation and management
Elton Mayo 1933 Famous studies at the Hawthorne
and F.J. plant of the Western Electric
Roethlisberger Company on the influence of
social attitudes and relationships
of work groups on performance.
Systems Theory
Chester The functions of The task of managers is to
Barnard the Executive maintain a system of cooperative
(1938) effort in a formal organisation.
Suggested a comprehensive social
systems approach to managing.
Modern Management Thought
There are many authors and major contributors such as Chris Argyris,
Robert R. Blake, C. West Churchman, Ernest Dale, Keith Davis, Mary
Parker Follett, Frederick Herzberg, G.C. Homans, Harold Koontz,
Rensis Likert, Douglas McGregor, Abraham H. Maslow, Lyman W.
Porter, Herbert Simon, George A. Steiner, Lyndall Urwick, Norbert
Wiener, and Joan Woodward.
Peter F. 1974 Very prolific writer on many
Druker general management topics.
W. Edwards After World War Introduced quality control in
Deming II Japan.
Lawrence 1969 Observed that eventually people
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Peter get promoted to a level where they

are incompetent.
William 1981 Discussed selected Japanese
Ouchi managerial practices adapted in
the U.S. environment.
Thomas 1982 Identified characteristics of
Peters and companies they considered
Robert excellent.
Waterman Source:
Source: Claude S. George, Jr. (1972). The History of Management

Thought. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
We will discuss three major authors and contributors to management

thoughts, namely: Frederick Taylor, Henri Fayol and Elton Mayo/F.J.
Roethlisberger.
Frederick Taylor and Scientific Management
Frederick Winslow Taylor gave up going to college and started out as an

apprentice pattern maker and machinist in 1875. He joined the Midvale
Steel Company in Philadelphia as a machinist in 1878, and rose to the
position of chief engineer after earning a degree in engineering through
evening study. He invented high-speed steel-cutting tools and spent
most of his life as a consulting engineer. Taylor is generally
acknowledged as the father of scientific management. Probably no other
person has had a greater impact on the early development of
management. His experiences as an apprentice, a common labourer, a
foreman, a master mechanic, and then the chief engineer of a steel
company gave Taylor ample opportunity to know first-hand the
problems and attitudes of workers and to see the great possibilities for
improving the quality of management.
Taylor‟s famous work Principles of Scientific Management was

published in 1911. The fundamental principles that Taylor saw
underlying the scientific approach to management are as follows:.
 replacing rules of thumb with science (organised knowledge)

 obtaining harmony, rather than discord, in group action
 achieving cooperation of human beings, rather than chaotic
 individualism
 working for maximum output, rather than restricted output
 developing all workers to the fullest extent possible for their own
and their company‟s highest prosperity
95
You will notice that these basic precepts of Taylor‟s are not far from the
fundamental beliefs of the modern manager.
Henri Fayol, the Father of Modern Management Theory
Perhaps the real father of modern management theory is the French

industrialist Henri Fayol. He recognised a widespread need for
principles and management teaching. Consequently, he identified 14
such principles, noting that they are flexible, not absolute, and must be
usable regardless of changing conditions. Let us look at some of these
principles.
  Division of work
 Authority and responsibility
 Discipline
 Unity of command
 Unity of direction
 Subordination of individual to general interest
  Remuneration
 Centralisation
 Scalar chain
 Order
 Equity
  Stability of tenure
 Initiative
 Espirit de corps
(1) Division of work: This is the specialisation which economists

consider necessary to efficiency in the use of labour.
(2) Authority and responsibility: Fayol suggests that authority and
responsibility are related, with the latter arising from the former.
He sees authority as a combination of official factors, deriving
from the manager‟s position, and personal factors, “compounded
of intelligence, experience, moral worth, past service, and so on.”
(3) Discipline: Fayol emphasised that there should be discipline in
organisation to enhance stability, efficiency and high level of
productivity.
(4) Unity of command: This means that employees should receive
orders from their superior only.
(5) Unity of direction: According to this principle, each group of
activities with the same objective must have on head and one
plan.
(6) Subordination of individual to general interest: When the two
are found to differ, management must reconcile them.
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(7) Remuneration: Remuneration and methods of payment should

be fair and afford the maximum possible satisfaction to
employees and employer.
(8) Centralisation: This refers to the extent to which authority is
concentrated or dispersed. Individual circumstances will
determine the degree that will give the best overall yield.
(9) Scalar chain: Fayol thinks of this as a “chain of superiors” from
the highest to the lowest ranks, which, while not to be departed
from needlessly, should be short-circuited when following
scrupulously would be detrimental.
(10) Order: This is essentially a principle of organisation in the
arrangement of things and people.
(11) Equity: Loyalty and devotion should be elicited from personnel
by a combination of kindness and justice on the part of managers
when dealing with subordinates.
(12) Stability of tenure: Workers should be made to work in a
particular assignment for a fairly long time to enable them master
the skill of such management, thus adding efficiency to the actual
production process.
(13) Initiative: Workers in an organisation should not be treated like

robots or machines. In other words, they should be allowed to use
their discretion in carrying out their activity where necessary.
(14) Espirit de Corps: This is principle states that “in union there is
strength”, as well as an extension of the principle of unity of
command. It emphasis the need for teamwork and the importance
of communication in achieving objective.
Fayol regarded the elements of management as the functions of

planning, organising, commanding, coordinating and controlling.
3.7.2 Elton Mayo and F.J. Roethlisberger and the Hawthorn

Studies
Elton Mayo, F.J. Roethlisberger, and others undertook the famous

experiments at the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company
between 1927 and 1932. Earlier, from 1924 to 1927, the National Research
Council made a study in collaboration with Western Electric to determine
the effect of illumination and other conditions on workers and
their productivity. Finding that productivity improved when illumination
was either increased or decreased for a test group, the researchers were
about to declare the whole experiment a failure. However, Mayo of
Harvard saw in it something unusual and, with Roethlisberger and
others continued the research.
97
What Mayo and his colleagues found, partly based on the earlier
thinking of Vilfredo Pareto, was to have a dramatic effect on
management thought. Changing illumination for the test group,
modifying rest periods, shortening workdays, and varying incentive pay
systems did not seem to explain changes in productivity. Mayo and his
researchers then came to the conclusion that other factors were
responsible.
They found, in general, that the improvement in productivity was due to

such social factors as morale, satisfactory interrelationships between
members of a work group (a sense of belonging), and effective
management – a kind of managing that takes into account human
behaviour, especially group behaviour, and serves it through such
interpersonal skills as motivating, counselling, leading, and
communicating. This phenomenon, arising basically from people being
“noticed”, has been named the Hawthorne effect.
There are many authors and major contributors such as Chris Argyris,
Robert R. Blake, C. West Churchman, Ernest Dale, Keith Davis, Mary
Parker Follett, Frederick Herzberg, G.C. Homans, Harold Koontz,
Rensis Likert, Douglas McGregor, Abraham H. Maslow, Lyman W.
Porter, Herbert Simon, George A. Steiner, Lyndall Urwick, Norbert
Wiener, and Joan Woodward.
Required:
You are expected to research into the life, times and contributions of
these authors to management thought and development.
3.8 The Managerial Roles
One widely discussed approach to management theory is the managerial

roles approach, which was popularised by Henry Mintzberg of McGill
University. Essentially, his approach is to observe what managers
actually do, and from such observations come to conclusions as to what
managerial activities (or roles) are. Although many researchers have
studied the actual work of managers – from CEOs to line supervisors –
Mintzberg has given this approach higher visibility.
After systematically studying the activities of five CEOs in a variety of

organisations, Mintzberg came to the conclusion that executives do not
perform the classical managerial functions of planning, organising,
commanding, coordinating, and controlling. Instead, they engage in a
variety of other activities. From his research and the research of others
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who had studied what managers actually did, Mintzberg concluded that
managers really fill a series of ten roles which are grouped into three
major roles. They are:
 interpersonal roles
 informational roles
 decision roles
Interpersonal Roles
1. The “figurehead” role (performing ceremonial and social duties

as the organisation‟s representative).
2. The leader role.
3. The liaison role (particularly with outsiders).
Informational Roles
1. The recipient role (receiving information about the operation of

an enterprise).
2. The disseminator role (passing information to subordinates).
3. The spokesperson role (transmitting information to those outside
the organisation).
Decision Roles
1. The entrepreneurial role.

2. The disturbance-hander role.
3. The resource-allocator role.
4. The negotiator role (dealing with various persons and groups of
persons).
Mintzberg approach has also been criticised. In the first place, the
sample of five CEOs used in his research is far too small to support so
sweeping a conclusion. In the second place, in analysing the actual
activities of managers – from CEOs to supervisors – any researcher
must realise that all managers do some work that is not purely
managerial; one would expect even presidents of large companies to
spend some of their time in public and stockholder relations, in fund-
raising, and perhaps in dealer relations, marketing, and so on. In the
their place, many of the activities Mintzberg found are in fact evidence
of planning, organising, staffing, leading, and controlling. For example,
what is resource allocation but planning? The entrepreneurial role is
certainly an element of planning. And the interpersonal roles are mainly
instances of leading. In addition the informational roles can be fitted
into a number of the functional areas.
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Nevertheless, roles, which managers really perform, can have

considerable value. In analysing activities, an effective manager might
wish to ascertain how activities and techniques fall into the various
fields of knowledge reflected by the basic functions of managers.
However, the roles Mintzberg identified appear to be incomplete. Where
does one find such unquestionably important managerial activities as
structuring an organisation, selecting and appraising managers, and
determining major strategies? Omissions such as these make one
wonder whether the executives in his sample were really effective
managers. They certainly raise a serious question as to whether the
managerial roles approach, at least as put forth here, is an adequate one
on which to base practical operational theory of management.
i. What roles do managers play in an organisation?

ii. List and discuss some of them.
3.9 Systems Approach to Management
An unorganised enterprise does not, of course, exist in a vacuum.

Rather, it is dependent on its external environment; it is a part of larger
systems, such as the industry to which it belongs, the economic system
and society. Thus, the enterprise receives inputs, transforms them, and
exports the outputs to the environment, as shown by the basic model in
figure 1.3. However, this simple model needs to be expanded and
developed into a model of process, or operational, management that
indicates how the various inputs are transformed through the managerial
functions of planning, organising, staffing, leading, and controlling, as
shown in figure 1.4.
Re-energising the system
Inputs Transformation process Outputs
Inputs
Fig. 1.3: Input-Output Model
Source: Sengel, P. (1996). “Interview in Quality Digest.” Retrieved

October 5, 2002 from www.infed.org /thinkers/senge.htm
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When Peter Sengel, the author of The Fifth Discipline: The Art and
Practice of the Learning Organisation, was asked the most important
issue that faces domestic and international businesses today, he said, “I
would say it is the system of management” (Sengel, 2002). The book is
about systems approach to the management process. The components of
this model are discussed as follows:
1. Inputs and Claimants
The inputs from the external environment (see figure 1.4) may include
people, capital, managerial skills, as well as technical knowledge and
skills. In addition, various groups of people make demands on the
enterprise. For example, employees want higher pay, more benefits, and
job security. Consumers demand safe and reliable products at reasonable
prices. Suppliers want assurance that their products will be bought.
Stockholders want not only a high return on their investment, but also
security for their investment. Federal, state, and local governments
depend on taxes paid by the enterprise, but they also expect the
enterprise to comply with their laws. Similarly, the community demands
that enterprises be “good citizens”, providing the maximum number of
jobs with a minimum of pollution. Other claimants to the enterprise may
include financial institutions and labour unions; even competitors have a
legitimate claim for fairplay. It is clear that many of these claims are
incongruent, and it is the manager‟s job to integrate the legitimate
objectives of the claimants. This may be through compromises, trade-
offs, and denial of the manager‟s own ego.
2. The Managerial Transformation Process
It is the task of managers to transform the inputs, in an effective and

efficient manner, into outputs. Of course, the transformation process can
be viewed from different perspectives. Thus, one can focus on such
diverse enterprise functions as finance, production, personnel, and
marketing. Writers on management look at the transformation process in
terms of their particular approaches to management. Specifically, writers
belonging to the human behaviour school focus on interpersonal
relationships, social systems theorists analyse the transformation by
concentrating on social interactions, and those advocating decision
theory see the transformation as sets of decisions. However, the most
comprehensive and useful approach for discussing the job of managers
is to use the managerial functions of planning, organising, staff, leading,
and controlling as a framework for organising managerial knowledge.
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3. The Communication System
Communication is essential to all phases of the managerial process for

two reasons. First, it integrates the managerial functions. For example,
the objectives set in planning are communicated so that the appropriate
organisation structure can be devised. Communication is essential in the
selection, appraisal, and training of managers to fill the roles in this
structure. Similarly, effective leadership and the creation of an
environment conductive to motivation depend on communication.
Moreover, it is through communication that one determines whether
performance conform to plans. Thus, it is communication that makes
managing possible.
Fig. 1.4: Systems Approach to Management
Source: Sengel, P. (1996). Interview in Quality Digest, November
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www.infed.org /thinkers/senge.htm (accessed October 5,

2002).
103
The second purpose of the communication system is to link the

enterprise with its external environment, where many of the claimants
are. For example, one should never forget that customers, who are the
reason for the existence of virtually all businesses, are outside a
company. It is through the communication system that the needs of
customers are identified; this knowledge enables the firm provide
products and services at a profit. Similarly, it is through an effective
communication system that the organisation becomes aware of
competition and other potential threat and constraining factors.
4. External Variables
Effective managers will regularly scan the external environment. While

it is true that managers may have little or no power to change the
external environment, they have no alternative but to respond to it.
5. Outputs
It is the task of managers to secure, use and transform inputs of the

enterprise through the managerial functions – with due consideration for
external variables – into outputs. Although the kinds of outputs will vary
with the enterprise, they usually include many of the following:
products, services, profits, satisfaction, and integration of the goals of
various claimants to the enterprise. Most of these outputs require no
elaboration, and only the last two will be discussed.
The organisation must indeed provide many “satisfactions” if it hopes to

retain and elicit contributions from its members. It must contribute to
the satisfaction, not only of basic material needs (such as employees‟
needs for money, food and shelter or to have job security), but also of
the needs for affiliation, acceptance, esteem, and perhaps even self-
actualisation so that one can realise one‟s potential at the workplace.
Another output is goal integration. As noted earlier, the different

claimants to the enterprise have very divergent – and often directly
opposing – objectives. It is the task of managers to resolve conflicts and
integrate these aims.
6. Re-energising the System
Finally, it is important to note that, in the systems model of management

process, some of the outputs become inputs again. Thus, the satisfaction
and new knowledge or skills of employees become important human
inputs. Similarly, profits, the surplus of income over costs, are
reinvested in cash and capital goods, such as machinery, equipment,
buildings, and inventory.
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3.10 Functions of Management
The functions of managers and management provide a useful structure

for organising management knowledge. There have been no new ideas,
research findings, or techniques that cannot readily be placed in the
classifications of planning, organising, staffing, leading and controlling.
Planning
Planning involves selecting missions and objectives as well as the

actions to achieve them; it requires decision making that is, choosing
future courses of action from among alternatives. As you will discover
in subsequent units, there are various types of plans, ranging from
overall purposes and objectives to the most detailed actions to be taken,
such as ordering a special stainless steel bolt for an instrument or hiring
and training workers for an assembly line. It may also involve recruiting
new academic and non-teaching staff for the National Open University
of Nigeria (NOUN) and sponsoring their training in postgraduate
diploma in open and distance education to make them become
practitioners or experts in open and distance learning (ODL) system,
thereby making them more effective and efficient in their respective
duties.
No real plan exists until a decision – a commitment of human or

material resources – has been made. Before a decision is made, all that
exists is a planning study, an analysis, or a proposal; there is no real
plan. The various aspects of planning are discussed in subsequent units
of this course.
Organising
People working together in groups to achieve some goal must have roles
to play, much like the parts actors play in a drama, whether these roles
are the ones they develop themselves, are accidental or haphazard, or are
defined and structured by someone who wants to make sure that they
contribute in a specific way to group effort. The concept of a role
implies that what people do has a definite purpose or objective; they
know how their job objective fits into the group effort, and they have the
necessary authority, tools, and information to accomplish the task. This
can be seen in as simple as a group effort such as setting up camp on a
fishing expedition. Everyone could do anything he or she wants to do,
but activity would almost certainly be more effective and certain tasks
would be less likely to be left undone if one or two persons were given
the job of gathering firewood, some the assignment of getting water,
others the tasks of starting a fire, yet others the job of cooking, and so
on.
105
Organising then, is that part of managing, which involves establishing an

intentional structure of roles for people to fill in an organisation. It is
intentional in the sense of making sure that all the tasks necessary to
accomplish goals are assigned and, it is hoped, assigned to people who
can do them best.
The purpose of an organisation structure is to help create an

environment for human performance. It is then a management tool and
not an end in itself. Although the structure must define the tasks to be
done, the roles so established must also be designed in the light of the
abilities and motivations of the people available.
Designing an effective organisation structure is not an easy managerial

task. Many problems are encountered in making structures fit situations,
including both defining the kinds of jobs that must be done and finding
the people to do them.
Staffing
Staffing involves filling and keeping occupied, the position in the

organisation structure. This is done by identifying workforce
requirements; inventorying the people available; and recruiting,
selecting, placing, promoting, appraising, planning the careers of,
compensating, and training or otherwise developing both candidates and
current jobholders so that tasks are accomplished effectively and
efficiently.
Leading
Leading involves influencing people so that they will contribute to

organisational and group goals. It has to do predominantly with the
interpersonal aspect of managing. All managers would agree that their
most important problems arise from people – their desires and attitudes
as well as their behaviour as individuals and in groups – and those
effective managers also need to be effective leaders. Since leadership
implies followership and people tend to follow those who offer a means
of satisfying their own needs, wishes, and desires, it is understandable
that leading involves motivation, leadership styles and approaches, and
communication.
Controlling
Controlling is measuring and correcting individual and organisational

performance to ensure that events conform to plans. It involves
measuring performance against goals and plans, showing where
deviations from standards exist, and helping to correct deviations from
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standards. In short, controlling facilitates the accomplishment of plans.

Although planning must precede controlling, plans are not self-
achieving. Plans guide managers in the use of resources to accomplish
specific goals; then activities are checked to determine whether they
conform to the plans.
Control activities generally relate to the measurement of achievement.

Some means of controlling, like the budget for expenses, inspection
records, and the record of labour-hours lost, are generally familiar. Each
of them measures, and each shows whether plans are working out. If
deviations persist, correction is indicated. Nothing can be done about
reducing scrap, for example, or buying according to specifications, or
handling sales returns unless one knows who is responsible for these
functions.
Controlling events to conform to plans means locating the persons who

are responsible for results that differ from planned action and then
taking the necessary step to improve performance. Thus, outcomes are
controlled by controlling what people do.
Coordination: The Essence of Managership
Some authorities consider coordination to be a separate function of the

manager; it seems accurate. However, it is more accurate to regard it as
the essence of managership, for achieving harmony among individual
efforts toward the accomplishment of group goals. Each of the
managerial functions is an exercise contributing to coordination.
Even in the case of a church or a fraternal organisation, individuals often

interpret similar interests in different ways, and their efforts toward
mutual goals do not automatically mesh with the efforts of others. It thus
becomes the central task of the manager to reconcile differences in
approach, timing, effort, or interest and to harmonise individual goals to
contribute to organisational goals.
4.0 CONCLUSION
From different definitions given by different experts, it can be concluded

that management is the process of designing and maintaining an
environment for efficiently accomplishing selected aims and objectives.
Management function is essential in any organisation because managers
are charged with the responsibility of taking actions that will enable
individuals to make their best contributions to group objectives.
Development of an effective leadership style is a significant factor in

determining how successful a manager is in carrying out the managerial
107
functions. This leadership style is also important in building a positive

relationship with his employees and in helping to create a favourable
work climate within the firm. Three skills were identified namely:
technical skills, human skills and conceptual/design skills.
For many businesses, an important goal is the long-term increase in the

value of their common stock. In all organisations, whether business or
non-business, the logical and publicly desirable aim of all managers
should be a surplus. Managers must therefore establish an environment
in which people can accomplish group goals with the least amount of
time, money and materials to enable them achieve as much as possible a
desired goal with available resources.
There are three levels of management, which include top, middle and
supervisory management levels. The top managers spend comparatively
more time in reflection and deliberation as well as read staff reports,
attend many meetings, make contact with operating officials dealing
with overall and long-run goals rather than day-to-day problems, make
long range plans, and make policy which serves as guides rather than
directions. The middle management level is above the supervisors and
below the top managers. Their job is to manage managers and act as
buffer between the top manager and the supervisors. Finally, the
supervisory management level are primarily concerned with managing
employees and resources i.e. plan day-to-day production within goals set
from above, assign personnel to specific jobs and tasks, watch hour to
hour results, report feedback information daily, take corrective action on
the spot, and so on.
Different contributions of writers and practitioners have resulted in

different approaches to management and these make up the management
theory. These writers include Frederick W. Taylor, Henry L. Gantt,
Frank and Lillian Gilbreth, Henri Fayol, Hugo Munsterberg, Walter Dill
Scott, Max Weber, Vilfredo Pareto, Elton Mayo and F.J. Roethlisberger,
Chester Barnard, Peter F. Drucker, W. Edwards Deming, Lawrence
Peter, William Ouchi and Thomas Peters & Robert Waterman.
Managers carry out the functions of planning, organising, staffing,

leading, and controlling. Managing is an essential activity at all
organisational level; however, the managerial skills required vary with
the organisational level. The goal of all managers is to create a surplus.
The systems approach to management indicates how the various inputs

are transformed through the managerial functions of planning,
organising, staffing, leading and controlling to produce outputs.
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5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have:
 defined the concept management

 highlighted the importance of management to any organisation
 explained the managerial skills and the organisational hierarchy
 seen management from the perspective of a science or an art
 described the systems approach to management
 discussed managerial skills and the organisational hierarchy
 enumerated and explained managerial roles
 listed and explained the basic functions of management.
In the next unit, you will be introduced to planning, as an important

management function.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
i. Why has Frederick Taylor been called the father of scientific

management and Henri Fayol the father of modern management
theory?
ii. What are the managerial functions? Discuss them.
iii. In what fundamental way are the basic goals of all managers at
all levels and in all kinds of enterprises the same?
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Elton, M. (1933). “The Human Problems of an Industrial Civilisation.”

In: Management and the Worker F.J. Roethlisberger and W.J.
Dickson (Eds). New York: Macmillan,
Fayol, H. (1949). General and Industrial Management. New York:

Pitman. Retrieved October 5, 2002 from http sol.brunel.acuk
jarvis/hola/competence/fayol.html.
Ikharehon, J.I. (2006). Management Theory. Ekpoma: Nono Publishers.
Lynch, R. (2006). Corporate Strategy. (4th ed.). England: Pearson

Education Limited, Edinburgh Gate, Harlow, Essex.
Robbins, S.P. & Coulter, M. (1998). Management. (6th ed.). New

Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc.
109
Weihrich, H. & Koontz, H. (2005). Management: A Global Perspective

(11th ed.). Asia: Mc-Graw Hill Education.
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UNIT 2 PLANNING AS AN IMPORTANT FUNCTION

OF MANAGEMENT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Planning
3.2 Planning and Forecasting
3.3 Features of Planning
3.4 Purposes of Planning
3.6 Planning Process
3.7 Relationship between Planning and Controlling
3.8 Planning and Performance
3.9 Misconceptions about Planning
3.10 Criticisms of Planning
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 References/ Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, we defined and discussed the nature of management. We

discussed managerial skills and the organisational hierarchy, considered
management from the perspective of a science or an art, enumerated the
roles of managers. Furthermore, we described the systems approach to
management as well as listed and explained the basic functions of
management.
In this unit, we shall dwell extensively on planning as an important

function of management. This discussion will lead to defining the
concept, differentiate between planning and forecasting, classify plans,
examine the nature of plans, list and explain the purposes of planning,
discuss planning and performance and enumerate the misconceptions
about planning.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 define the concept of planning

 differentiate between planning and forecasting
 list the features plans
 list and explain the purposes of planning
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 discuss planning and performance

 enumerate the various misconceptions about planning.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Definition of Planning
Planning is a must for every business enterprise operating in a dynamic

environment where today‟s world is a global village. The most
important aspect of this changing environment is change in technology,
government policy and activities, social norms, among others. Planning
provides direction and sense of purpose. It is a unifying framework
within which such organisation are guided, reveal future opportunities
and threats, means of minimising risks, provides performance standard,
and so on.
Therefore, in classifying the functions of the manager, there is need to

distinguish clearly those of enterprise function operation, such as
selling, manufacturing, accounting, engineering and purchasing.
Occasionally, scholars concern themselves about the order in which the
managerial functions should be undertaken. Theoretically, planning
comes first, and organising, staff, leading and controlling follow
(Koontz, et al. 1980). What then is planning?
Weihrich and Koontz (2005) state that planning involves selecting

missions and objectives and deciding on the actions to achieve them; it
also requires decision making, that is, choosing a course of action from
among alternatives. According to them, plans thus provide a rational
approach to achieving pre-selected objectives.
Awujo (1992 quoted in Ikharehon, 2006) defined planning as the

activity by which managers analyse present conditions to determine
ways of reaching a desired future state. Planning, according to him,
encompasses defining organisation goals, establishing an overall
strategy for achieving those goals, and developing a comprehensive
hierarchy of plans to integrate and coordinate activities. It is concerned,
then with the ends (what is to be done) as well as means (how it is to be
done).
Planning can be defined as the establishment of objectives, formulation,

evaluation and selection of the policies, strategies, tactics and action
required to achieve these objectives (Inua, 2011). Planning comprises
long-term/strategic planning and short-term operational plans. Short-
term operational plan usually refers to a period of one year. Thus, you
can see that the overall process of planning covers both the long and
short terms.
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Robbins and Coulter (1998) define planning as involving defining the

organisation objectives or goals, establishing an overall strategy for
achieving those goals, and developing a comprehensive hierarchy of
plans to integrate and coordinate activities. It can further be defined in
terms whether it‟s informal or formal.
In informal planning, nothing is written down, and there is little or no

sharing of objectives with others in the organisation. This type of
planning is done in small businesses; the owner/manager has a vision of
where he or she wants to go and how to get there. The planning is
general and lacks continuity. It exists in some large organisations too,
and some small businesses have very sophisticated formal plans.
As regards a formal planning, the objectives covering a period of years

are defined. These objectives are written and made available to
organisational members. Finally, specific action programmes exist for
the achievement of the objectives; that is, managers clearly define the
path they want to take or follow to get the organisation from where it is
to where they want it to be.
Planning covers the whole process of determining what purpose to

pursue and the means of attaining them as well as the mechanism for
monitoring results. Discuss.
3.2 Features of Planning
Planning is characterised by the following features.
 It must be realistic and capable of implementation;

 It must be comprehensive;
 It must have clearly defined objectives in terms of scope,
accuracy, clarity and definitiveness;
 It must be flexible;
 It must be futuristic;
 It must relate to conditions of relative certainty and uncertainty;
and
 It must be a continuous process.
3.3 Purposes of Planning
Why should managers plan? Weihrich and Koontz (2005) state at least
four reasons. According to them, it gives direction, reduces the impact
of change, minimises waste and redundancy, and sets the standards used
in controlling.
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Planning establishes coordinated effort. It gives direction to managers and

non-managers alike. When employees know where the organisation is
going and what they must contribute to reach the objective, they can
coordinate their activities, cooperate with each other, and work in teams.
Without planning, departments might work at cross purposes, preventing
the organisation from moving efficiently toward its objectives.
Planning reduces uncertainty by forcing managers to look ahead,

anticipate change, consider the impact of change, and develop
appropriate responses. It also clarifies the consequences of actions
managers might take in response to change.
In addition, planning reduces overlapping and wasteful activities; it

pinpoints waste and redundancy. Furthermore, it makes ends clear;
inefficiencies become obvious and can be corrected and eliminated.
Finally, planning establishes objectives or standards that are used in

controlling. If we are unsure of what we are trying to achieve, how can
we determine whether we have actually achieved it? In planning, we
develop the objectives, identify any significant deviations, and take the
necessary corrective action. Without planning, there would be no way to
control.
3.4 Planning and Forecasting
Planning cannot be divorced from forecasting, for what is feasible

depends, to a large extent, on events in the external world. The actual
planning starts with goal setting, but any member of contingencies in the
environment will have a major effect on the extent to which various
goals may be feasible.
Hornby (2006) defines forecasting as a statement of what will occur in

the future based on information that is available now. Ikharehon (2006)
divides forecasts into two, namely: economic forecasts; technology
forecasts and forecasts of changes in public taste and public opinion.
Economic forecasts: These are basic for every company sales

depending on how much money is available for purchase. With few
exceptions, sales are bound to drop during a period recession.
Technological forecasts: This involves such question as what new

inventions or new technical developments are probable, and when they
are likely to come on the market. The answer to this question is
important for new developments can make a company‟s products
obsolete, or at least reduce the market for them drastically.
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Forecasts of changes in Public Taste and Public Opinion: Changes in

public taste affect not only products or services designed for the ultimate
consumer, but sales to industry as well. For instance, if sales of a
product drop, the companies that produce it will contain their operations
and buy less from their suppliers. Changes in public opinion may
produce new laws that necessitate changes in plans or perhaps give rise
to boycotts of some products.
In forecasting, a company should be able to decide the following

questions.
1. What product(s) or services will be provided?

2. To whom will we sell? That is, what is our market share?
3. What methods or means will be used to sell these product(s)? Is it
through direct sales, or advertising, or both?
4. What plant, equipment, and personnel will be needed?
3.5 Planning Process
Planning process has to do with a logical set of steps a manager must

take to find ways of reaching desired future objectives. Meanwhile, in
planning process, the first step to consider is the identification of goals
of the organisation upon which the plans will be built. In other words,
management must have an overall goal in mind before the organisation
even comes into existence. This and subsequent specific goals help
determine the organisational structure.
The second step of planning process involves a search for opportunities.

This is where the manager opens his mind to new ideas, rather than
fixing his mind. The third stage involves the translation of opportunities
into selected courses of action. The managerial job at this time is to
evaluate the alternatives and compare each alternative to factors like the
organisation‟s strengths and weaknesses, and to forecast economic
activity.
Furthermore, the next step involves setting specific targets. Here, the
plan becomes a budget or some other specific statement of targets.
Finally, the planning process must be continuously reviewed and revised
where necessary. This will be fully discussed in subsequent unit.
3.7 Relationship between Planning and Controlling
In designing an environment for the effective performance of individuals

working together in a group, a manager‟s most essential task is to see that
everyone understands the group‟s mission and objectives and the methods
for attaining them. If group effort is to be effective, people
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must know what they are expected to accomplish. This is the function of
planning. It is the most basic of all the managerial functions.
Planning, to them, strongly implies managerial innovation and that it

bridges the gap from where we are to where we want to be. Figure 2.1
below shows the relationship between planning and controlling
functions of management.
Planning and controlling are closely interrelated and complement one

another to achieve a common goal/objective.
Fig. 2.1: Close relationships of Planning and Controlling
Source: Sengel, P. (1996). “Interview in Quality Digest.” Retrieved

October 5, 2002 from www.infed.org /thinkers/senge.htm .
3.8 Planning and Performance
The question we would ask is this: Do managers and organisations that

plan outperform those that do not? Intuitively, you would expect the
answer to be a resounding yes. Reviews of performance in organisations
that plan are generally positive, but we should not take that as a blanket
endorsement of formal planning. We cannot say that organisational that
formally plan always outperforms those that do not.
Studies have been done to test the relationship between planning and
performance (Pearce, Robbins & Robinson, Jr., 1987). Based on these
studies, we can draw the following conclusions. First generally
speaking, formal planning is associated with higher profits, higher return
on assets and other positive financial results. Second, the quality of the
planning process and the appropriate implementation of the plans
probably contribute to high performance than does the extent of
planning. Finally, in those studies in which formal planning did not lead
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to higher performance, the environment was the culprit. Governmental

regulations, powerful labour unions, and similar environmental forces
constrain managers‟ option and thereby reduce the impact of planning
on an organisation‟s performance.
This is because managers will have fewer choices for planning viable
alternatives. For example, planning might indicate that a manufacturing
firm should produce some of its key parts in Taiwan in order to compete
effectively against low-cost foreign competitors. But if the firm‟s labour
union contract specifically forbids transferring work overseas, the firm‟s
plan will be of no value. Dramatic shocks from the environment, such as
a fire at a major customer‟s warehouse or a steep drop in stock prices
because of inflationary fears, can also undermine organisation best-laid
plans. Given such environmental uncertainty, there is no reason to
expect that firms that plan will outperform those that do not.
3.9 Misconceptions about Planning
There are many misconceptions about planning. We will identify some

of them and explain the misunderstandings behind them.
1. Planning that proves inaccurate is a waste of manager’s time:

The end result of planning is only one of its purposes. The
process itself can be valuable even if the results miss the target.
Planning requires managers to think through what they want to
do and how they are going to do it. This clarification can be
important in and of itself. Managers who do a good job of
planning will have direction and purpose, and planning is likely
to minimise wasted effort. All of these benefits can occur even if
the objectives being sought are missed.
2. Planning can eliminate change: Planning cannot eliminate
change. Changes will happen no matter what managers do.
Managers engage in planning in order anticipate changes to
develop the most effective response to them.
3. Planning reduces flexibility: Planning implies commitment, but
this is a constraint only if managers top planning after doing it
once. Planning is an ongoing activity. The fact that formal plans
have been thoroughly discussed and clearly articulated can make
them easier to revise than an ambiguous set of assumptions
carried around in some executive‟s head. Also, some plans can be
made more flexible than others.
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3.10 Criticisms of Planning
Ikharehon (2006) states that planning is characterised by major

arguments recently offered against it. Some of these are discussed
below.
1. Planning creates too much rigidity: Formalised planning

systems lock people and organisational units into specific
periods, with the assumption that conditions will remain
relatively stable during the period, which is almost never the case.
2. Systems can replace intuition and creativity: Planning systems

tried to do for management what the scientific management tried
to do for production work – programme and routinise it.
However, formal procedures will never be able to forecast
discontinuity.
3. You can plan for change in a turbulent environment: Most
organisations face dynamic, changing, and unpredictable
environments. But if you are locked into formal plans, every
unpredictable change is seen only as a problem.
4. Planning reinforces successful organisations to become overly
preoccupied with the facts responsible for their success,
setting up the conditions that can lead to failure: Managers in
successful organisations tend to develop perpetual biases that
encourage them to maintain the status quo. They tend to become
overconfident and more entrenched in the strategy they have
created. Ironically, success breeds failure.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Planning involves selecting the missions and objectives as well as the

actions to achieve them. It involves choosing future course of action
from among alternatives. Planning and controlling are closely
interrelated, although they are discussed separated in this course.
Planning is classified into many components such as missions or
purposes, objectives or goals, strategies, policies, procedures, rules,
programmes, and budgets.
Once an opportunity is recognised, a manager plans rationally by

establishing environment, finding and evaluating alternative courses of
action, and choosing a course to follow. Next, the manager must make
supporting plans and devise a budget. These activities must be carried
out with attention to the total environment.
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5.0 SUMMARY
 differentiated between planning and forecasting

 classified plans into different components
 listed the features plans
 listed and explained the purposes of planning
 discussed planning and performance
 enumerated the various misconceptions about planning.
i. What is the relationship between planning and organisational

performance?
ii. Identify and rebut some common misconceptions about planning.
Elton Mayo (1933). “The Human Problems of an Industrial

Civilisation.” F.J. Roethlisberger and W.J. Dickson( Eds).
Management and the Worker. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.
Henri Fayol (1949). “General and Industrial Management.” ew York

itmanhttp sol.brunel.acuk jarvis/hola/competence/fayol.html.
(accessed on October 5, 2002).
Ikharehon, J.I. (2006). Management Theory. Ekpoma: Nono Publishers.
Inua, O.I. (2011). Management Accounting. NOUN Study Materials for

Undergraduate Programme in Entrepreneurial and Business
Management.
Lynch, R. (2006). Corporate Strategy. (4th ed.). England: Pearson

Education Limited, Edinburgh Gate, Harlow, Essex. .
Robbins, S.P. & Coulter, M. (1998). Management. (6th ed.). New

Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc.

119
Pearce, J.A. Robbins & Robinson, Jr. (1987). “The Impact of Grand
Strategy and Planning Formality on Financial Performance.”
Strategic Management Journal, March – April, pp. 125 – 134.
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UNIT 3 CORPORATE PLANNING, STRATEGIC

PLANNING AND CORPORATE STRATEGY
COMPARED
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Concepts: Corporate Planning, Strategic
Planning and
Corporate Strategy
3.2 Core Areas of Strategy
3.3 Process, Content and Context
3.4 What makes a “Good” Strategy?
3.5 Objectives of Corporate Planning
3.6 Benefits, Limitations and Causes Failure in Corporate
Planning
3.7 Difference between Strategic Planning and Long-Range
Planning
3.7.1 What Strategic Planning Is Not!
3.7.2 When Should a Strategic Plan be Developed?
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, we defined the concept of planning, we differentiated

between planning and forecasting, classified plans into different
components, listed the features plans, listed and explained the purposes
of planning, discussed planning and performance and enumerated the
various misconceptions about planning.
In this unit, we shall examine in detail the corporate planning, corporate

strategy and strategic planning.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 define corporate planning, strategic planning and corporate

strategy
 discuss the three concepts comprehensively.
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3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Definition of Concepts: Corporate Planning, Strategic

Planning and Corporate Strategy
Aghedo (2010) defines corporate planning as the process of drawing up

detailed action plans to achieve an organisational goals and objectives,
taking into account the resources of the organisation and the
environment within which it operates. It represents a formal structured
approach to achieving objectives and to implementing the corporate
strategy of an organisation.
Bryson (n.d) sees strategic planning as a disciplined effort to produce

fundamental decisions and actions that shape and guide what an
organisation is, what it does, and why it does it, with a focus on the
future. A word-by-word dissection of this definition provides the key
elements that underlie the meaning and success of a strategic planning
process. The process is strategic because it involves preparing the best
way to respond to the circumstances of the organisation environment,
whether or not its circumstances are known in advance; nonprofits often
must respond to dynamic and even hostile environments.
Andrews (1987) described corporate strategy as the identification of the

purpose of the organisation and the plans and actions to achieve that
purpose. It is the pattern of major objectives, purposes or goals and
essential policies or plans for achieving those goals, stated in such a way
as to define what business the company is in or is to be in and the kind
of company it is or is to be.
An inference from the above definitions showed that the concepts mean
the same thing but are just semantically different.
SELF-ASSESSEMENT EXERCISE
Do you agree that corporate planning, strategic planning and corporate

strategy are the same? Give reasons for your answer.
3.2 Core Areas of Strategy
Three core areas of corporate strategy are strategic analysis, strategic

development and strategy implementation.
1. Strategic analysis: The organisation, its mission and objectives

have to be examined and analysed. Corporate strategy provides
value for the people involved in the organisation – its stakeholders –
but it is often the senior managers who develop the
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view of the organisation‟s overall objectives in the broadest

possible terms. They conduct an examination of the objectives
and the organisation‟s relationship with its environment. They
will also analyse the resources of the organisation.
2. Strategy development: The strategy options have to be
developed and then selected. To be successful, the strategy is
likely to be built on the particular skills of the organisation and
the special relationships that it has or can develop with those
outside – suppliers, customers, distributors and government. For
many organisations, this will mean developing advantages over
competitors that a sustainable over time. There are usually many
options available and one or more will have to be selected.
3. Strategy implementation; The selected options now have to be
implemented. There may be major difficulties in terms of
motivation, power relationships, government negotiations,
company acquisitions and many other matters. A strategy that
cannot be implemented is not worth the paper it is written on.
3.3 Process, Content and Context
Research (Pettigrew and Whipp, 1991) has shown that in most

situations, corporate strategy is not simply a matter of taking a strategic
decision and then implementing it. It often takes a considerable time to
make the decision itself and then another delay before it comes into
effect. There are two reasons for this. First, people are involved –
managers, employees, suppliers and customers for example. Any of
these people may choose to apply their own business judgement to the
chosen corporate strategy. They may influence both the initial decision
and the subsequent actions that will implement it. Second, the
environment may change radically as the strategy is being implemented.
This will invalidate the chosen strategy and mean that the process of
strategy development needs to start again. For these reasons, an
important distinction needs to be drawn in strategy development
between process, content and context.
Every strategic decision involves the following.
1. Context: The environment within which the strategy operates

and is developed. In the IBM case during the 1980s, the context
was the fast-changing technological development in personal
computers.
2. Content: The main actions of the proposed strategy. The content
of the IBM strategy was the decision to launch the new PC and its
subsequent performance in the market place.
3. Process: This involves how the actions link together or interact
with each other as the strategy unfolds against what may be a
123
changing environment. The process in the IBM case was the

delay in tackling the PC market, the slow reaction to competitive
actions and the interactions between the various parts of the
company as it attempted to respond to competition actions.
Process is thus the means by which the strategy will be developed
and achieved.
Two approaches to the process are: prescriptive and emergent. A

prescriptive corporate strategy is one whose objective has been defined
in advance and whose main elements have been developed before the
strategy commences. Emergent corporate strategy, on the other hand, is
a strategy whose final objective is unclear and whose elements are
developed during the course of its life, as the strategy proceeds.
Mintzberg (1987) sees merit in both approaches. According to him, in
many respects, they can be said to be like the human brain, which has
both a rational left side and an emotional right side. Both sides are
needed for the brain to function properly. It can be argued that the same
is true in corporate strategy.
3.4 What makes a “Good” Strategy?
Given the lack of agreement on a definition of corporate strategy and the

difficulty of developing it successfully, it is relevant to explore what
makes a “good” corporate strategy. To some, it might appear that there
is one obvious answer, that is, ““good” strategy delivers the purpose set
out for the strategy in the beginning.” However, this begs several
important questions such as:
1. Was the purpose itself reasonable? For example, perhaps the

purpose was so easy that any old strategy would be successful.
2. What do we do when it is difficult to define the purpose clearly,
beyond some general objective of survival or growth? Such
vagueness may make it difficult to test whether a “good” strategy
has been developed.
3. Since the whole purpose of strategy is to explore what we do in
the future, can we afford to wait until it has been achieved before
we test whether it is good?
Essentially, we need some more robust tests of good strategy. These lie
in two areas. First, those related to the real world of the organisation and
its activities: application-related. Second, those that rely on the
disciplines associated with the basic principles of academic rigour,
originality, logical thought and scientific method. It might be argued
that academic rigour has no relevance to the real world, but this would
be wrong. All organisations should be able to apply these basic
principles to the process of strategy development.
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(a) Tests of good strategy (application-related): At least three tests

are available that provide some means of assessing whether a
strategy is good:
1. The value-added test: A good strategy will deliver

increased value added in the market place. This might
show itself in increased profitability, and might also be
visible in gains in longer-term measures of business
performance such as market share, innovative ability and
satisfaction for employees.
2. The consistency test: A good strategy will be consistent
with the circumstances that surround a business at any
point in time. It will take into account its ability to use the
resources efficiently, its environment, which may be
changing fast or slowly, and its organisational ability to
cope with the circumstances of that time.
3. The competitive advantage test: For most organisations,
a good strategy will increase the sustainable competitive
advantage of the organisation. Even those organisations
that traditionally may not be seen as competing in the
market place – such as charities or government institutions
– can be considered as competing for resources. Charities
compete with others for new funds, government
departments compete with each other for a share of the
available government funds.
(b) Tests of good strategy (academic-related): Another five tests

might also be employed that relate to the above but are more
fundamental to the basic principles of originality, logical thought
and scientific method:
1. The originality test: The best strategy often derives from

doing something totally different. One test that has
academic validity is therefore that of originality. However,
this need to be used with considerable caution or it
becomes just another excuse for wild and illogical ideas
that have no grounding in the topic.
2. The purpose test: Even if there are difficulties in defining
purpose, it is logical and appropriate to examine whether
the strategies that are being proposed make some attempts
to address whatever purpose has been identified for the
organisation. Such a definition of purpose might be taken
to include the aspirations and ambitions of the leaders of
the organisation, along with its stakeholders.
3. The logical consistency: Do the recommendations flow in
a clear and logical way from the evidence used? And what
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confidence do we have in the evidence used? Do we trust

such evidence? Might it be unreliable because it has come
from a competitor?
4. The risk and resources test: Are the risks and resources
associated with the strategies sensible in relation to the
organisation? They might be consistent with the overall
purpose, require resources that are substantially beyond
those available to the organisation – not just finance, but
perhaps people and skills.
5. The flexibility test: Do the proposed strategies lock the
organisation into the future regardless of the way the
environment and the resources might change? Or do they
allow some flexibility, depending on the way that
competition, the economy, the management and
employees and other material factors develop?
3.5 Objectives of Corporate Planning
The basic purpose of corporate planning, according to Aghedo (2010), is

to improve strategic decision-making in the organisation so that
resources and talents or skills are applied to the most profitable uses. It
is therefore targeted at enhancing the corporate performance. Corporate
planning serves the following objectives.
 It assists in the fair and reasonable allocation of resources among

 divisions and units.
 It helps top management level in the analysis and consideration
of alternative course of action so new opportunities are identified
 and exploited.
 It ensures that organisations adjust to environment opportunities
and threats thereby ensuring a better fit between the business and
 its environment.
 It makes it easy for the objectives set, strategy and tactics to be
 appraised regularly.
 It encourages internal examination of the firm‟s internal strengths
 and weaknesses.
 It equally develops futuristic outlook for the organisation.
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3.6 Benefits, Limitations and Causes of Failure in Corporate

Planning
Benefits of Corporate Planning
Several benefits accrue from a sound and effective corporate planning.

They are as follows.
 It provides a comprehensive view of the company.

 It creates clarity of purpose and better awareness of corporate
 goals and problems.
 It improves the ability of a firm to cope with changes and
 uncertainties.
 It encourages innovative thought and creativity thereby
 introducing a spirit of dynamism in the organisation.
 It helps to improve communication at all levels of the
 organisation.
 It helps to take risks and think ahead.
 It helps to improve the motivation, morale and job satisfaction of
 employees.
 It also improves the quality of managerial decisions.
 It provides a new way of controlling the business.
Limitations of Corporate Planning
The limitations of corporate planning according to Aghedo (2010)

include the following:
 it is time-consuming and expensive

 it is not useful in a dying company
 it does not guarantee that the company will not be affected by
adverse circumstances
 it involves a measure of judgement
 it is subjective and subject to errors
 it cannot produce results – timely and appropriate actions are
 required for success
 the programme cannot be suddenly started and expected to be an
overnight success.
Causes of Failure in Corporate Planning
Several reasons abound why corporate planning fails. They include:
 lack of support from top management

 narrow outlook to issues coming from a unit or department
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 inability to recognise the multiplicity of objectives

  the rules of bureaucracy
 overemphasis on short-term results to the neglect of long-term
 goals
 poor and ineffective communication system
 failure to devote sufficient resources
 failure to allow the planning organisation to grow to maturity
  too much reliance on committees
 faulty implementation of the plans.
3.7 Difference between Strategic Planning and Long-range

Planning
Mintzberg (1987) states that though many uses these terms

interchangeably; strategic planning and long-range planning differ in
their emphasis on the “assumed” environment. Long-range planning,
according to him, is generally considered to mean the development of a
plan for accomplishing a goal or set of goals over a period of several
years, with the assumption that current knowledge about future
conditions is sufficiently reliable to ensure the plan‟s reliability over the
duration of its implementation. On the other hand, strategic planning
assumes that an organisation must be responsive to a dynamic, changing
environment (not the more stable environment assumed for long-range
planning).
Certainly, a common assumption has emerged in the non-profit sector

that the environment is indeed changeable, often in unpredictable ways.
Strategic planning, then, stresses the importance of making decisions
that will ensure the organisation‟s ability to successfully respond to
changes in the environment.
3. 7.1 What Strategic Planning Is Not!
Everything said above to describe strategic planning can also provide an

understanding of what it is not. For instance, strategic planning is about
fundamental decisions and actions, but it does not attempt to make
future decisions (Steiner, 1979). Strategic planning involves anticipating
the future environment, but the decisions are made in the present. This
means that over time, the organisation must stay abreast of changes to
make the best decisions it can at any given point - it must manage, as
well as plan, strategically. Strategic planning has also been described as
a tool - but it is not a substitute for the exercise of judgement by
leadership.
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Ultimately, the leaders of any enterprise need to sit back, ask and
answer such questions as, “What are the most important issues to
respond to?” And “How shall we respond?” Just as the hammer does not
create the bookshelf, so the data analysis and decision-making tools of
strategic planning do not make the organisation work - they can only
support the intuition, reasoning skills, and judgment that people bring to
their organisation.
Finally, strategic planning, though described as disciplined, does not

typically flow smoothly from one step to the next. It is a creative
process, and the fresh insight arrived at today might very well alter the
decision made yesterday. Inevitably the process moves back and forth
several times before arriving at the final set of decisions. Therefore, no
one should be surprised if the process feels less like a comfortable trip
on a commuter train, but rather like a ride on a roller coaster. But even
roller coaster cars arrive at their destination, as long as they stay on
track!
3.7.2 When Should a Strategic Plan be Developed?
Strategy development follows the creation and affirmation of the

organisation‟s purpose statement, environmental and programme data
collection and analysis, and identification of critical issues. It is critical
that strategy development follow these steps because the information
gathered and decisions made in these phases are the foundation for
strategy creation and selection. Each of these steps provides the purpose
statement, statement of the organisation‟s ultimate goal, and direction to
which the strategies should ultimately lead.
External market data and programme evaluation results provide critical

data to support strategy development. Without this information and
insight, the organisation‟s strategies will not be in alignment with or
effective in the marketplace. The critical issues list serves as the specific
focus and framework for the activities of the organisation and the
pattern of these activities (developing and selecting the strategies).
4.0 CONCLUSION
Corporate planning involves selecting the missions and objectives as

well as the actions to achieve them. It requires decision-making, which
means choosing future course of action from among alternatives. We
note from the unit that corporate planning, corporate strategy and
strategic planning are different concepts but they all mean the same
thing.
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The unit identified three core areas of corporate strategy which include
strategic analysis, strategic development and strategic implementation.
By strategic analysis we mean examination of the organisation, its
mission and objectives to provide value for the stakeholders. Strategic
development means building on the particular skills of the organisation
and the special relationships that it has or can develop with those outside
for optimum benefits. In a nutshell, it means developing advantages
over competitors for sustainability over time. Strategy implementation
means putting all the selected options into action.
Every strategic decision involves the environment, which the strategy

operates and is developed, the main actions of the proposed strategy and
how the actions link together or interact with each other as the strategy
unfolds against what may be a changing environment. There are two
approaches to the process, namely: prescriptive and emergent
approaches.
The main objective of corporate planning is to improve strategic

decision making in the organisation so that resources and talents or
skills are applied to the most profitable uses. Other objectives include,
assisting in fair and reasonable allocation of resources among divisions
and units, helping top management level in the analysis and
consideration of alternative course of action, ensuring that organisation
adjust to environment opportunities and threats thereby aiding better fit
between the business and its environment, etc.
There are benefits, limitations and causes of failure in corporate

planning. These are also specified in the unit and you can always refer
to them.
Long-range planning means the development of a plan for

accomplishing a goal or set of goals over a period of time while strategic
planning is the ability to make decisions that will ensure the
organisation‟s ability to successfully respond to changes in the
environment.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we defined the concept of planning and discussed

extensively corporate planning, corporate strategy and strategic
planning.
i. What do you understand by the term corporate planning? Why do

corporate plan fail and what can be done to ensure its success?
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ii. What makes a good strategy? List and discuss any three.
iii. When should a strategic plan be made?
7.0 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
Andrew, K. (1987). The Concept of Corporate Strategy. Penguin:

Harmondsworth.
Andrew, K. (1971). The Concept of Corporate Strategy. Irwin:

Homewood, II.
Aturu-Aghedo, C. (2010). “Strategic Management.” BHM 329 Study

Material for Undergraduate students in the Entrepreneurial and
Business Management Programme in NOUN.
Mintzberg, H. (1987). “Crafting Strategy.” Harvard Business Review,

July – August, p. 65.
Pearce, J.A., Robbins & Robinson, Jr. (1987). “The Impact of Grand
Strategy and lanning Formality on Financial erformance”.
Strategic Management Journal, March – April, pp. 125 – 134.
Pettigrew, A. & Whipp, R. (1991). “Managing Change for Competitive

Success.” Blackwell: Oxford.
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UNIT 4 OBJECTIVES OF PLANNING
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Objectives: The Foundation of Planning
3.2 Nature of Objectives
3.2.1 Hierarchy of Objectives
3.2.2 Multiplicity of Objectives
3.2.3 Real versus Stated Objectives
3. 3 Traditional Objective Setting
3. 4 How to Set Objectives
3.4.1 Quantitative and Qualitative Objectives
3.4.2 Guidelines for Setting Objectives
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this last unit, define the concept of planning defined and discussed
extensively corporate planning, corporate strategy and strategic
planning.
In this unit, we shall examine the objectives as the foundation of

planning. This study will enumerate the various types of objectives;
discuss management by objectives as a tool for management
effectiveness.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 describe objectives as the foundation of planning

 discuss the nature of objective
 explain what is meant by multiplicity of objectives
 differentiate between real and state objectives
  discuss traditional objectives
 determine how to set objectives.
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3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Objectives: The Foundation of Planning
Motz (1987) refers to objectives as goals. He states that the two terms
“objectives” and “goals” are often used interchangeably. The two terms
are defined as the desired outcomes for individuals, groups, or entire
organisations. They provide the direction for all management decisions
and form the criterion against which actual accomplishment can be
measured. This is why they are called the foundation of planning.
Weihrich and Koontz (2005), on the other hand, defined objectives as

the important ends toward which organisational and individual activities
are directed. According to them, within the context of discussion, it will
become clear whether the objectives are long term or short term, broad
or specific. The emphasis is on verifiable objectives, which means at the
end of the period, it should be possible to determine whether or not the
objective has been achieved.
The goal of every manager is to create a surplus (in business

organisations, this means profit). Clear and verifiable objectives
facilitate measurement of the surplus as well as the effectiveness and
efficiency of managerial actions.
3.2 Nature of Objectives
Objectives state end results, and overall objectives need to be supported

by sub-objectives. Thus, objectives form a hierarchy as well as a
network. Moreover, organisations and managers have multiple goals
that are sometimes incompatible and may lead to conflicts within the
organisation, group, and even within individuals. A manager may have
to choose between short-term and long-term performance, and personal
interests may have to be subordinated to organisational objectives.
3.2.1 Hierarchy of Objectives
Objectives form a hierarchy, ranging from the broad aim to specific

individual objectives. The zenith of the hierarchy is the purpose or
mission; it has two dimensions. First, there is the social purpose, such as
contributing to the welfare of people by providing goods and services at
a reasonable price. Second, there is the mission or purpose of business,
which might be to furnish convenient, low-cost transportation for the
average person. The stated mission might be to produce, market, and
service automobiles. As you will notice, the distinction between purpose
and mission is a fine one, and therefore many writers and
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practitioners do not differentiate between the two terms. At any rate,

these aims are in turn translated into general objectives and strategies
such as designing, producing, and marketing reliable, low-cost, fuel-
efficient automobiles.
The next level of hierarchy contains more specific objectives, such as

those in the key result areas. These are the areas in which performance
is essential for the success of the enterprise. Although there is no
complete agreement on what the key result areas of a business should be
– and they may differ between enterprises – Peter F. Drucker suggests
the following: market standing, physical and financial resources,
profitability, manager performance and development, worker
performance and attitude, and public responsibility. More recently, two
other key result areas have become of strategic importance: service and
quality. Examples of objectives for key areas are the following: to obtain
a 10 per cent return on investment by the end of calendar year 2005
(profitability); to increase the number of units of product X produced by
seven per cent by June 30, 2005 without raising costs or reducing the
current quality level (productivity).
3.2.2 Multiplicity of Objectives
Objectives are normally multiple. For example, merely stating that a

university‟s mission is education and research is not enough. It would be
much more accurate (but still not verifiable) to list the overall objectives
which might include the following:
  attracting students of high quality

 offering basic training in the liberal arts and sciences as well as in
certain professional fields
 granting postgraduate degrees to qualified candidates
  attracting highly regarded professors
  discovering and organising new knowledge through research
 operating as a private school supported principally through
tuition and gifts of alumni and friends.
Likewise, at every level in the hierarchy of objectives, goals are likely to

be multiple. Some people think that a manager cannot effectively pursue
more than two to five objectives. The argument is that too many
objectives tend to weaken their drive for accomplishment, but the limit
of two to five objectives seems too arbitrary; managers might pursue
more significant objectives. It would be wise to state the relative
importance of each objective so that major goals receive more attention
than lesser ones. At any rate, the number of objectives managers should
realistically set for themselves depends on how much they will achieve
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themselves and how much they can assign to subordinates, thereby

limiting their role to one of assigning, supervising, and controlling.
At first glance, it might appear that organisations have a single
objective: for business firms, to make a profit; for not-for-profit
organisations, to efficiently provide a service. But a closer analysis
reveals that all organisations have multiple objectives, businesses also
seek to increase market share and satisfy employee welfare. A church
provides a place for religious practices but also assists the
underprivileged in its community and acts as a social gathering place for
church members. No one single measure can evaluate effectively
whether an organisation is successful. Emphasis on one goal, such as
profit, ignores other goals that must also be reached if long-term profits
are to be achieved. Also, the use of a single objective (such as profit)
can result in unethical practices because managers will ignore other
important parts of their jobs in order to look good on that one measure.
3.2.3 Real versus Stated Objectives
Stated objectives are official statements of what an organisation says –

and what it wants its various stakeholders to believe – its objectives are.
However, stated objectives – which can be found in an organisation‟s
charter, annual report, public relations announcements or in public
statements made by managers – are often conflicting and excessively
influenced by what society believes organisation should do.
The conflict in stated goals exists because organisations respond to a

vast array of stakeholders. Unfortunately, these stakeholders frequently
evaluate the organisation by different criteria. For example, when TWA
was hoping for additional wage concessions from its unions, employees,
who had already traded wage concessions for 30 per cent of the
company‟s equity and who had not had a raise in 10 years, were not
willing to once again postpone meaningful raises (Chandler, 1997). To
the union‟s representatives, TWA‟s managers were saying that the
company‟s cash position was declining and costs were soaring; the
company‟s future was in doubt if the union did not cooperate. At the
same time, managers were trying to reassure travel agents and potential
passengers by saying the company was determine to continue flying and
stay in business. TWA‟s managers had explicitly presented themselves
in one way to the union and in another way to the public. Both goals
were true but were in conflict.
The overall objectives stated by top management should be treated for

what they are “friction produced by an organisation to account for,
explain, or rationalise to particular audiences rather than as valid and
reliable indications of purpose” (Pfeffer, 1978 and Warriner, 1965). The
content of objectives is substantially determined by what those
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audiences want to hear. Moreover, it is simpler for managers to state a

set of consistent, understandable objectives than to explain a multiplicity
of objectives. If you want to know what an organisation‟s real objectives
are, closely observe what members of the organisation actually do.
Actions define priorities. For example, universities that proclaim the
objectives of limiting class size, facilitating close student-faculty
relations, and actively involving students in the learning process and
then put their students into lecture classes of 300 or more are pretty
common.
3.3 Traditional Objective Setting
The traditional role of objectives is to guide the control and direction

imposed by an organisation‟s top managers. The president of a
manufacturing firm tells the production vice president what he or she
expects manufacturing costs to be for the coming year. The president
tells the marketing vice president what level he or she expects sales to
reach for the coming year. The city mayor tells his or her chief of police
how much the departmental budget will be. Then, at some later point,
performance is evaluated to determine whether the assigned objectives
have been achieved.
The central them in traditional objective setting is that objectives are set
at the top and then broken down into sub-goals for each level of an
organisation. This traditional perspective assumes that top managers
know what is best because only they can see the “big picture.” Thus, the
objectives that are established and passed down to each succeeding level
of the organisation serve to direct and guide, and in some ways to
constrain, individual employees‟ work behaviours. Employees‟ work
efforts at the various organisational levels are then geared to meet the
objectives that have been assigned in their areas of responsibility.
In addition to being imposed from above, traditional objective setting is

often largely non-operational (Tuggle, 1978). If the top managers define
the organisation‟s objectives in broad terms such as achieving
“sufficient profits” or “market leadership”, these ambiguous goals have
to be made more specific as the objectives flow down through the
organisation. At each level, managers supply operational meaning to the
goals. Specificity is achieved as each manager applies his or her own set
of interpretations and biases. What often results is that objectives lose
clarity and unity as they make their way down from the top of the
organisation to the lower levels (see figure 4.1 for illustration).
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Fig.4.1: Traditional Objective Setting
Source: Tuggle, F.D. (1978). Organisational Processes. Arlington

Heights, IL: AHM Publishing.
When the hierarchy of organisational objectives is clearly defined, it

forms an integrated network of objectives, or a means-ends chain.
Higher-level objectives or ends are linked to lower-level objectives,
which serve as the means for their accomplishment. In other words, the
goals at a lower level (means) must be achieved to reach the goals at the
next level (ends). The accomplishment of goals at that level becomes the
means to achieve the goals at the next level (ends). And so on and so
forth, up through the different levels of the organisation.
3.4 How to Set Objectives
Without clear objectives, managing is haphazard. No individual and no

group can expect to perform effectively and efficiently unless there is a
clear aim. Table 4.1 illustrates some objectives and how they can be
restated in a way that allows measurement.
3.4.1 Quantitative and Qualitative Objectives
To be measurable, objectives must be verifiable. This means that one

must be able to answer this question: “At the end of the period, how do I
137
know if the objective has been accomplished?” For example, the

objective of making a reasonable profit does not state how much profit
is to be made, and what is reasonable to the subordinate may not be at
all acceptable to the superior. In the case of such a disagreement, it is of
course the subordinate who loses the argument. In contrast, a return on
investment of 12 per cent at the end of the current fiscal year can be
measured; it answers these questions: how much or what? When?
Table 4.1 Examples of non-verifiable and verifiable objectives
S/N Non-verifiable objective Verifiable objective

1. To make a reasonable To achieve a return on investment of
profit 12 per cent at the end of the current
fiscal year.
2. To improve To issue a two-page monthly
communication newsletter July 1, 2005, involving not
more than 40 working hours of
preparation time (after the first issue).
3. To improve productivity To increase production output by five
of the production per cent by December 31, 2005,
department without additional costs while
maintaining the current quality level.
4. To develop better To design and conduct a 40-hour in-
managers house programme on the
“fundamentals of management”, to be
completed by October 1, 2005,
involving not more than 200 working
hours of the management
development staff and with at least 90
per cent of the 100 managers passing
the exam (specified).
5. To install a computer To install a computerized control
system system in the production department
by December 31, 2005, requiring not
more than 500 working hours of
systems analysis and operating with
not more than 10 per cent downtime
during the first three months or two
per cent thereafter.
At times, stating results in verifiable terms is more difficult. This is

especially true when it involves the objectives for staff personnel and in
government. For example, installing a computer system is an important
task, but “to install a computer system” is not a verifiable goal.
However, suppose the objective is “to install a computerised control
system (with certain specifications) in the production department by
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ENT 313 MODULE 2
December 31, 2005, with an expenditure of not more than 500 working
hours.” Then, goal accomplishment can be measured. Moreover, quality
can also be specified in terms of computer downtime, such as “the
system shall be operational 90 per cent of the time during the first two
months of operation.”
3.4.2 Guidelines for Setting Objectives
Setting objectives is indeed a difficult task. It requires intelligent

coaching by the superior and extensive practice by the subordinate. The
guidelines shown in table 4.2 below will help managers in setting their
objectives.
The list of objectives should not be too long, yet it should cover the
main features of the job. As this unit has emphasised, objectives should
be verifiable and should state what is to be accomplished and when. If
possible, the quality desired and the projected cost of achieving the
objectives should be indicated. Furthermore, objectives should present a
challenge, indicate priorities, and promote personal and professional
growth and development. These and other criteria for good objectives
are summarised in the table below. Testing objectives against the criteria
shown in the checklist is a good exercise for managers and aspiring
managers.
Table 4.2: Checklist of Managers’ Objectives
a. Do the objectives cover the main features of my job?

b. Is the list of objectives too long? If so, can I continue some
objectives?
c. Are the objectives verifiable, i.e., will I know at the end of the
period whether they have been achieved?
d. Do the objectives indicate:
a. Quantity (how much)?
b. Quality (how well, or specific characteristics)?
c. Time (when)?
d. Cost (at what cost)?
e. Are the objectives challenging yet reasonable?
f. Are priorities assigned to the objectives (ranking, weight, etc.)?
g. Does the set objectives also include:
i. Improvement objectives?
ii. Personal development objectives?
h. Are the objectives coordinated with those of other managers and
organisational units?
i. Are they consistent with the objectives of my superior, my
department, and the company?
139
j. Have I communicated the objectives to all who need to be

informed?
k. Are the short-term objectives consistent with the long-term aims?
l. Are the assumptions underlying the objectives clearly identified?
m. Are the objectives expressed clearly, and are they in writing?
n. Do the objectives provide for timely feedback so that I can take
any necessary corrective steps?
o. Are my resources and authority sufficient for achieving the
objectives?
p. Have I given the individuals who are expected to accomplish the
objectives a choice to suggest their objectives?
q. Do my subordinates have control over aspects for which they are
assigned responsibility?
4.0 CONCLUSION

actions to achieve them. It requires decision making, which means
choosing a future course of action from among alternatives. Planning
and controlling are closely interrelated. There are many types of plans,
such as missions or purposes, objectives or goals, strategies, policies,
procedures, rules, programmes and budgets. After objectives, making
assumptions (premises) about the present and future environment,
finding, evaluating alternative courses of action, and choosing a course
will follow. Next, the manager must make supporting plans and devise a
budget. These activities must be carried out with attention to the total
environment. Short-range plans must of course be coordinated with
long-range plans.
5.0 SUMMARY
 described objectives as the foundation of planning

 discussed the nature of objectives
  explained what is meant by multiplicity of objectives
 differentiated between real and state objectives
 discussed traditional objectives
 determined how to set objectives
  defined the concept, management by objectives (MBO)
 stated and discussed the benefits and weaknesses of management
by objectives.
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ENT 313 MODULE 2
i. What are objectives and why are they considered the foundation
of planning?
ii. Why do not organisations have just one single objective?
iii. How would you identify an organisation‟s stated (real)
objectives? What happens when an organisation has conflicting
objectives?
iv. Contrast traditional objective setting and real objective setting.
Chandler, S. (1997). “TWA is carrying some Heavy Baggage.” Business

Week, April 7, p. 40.
Drucker, P.F. (1954). The Practice of Management. New York: Harper

and Brothers.
Toggle, F.D. (1978). Organisational Processes. .Arlington Heights, IL:

AHM Publishing.
Warriner, C.K. (1965). “The roblem of Organisational urpose.”

Sociological Quarterly, Spring.
Pfeffer, J. (1978). Organisational Design. Arlington Heights, IL: AHM

Publishing.
Weihrich, H. (1973). “A Study of the Integration of Management by

Objectives with Key Managerial Activities and the Relationship
to Selected Effectiveness Measures.” Doctoral Dissertation,
University of California, Los Angeles.
Weihrich, H. (2000). “Management Excellence: Productivity through

MBO.” A.J. Vogl, “Drucker, of Course”, Across the Board,
November/December.
Weihrich, H. & Koontz, H. (2005). Management: A Global Perspective.

141
UNIT 5 CLASSIFICATION OF PLANNING
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Classification of Plans
3.1.1 Missions or Purposes
3.1.2 Objectives or Goals
3.1.3 Strategies
3.1.4 Policies
3.1.5 Procedures
3.1.6 Rules
3.1.7 Programmes
3.1.8 Budgets
3.2Types of Planning
3.2.1 Strategic and Operational Plans
3.2.2 Short-Term versus Long-Term Plans
3.2.3 Specific versus Directional Plans
3.2.4 Frequency of Use
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, we described objectives as the foundation of planning,

discussed the nature of objectives, explained what is meant by
multiplicity of objectives, differentiated between real and state
objectives, discussed traditional objectives, and determined how to set
objectives.
In this unit, we shall examine planning according to classification and

types.
2.0 OBJECTIVE
 discuss planning based on its types and classifications.
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3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Classification of Plans
Plans can be classified into the following components, namely:
 missions or purposes
 objectives or goals
 strategies
 policies
 procedures
 rules
 programmes
 budgets
The above classifications are discussed below.
3.1.1 Missions or Purposes
The mission or purpose (the terms are often used interchangeably),

identifies the basic purpose or function or tasks of an enterprise or
agency or any part of it. Every kind of organised operation has, or at
least should have if it is to be meaningful, a mission or purpose. In every
social system, enterprises have basic function or task assigned to them
by society. For example, the purpose of a business generally is the
production and distribution of goods and services. The purpose of state
highway department is the design, building, and operation of a system of
state highways. The purpose of the courts is the interpretation of laws
and their application. The purpose of a university is teaching, research
and providing services to the community. While a business, for
example, may have a social purpose of packaging and distributing goods
and services, it can accomplish this by fulfilling a mission of producing
certain lines of products. The mission of an oil company, like Exxon, is
to search for oil and to produce, refine, and market petroleum and
petroleum products, from diesel fuel to chemicals. It is true that in some
businesses and other enterprises, the purpose or mission often becomes
fuzzy. For example, many conglomerates have regarded their mission as
synergy, which is accomplished through the combination of a variety of
companies.
3.1.2 Objectives or Goals
Objectives or goals (the terms are used interchangeably) are the ends
toward which activity is aimed. They represent, not only the end point
143
of planning, but also the end toward which organising, staffing, leading,
and controlling are aimed. The nature of objectives and management by
objectives will be discussed in subsequent unit later.
3.1.3 Strategies
For years, the military used the word “strategies” to mean grand plans
made in the light of what it was believed an adversary might or might
not do. While the term still usually has a competitive implication,
managers increasingly use it to reflect broad areas of an enterprise‟s
operation. In this regard, strategy is defined as the determination of the
basic long-term objectives of an enterprise and the adoption of courses
of action and allocation of resources necessary to achieve these goals.
3.1.4 Policies
Policies are also referred to plans in that they are general statements or
understandings that guide or channel thinking in decision making. Not
all policies are statements; they are often merely implied from the
actions of managers. The location of a company, for example, may
strictly follow – perhaps convenience rather than policy – the practice of
promoting from within; the practice may then be interpreted as policy
and carefully followed by subordinates. In fact, one of the problems of
managers is to make sure that subordinates do not interpret as policy
minor managerial decisions that a not intended to serve as patters.
Policies define an area within which a decision is to be made and ensure

that the decision will be consistent with, and contribute to, an objective.
Policies help decide issues before they become problems; policies make
it unnecessary to analyse the same situation every time it comes up, and
unify other plans, thus permitting managers to delegate authority and
still maintain control over what their subordinates do.
There are many types of policies. Examples include policies of hiring

only university-trained engineers, encouraging employee suggestions for
improved cooperation, promoting from within, conforming strictly to a
high standard of high business ethics, setting competitive prices, and
insisting on fixed, rather than cost-plus, pricing.
3.1.5 Procedures
Procedures are plans that establish a required method of handling future

activities. They are chronological sequences of required actions. They
are guides to action, rather than to thinking, and they detail the exact
manner in which certain activities must be accomplished. For example,
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the National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN) outlines three steps

for its appraisal process, namely:
1. setting performance objectives
2. performing a mid-year review of the objectives
3. conducting a performance discussion at the end of the period.
Procedures often cut across departmental lines. For example, in a

manufacturing company, the procedure for handling orders may involve
the sales department (for the original order), the finance department (for
acknowledgement of receipt of funds and for customer credit approval),
the accounting department (for recording the transaction), the
production department (for the order to produce the goods or the
authority to release them from stock), and the shipping department (for
determination of shipping means and route
3.1.6 Rules
Rules spell out specific required actions or non-actions, allowing no

discretion. They are usually the simplest type of plan. For instance,
“ o smoking” is a rule that allows no deviation from a stated course of
action. The essence of a rule is that it reflects a meaningful decision that
a certain action must – or must not – be taken. Rules are different from
policies in that policies are meant to guide decision making by marking
off areas in which managers can use their discretion, while rules allow
no discretion in their application.
3.1.7 Programmes
Programmes are a complex of goals, policies, procedures, rules, task,

assignments, steps to be taken, resources to be employed, and other
elements necessary to carry out a given course of action. They are
ordinarily supported by budgets. They may be as major as an airline‟s
programme to acquire $400 million fleet of jets or a five-year
programme to improve the status and quality of its thousands of
supervisors. Or they may be as minor as a programme formulated by a
single supervisor to improve the morale of workers in the parts
manufacturing department of a farm machinery company.
3.1.8 Budgets
A budget is a statement of expected results expressed in numerical

terms. It may be called a “quantifiable” plan. In fact, the financial
operating budget is often called a profit plan. A budget may be
expressed in financial terms; in terms of labour-hours, units of product,
or machine-hours; or in any other numerically measurable terms. It may
deal with operation, as the expense budget does; it may reflect capital
145
outlays, as the capital expenditure budget does; or it may reflect show

cash flow, as the cash budget does. One of the most comprehensive
budgets is prepared by the Directorate of Budget in the Presidency. The
budget proposal is then presented to the National Assembly by the
President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.
However, making a budget is clearly planning. The budget is the

fundamental planning instrument in many companies. It forces a
company to make in advance – whether for a week or for five years – a
numerical compilation of expected cash flow, expenses and revenues,
capital outlays, or labour-or-machine-hour utilisation. The budget is
necessary for control, but it cannot serve as a sensible standard of
control unless it reflects plans.
3.2 Types of Planning
The most popular ways to describe organisational plans are by their

breadth (strategic versus operational), time frame (short-term versus
long-term), specificity (directional versus specific), and frequency of use
(single-use versus standing). Please note however that these planning
classifications are not independent. For instance, short and long-term
plans are closely related to strategic and operational ones. And single-
use plans typically are strategic, long-term, and directional. Table 5.1
lists all these types of plans according to category.
Table 5.1: Types of Plans
Breadth Time Frame Specificity Frequency of

Use
Strategic Long term Directional Single use
Operational Short term Specific Standing
Source: Robbins, S.P. & Coulter, M. (1999). Management (2nd
ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, 07458.
3.2.1 Strategic and Operational Plans
Strategic plans are plans that apply to the entire organisation, establish
the organisation‟s overall objectives, and seek to position the
organisation in terms of its environment. On the other hand, operational
plans are plans that specify the details of how the overall objectives are
to be achieved. The question now is how do strategic and operational
plans differ?
Three differences between strategic and operational plans include time

frame, scope, and whether they include a known set of organisational
objectives (Ackoff, 1970). Operational plans tend to cover shorter
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period. For instance, an organisation‟s monthly, weekly, and day-to-day

plans are almost always operational. Strategic plans on the other hand
tend to include an extended period – usually three years or more. They
also cover a broader view of the organisation and deal less with specific
areas. Finally strategic plans include the formulation of objectives,
whereas operational plans assume the existence of objectives.
Operational plans define ways to attain the objectives.
3.2.2 Short-Term versus Long-Term Plans
The difference in years between short-term and long-term plans has

shortened considerably. It used to be that long-term meant anything over
seven years. Try to visualise what you would like to be doing in seven
years‟ time, then you would appreciate managers‟ challenge in
establishing plans that are far in the future. As organisational
environments have become more uncertain, the definition of long-term
has changed. Long-term plans can therefore be defined as those with a
time frame beyond three years (Hunger & Wheelen, 1996). We shall
define short-term plans as those covering one year or less. The
intermediate term is any time period in between. Although these time
classifications are fairly common, an organisation can designate any
time frame it wants for planning purposes.
3.2.3 Specific versus Directional Plans
Intuitively, it seems right that specific plans would be preferable to

directional, or loosely guided, plans. Specific plans have already been
defined objectives. There‟s no ambiguity, no problem with
misunderstandings. For example, a manager who seeks to increase his or
her firm‟s sales by 20 per cent over a given 12-month period might
establish specific procedures, budget allocations, and schedules of
activities to reach that objective. These are specific plans.
However, specific plans do have drawbacks. They require clarity and a

sense of predictability that often do not exist. When uncertainty is high,
management must be flexible to respond to unexpected changes, it is
preferable to use directional plans (see table 5.1 above).
Directional plans identify general guidelines. They provide focus but do

not lock managers into specific objectives or courses of action. Instead
of detailing a specific plan to cut costs by four per cent and increase
revenues by six per cent in the next six months, managers might
formulate a directional plan for improving corporate profits by five to 10
per cent over the next six months. The flexibility inherent in directional
plans is obvious. However, this advantage must be weighed against the
loss of clarity provided by specific plans. Our three managers identified
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in the opening dilemma would have to look at the usefulness of

directional plans as opposed to more specific ones. It might be, at least
at this point, more useful for them to use directional plans.
3.2.4 Frequency of Use
Some organisational plans that managers develop are ongoing; others

are used only once. A single-use plan is a one-time plan that is
specifically designed to meet the needs of a unique situation and is
created in response to non-programmed decisions that managers make.
For instance, top-level executives design a single-use plan to guide the
creation and implementation of new service.
In contrast, standing plans are ongoing plans that provide guidance for
activities repeatedly performed in the organisation. Standing plans are
created in response to programmed decisions that managers make and
include the policies, rules, and procedures that we defined in the
previous topic.
4.0 CONCLUSION

actions to achieve them. There are many types of plans, such as
missions or purposes, objectives or goals, strategies, policies,
procedures, rules, programmes and budgets. The mission or purpose
identifies the purpose or function or tasks of an enterprise or agency or
any part of it. For instance, the purpose of a business generally is the
production and distribution of goods and services while the purpose of a
university is teaching, research, learning and provision of community
services. Objectives or goals are the ends toward which activity is
aimed.
Strategy is the determination of the basic long-term objectives of an

enterprise and the adoption of courses of action and allocation of
resources necessary to achieve these goals. Policies are also plans in that
they are general statements or understandings that guide or channel
thinking in decision making. Procedures are plans that establish a
required method of handling future activities and it often cut across
departmental lines. Rules spell out specific required actions or non-
actions, allowing no discretion. Programmes are a complex goals,
policies, procedures, rules, task assignments, steps to be taken, resources
to be employed, and other elements necessary to carry out a given
course of action. These are ordinarily supported by budgets.
A budget is a statement of expected results expressed in numerical

terms. It may be expressed in financial terms, in terms of labour-hours,
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units of product, or machine-hours, or in any other numerically

measurable terms. It may also deal with operation, as the expense
budget does, and reflect capital outlays as the capital expenditure budget
does. Plans can also be classified as short-term plans must of course be
coordinated with long-term plans, strategic and operational, specific and
directional as well as according to frequency of use.
5.0 SUMMARY
 classified plans by types such as mission or purpose, objective or

 goal, strategy, policy, procedure, rules, programme and budget
 enumerate different types of plans such as strategic and
operational, short-term and long-term, specific and directional as
well as according to frequency of use.
i. What is a plan?
ii. Differentiate between strategic and operational plans.
iii. In what situations would you use long-term and short-term plans?
iv. Write short notes on the following.
(a) Missions or purposes
(b) Objectives or goals
(c) Strategies
(d) Policies
(e) Procedures
(f) Rules
(g) Programmes
(h) Budget
Ackoff, R. (2970). “A Concept of Corporate lanning.” Long Range

Planning, September, p. 3.
Hunger, J.D. & Wheelen, T.L. (1996). Strategic Management. (5th ed.)
(Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley), p. 143.
Drucker, P.F. (1954). The Practice of Management. New York: Harper

and Brothers.http://drucker.cgu.edu/html/aboutdrucker/index.htm
and http://drucker.cgu. edu/html/aboutdrucker/timelineh.htm.
149
Robbins, S.P. & Coulter, M. (1999). Management. (2nd ed.). New

Jersey: Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, 07458.
Toggle, F.D. (1978). Organisational Processes. Arlington Heights, IL:
AHM Publishing.

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UNIT 6 STEPS IN CORPORATE PLANNING
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Steps in Corporate Planning
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 Reference/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, we classified plans by types such as mission or

purpose, objective or goal, strategy, policy, procedure, rules, programme
and budget and enumerate different types of plans such as strategic and
operational, short-term and long-term, specific and directional as well as
according to frequency of use.
In this unit, we shall discuss the various steps involved in corporate

planning.
2.0 OBJECTIVE
 enumerate and discuss the various steps in corporate planning.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Steps in Corporate Planning
The practical steps listed below, and diagrammed in figure 3.1 are of
general application. In practice, however, one must study the feasibility
of possible courses of action at each stage.
For the purpose of clarity, the steps include:
 awareness of opportunities
 establishing objectives
 developing premises
 determining alternative courses
 evaluating alternative courses
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 selecting a course
 formulating derivative plans
 quantifying plans by budgeting
Fig.6.1: Steps in Planning
Source: Weihrich, H. & Koontz, H. (2005). Management: A

Global Perspective. (11th ed.). Asia: Mc-Graw Hill
Education.
Awareness of Opportunities
Although it precedes actual planning and is therefore not strictly a part

of the planning process, an awareness of opportunities in the external
environment as well as within the organisation is the real starting point
for planning. All managers should take a preliminary look at possible
future opportunities and see them clearly and completely, know where
the company stands in the light of its strengths and weaknesses,
understand what problems it has to solve and why, and know what it can
expect to gain. Setting realistic objectives depends on this awareness.
Planning requires a realistic diagnosis of the opportunity situation.
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Establishing Objectives
The second step in planning is to establish objectives for the entire

enterprise and then for each subordinate work unit. This is to be done
for the long-term as well as for the short range. Objectives specify the
expected results and indicate the end points of what is to be done, where
the primary emphasis is to be placed, and what is to be accomplished by
the network of strategies, policies, procedures, rules, budgets, and
programmes.
Enterprise objectives give direction to the major plans, which, by

reflecting these objectives, define the objective of every major
department. Major departmental objectives in turn control the objectives
of subordinate departments, and so on down the line. In other
words, objectives form a hierarchy. The objectives of lesser departments
will be more accurate if subdivision managers understand the overall
enterprise objectives and the derivative goals. Managers should have the
opportunity to contribute ideas to for setting their own goals and those
of the enterprise.
Developing Premises
The next logical step in planning is to establish, circulate, and obtain

agreement to use critical planning premises such as forecasts, applicable
basic policies, and existing company plans. Premises are assumptions
about the environment in which the plan is to be carried out. It is
important for all the managers involved in planning to agree on the
premises. In fact, the major principle of planning premises is this: “The
more thoroughly individuals charged with planning understand and
agree to use consistent planning premises, the more coordinated
enterprise planning will be.”
Forecasting is important in premising such issues as what kinds of

markets will there be? What volume of sales? What prices? What
products? What technical developments? What costs? What wage rates?
What tax rates and policies? What new plants? What policies with
respect to dividends? What political or social environment? How will
expansion be financed? What are the long-term trends?
Determining Alternative Courses
The fourth step in planning is to search for and examine alternative

courses of action, especially those not immediately apparent. There is
seldom a plan for which reasonable alternatives do not exist, and quite
often an alternative that is not obvious proves to be the best.
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The more common problem is not finding alternatives but reducing the
number of alternatives so that the most promising may be analysed.
Even with mathematical techniques and the computer, there is a limit to
the number of alternatives that can be thoroughly examined. The planner
must usually make a preliminary examination to discover the most
fruitful possibilities.
Evaluating Alternative Courses
After seeking out alternative course and examining their strong and
weak points, the next step is to evaluate the alternatives by weighing
them in the light of premises and goals. One course may appear to be the
most profitable but may require a large cash outlay and have a slow
payback; another may look less profitable but may involve less risk; still
another may better suit the company‟s long-range objectives.
There are so many alternative courses in most situations and so many

variables and limitations to be considered that evaluation can be
exceedingly difficult.
Selecting a Course
This is the point at which the plan is adopted – the real point of decision
making. Occasionally, an analysis and evaluation of alternative courses
will disclose that two or more are advisable, and the manager may
decide to follow several courses rather than the one best course.
Formulating Derivative Plans
When a decision is made, planning is seldom complete, and a seventh

step is indicated. Derivative plans are almost invariably required to
support the basic plan.
Quantifying Plans by Budgeting
After decisions are made and plans are set, the final set in giving them
meaning, as was indicated in the discussions on types of plans, is to
quantify them by converting them into budgets. The overall budget of an
enterprise represents the sum total of income and expenses, with
resultant profit or surplus, and the budgets of major balance sheet items
such as cash and capital expenditures. Each department or programme
of a business or some other enterprise can have its own budgets, usually
of expenses and capital expenditures, which tie into the overall budget.
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If done well, budgets become a means of adding the various plans and
set important standards against which planning progress can be
measured.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The unit identified the practical steps in corporate planning. Once an

opportunity is recognised, a manager plans rationally by establishing
objectives, making assumptions (premises) about the present and future
environment, finding and evaluating alternative courses of action, and
choosing a course to follow. Next, the manager must make supporting
plans and devise a budget. These activities must be carried out with
attention to the total environment.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have examined the steps involved in planning. It ranged

from awareness of opportunities, establishing objectives, developing
premises, determining alternative courses, evaluating alternative
courses, selecting a course, formulating derivative plans and quantifying
plans into budget which would in turn serve as a standard for which the
successful or otherwise of the project would be measured.
i. List the steps in planning and discuss each of them.

ii. Why do you need to quantify the plans into a budget?
7.0 REFERENCE/ FURTHER READING

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MODULE 2 ESSENTIALS OF PLANNING AND

MANAGING BY OBJECTIVES
Unit 1 Decision Making I

Unit 2 Decision Making II
Unit 2 Management by Objectives
Unit 4 Premising and Forecasting
Unit 5 Role Corporate Planners in an Organisation
UNIT 1 DECISION MAKING I
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Decision Making as a Concept
3.2 Decision-Making Process
3.3 Pervasiveness of Decision Making
3.4 The Manager as Decision Maker
3.4.1 Making Decisions: Rationality, Bounded
Rationality and Intuition
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, we discussed the steps involved in planning. Decision is

considered a major part of planning. As a matter of fact, given an
awareness of an opportunity and a goal, the decision-making process is
really not only the core of planning, but is in fact the essence of a
manager‟s job. Thus, in this context, the process leading to making a
decision might be thought of as premising, identifying alternatives,
evaluating alternatives in terms of the goal sought; and choosing an
alternative, that is, making a decision.
Although this unit emphasises the logic and techniques of choosing a

course of action, the discussion will show that decision making is really
one of the steps in planning. Discussion on decision making will be
divided into two, namely: decision making I and decision making II. In
this unit, we shall look at the first part of it which decision making as a
concept, its process, pervasiveness of decision making, the role of a
manager as decision maker.
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2.0 OBJECTIVES
 define decision making as a concept

 analyse decision making as a rational process
 state the roles and limitations of rational decision making
 explain decision-making process
 state the role of a manager as decision-maker.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Decision Making as a Concept
Individuals at all levels and in all areas of organisations make decisions.

That is, they make choices from two or more alternatives. For instance,
top-level managers make decisions about their organisation‟s goals,
where to locate manufacturing facilities, what new markets to move
into, and what products or services to offer. Middle and lower-level
managers make decisions about weekly or monthly production
schedules, handling problems that arise, allocating pay raises, and
selecting or disciplining employees. Decision making is not something
that just managers do. All organisational members make decisions that
affect their jobs and the organisation they work for. How are decisions
made? What is involved in making decisions? Although decision
making is typically described as “choosing among alternatives;”
however, that view is overly simplistic. This is because decision making
is a comprehensive process not just a simple act of choosing among
alternatives.
Weihrich and Koontz (2005) defined decision making as the selection

of a course of action from among alternatives; it is at the core of
planning. A plan cannot be said to exist unless a decision – a
commitment of resources, direction, studies and analyses. Managers
sometimes see decision making as the central job because they must
constantly choose what is to be done, who is to do it, and when, and
where, and occasionally even how it will be done. Decision making is,
however, only a step in planning. Even when it is done quickly and with
little thought or when it influences action for only a few minutes, it is
part of planning. It is also part of everyone‟s daily life. A course of
action can seldom be judged alone because virtually every decision must
be geared to other plans.
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3.2 Decision-Making Process
Figure 5.1 illustrates decision making process as a set of eight steps that
begins with identifying a problem and decision criteria and allocating
weights to those criteria. This is followed by developing, analysing, and
selecting an alternative that can resolve the problem; implementing the
alternative and evaluating the decision‟s effectiveness. This process is as
relevant to your personal decision about where you will take your
summer vacation as it is to a corporate action such as new programmes
into the curriculum of a university. The process also can be used to
describe both individual and group decisions. Let us take a closer look at
the process in order to understand what each step involves.
Step 1 Identifying a Problem
The decision-making process begins with the existence of a problem or,

more specifically, a discrepancy between an existing and a desired state
of affairs (Pounds, 1969). To keep it simple, let us cite an example. Take
the case of a sales manager whose sales representatives need new
notebook computers because their old ones just do not have enough
memory or are not fast enough to handle the volume of work anymore.
Again, for simplicity sake, assuming that it is not economical to add
memory to the old ones and that corporate headquarters requires that the
managers purchase new computers rather than lease them. Now we have
a problem. There is a disparity between the need of the sales
representatives to have large, fast notebooks and their having ones that
are at capacity and slow. The sales manager has a decision to make.
Unfortunately, this example does not tell us much about how managers
identify problems. In the real world, most problems do not come with
neon signs in bright bold colours flashing “problem.” The sales
representatives‟ complaints about slow computers with disk drives at
capacity might be a clear signal to the sales manager that she needs to
get new notebook computers, but few problems are quite obvious. For
instance, is a five per cent decline in sales a problem? Or are declining
sales merely a symptom of another problem, such as product
obsolescence or poor advertising? Also, keep in mind that one
manager‟s problem is another manager‟s satisfactory state of affairs.
Problem identification is subjective. Furthermore, the manager who
mistakenly solves the wrong problem perfectly is likely to perform just
as poorly as the manager who fails to identify the right problem and
does nothing. Problem identification is neither a simple nor an
insignificant step of the decision making process (Volkema, 1987).
Before something can be characterised as a problem, managers have to
be aware of the discrepancy, they have to be under pressure to take
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action, and they must have the resources necessary to take action
(McCall & Kaplan, 1985).
How do managers become aware they have a discrepancy? They

obviously have to make a comparison between their current state of
affairs and some standard. What is that standard? It can be past
performance, previously set goals, or the performance of some other
unit within the organisation or in other organisations. In our computer
purchase example, the standard is past performance – having computers
that hold all the critical product and sales information so that the sales
representatives can efficiently run the desired programmes. A
discrepancy without pressure becomes a problem that can be put off to
some future time. To initiate the decision process, then, the problem also
must be such that it exerts some type of pressure on the manager to act.
Pressure might include organisational policies, deadlines, financial
crises, complaints from customers or subordinates, expectations from the
boss, or an upcoming performance evaluation.
159
Fig. 1.1: The Decision-Making Process
Source: ounds, W. (1969). “The rocess of roblem Finding.”

Industrial Management Review, Fall, pp. 1 – 19.
Finally, managers are not likely to characterise something as a problem

if they perceive that they do not have the authority, budget, information,
or other resources necessary to act on it. When managers perceive a
problem and are under pressure to act, but feel that they have inadequate
resources, they usually describe the situation as one in which unrealistic
expectations are being placed on them. Figure 1.2 shows the
characteristics of a problem.
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Awareness of Discrepancy
Pressure to Act
PROBLEM
Sufficient Resources
to Do Something
Fig.1.2: Characteristics of a Problem

Step 2 Identifying Decision Criteria
Once a manager has identified a problem that needs attention, the

decision criteria important to resolving the problem must be identified.
That is, managers must determine what is relevant in making a decision.
In our computer purchase example, the sales manager has to assess what
factors are relevant to her decision. These might include criteria such as
price, product model and manufacturer, standard features, optional
equipment, service warranties, repair record, and service support after
purchase. These criteria reflect what the sales manager thinks is relevant
in her decision. That is, whether they are explicitly stated or not (every
decision maker has criteria that guide his or her decisions). Note that in
this step in the decision-making process, what is not identified is as
important as what is. If the sales manager does not consider a service
warranty to be a criterion, then it will not influence her final choice of
computers. Thus, if a decision-maker does not identify a particular
feature as a criterion in this second step, it is treated as irrelevant.
161
Step 3 Allocating Weights to the Criteria
The criteria listed in the previous step are not all equally important, so
the decision maker must weigh the items to give them the correct
priority in the decision. How do you weight criteria? A simple approach
is merely to give the most important criterion a weight of 10 and then
assign weights to the rest against that standard. Thus, in contrast to a
criterion that you gave a weight of five, the highest factor would be
twice as important. Of course, you could use 100 or 1,000 or any
number you select as the highest weight. The idea is to use your
preferences to assign a priority to the relevant criteria in your decision
as well as to indicate their degree of importance by assigning a weight to
each. Table 5.1 lists the criteria and weights that our sales manager
developed for her computer replacement decision. Reliability is the most
important criterion in her decision, with such factors as case style and
price having low weights.
Table 1.1: Criteria and Weights for Computer Replacement

Decision
Criterion Weight
a
Reliability 10
Service 8
Warranty period 5
On-site service – first year 5
Price 4
Case style 3
a
In this example, the highest rating for a criterion is 10 points.

Step 4 Developing Alternatives
The fourth step requires the decision maker to list the viable alternatives
that could resolve the problem. No attempt is made in this step to
evaluate these alternatives, only to list them. Let us assume that our
plant manager has identified eight notebook computer models as viable
choices. These are AST Ascentia A 42, Compaq Armada 4100, Fujitsu
LifeBook 555T, HP OmniBook 5500CT, IBM ThinkPad 760ED, NEC
Versa 2435CD, Sharp WideNote W-100T, and Texas Instruments
TravelMate 6050.
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Step 5 Analysing Alternatives
Once the alternatives have been identified, the decision maker must
critically analyse each one. The strengths and weaknesses of each
alternative become evident as they compared with the criteria and
weights established in steps two and three. Each alternative is evaluated
by appraising it against the criteria. Table 5.2 shows the assessed values
that the plant manager gave each of her eight alternatives after she had
talked to computer experts and read the latest information from
computer magazines.
Bear in mind that the ratings given the eight computer models shown in
Table 5.2 are based on the personal assessment made by the sales
manager. Again, we are using a-one to 10 scale. Some assessments can
be achieved in relatively objective fashion. For instance, the purchase
price represents the best price the manager can get from local retailers,
and consumer magazines report performance data from users. However,
the assessment of reliability is clearly a personal judgement. The point is
that most decisions contain judgements. They are reflected in the criteria
chosen in step two, the weights given to the criteria, and the evaluation
of alternatives. This explains why two computers buyers with the same
amount of money may look at two totally different sets of alternatives or
even looks at the same alternatives and rates them differently.
Table 5.2 represents only an assessment of the eight alternatives against

the decision criteria. It does not reflect the weighting done in step three.
If one choice had scored 10 on every criterion, you would not need to
consider the weights. Similarly, if the weights were all equal, you could
evaluate each alternative merely by summing up the appropriate lines in
Table 5.2. For instance, the AST Ascentia A42 would have a score of
34, and the IBM ThinkPad 760ED a score of 45. If you multiply each
alternative assessment (table 5.2) against its weight (table 5.1), you get
table 5.3. The sum of these scores represents an evaluation of each
alternative against the previously established criteria and weights.
Notice that the weighting of the criteria has significantly changed the
ranking of alternatives in our example.
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Table 1.2: Assessed Values of Notebook Computer Alternatives

against Decision Criteria

Table 1.3: Assessed Values of Notebook Computer Alternatives

against Criteria and Weights

Step 6 Selecting an Alternative
The sixth step is the critical act of choosing the best alternative from
among those listed and assessed. We have determined all the pertinent
factors in the decision, weighted them appropriately, and identified the
viable alternatives. Now we merely have to choose the alternative that
generated the highest score in step five. In our computer purchase
example, (Table 5.3), the decision maker would choose the Fujitsu
LifeBook 555T computer. On the basis of the criteria identified, the
weights given to the criteria, and the decision maker‟s assessment of
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each computer company‟s ranking on the criteria, the Fujitsu computer

score highest (281 points) and thus became the “best” alternative.
Step 7 Implementing the Alternative
Although the choice process is completed in the previous step, the

decision may still fall if it isn‟t implemented properly. Therefore, step
seven is concerned with putting the decision into action. Implementation
includes conveying the decision to those affected and getting their
commitment to it. Groups or teams can help a manager achieve
commitment. If the people who must carry out a decision participate in
the process, they are more likely to enthusiastically support the outcome
than if they are just told what to do. For instance, if in our decision
example the sales representatives had participated in the purchase
decision, they would be likely to enthusiastically accept the new
machines and any new training necessary.
Step 8 Evaluating Decision Effectiveness
The last step in the decision-making process appraises the result of the
decision to see whether the problem has been resolved. Did the
alternative chosen in step six and implemented in step seven accomplish
the desired result? What would happen if, as a result of this evaluation,
the problem still existed? The manager would then need to dissect
carefully what went wrong. Was the problem incorrectly defined? Were
errors made in the evaluation of the various alternatives? Was the right
alternative selected but improperly implemented? Answers to questions
like those might send the manager back to one of the earlier steps. It
might even require starting the whole decision process over.
3.3 Pervasiveness of Decision Making
Everyone in organisations makes decisions, but decision making is

particularly important in every aspect of a manager‟s job. As Table 1.4
illustrates, decision making is part of all the four managerial functions.
That is why managers – when they plan, organise, lead, and control –
are frequently called decision makers. In fact, it is correct to say that
decision making is synonymous with managing (Simon, 1960). The fact
that almost everything a manager does involves decision making does
not mean that decisions are always long, involved, or clearly evident to
an outsider observer. Much of a manager‟s decision-making activity is
routine. Every day of the year you make a decision about the problem of
when to eat lunch. It is no big deal. You have made the decision
thousands of times before. It offers few problems and can usually be
handled quickly. It is the type of decision you almost forget is a
decision. Managers make dozens of these routine decisions every day.
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Keep in mind that even though a decision seems easy to make or has
been faced by a manager a number of times before, it is a decision
nonetheless.
Table 1.4: Decisions in the Management Functions
Planning:
What are the organisation‟s long-term objectives?
What strategies will best achieve those objectives?
What should the organisation‟s short-term objectives be?
How difficult should individual goals be?
Organising:
How many subordinates should I have report directly to me?
How much centralization should there be in the organisation?
How should jobs be designed?
When should the organisation implement a different structure?
Leading:
How do I handle employees who appear to be low in motivation?
What is the most effective leadership style in a given situation?
How will a specific change affect worker productivity?
When is the right time to stimulate conflict?
Controlling:
What activities in the organisation need to be controlled?
How should those activities be controlled?
When is a performance deviation significant?
What type of management information system should the organisation have?

3.4 The Manager as Decision Maker
Although we have described the steps in the decision-making process,

we still do not know much about the manager as a decision maker and
how decisions are actually made in organisations. How can we best
describe the decision making situation and the person who makes the
decision? In this section, we look at those issues and would start by
looking at three perspectives on how decisions are made.
3.4.1 Making Decisions: Rationality, Bounded Rationality and

Intuition
Managerial decision making is assumed to be rational. By that we mean

that managers make consistent, value-maximising choices within
specified constraints (Simon, 1986). What are the underlying
assumptions of rationality, and how valid are those assumptions?
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Assumptions of Rationality
A decision maker who was perfectly rational would be fully objective

and logical. He or she would define a problem carefully and would have
a clear and specific goal. Moreover, the steps in the decision making
process would consistently led toward selecting the alternative that
maximises the likelihood of achieving that goal. Figure 5.3 summarises
the assumptions of rationality.
Fig. 1.3: Assumptions of Rationality
Source: Simon, H. (1986), “Rationality in sychology and

Economics.” Journal of Business, October, pp. 209 – 224.
 Problem clarity: In rational decision making, the problem is

clear and unambiguous. The decision maker is assumed to have
 complete information regarding the decision situation.
 Goal orientation: In rational decision making, there is no
conflict over the goal. Whether the decision involves purchasing
a new notebook computer; selecting a college to attend, choosing
the proper price for a new product, or picking the right job
applicant to fill a vacancy, the decision maker has a single, well-
 defined goal that he or she is trying to reach.
 Known options: In known options, it is assumed that the
decision maker is creative, can identify all the relevant criteria,
and can list all the viable alternatives. Further, the decision maker
is aware of all the possible consequences of each alternative.

 Clear preferences: Rationality assumes that the criteria and
 alternatives can be ranked according to their importance.
 Constant preferences: In addition to a clear goal and
preferences, it is assumed that the specific decision criteria are
constant and that the weights assigned to them are stable over
time.
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 No time or cost constraints: The rational decision maker can

obtain full information about criteria and alternatives because it is
 assumed that there are no time or cost constraints.
 Maximum payoff: The rational decision maker always chooses
the alternative that will yield the maximum payoff.
Those assumptions of rationality apply to any decision. Because we are

concerned with managerial decision making in an organisation,
however, we need to add one further assumption. Rational managerial
decision making assumes that decisions are made in the best
“economic” interests of the organisation. That is, the decision maker is
assumed to be maximising the organisation‟s interests, not his or her
own interests. How realistic are these assumptions about rationality?
Managerial decision making can follow rational assumptions if the
manager is faced with a simple problem in which the goals are clear and
the alternatives limited, in which the time pressures are minimal and the
cost of seeking out and evaluating alternatives is low, for which the
organisational culture supports innovation and risk taking, and in which
the outcomes are relatively concrete and measurable (Shull, Delbecq &
Cummings, 1970). However, most decisions that managers face in the
real world do not meet all those tests (March, 1994 & Langley,
Mintzberg, Pitcher, Posada, & Saint-Macary, 1995). So how are most
decisions in organisations actually made? The concept of bounded
rationality can help answer that question.
Bounded Rationality
Despite the limits to perfect rationality, managers are expected to follow

the rational process when making decisions (March, 1981). Managers
know that “good” decision-makers are supposed to do certain things,
namely: identify problems, consider alternatives, gather information,
and act decisively but prudently. Managers can thus be expected to
exhibit the correct decision making behaviours. By doing so, managers
show their superiors, peers, and subordinate that they are competent and
that their decisions are the result of intelligent and rational deliberation.
Table 1.5: Two Views of the Decision-Making Process
S/N Decision- Perfect Rationality Bounded Rationality

making Step
1. Problem An important and A visible problem that
formulation relevant organisational reflects the manager‟s
problem is identified interests and background is
identified.
2. Identification All criteria are A limited set of criteria is
of decision identified. identified.
criteria
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3. Allocation of All criteria are A simple model is

weights to evaluated and rated in constructed to evaluate and
criteria terms of their rate the criteria; the
importance to the decision maker‟s self-
organisation‟s goal. interest strongly influences
the ratings.
4. Development A comprehensive list of A limited set of similar
of alternatives all alternatives is alternatives is identified.
developed creatively.
5. Analysis of All alternatives are Beginning with a favoured
alternatives assessed against the solution, alternatives are
decision criteria and assessed, one at a time,
weights; the against the decision criteria.
consequences for each
alternative are known.
6. Selection of an Maximising decision: Satisficing decision: the
alternative the one with the highest search continues until a
economic outcome (in solution is found that is
terms of the satisfactory and sufficient,
organisation‟s goal) is at which time the search
chosen. stops.
7. Implementation Because the decision Politics and power
of alternative maximizes the chance considerations will
of achieving a single, influence the acceptance of,
well-defined goal, all and commitment to, the
organisational members decision.
will embrace the
solution.
8. Evaluation The decision‟s outcome Measurement of the
is objectively evaluated decision‟s results are rarely
against the original so objective as to eliminate
problem. self-interests of the
evaluator; possible
escalation of resources to
prior commitments despite
both previous failures and
strong evidence that
allocation of additional
resources is not warranted.
Source: Agnew, .M. & Brown, J.L. (1986). “Bounded

Rationality: Fallible Decisions in Unbounded Decision
Space.” Behavioural Science Review, July, pp. 148 – 161.
Table 1.5 summarises how the perfectly rational manager would proceed
through the eight-step decision process. However, we already know that
this perfectly rational model of decision making is not realistic with respect
to managerial decision making. Instead, managers tend to operate under
assumptions of bounded rationality (Agnew and Brown,
169
1986, Kaufman, 1990 and Skida, 1992). Look again at table 1.5 for
description of how decisions are made under bounded rationality. In
bounded rationality, managers construct simplified models that extract
the essential features of problems without capturing all their complexity.
Then, given information-processing limitations and constraints imposed
by the organisation, managers attempt behave rationally within the
parameters of the simple model. The result is a “satisficing” decision
rather than a maximising one; that is, a decision in which the solution is
satisfactory, or “good enough.”
The implications of bounded rationality on the manager‟s job must not

be overlooked. In situations in which the assumptions of perfect
rationality do not apply (including most of the important and far-
reaching decisions a manager makes), the details of the decision-making
process are strongly influenced by the organisation‟s culture, internal
politics, power considerations, and even by the decision maker‟s use of
intuitive decision making.
Role of Intuition
What role does intuition play in managerial decision making? Managers

regularly use their intuition, and it may actually help improve their
decision making (Hammond, Hamm, Grassia and Pearson, 1987;
Beiling and Eckel, 1991). What is intuitive decision making?
Intuition decision making is an unconscious process of making decisions

based on experience and accumulated judgement. Making decisions on
the basis of “gut feeling” does not necessarily happen independently of
rational analysis; rather, the two complement each other. A manager
who has had experience with a particular, or even similar, type of
problem or situation often can act quickly with what appears to be
limited information. Such a manager does not rely on a systematic and
thorough analysis of the problem of identification and evaluation of
alternatives but instead uses his or her experience and judgement to
make a decision. How common is intuitive decision making? One
survey of managers and other organisational employees revealed that
almost one-third of them emphasised “gut feeling” over cognitive
problem solving and decision making (Pospisil, 1997).
Whether managers use perfect rationality, bounded rationality, or

intuition in making decisions, organisational reality is that they‟re likely
to face different types of problem situations. What are the types of
problem situations a manager might face in organisational decision-
making?
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4.0 CONCLUSION
Decision making is the selection of a course of action from among

alternatives; it is the core of planning. Managers must make choices based
on limited or bounded, rationality – that is, in the light of everything they
can learn about a situation, which may not be everything they should know.
Satisficing is a term sometimes used to describe picking a course of action
that is satisfactory under the circumstances.
Decision making involves several steps such as identification of a

problem, identification of decision criteria, allocation of weights to
criteria, development of alternatives, analysis of alternatives, selection
of an alternative, implementation of the alternative and evaluation of
decision effectiveness.
Managerial decision making is assumed to be rational because it is

consistent, value-maximising choices within specified constraints.
Rational managerial decision making assumes that decisions are made in
the best economic interests of the organisation. That is, the decision
maker is assumed to be maximising the organisation‟s interests, not his
or her own interests. In bounded rationality, managers construct
simplified models that extract the essential features of problems without
capturing all their complexity. Then, given information-processing
limitations and constraints imposed by the organisation, managers
attempt behave rationally within the parameters of the simple model.
The result is a satisficing decision rather than a maximising one; that is,
a decision in which the solution is satisfactory, or “good enough.”
Managers regularly use their intuition, and it may actually help improve
their decision making. By definition, intuition is an unconscious process
of making decisions on the basis of experience and accumulated
judgement. Making decisions on the basis of “gut feeling” does not
necessarily happen independently of rational analysis; rather, the two
complement each other. A manager who has had experience with a
particular, or even similar, type of problem or situation often can act
quickly with what appears to be limited information. Such a manager
does not rely on a systematic and thorough analysis of the problem of
identification and evaluation of alternatives but instead uses his or her
experience and judgement to make a decision.
5.0 SUMMARY
 defined decision making as a concept

 analysed decision making as a rational process
171
 stated the roles and limitations of rational decision making

 explained decision-making process
 stated the role of a manager as decision-maker.
i. “Decision making is the primary task of the manager”. Discuss.

ii. Describe well-structured problems and programmed decisions.
iii. Describe ill-structured problems and non-programmed decisions.
iv. List the roles of a manager as a rational decision maker.
v. List the steps involved in decision making process. Briefly
discuss each of them.
Agnew, .M. & Brown, J.L. (1986). “Bounded Rationality Fallible

Decisions in Unbounded Decision Space.” Behavioural Science
Review, July, pp. 148 – 161.
Hammond, K.R. Hamm, R.M., Grassia, J. & Pearson, T. (1987). “Direct

Comparison of the Efficacy of Intuitive and Analytical Cognition
in Expert Judgement.” IFEE Transactions on Systems, Man and
Cybernetics SMC-17, pp. 753 – 770, W.H. Agor (Ed.), Intuition
in Organisations (Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications (1989).
Behling, O. & Eckel, .L. (1991). “Making Sense Out of Intuition.” The
Executive, February, pp. 46 – 47.
Kaufman, B.E. (1990). “A ew Theory of Satisficing.” Journal of
Behavioural Economics, Spring, pp, 35 – 51.
Langley, A. (1989). “In Search of Rationality: The Purposes behind the

Use of Formal Analysis in Organisation.” Administrative Science
Quarterly, December, pp. 598 – 631.
Langley, A., Et al. (1995). “Opening Up Decision Making The View

from the Black Stool.” Organisation Science, May – June, pp.
260 – 279.
March, J.G. (1981). “Decision-Making Perspective: Decisions in

Organisations and Theories of Choice.” In A.H. Van de Ven and
W.F. Joyce (Eds), Perspectives on Organisation Design and
Behaviour. New York: Wiley-Inter-Science. pp. 232 – 233.
March, J.G. (1994). A Primer on Decision Making. New York: Free

Press.
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McCall, M.W. Jr. & Kaplan, R.E. (1985). What It Takes: Decision
Makers at Work. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Osborn, A.F. (1963). Applied Imagination. (3rd revised edition). New

York: Scribner.
ospisil, V. (1997). “Gut Feeling or Skilled Reasoning?” W, March 3, p.

12.
ounds, W. (1969). “The rocess of roblem Finding”, Industrial

Management Review, Fall, pp. 1 – 19.
Rowe, A.J., Boulgarides, J.D. & McGrath, M.R. (1984). Managerial

Decision Making, Modules in Management Series. Chicago:
SRA.
Schemerhorn, Jr. J.R. (1993). Management for Productivity, (4th ed.).

New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Skida, D.R. (1992). “Revisiting Bounded Rationality.” Journal of

Management Inquiry, December, pp. 343 – 347.
Shull, F.A. Jr., Delbecq, A.L. & Cummings, L.L. (1970).

Organisational Decision Making New York: McGraw-Hill.
Simon, H. (1960). The New Science of Management Decision. New

York: Harper & Row.
Simon, H. (1986), “Rationality in sychology and Economics.” Journal

of Business, October, pp. 209 – 224.
Volkema, R.J. (1986-87). “ roblems Formulation Its ortrayal in the

Texts.” Organisational Behaviour Teaching Review, 11, No. 3,
pp. 113 – 126.

MBO.” In A.J. Vogl, “Drucker, of Course”, Across the Board,
November/December.

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UNIT 2 DECISION MAKING II
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Types of Problems and Decisions
3.1.1 Well-Structured Problems and Programmed
Decisions
3.1.2 Ill-Structured Problems and Non-Programmed
Decisions
3.1.3 Integration
3.2Decision-Making Conditions
3.2.1 Certainty
3.2.2 Risk
3.2.3 Uncertainty
3.3Decision-Making Styles
3.4Development of Alternative and the Limiting Factor
3.4.1 Quantitative and Qualitative Factors
3.4.2 Marginal Analysis
3.4.3 Cost-Effective Analysis
3.4.4 Selecting an Alternative: Three Approaches
3.5Creativity and Innovation
3.5.1 The Creative Process
3.5.2 Brainstorming
3.5.3 Limitations of Traditional Group Discussion
3.5.4 The Creative Manager
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0Tutor-Marked Assignment
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, we discussed the first segment of decision making,

which included definition of the concept, its analysis as a rational
process, the role and limitations of rational decision making, decision
making process and the role of a manger as a decision-maker. In this
unit, we shall continue with this discussion. We shall examine the types
and problems and decisions, enumerate the decision-making conditions,
highlight and discuss decision-making styles, state and explain the
development of alternatives and limiting factors as well as creativity and
innovation.
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2.0 OBJECTIVES
 list the types of problems and decisions

 enumerate the decision-making conditions
 highlight and discuss decision-making styles
 state and explain the development of alternatives and the limiting
 factor
 discuss creativity and innovation.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Types of Problems and Decisions
Managers will be faced with different types of problems and decisions

as they do their jobs, that is, as they integrate and coordinate the work of
others. Depending on the nature of the problem, the manager can use
different types of decisions.
3.1.1 Well-Structured Problems and Programmed Decisions
Some problems are straightforward. The goal of the decision maker is

clear, the problem is familiar, and information about the problem is
easily defined and complete. Examples of these types of problems might
include a customer‟s wanting to return a purchase to a retail store, a
supplier‟s being late with an important delivery, a news team‟s
responding to an unexpected and fast-breaking event. Such situations
are called well-structured problems. For instance, a server in a restaurant
spills a drink on a customer‟s coat. The restaurant manager has an
aggrieved customer. What does the manager do? Because drinks are
frequently spilled, there is probably that some standardised routine for
handling the problem. For example, if the server was at fault, if the
damage was significant, and if the customer asks for remedy, the
manager will offer to have the coat cleaned at the restaurant‟s expense.
In handling this problem situation, the manager uses a programmed
decision.
Decisions are programmed to the extent that they are repetitive and
routine and to the extent that a definite approach has been worked out
for handling them. Because the problem is well structured, the manager
does not have to take the trouble and expense of working up an involved
decision process. Programmed decision making is relatively simple and
tends to rely heavily on previous solutions. The “develop-the-
alternatives” stage in the decision making process either doesn‟t exist or
is given little attention. Why? Because once the structured problem is
175
defined, its solution is usually self-evident or at least reduced to very

few alternatives that are familiar and that have proved successful in the
past. In many cases, programmed decision making becomes decision
making by precedent. Managers simply do what they and others
previously have done in the same situation. The spilled drink on the
customer‟s coat does not require the restaurant manager to identify and
weight decision criteria or to develop a long list of possible solutions.
Rather, the manager falls back on systematic procedure, rule or policy.
A procedure is a serious of interrelated sequential steps that a manager

can use for responding to a structured problem. The only real difficulty
is in identifying the problem. Once the problem is clear, so is the
procedure. For instance, a purchasing manager receives a request from
the sales department for 15 cellular phones for use by the company‟s
sales representatives. The purchasing manager knows that there is a
definite procedure for handling this decision. The decision making
process in this case is merely executing a simple series of sequential
steps. Information technology is being used to further simplify the
development or organisational procedures. Some powerful new software
programmes are being designed that automate routine and
complex procedures. For example, at Hewlett-Packard, a comprehensive
programme has automated a quarterly wage –review process of more
than 13,000 salespeople.
A rule is an explicit statement that tells a manager what he or she ought

to or ought not to do. Rules are frequently used by managers when they
confront a well-structured problem because they are simple to follow
and ensure consistency. For example, rules about lateness and
absenteeism permit supervisors to make disciplinary decisions rapidly
and with a relatively high degree of fairness.
A third guide for making programmed decisions is a policy. It provides

guidelines to channel a manager‟s thinking in a specific direction. In
contrast to a rule, a policy establishes parameters for the decision maker
rather than specifically stating what should or should not be done.
Policies typically contain an ambiguous term that leaves interpretation
up to the decision maker. For instance, each of the following is a policy
statement:
1. The customer always comes first and should always be satisfied.

2. We promote from within, whenever possible.
3. Employee wages shall be competitive for the community in
which our plants are located.
ote that “satisfied,” “whenever possible” and competitive” are terms

that require interpretation. The policy to pay competitive wages does
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not tell a given plant‟s human resources manager the exact amount he or
she should pay, but it does give direction to the decision he or she
makes.
For instance, members of staff of a particular institution were directed to

travel for a programme, which was cancelled at the very last minute. The
arrangement was that the event would take two nights for some staff and
three nights for others, and that all staff be paid their Duty Tour
Allowance (DTA) for the number of days spent outside their duty
station. However, following the cancellation of the event, the staff had to
return to their offices. The bursary official will use his discretion in
compensating staff to reduce costs by demanding for their air ticket or
bus ticket (as evidence of travel). There were staff who had paid for air
tickets but could not travel before the event was cancelled, such people
would be treated differently. The decisions taken now to solve this
problem would become a precedent on which to solve similar problems
in future.
3.1.2 Ill-Structured Problems and Non-Programmed Decisions
As you can well see, not all problems managers face are well-structured
and solvable by a programmed decision. Many organisational situations
involved ill-structured problems, which are problems that are new or
unusual. Information about such problems is ambiguous or incomplete.
For example, the selection of an architect to design a new corporate
headquarters building is one example of an ill-structured problem. So
too is the problem of whether to invest in a new, unproven technology or
whether to shut down a money-losing division.
When problems are ill-structured, managers must rely on non-

programmed decision making to develop unique solutions. Non-
programmed decisions are unique and non-recurring. When a manager
confronts an ill-structured problem, or one that is unique, there is no cut-
and-dried solution. It requires a custom-made response through non-
programmed decision making.
3.1.3 Integration
Figure 5.4 describes the relationship among the types of problems, the
types of decisions, and organisational level. Whereas well-structured
problems are resolved with programmed decision making, ill-structured
problems require non-programmed decision making. Because lower-
level managers confront familiar and repetitive problems, they most
typically rely on programmed decisions such as standard operating
procedures, rules and organisational policies. The problems confronting
managers are likely to become more ill-structured as they move up the
177
organisational hierarchy. This is because lower-level managers handle

the routine decisions themselves and send up the chain of command
only decisions that they find unusual or difficult. Similarly, higher-level
managers pass along routine decisions to their subordinates so that they
can deal with more difficult issues.
It must be borne in mind however that few managerial decisions in the

real world are either fully programmed or non-programmed. These are
extremes, and most decisions fall somewhere in between. Few
programme decisions are designed to eliminate individual judgement
completely. At the other extreme, even a unique situation requiring a
non-programme decision can be helped by programmed routines. It is
best to think of decisions as mainly programmed or mainly non-
programmed, rather than as completely one or the other.
A final point on this topic is that organisational efficiency is facilitated

by the use of programmed decision making, which may explain its wide
popularity. Whenever possible, management decisions are likely to be
programmed. Obviously, using a programmed decision is not too
realistic at the top level of the organisation because most of the
problems that top managers confront are of a non-recurring nature.
However, there are strong economic incentives for top managers to
create standard operating procedures (SOPs), rules, and policies to guide
other managers.
Programmed decisions minimise the need for managers to exercise

discretion. This fact is relevant because discretion can cost money. The
more non-programmed decision making a manager is required to do, the
greater the judgement needed. Because sound judgement is an
uncommon quality, it costs more to acquire the services of managers
who possess it.
Some organisations try to economise by hiring less-skilled managers but

do not develop programmed decision guides for them to follow. Take
for example, a small women‟s clothing store chain whose owner,
because he chooses to pay low salaries, hires store managers with little
experience and limited ability to make good judgements. This practice,
by itself, might not be a problem. The trouble is that the owner provides
neither training nor explicit rules nor procedures to guide his store
manager‟s decisions. The result is constant complaints by customers
about such things as promotional discounts, processing credit sales, and
the handling of returns.
One of the more challenging tasks facing managers as they make

decisions – programmed or non-programmed – is analysing decision
alternatives.
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3.2 Decision Making Conditions
There are three conditions that managers may face as they make
decisions: certainty, risk and uncertainty. What are the characteristics of
each of these decision-making conditions?
3.2.1 Certainty
The ideal situation for making decisions is one of certainty; that is, the
manager is able to make perfectly accurate decisions because the
outcome of every alternative is known. For example, when a member of
staff of NOUN travels on official errand and stays outside his duty
station for the night, the duty travel allowance (DTA) he or she is
entitled to is known, he cannot be offered anything less. When the
NOUN Cooperative Society decides which bank to deposit excess funds,
they know exactly how much interest is being offered by each bank and
will be earned on the funds. The officials of NOUN Cooperative Society
are certain about the outcomes of each alternative. As you might expect,
this condition is not characteristic of the situations in which most
managerial decisions are made. It is more idealistic than realistic.
3.2.2 Risk
A far more common situation is one of risk. By risk, we mean those

conditions in which the decision maker is able to estimate the likelihood
of certain alternatives or outcomes. This ability to assign probabilities to
outcomes may be the result of personal experience or secondary
information. Under the conditions of risk, the manager has historical
data that allow him or her to assign probabilities to different
alternatives. Let us work with an example.
Suppose the management of NOUN is considering requesting the

management of Wema Bank Plc. to open a cash centre and install
Automated Teller Machines (ATM) centres within the Headquarters.
This decision will be significantly influenced by the reduction of man-
hour loss to be recorded especially during payday when all staff would
leave their duty posts en-mass to go to Marina or Idowu Taylor branches
of that bank for the purpose of withdrawing salaries from their bank
accounts. It will also significantly reduce the risk of accident, armed
robbery attack or loss of money in the cab or bus. There would be higher
productivity from members of staff which cannot be quantified in
monetary terms. All the above alternatives, when combined, would be
more beneficial to the university in general and members of staff in
particular.
179
You can create an expected value formulation; that is, you can compute
the conditional return from each possible outcome by multiplying the
number decisions which would be taken at work by the probabilities of
armed robbery, accident and so on incidents which would be averted as
a result of opening a cash centre and ATM centre in the Headquarters to
Marina or Idowu Taylor Branches of Wema Bank to withdraw salaries.
3.2.3 Uncertainty
What happens if you have to make a decision when you are not certain
about the outcomes and cannot even make reasonable probability
estimates? We call such a condition uncertainty. Many decision-making
situations managers face are ones of uncertainty. Under conditions of
uncertainty, the choice of alternative is influenced by the limited amount
of information available to the decision maker.
Another factor that influences choice under conditions of uncertainty is

the psychological orientation of the decision maker. The optimistic
manager will follow a “maximax” choice (maximising the maximum
payoff), the pessimist will pursue a “maximin” choice (maximising the
minimum possible payoff), and the manager who desires to minimise his
maximum “regret” will opt for a minimised choice.
3.3 Decision-Making Styles
Suppose you were a new manager at the Gillette Company or at the local
YMCA. How would you tackle problems that arise and that require
decisions making? Managers have different styles when it comes to
making decisions and solving problems. One view of decision-making
styles proposes that there are three ways managers approach problems in
the workplace; they are either problem avoiders, problem solvers, or
problem seekers (Schemerhorn, 1993). What are the characteristics of
each approach?
A problem avoider ignores information that points to a problem.

Avoiders are inactive and do not want to confront problems. A problem
solver tries to solve problems when they come up. Solvers are reactive;
they deal with problems after they occur. Problem seekers actively seek
for problems to solve or new opportunities to pursue. They take
proactive approach by anticipating problems. Managers can and do use
all these three approaches. For example, there are times when avoiding a
problem is the best response. At other times, being reactive is the only
option because the problem happens so quickly. And innovative,
creative organisations need managers who proactively seek
opportunities and ways to do things better.
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Another perspective on decision-making styles proposes that people

differ along two dimensions in the way they approach decision making
(Rowe, Boulgarides and McGrath (1984). The first is an individual‟s
way of thinking. Some of us tend to be rational and logical in the way
we think or process information. A rational type looks at information in
order and makes sure that it is logical and consistent before making a
decision. Some of us tend to be creative and intuitive. Intuitive types do
not have to process information in a certain order but are comfortable
looking at it as a whole.
The other dimension describes an individual‟s tolerance for ambiguity.

Again, some of us have a low tolerance for ambiguity and must have
consistency and order in the way we structure information so that
ambiguity is minimised. On the other hand, some of us can tolerate high
levels of ambiguity and are able to process many thoughts at the same
time. When we diagram these two dimensions, four decision-making
styles are formed: directive, analytic, conceptual and behavioural (figure
5.4). Let us look more closely at each style.
Fig. 2.1: Decision-Making Styles
Source: Robbins, S.P. & De Cenzo, D.A. (1998). Supervisory

Today. (2nd ed. ). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
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3.4 Development of Alternatives and the Limiting Factor
Assuming that we know what our goals are and agree on clear planning
premises, the first step of decision making is to develop alternatives.
There are almost always alternatives to any course of action; indeed, if
there seems to be only one way of doing a thing, that way is probably
wrong. If we can think of only one course of action, clearly, we have not
thought hard enough. The ability to develop alternatives is often as
important as being able to select correctly from among them. On the
other hand, ingenuity, research and common sense will often unearth so
many choices that none of them can be adequately evaluated. The
manager needs help in this situation, and this help, as well as assistance
in choosing the best alternative, is found in the concept of the limiting or
strategic factor.
A limiting factor is something that stands in the way of accomplishing a

desired objective. Recognising the limiting factors in a given situation
makes it possible to narrow the search for alternatives to those that will
overcome the limiting factors. The principle of the limiting factor states
that, by recognising and overcoming those factors that stand critically in
the way of a goal, the best alternative course of action can be selected.
Once appropriate alternatives have been found, the next step in planning
is to evaluate them and select the one that will best contribute to the
goal. This is the point of ultimate decision making, although decisions
must also be made in the other steps of planning – in selecting goals, in
choosing critical premises, and even in selecting alternatives.
3.4.1 Quantitative and Qualitative Factors
In comparing alternative plans for achieving an objective, people are

likely to think exclusively of quantitative factors. These are factors that
can be measured in numerical terms, such as time or various fixed and
operating costs. No one would question the importance of this type of
analysis, but the success of the venture would be endangered if
intangible, or qualitative, factors were ignored. Qualitative or intangible
factors are factors that are difficult to measure numerically, such as the
quality of labour relations, the risk of technological change, or the
international political climate. There are all too many instances in which
an excellent quantitative plan was destroyed by an unforeseen war, a
fine marketing plan made inoperable by a long transportation strike, or a
rational borrowing plan hampered by an economic recession. These
illustrations point out the importance of giving attention to both
quantitative and qualitative factors when comparing alternatives.
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To evaluate and compare the intangible factors in a planning problem

and make decisions, managers must first recognise these factors and
then determine whether a reasonable quantitative measurement can be
given to them. If not, they should find out as much as possible about the
factors, perhaps rate them in terms of their importance, compare their
probable influence on the outcome with that of the quantitative factors,
and then come to a decision. This decision may give predominant
weight to a single intangible.
3.4.2 Marginal Analysis
Evaluating alternatives may involve utilising the technique of marginal

analysis to compare the additional revenue and the additional cost
arising from increasing output. Where the objective is to maximise
profit, this goal will be reached, as elementary economics teaches, when
the additional revenue and additional cost are equal. In other words, if
the additional revenue of a larger quantity is greater than its additional
cost, more profit can be made by producing more. However, if the
additional revenue of the larger quantity is less than its additional cost, a
larger profit can be made by producing less.
Marginal analysis can be used in comparing factors other than cost and
revenue. For example, to find the best output of a machine, input could
be varied against output until the additional input equals the additional
output. This would then be the point of maximum efficiency of the
machine. Or the number of subordinates reporting to a manager might
conceivably be increased to the point at which additional cost savings,
better communication and morale, and other factors equal additional
losses in the effectiveness of control, leadership, and similar factors.
3.4.3 Cost-Effective Analysis
An improvement on, or variation of, traditional marginal analysis is

cost-effectiveness, or cost-benefit analysis. Cost-effectiveness analysis
seeks the best ratio of benefit and cost; this means, for example, finding
the least costly way of reaching an objective or getting the greatest value
for a given expenditure.
3.4.4 Selecting an Alternative: Three Approaches
When selecting from among alternatives, managers can use three basic
approaches: (1) experience, (2) experimentation, and (3) research and
analysis (see figure 7.1 below for illustration).
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(a) Experience
Reliance on past experience probably plays a larger part than it deserves

in decision making. Experienced managers usually believe, often
without realising it, that the things they have successfully accomplished
and the mistakes they have made furnish almost infallible guides to the
future. This attitude is likely to be more pronounced the more
experience a manager has had and the higher he or she has risen in an
organisation.
To some extent, experience is the best teacher. The very fact that
managers have reached their position appears to justify their past
decisions. Moreover, the process of thinking problems through, making
decisions, and seeing programmes succeed or fail does make for a
degree of good and judgement (at times bordering on intuition). Many
people, however, do not learn from their errors, and there are managers
who seem never to gain the seasoned judgement required by the modern
enterprise.
Relying on past experience as a guide for future action can be

dangerous. In the first place, most people do not recognise the
underlying reasons for their mistakes or failures. In the second place, the
lessons of experience may be entirely inapplicable to new problems.
Good decisions must be evaluated against future events, while
experience belongs to the past.
On the other hand, if a person carefully analyses experience, rather than

blindly following it, and if he or she distills from experience the
fundamental reasons for success or failure, then experience can be
useful as a basis for decision analysis. A successful programme, a well-
managed company, a profitable product promotion, or any other
decision that turns out well may furnish useful data for such distillation.
Just as scientists do not hesitate to build upon the research of others and
would be foolish indeed merely to duplicate it, managers can learn much
from others.
(b) Experimentation
An obvious way to decide among alternatives is to try one of them and

see what happens. Experimentation is often used in scientific inquiry.
People often argue that it should be employed more often in managing
and that the only way a manager can make sure some plans are right –
especially in view of the intangible factors – is to try the various
alternatives and see which is best.
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The experimental technique is likely to be the most expensive of all

techniques, especially if a programme requires heavy expenditure of
capital and personnel and if the firm cannot afford to vigorously attempt
several alternatives. Besides, after an experiment has been tried, there
may still be doubt about what it proved, since the future may not
duplicate the present. This technique, therefore, should be used only
after considering other alternatives.
On the other hand, there are many decisions that cannot be made until
the best course of action can be ascertained by experiment. Even
reflections on experience or the most careful research may not assure
managers of correct decisions. This is nowhere better illustrated than in
the planning of a new airplane.
For instance, an airplane manufacturer may draw from personal

experience and that of other plan manufacturers and new plane users.
Engineers and economists many make expensive studies of stress,
vibration, fuel consumption, speed, space allocation, and other factors.
However, all these studies do not answer every question about the flight
characteristics and economics of a successful plane; therefore, some
experimentation is almost always involved in the process of selecting
the right course to follow. Ordinarily, a first-production or prototype,
airplane is constructed and tested; and on the basis of these tests,
production of airplanes is made according to a somewhat revised design.
Experimentation is used in other ways. A firm may test a new product in
certain market before expanding its sale nationwide. Organisational
techniques are often tried in a branch office or plant before being
applied over an entire company. A candidate for a management job may
be tested in the job during the incumbent‟s vacation.
(c) Research and Analysis
One of the most effective techniques for selecting from alternatives

when major decisions are involved is research and analysis. This
approach means solving a problem by first comprehending it. It thus
involves a search for relationships among the more critical of the
variables, constraints, and premises that bear upon the goal sought. It is
the pencil-and-paper (or, better, the computer-and-printout) approach to
decision making.
Solving a planning problem requires breaking it into its component parts

and studying the various quantitative and qualitative factors. Study and
analysis is likely to be far cheaper than experimentation. The hours of
time and reams of paper used for analyses usually cost much less than
trying the various alternatives. In manufacturing airplanes, for example,
185
if careful research did not precede the building and testing of the
prototype airplane and its parts, the resulting costs would be enormous.
A major step in the research-and-analysis approach is to develop a

model simulating the problem. Thus, architects often make models of
buildings in the form of extensive blueprints or three-dimensional
renditions. Engineers test models of airplane wings and missiles in a
wind tunnel. But the most useful simulation is likely to be a
representation of the variables in a problem situation by mathematical
terms and relationships. Conceptualising a problem is a major step
toward its solution. The physical sciences have long relied on
mathematical models to do this, and it is encouraging to see this method
being applied to managerial decision making.
Experimentation
How to
Reliance on select from Choice
the past among made
alternatives?
Research and
analysis
Fig. 2.2: Bases for Selecting from among Alternative Courses of

Action
Source: Weihrich, H. & Koontz, H. (2005). Management: A

Global Perspective (11th ed.). Asia: Mc-Graw Hill
Education.
3.5 Creativity and Innovation
An important factor in managing people is creativity. A distinction can be

made between creativity and innovation. The term “creativity” usually
refers to the ability and power to develop new ideas (Weihrich & Koontz,
2005). Innovation, on the other hand, usually means the use of
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these ideas. In an organisation, this can mean a new product, a new

service, or a new way of doing things. Although this discussion centres
on the creative process, it is implied that organisations not only generate
new ideas but also translate them into practical applications.
3.5.1 The Creative Process
The creative process is seldom simple and linear. Generally, it consists

of four overlapping and interacting phases, namely:
(1) unconscious scanning;

(2) intuition;
(3) insight; and
(4) logical formulation.
The first phase, unconscious scanning, is difficult to explain because it is

beyond consciousness. This scanning usually requires an absorption in
the problem, which may be vague in the mind. Yet managers working
under time constraints often make decisions prematurely rather than
dealing thoroughly with ambiguous, ill-defined problems.
The second phase, intuition, connects the unconscious with the

conscious. This stage may involve a combination of factors that may
seem contradictory at first. For example, Donaldson Brown and Alfred
Sloan of General Motors conceived the idea of a decentralised division
structure with centralised control, concepts that seem to contradict each
other (Osborn, 1963). Yet the idea makes sense when one recognises the
underlying principles of:
(1) giving responsibility for the operations to the general manager of

each division; and
(2) maintaining centralised control in headquarters over certain
functions.
It took intuition of two great corporate leaders to see that these two
principles could interact in the managerial process.
Intuition needs time to work. It requires that people find new

combinations and integrate diverse concepts and ideas. Thus, one must
think through the problem. Intuitive thinking is promoted by several
techniques, such as brainstorming.
Insight, the third phase of the creative process, is mostly the result of
hard work. For example, many ideas are needed in the development of a
usable product, a new course material or textbook, a new service, or a
new process. Interestingly, insight may come at times when the
187
thoughts are not directly focused on the problem at hand. Moreover,

new insights may last for only a few minutes, and effective managers
may benefit from having paper and pencil ready to make notes of their
creative ideas.
The last phase in the creative process is logical formulation or

verification. Insight needs to be tested through logic or experiment. This
may be accomplished by continuing work on an idea or by inviting
critiques from others. Brown and Sloan‟s idea of decentralisation, for
example, needed to be tested against organisational reality.
3.5.2 Brainstorming
Creativity can be taught. Creative thoughts are often the fruits of

extensive efforts. Some techniques focus on group interactions, others
on individual actions. One of the best known techniques for facilitating
creativity was developed by Alex F. Osborn, who has been called the
father of brainstorming (Osborn, 1963). The purpose of this approach is
to improve problem solving by new and unusual solutions. In the
brainstorming session, a multiplication of ideas is sought. The rules are
as follows.
 No ideas are ever criticised.

 The more radical the ideas are the better.
  The quantity of idea production is stressed.
 The improvement of ideas by others is encouraged.
Brainstorming, which emphasises group thinking, was widely accepted

after its introduction. However, the enthusiasm was dampened by
research, which showed that individuals could develop better ideas
working by themselves than they could while working in groups.
Additional research, however, showed that in some situations the group
approach may work well. This may be the case when the information is
distributed among various people or when a poorer group decision is
more acceptable than a better individual decision that, for example, may
be opposed by those who have to implement it. Also, the acceptance of
new ideas is usually greater when the decision is made by the group
charged with its implementation.
3.5.3 Limitations of Traditional Group Discussion
Although the technique of brainstorming may result in creative ideas, it

would be incorrect to assume that creativity flourishes only in groups.
Indeed, the usual group discussion can inhibit creativity. For example,
group members may pursue an idea to the exclusion of other
alternatives. Experts on a topic may not be willing to express their ideas
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in a group for fear of being ridiculed. Also, lower-level managers may

be inhibited in expressing their views in a group with higher-level
managers. Pressures to conform can discourage the expression of
deviant opinions. The need for getting along with others can be stronger
than the need for exploring creative but unpopular alternatives to the
solution of a problem. Finally, because they need to arrive at a decision,
groups may not make the effort of searching for data relevant to a
decision.
3.5.4 The Creative Manager
All too often, it is assumed that most people are non-creative and have
little ability to develop new ideas. This assumption, unfortunately, can
be detrimental to the organisation, for in the appropriate environment
virtually all people are capable of being creative, although the degree of
creativity varies considerably between individuals.
Generally speaking, creative people are inquisitive and come up with

new and unusual ideas; they are seldom satisfied with the status quo.
Although intelligent, creative people not only rely on the rational
process but also involve the emotional aspects of their personality in
problem solving. They appear to be excited about solving a problem,
even to the point of tenacity. Creative individuals are aware of
themselves and capable of independent judgement. They object to
conformity and see themselves as being different.
It is beyond question that creative people can make great contributions

to an enterprise. At the same time, however, they may also cause
difficulties in organisations. Change – as any manager knows – is not
always popular. Moreover, change frequently has undesirable and
unexpected side effects. Similarly, unusual ideas, pursued stubbornly,
may frustrate others and inhibit the smooth functioning of an
organisation. Finally, creative individuals may be disruptive by ignoring
established policies, rules, and regulations.
As a result, the creativity of most individuals is probably underutilized

in many cases, despite the fact that unusual innovations can be of great
benefit to the firm. However, individual and group techniques can be
effectively used to nurture creativity, especially in the area of planning.
Nonetheless, creativity is not a substitute for managerial judgement. It is
the manager who must determine and weigh the risks involved in
pursuing unusual ideas and translating them into innovative practices.
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4.0 CONCLUSION
Virtually all decisions are made in an environment of at least some

uncertainty involving the interaction of a number of important variables,
and there are certain risks involved in making decisions. Managers
dealing with uncertainty should know the degree and nature of the risk
they are taking in choosing a course of action.
Creativity, the ability and power to develop new ideas, is important for
effective managing. Innovation is the use of these ideas. The creative
process consists of four overlapping phases: unconscious scanning,
intuition, insight and logical formulation. A popular technique for
enhancing creativity is brainstorming. Creative individuals can make a
great contribution to the enterprise. At the same time, they can be
disruptive by not following commonly accepted rules of behaviour.
Three conditions that managers may face as they make decisions are
certainty, risk and uncertainty. The ideal situation for making decisions
is one of certainty where the manager is able to make perfectly accurate
decisions because the outcome of every alternative is already known.
However, in the situation of risk, the manager has historical data that
allow him or her to assignment probabilities to different alternatives.
The ability to assign probabilities to outcomes may be the result of
personal experience or secondary information. Under conditions of
uncertainty the choice of alternative is influenced by the limited amount
of information available to the decision maker.
One view of decision making styles proposes that there are three ways
managers approach problems in the workplace; there are problem
avoiders, problem solvers, or problem seekers. Each of these groups has
its peculiar characteristics. Another perspective on decision-making
styles proposes that people differ along two dimensions in the way they
approach decision making. The first is an individual‟s way of thinking
and the second is the individual‟s tolerance for ambiguity.
The ability to develop alternatives is often as important as being able to

select correctly from among them. A limiting factor is something that
however stands in the way of accomplishing a desired objective and
recognising this limiting factor makes it possible to narrow the search
for alternatives to those that will overcome the limiting factors.
Evaluating and selecting the best alternative that will contribute to the
goal completes this process. Following are some of the steps of selecting
the best alternative: quantitative and qualitative factors, marginal
analysis, cost effective analysis, use the approach of experience,
experimentation and research and analysis in selecting the best option.
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Creativity and innovation is another important factor in managing

people. Whereas creativity refers to the ability and power to develop
new ideas, innovation usually means the use of these ideas.
5.0 SUMMARY
 listed the types of problems and decisions

 enumerated the decision-making conditions
 highlighted and discussed decision-making styles
 stated and explained the development of alternatives and the
limiting factor
 discussed creativity and innovation.
i. Search the internet for creativity and illustrate how creativity can
be applied to decision making.
ii. What do you understand by the concept brainstorming? Find
three applications of brainstorming on the internet.
iii. Why is experience often referred to not only as an expensive
basis for decision making but also as a dangerous one? How can
a manager make the best use of experience?
iv. In a decision problem you now know of, how and where would
you apply the principle of the limiting factor?
v. Think of a problem that was creatively solved. Did the solution
come from group discussion, or was it the result of an individual
effort? Reconstruct the phases of the creative process.
vi. What are the characteristics of decision making under the
condition of certainty?
vii. Describe the characteristics of decision making under the
condition or risk.
viii. How might a manager deal with making decisions under
conditions of uncertainty?
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Decisions in Unbounded Decision Space.” Behavioural Science
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Comparison of the Efficacy of Intuitive and Analytical Cognition
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from the Black Stool.” Organisation Science, May – June, pp.
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Behaviour .New York: Wiley-Inter-Science, pp. 232 – 233.
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Press.
McCall, M.W. Jr. & Kaplan, R.E. (1985). What It Takes: Decision
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12.
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Decision Making, Modules in Management Series (Chicago:
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Management Inquiry, December, pp. 343 – 347.
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November/December.

193
UNIT 3 MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES (MBO)
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of the Concept MBO
3.2 Evolving Concepts in Management by Objectives
3.3 Benefits and Weaknesses of Management by Objectives
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last two units, we examined decision making as a concept,

analysed decision making as a rational process, stated the roles and
limitations of rational decision making, explained decision-making
process, stated the role of a manager as decision-maker, listed the types
of problems and decisions, enumerated the decision-making conditions,
highlighted and discuss decision-making styles, and stated as well as
explained the development of alternatives and the limiting factor as well
as creativity and innovation.
.
In this unit, we shall discuss another interesting topic, management by
objectives, its evolution, the benefits and weaknesses of this concept.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 define the concept management by objectives

  discuss how management by objectives (MBO) had evolved
 enumerate and discuss the benefits and weaknesses of
management by objectives.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Definition of the Concept MBO
Weihrich and Koontz (2005) define MBO as a comprehensive

managerial system that integrates many key managerial activities in a
systematic manner and is consciously directed toward the effective and
efficient achievement of organisational and individual objectives.
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Robbins and Coulter (1999) define MBO as a management system in

which specific performance objectives are jointly determined by
subordinates and their superiors, progress toward objectives is
periodically reviewed, and rewards are allocated on the basis of this
progress. Rather than using goal as controls, MBO uses them to
motivate employees as well.
3.2 Evolving Concepts in Management by Objectives
Instead of traditional objective setting, many organisations use

management by objectives. Management by objectives (MBO) is also
now practiced around the world. Despite its wide application, it is not
always clear what is meant by MBO. Some still think of it as an
appraisal tool; others see it as a motivational technique, still others
consider MBO a planning and control device. In other words, definitions
and applications of MBO differ widely.
This view of MBO as a system of managing is not shared by all. While

some still define MBO in a very narrow, limited way, it should be seen
as a comprehensive goal-driven, success-oriented management system
as shown in Figure 3.1. Besides being used for performance appraisal,
as an instrument for motivating individuals, and in strategic planning,
there are still other managerial subsystems that can be integrated into the
MBO process. They include human resource planning and development
(staff as well as individual and organisation development), career
planning (building on personal strengths and overcoming weaknesses),
the reward system (paying for performance), budgeting (planning and
controlling), and other managerial activities important for a specific
position. These various managerial activities need to be integrated into a
system. In short, to be effective, MBO must be considered a way of
managing and not an addition to the managerial job (Weihrich, 1973 and
2000). Management by objectives was first described by Peter Drucker
as consisting of four elements: goal specificity, participative decision
making, an explicit time period, and performance objectives for
organisational units and individual members.
195
Fig. 3.1: Systems Approach to Management by Objectives
Source: Adapted from Weihrich, H. (1985). Management

Excellence: Productivity through MBO. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
3.3 Benefits and Weaknesses of Management by Objectives
Although goal-oriented management is now one of the most widely

practiced managerial approaches, its effectiveness is sometimes
questioned. Faulty implementation is often blamed, but another reason is
that MBO may be applied as a mechanistic technique focusing on
selected aspects of the managerial process without integrating them into
a system. There is considerable evidence, much of it from laboratory
studies, that shows the motivational aspects of clear goals. But there are
other benefits such as listed below.
  Improvement of managing through results-oriented planning.

 Clarification of organisational roles and structures as well as
delegation of authority according to the results expected of the
 people occupying the roles.
 Encouragement of commitment to personal and organisational
goals.

 Development of effective controls that measure results and lead
to corrective actions.
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3.4 Drawbacks of MBO
Despite all its advantages, an MBO system has a number of weaknesses.

Most are due to shortcomings in applying the MBO concepts. Failure to
teach the philosophy of MBO is one of the weaknesses of certain
programmes. Managers must explain to subordinates what it is, how it
works, why it is being done, what part it will play in appraising
performance, and, above all, how participants can benefit. The
philosophy is built on the concepts of self-control and self-direction.
Failure to give guidelines to goal setters is often another problem.

Managers must know what the corporate goals are and how their own
activities fit in with them. Managers also need planning premises and
knowledge of major company policies.
There is also the difficulty of setting verifiable goals with the right
degree of flexibility. Participants in MBO programmes report at times
that the excessive concern with economic results puts pressure on
individuals that may encourage questionable behaviour. To reduce the
probability of resorting to unethical means to achieve results, top
management must agree to reasonable objectives, clearly state
behavioural expectations, and give priority to ethical behaviour,
rewarding it as well as punishing unethical activities.
In addition, emphasis on short-run goals can be done at the expense of

the longer-range health of the organisation. Moreover, the danger of
inflexibility can make managers hesitate to change objectives, even if a
changed environment would require such adjustments.
Other dangers include the overuse of quantitative goals and the attempt
to use numbers in areas where they are not applicable, or they may
downgrade important goals that are difficult to state in terms of end
results. For example, a favourable company image may be the key
strength of an enterprise, yet stating this in quantitative terms is difficult.
There is also the danger of forgetting that managing involves more than
goal setting.
But even with the difficulties and dangers of managing by objectives in

certain situations, this system emphasises in practice the setting of goals
long known to be an essential part of planning and managing.
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4.0 CONCLUSION
Management by objectives (MBO) has been accepted in recent times as

a vital tool for management appraisal and this planning and control tool
has received wider acceptability by business and corporate organisations
within Nigeria and around the globe. It is defined as a comprehensive
managerial system that integrates many key managerial activities in a
systematic manner and is consciously directed toward the effective and
efficient achievement of organisational and individual objectives.
Four elements of MBO have been identified, they include: goal

specificity, participative decision making, an explicit time period, and
performance objectives for organisational units and individual members.
The benefits of MBO are that it improves managing through results-

oriented planning, clarify organisational roles and structures as well as
delegation of authority according to the results expected of the people
occupying the roles, encourage commitment to personal and
organisational goals and develop effective control that measure results
and lead to corrective actions. The limitations or drawbacks are: failure
to teach the philosophy, failure to give guidelines to goal setters,
difficulty in setting verifiable goals with the right degree of flexibility,
emphasis on short run goals can be done at the expense of the longer
range health of the organisation, overuse of quantitative goals and the
attempt to use numbers in areas where they are not applicable.
5.0 SUMMARY
 defined the concept management by objectives

  discussed how management by objectives (MBO) had evolved
 enumerate and discuss the benefits and weaknesses of
management by objectives.
i. What do you understand by the term Management by Objectives

(MBO)?
ii. What are the steps in a typical MBO programme? Management
by Objectives
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7.0 REFERENCES/ FURTHER READING
Toggle, F.D. (1978). Organisational Processes. Arlington Heights,

IL:AHM Publishing.

Weihrich, H. (2000). “Management Excellence roductivity through

November/December
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UNIT 4 PREMISING AND FORECASTING
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Concepts: Forecasting and Premising
3.2 Differences between Forecasting and Premising
3.3 Environmental Forecasting
3.3.1 Values and areas of Forecasting
3.3.2 Forecasting with the Delphi Technique
3.4 Types of Forecasts
3.4.2 Revenues Forecast
3.4.3 Technological Forecast
3.5 Forecasting Techniques
3.6 Forecasting Effectiveness
3.7 Benchmarking
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, we defined the concept management by objectives,

discussed how management by objectives (MBO) had evolved,
enumerated and discuss the benefits and weaknesses of management by
objectives.
One of the essential and often overlooked steps in effective and

coordinated planning is premising, which is the establishment of and the
agreement by managers and planners to utilise consistent assumptions
critical to plans under consideration.
In this unit, we shall examine forecasting, various forecasting

techniques, a distinction between premising and forecasting and how
forecasting can be made effective as a critical tool for planning.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 define forecasting and premising

 define benchmarking
 enumerate and explain the various types of forecasting
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 differentiate between forecasting and premising

 explain what is meant by environmental forecasting
 list ways by which forecasting can be made effective.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Definition of the Concepts: Forecasting and Premising
These concepts will be defined under the following sub-topics.
Forecasting
Environmental scanning creates the foundation for forecasts.

Information obtained through scanning is used to develop scenarios.
These, in turn, establish premises for forecasts. Forecast, according to
Robbins and Coulter (1999) is defined as predictions of future
outcomes. Similarly, Hornby (2006) sees forecast as a statement about
what will happen in future based on information that is available now.
Premising
Planning premises are defined as the anticipated environment in which

plans are expected to operate. They include assumptions or forecasts of
the future and known conditions that will affect the operation of plans
(Drucker, 2001). Examples are prevailing policies and existing company
plans that control the basic nature of supporting plans.
3.2 Differences between Forecasting and Planning Premise
A distinction should be drawn between forecasts that are planning

premises and forecasts that are translated into future expectancies,
usually in financial terms, from actual plans developed. For example, a
forecast to determine future business conditions, sales volume, or
political environment furnishes premises on which to develop plans.
However, forecast of the costs or revenues from a new capital
investment translates a planning programme into future expectations. In
the first case, the forecast is a prerequisite for planning; in the second
case however, the forecast is a result of planning.
At the same time, plans themselves and forecasts of their future effects
often become premises for other plans. The decision by an electricity
company to construct a nuclear generating plant, for example, creates
conditions that give rise to premises for transmission line plans and
other plans necessarily dependent on the generating plant being built.
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3.3 Environmental Forecasting
If the future could be forecasted with accuracy, planning would be

relatively simple. Managers would need only to take into account their
human and material resources and their opportunities and threats,
compute the optimum method of reaching their objective, and proceed
with a relatively high degree of certainty towards it. In practice,
however, forecasting is much more complicated.
3.3.1 Values and Areas of Forecasting
Forecasting has values aside from its use. First, forecasting and their
review by managers necessitate thinking ahead, looking to the future and
preparing for it. Second, preparation of the forecast may disclose areas
where necessary control is lacking. Third, forecasting, especially when
there is participation throughout the organisation, helps unify and
coordinate plans. By focusing attention on the future, it assists in
bringing a singleness of purpose to planning.
The environmental areas that are frequently chosen for making forecasts
include the economic, social, political/legal, and technological
environments.
3.3.2 Forecasting with the Delphi Technique
One of the attempts to make technological forecasting more accurate

and meaningful is the Delphi technique. This technique, developed by
Olaf Helmer and his colleagues at the RAND Corporation, has a degree
of scientific respectability and acceptance. A typical process of the
Delphi technique is as follows.
1. A panel of experts on a particular problem area is selected,

usually from both inside and outside the organisation.
2. The experts are asked to make anonymously (so that they will not
be influenced by others) a forecast as to what they think will
happen and when, in various areas of new discoveries or
developments.
3. The answers are compiled, and the composite results are fed back
to the panel members.
4. With this information at hand (but still with individual
anonymity), further estimates of the future are made.
5. This process may be repeated several times.
6. When a convergence of opinion begins to evolve, the results are
then used as an acceptable forecast.
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It should be noted that the purpose of the successive opinions and

feedback is not to force the experts to compromise but rather, by
bringing additional informational inputs to bear, to make opinions more
informed. It is thus hoped, and experience has verified this hope, that an
informed consensus among experts will be arrived at.
3.4 Types of Forecasts
Two specific outcomes managers attempt to forecast are future revenues

and new technological breakthroughs.
3.4.1 Revenues Forecast
However, virtually any component in the organisation‟s general and

specific environment can be forecasted. Quaker Oats‟ Company
projected sales for its cereals influences purchasing requirements,
production goals, employment needs, inventories, and numerous other
decisions. Similarly, the University of Michigan‟s income from tuition
and sate appropriations will influence course offerings, staffing, salary
increases for faculty and staff, and the like. Both of these examples
illustrate that predicting revenues – revenue forecasting – is a critical
element of planning for both profit and not-for-profit organisations.
Where do managers get the data for developing revenue forecasts?

Typically, they begin by looking at historical revenue figures. For
example, what were last year‟s revenues? This figure can then be
adjusted for any significant trends discovered during environmental
scanning. What revenue patterns have evolved over recent years? What
changes in social, economic, or other factors in the general environment
might after the pattern in the future? In the specific environment, what
might our competitors be doing? Answers to such questions provide the
basis for revenue forecasts.
3.4.2 Technological Forecast
Technological forecasting predicts changes in technology and the

timeframe in which new technologies are likely to be economically
feasible. The rapid pace of technological change has brought us
innovations in lasers, biotechnology, robotics, and data communications
has dramatically changed surgery techniques, pharmaceutical products,
manufacturing processes used for almost every mass-produced product,
and the use of computers and computer chips in products we use every
day.The environmental scanning techniques discussed in the previous
section can provide data on potential technological innovations.
175
To appreciate how important technological forecasting can be, consider

what has happened in the recorded music industry. Look at the
merchandise in any music industry today, you will discover that
although customers still wanted to listen to music, but they preferred a
new technology: compact disks. The record companies that correctly
forecasted this technology and foresaw its impact on their business were
able to convert their production facilities, adopt the technology, and beat
their competition to the music store racks. Ironically, CDs are
increasingly under attack from digital tape technology. Again, those in
the music recording business who accurately forecast when, or if, digital
tape technology will become the preferred music medium are likely to
score big in the market.
3.5 Forecasting Techniques
Forecasting techniques fall into two categories: quantitative and

qualitative. Quantitative forecasting applies a set of mathematical rules
to a series of past data to predict outcomes. These techniques are
preferred when management has sufficient “hard” data that can be used.
Qualitative forecasting, in contrast, uses the judgement and opinions of
knowledgeable experts. Qualitative techniques typically are used when
precise data are limited or hard to obtain. Table 4.1 lists some of the best
known quantitative and qualitative forecasting techniques.
One of the newest twists in forecasting uses internet-based software and

is called CFAR, which stands for collaborative forecasting and
replacement (Verity, 1996). CFAR offers a standardised way for
retailers and manufacturers to work together (collaborate) on forecasts
by using the internet to exchange numbers. Each organisation relies on
its own data about past sales trends, promotion plans, and other factors
to calculate a demand forecast for a particular product. If the
organisations‟ forecasts differ by a certain amount (say, 10 per cent), the
retailer and manufacturer use the internet link to exchange more data
and written comments until they arrive at a single and more accurate
forecast. This mutual and collaborative forecasting helps both
organisations to do a better job of planning.
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Table 4.1: Forecasting Techniques
Technique Description Application

Quantitative:
Time series Fits a trend line to a redicting next quarter‟s
analysis mathematical equation and sales on the basis of four
projects into the future by years of previous sales
means of this equation. data.
Regression models Predicts one variable on Seeking factors that will
the basis of known or predict a certain level of
assumed other variables. sales (for example, price,
and adverting
expenditure).
Econometric Uses a set of regression Predicting change in car
models equations to simulate sales as a result of changes
segments of the economy. in tax laws.
Economic Uses one or more Using change in GDP to
indicators economic indicators to predict discretionary
predict a future state of the income.
economy.
Substitution effect Uses a mathematical Predicting the effect of
formula to predict how, microwave ovens on the
when, and under what sale of conventional ovens.
circumstances a new
product or technology will
replace an existing one.
Qualitative:
Jury of opinion Combines and averages the olling all the company‟s
opinions of experts. human resource managers
to predict next year‟s
college recruitment needs.
Sales force Combines estimates from redicting next year‟s sales
composition field sales personnel of of industrial lasers.
customers‟ expected
purchases.
Customer Combines estimates from Surveying of major dealers
evaluation established purchases. by a car manufacturer to
determine types and
quantities of products
desired.
Source: Robbins, S.P. and Coulter, M. (1999). Management. (2nd

ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River,
07458.
3.6 Forecasting Effectiveness
Despite the importance of forecasting to strategic planning, managers

have had mixed success in forecasting trends and outcomes. Forecasting
177
techniques are most accurate when the environment is not rapidly

changing. The more dynamic the environment, the more likely managers
are to develop inaccurate forecasts. Forecasting also is relatively
unimpressive in predicting non-seasonal events such as recessions,
unusual occurrences, discontinued operations, and the actions or
reactions of competitors.
Although forecasting has a mixed record, various research studies have

proposed some suggestions for improving forecasting effectiveness
(Pant and Starbuck, 1990). First, use simple forecasting techniques.
Simple forecasting techniques tend to be effective, and often better than
complex methods, which tend to mistakenly confuse random data for
meaningful information. A no-change forecast is accurate approximately
half the time. Third, do not rely on a single forecasting method. Make
forecasts with several models and average them, especially when
making long-range forecasts. Fourth, do not assume that you can
accurately identify turning points in a trend. What is typically perceived
as a significant turning point often turns out to be an unusual random
event. And fifth, shorten the length of forecasts to improve their
accuracy because accuracy decreases as the period you are trying to
predict increases.
3.7 Benchmarking
This is another strategic planning tool. It is the search for the best
practices among competitors or non-competitors that lead to their
superior performance (Weimer, 1992). The basic idea behind
benchmarking is that managers can improve quality by analyzing and
then copying the methods of the leaders in various fields. Even small
companies are finding that benchmarking can bring big benefits. As
such, benchmarking is a very specific form of environmental scanning.
Weimer (1992) recalled that Xerox Corporation was widely as the first
US Company to systematically attempt benchmarking. According to
him, before 1979, Japanese firms had been aggressively copying the
successes of others by travelling around the world, watching what others
were doing, then applying their new knowledge to improve their
products and processes. Xerox‟s management couldn‟t discover how
Japanese manufacturers could sell midsized copiers in the United States
for considerably less than Xerox‟s production costs. So the company‟s
head of manufacturing took a team to Japan to make a detailed study of
their competitors‟ costs and processes. They got most of their
information from Xerox‟s own joint venture partner, Fuji-Xerox,
because it knew the competition well. What the team found was
shocking. Their Japanese rivals were light-years ahead of Xerox in
efficiency. Benchmarking those efficiencies marked the beginning of
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Xerox‟s turnaround in the copier industry. Today, in addition Xerox,

companies such as AT&T, DuPont, Ford, Kodak, and Motorola use
benchmarking as a standard tool in their quest for performance
improvement. In fact, some companies have chosen some pretty unusual
benchmarking partners.
From the above discussion, it could be seen that benchmarking means

spying the products and processes of others in order improve one‟s own
product and process.
Benchmarking involves four steps, namely:
1. The organisation forms a benchmarking planning team. The

team‟s initial task is to identify what is to be benchmarked,
identify comparative organisations, and determine data collection
method.
2. The team collects data internally on its own operations and
externally from other organisations.
3. The data are analysed to identify performance gaps and to
determine the cause of differences.
4. An action plan is prepared and implemented that will result in
meeting or exceeding the standards of others.
The steps are illustrated graphically below in figure 4.1.
Fig. 4.1: Steps in Benchmarking
Source: Based on Shetty, Y.K. (1993). “Aiming High Competitive

Benchmarking for Superior erformance”, Long Range
Planning, February, p. 42
179
4.0 CONCLUSION
Forecasting means predictions of future outcomes. It is predicated on

environmental scanning. Planning premises are the anticipated
environment in which plans are expected to operate. They include
assumptions or forecasts of the future and known conditions that will
affect the operation of plans.
A forecast to determine future business conditions, sales volume, or

political environment furnishes premises on which to develop plans.
However forecast of the costs or revenues from a new capital investment
translates a planning programme into future expectations. In the first
case the forecast is prerequisite of planning while in the second, the
forest is a result of planning.
More recently, environmental forecasting has become important. One

approach to forecasting is the Delphi technique developed by the RAND
Corporation. There are mainly two types of forecasts, viz: revenues
forecast and technological forecast.
Forecasting techniques fall into two categories, namely: quantitative and

qualitative. The quantitative forecasting applies a set of mathematical
rules to a series of past data to predict outcomes. This technique is
preferred by management when there is sufficient “hard” data that can
be used to take a decision. In contrast, qualitative forecasting uses the
judgement and opinions of knowledgeable experts and is mostly used
when there is dearth of data or information.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have defined forecasting, premising and benchmarking.

We also enumerated and explained the various types of forecasting,
differentiated between forecasting and premising, explained what is
meant by environmental forecasting, and listed ways by which
forecasting can be made effective.
i. How effective is forecasting as a planning technique?

ii. Describe the different types of forecasting.
iii. What does the benchmarking process involve?
iv. Differentiate between forecasting and planning premise.
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Drucker, . (2001). “The ext Society A Survey of the ear Future.” The
Economist, November 3, pp. 3 – 20.

Hornby, A.S. (2006). Oxford Advanced Learner‟s Dictionary of Current

English. (6th ed.). Oxford: University Press.
Verity, J.W. (1996). “Clearing the Cobwebs from the Stockroom.”

Business Week, October 21, p. 140.
Glassman, J.K. (1990). “The Year of Gazing Dangerously.” Business

Month, March, pp. 13 – 14.
Fisher, A.B. (1990). “Is Long-Range lanning Worth It?” Fortune, April
23, pp. 281 – 284.
Schwartz, P. (1991). The Art of the Long View. New York:

Doubleday/Currency.
Davis, S. (1993). “Twenty Tips for Developing 20/0 Vision for

Business.” Journal of Management Development, September, pp.
15 – 20.
Hamel, G. & rahalad, C.K. (1994). “Competing for the Future.” Harvard
Business Review, July – August, pp. 122 – 128.
Pant, P.N. & Starbuck, W.H. (1990). “Innocents in the Forest

Forecasting and Research Methods.” Journal of Management,
June, pp. 433 – 460.
Weimer, A. (1992). “Benchmarking Maps the Route to Quality.”

Industry Week, July 20, pp. 54 – 55.
181
UNIT 5 THE ROLE OF CORPORATE PLANNERS IN

AN ORGANISATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Who is a Corporate Planner?
3.2 Functions of a Corporate Planner
3.3 The Role of a Corporate Planner in a Functional
Organisation
3.4 The Role of Marketing Planning in the Context of
Corporate Planning
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, we focused on forecasting and premising. We explained

what is meant by environmental forecasting, and listed ways by which
forecasting can be made effective.
In this unit, we shall dwell extensively on the role of a corporate planner
in functional organisations. We would also consider the role of
marketing planning in the context of corporate planning.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
  define a corporate planner

 state the role of a corporate planner
  enumerate the functions of corporate planner in an organisation
 discuss the role of marketing planning in the context of corporate
planning.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Who is a Corporate Planner?
A corporate planner is an expert or professional who is responsible for

creating and distributing travel itineraries, meeting handouts,
presentation materials, event invitations and all other written
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documentation associated with the meeting or event in an organisation.

The corporate planner is also responsible for securing all of the relevant
equipment for the meeting or convention. This may include projectors,
commuters, overhead screens, presentation boards and any other
specialty devices.
3.2 Functions of a Corporate Planner
Corporate planners perform a wide variety of job functions. They act in

a capacity similar to an executive administrative assistant without the
extensive phone answering and note-taking duties. The corporate
planner position varies greatly from company to company. Furthermore,
corporate planner job titles are often given to employees that have very
different job duties than a traditional corporate planner.
Corporate planners generally report directly to a senior level manager or

executive. They are responsible for planning all of the manager‟s
meetings and engagements. This includes all travel plans, bookings and
attendees. The corporate planner may report to more than one manager
or to a department. The planner is responsible for securing space,
conference rooms, convention centers and other services for all major
engagements. The planner would be responsible for notifying the
attendees.
Corporate planners are also assigned direct duties in relation to their

assigned senior manager or executive. The corporate planner is
responsible for notifying her manager of board meeting and corporate
meetings. The planner is responsible for booking all of the manager's
individual, company related travel, and organising the trip from the
hotel and transportation to the itinerary. In addition to travel and
meeting, the planner is responsible for briefing her manager on all new
projects and business developments.
3.3 The Role of a Corporate Planner in a Functional

Organisation
Corporate planning is a specialist function and a corporate planner has

responsibilities in his/her expert field to offer advice to those who have
direct responsibilities for carrying the main operations such as the
production manager, sales manager, and so on. A corporate planner may
be a quality controller whose responsibility to ensure that at different
stages of the production processes standard was strictly observed to
ensure that the finished product conform to specification.
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3.4 The Role of Marketing Planning in the Context of

Corporate Planning
Corporate planning or strategic company planning comprises the

following sequential steps (Lancaster, 2010).
 Mission statement (or defining the company mission) has an

influence on all planning throughout the organisation, for it is a
statement of the company‟s overall business philosophy. It is
normally a set of guidelines, rather than something that is stated
 in hard and fast quantitative terms.
 Situational analysis means evaluating external and internal
 factors that will affect the planning process and asks the question
“Where are we now?” This means researching and analysing all
information that might have a bearing on the organisation and its
operations, from internal factors like individual departmental
company resources, to external factors like current political
 events that might impinge on the activities of the company.
 Set organisational objectives require company management to
put forward guidance as to how the company should fulfill its
mission and this clarifies where the company wants to be. These,
unlike the mission statement, should be expressed in achievable
 quantitative terms.
 Choose strategies to achieve these objectives which are the
concrete ideas that set about achieving company objectives and
they relate to how the mission will be accomplished.
It is from this latter point that we can then start to plan strategically and
tactically for marketing, as can other major divisions of the organisation,
which include finance, production, human resource management and
distribution. The function entrusted with bringing all of these separate
planning functions together is termed corporate planning, and it is up to
the person entrusted with corporate planning to ensure that one
department‟s plans are in harmony with other departments‟ plans, and
that they all work towards achieving the overall organisational
objectives.
In forward thinking organisations, the managing director or chief

executive is the corporate planner and in such an event, strategic
planning is seen to be at the core of managerial activity, for it is this
activity that drives the organisation. However, all too often, it is the case
that as strategic planning concerns the longer term future, it can be push
to one side in the interests of dealing with everyday tactical matters. To
this extent, in larger organisations, corporate planning is often set up as
a separate function reporting directly to top management, with the
specific remit of bringing together and synergising all
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individual departmental plans into the final corporate plan. Corporate

planning is placed directly under top management in what is called a
“staff” relationship, but is not a “line” relationship that is in the line of
command of the company from the board of directors downwards (that
is, it is not alongside marketing management in terms of the hierarchical
structure).
(1) An Overview of Marketing Planning
Strategic marketing planning is the application of a number of logical

steps in the planning process. There is no one clear formula that must
always be applied and indeed one specific model would not suit every
marketing planning situation. Different textbooks also cite slightly
different models that are a variation on a similar general theme. The
steps involved in strategic planning include the following.
(a) Situational Analysis
The mission statement has already been explained, but the next stage
that relates to an analysis of the current situation is now explained for it
has two inputs. The first input relates to the organisation‟s macro
environment and these are factors over which the company has little or
no control. They are listed under four separate headings: Political;
Economic; Socio-cultural and Technological and are known by the
acronym “ EST.” Added to these factors, some marketing planners also
add “Legal”(the acronym then being SLE T) and some add
“Competition,” if these are felt to be specific issues. This is the external
audit part of what is called the company audit. From this external audit a
number of short statements are made in respect of each of the P.E.S.T. +
C + L sub-divisions. The statements do not have to be justified, as they
are mere observations that will help formulate more detailed plans at a
later stage. Even more recently, some analysts have added both “Legal”
and “Environmental” (making the acronym ESTLE).
The next part concerns what is called the company audit, or in corporate
planning terms, the internal audit. This looks at the individual
capabilities of the company, SBU by SBU, and again short statements or
observations are made that do not have to be justified. These two actions
are called the corporate auditing process and they go up to form the
situational analysis. Marketing‟s part of this total corporate auditing
procedure is termed the “marketing audit” and it is included here as part
of marketing planning because it forms the beginning of the marketing
planning process.
185
(b) SWOT Analysis
The SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats) analysis is an

attempt to translate company specific factors from the company audit
into company strengths and weaknesses plus external environmental
factors (from the PEST analysis) into external opportunities and threats.
As was the case with the PEST analysis, no attempt should be made to
justify the points being placed in each of the categories as it is meant as
a statement which will assist marketing planning in the later stages.
In terms of its presentation, the SWOT analysis is normally put into a

four box matrix with internal strengths and weaknesses being listed in
the top two boxes and external opportunities and threats being listed in
the lower two boxes. Experience has shown that for most companies,
ranging from the very large to the very small, the number of strengths
and weaknesses is around 10 - 15 each and the number of opportunities
and threats is about five - 12 each. Any less normally indicates that the
SWOT is incomplete and more indicates that a number of points are
being repeated in different words.
(c) Marketing Objectives
These are concerned with what is to be achieved, unlike strategies that

are referred to as the means of achieving objectives. These objectives
are obtained from corporate level strategies and should be very specific.
An acronym used in this context is that marketing objectives should be
“SMART” - which stands for: specific; measurable; achievable; realistic
and timely.
An objective must, therefore, have some kind of measurable

characteristic which might relate to a standard of performance like a
percentage level of profit or a situation that has to be achieved like
penetrating a specific market.
(d) Forecast Market Potential
This is a stage in which lot of marketing planning texts seem to miss. It

is illogical really, for without a forecast of the market potential, a
company does not really know for what it should be making its plans.
Forecasting is at the very base of company planning, and it is for
medium and long term planning horizons that medium and long term
sales forecasts are needed.
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(e) Generate Marketing Strategies
Strategies are of course the means through which marketing objectives

can be achieved. They are meant to detail selected approaches that the
company will use to achieve its objectives.
Determining strategies leads to a series of action statements that are

clear sets of steps to be followed to achieve the objectives. Operational
decisions then spill out of these marketing strategies and these form the
tactical foundations of the detailed marketing mix programmes.
(f) Assumptions and Contingency Plans
Assumptions relate to external factors over which the company has little
control. These should be stated as a series of points that relate to, and
which preface, the make-up of the detailed marketing mix plans in the
next stage. Assumptions should be as few as possible and if they are not
needed then they should not be introduced.
For each assumption, a contingency plan should be formulated so that in

the case of an assumption being wrong, the appropriate contingency plan
can be brought in. At this stage, contingency plans should not be
detailed. They will only consist of a sentence or two that are merely
directional plans to be implemented if assumptions are incorrect in
practice.
(g) Detailed Marketing Mix Programmes
This part of the plan enables the organisation to satisfy the needs of its
target markets and to achieve its marketing objectives. This indeed is
what comprises the bulk of an organisation‟s marketing efforts. The first
part of this programme is to determine the marketing mix, and here
detailed consideration must be given to each of the areas of the “four s”
together with customer considerations in terms of segmentation,
targeting and positioning. All ingredients of the marketing mix must be
combined in an optimum way so that they work together to achieve
company objectives. This part of the plan is concerned with who will do
what and how it will be done. In this way, responsibility, accountability
and action over a specific time period can be planned, scheduled,
implemented and reviewed.
As this is an action plan, the time period must be realistic. Most plans
are for a period of one year, that is, the conventional planning period
horizon. A plan must also contain time scales, which detail marketing
activities normally on a month by month, or a quarter by quarter basis
and indeed timing is addressed in the plan after the resourcing section.
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This is not to say that marketing planning should not be for longer than
one year; it is normally the case that long-term issues are also addressed
in the marketing plan. Long-term will have different meanings for
different industries. In the case of modern electronics, long-term is
probably not longer than three years, whereas in steel production long-
term can mean 10 years or more.
When long-term planning is addressed as part of a marketing plan, then

all that can be realistically put forward is a directional marketing plan.
To plan in terms of month by month expectations, for instance, five
years, would cause the plan to be spuriously unrealistic, and when
reality proved the plan to be hopelessly incorrect, then confidence might
well be lost in the planning process. Many companies do have rolling
plans that are modified in the light of what actually happened. As one
planning period finishes (one month, one quarter, one year) the rolling
plan will be modified in the light of what has happened, and a further
planning period will be added on to the end of the plan.
An area of marketing planning that deserves specific attention here is

that of attaining the sales revenues that have been forecasted as part of
the planning process. Put in practical terms, the sales forecast has
predicted the amount of sales that are possible, and budgeting (dealt
with in the next section) will determine the expenditure available
towards achieving this forecast. It does not, therefore, follow that the
forecasted sales are intended to be exactly achieved in practice.
Individual members of the field sales force will each have been given
sales targets or quotas to reach, and the summation of all of these targets
or quotas should equate to the budgeted for sales that each sales person
must achieve towards reaching the planned for sales. This is why many
sales personnel refer to their sales target or quota as their sales budget,
which is not an expenditure limit. It is in fact a reference to the amount
they must sell in order to satisfy the sales volume requirements of the
marketing plan.
We have, of course, only considered “product;” thus, similar

considerations need to be made in relation to other parts of the
marketing mix. This part of the marketing plan is the largest section, and
often this section, plus its various marketing mix sub-sections, is bigger
than the rest of the plan put together.
(h) Budget Resources and Staffing
Now that detailed decisions have been made in relation to the different
elements of the marketing mix, the next stage of the programme is to
prepare the budget. Organisations have many demands on their limited
resources, and it is this final balancing act that is the responsibility of
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corporate planning. Budgeting covers not only general marketing

expenditure, but also salaries and expenses for staffing. If the plan calls
for an increase in sales and market share, then this will normally have
resource implications for the marketing department, perhaps in terms of
more representation or increased advertising costs.
At this budgeting stage, plans are sometimes modified in the light of

reality, and the initial marketing objectives might well have to be
modified as a result. Practical financial considerations might well cause
the organisation to tone down its original marketing objectives.
(i) Time Scales
This normally takes the form of a Gantt chart which places time along
the top and activities down the side.
(j) Implement the Plan
At this stage, the plan is now put into action within the predetermined
budget and resource parameters, and along the time scale that has been
agreed. More importantly, those who will carry out the plan should be
informed of its details and know the part they must play within its
implementation to ensure its success. In fact this section would not
really be addressed in a planning document as it is self-evident, but it is
shown as the “doing” part of the planning process.
(k) Measure and Control
A marketing plan cannot be operated without some measure to monitor-

measure and control its progress. A system of controls should be
established whereby the plan is reviewed on a regular and controlled
basis and then updated as circumstances change. Such controls can
address the tactics in terms of sales analyses that will commence with a
comparison of budgeted sales revenue against actual sales revenue.
Variations might be due to volume or price variances - perhaps an
unfavourable variance being due to having to cut prices to match the
tactical actions of competitors.
The marketing information system provides key inputs to the marketing

planning. This information comes from market intelligence, marketing
research and the organisation‟s internal accounting system. This
information then inputs into the marketing plan. It is also control
mechanism, because customer reactions are also fed into this MkIS from
market intelligence through the field sales force or from marketing
research studies. Information on sales analyses is also fed into the
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system so assessments can be made as to whether forecasted sales are

being achieved or not.
As the planning horizon unfolds and plans do not go exactly as

anticipated, action can be then taken as required. These measures of
performance allow planners an opportunity to adjust and fine tune plans
as necessary during the planning period.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In any well-ordered modern company, managers have a duty to plan,

organise, direct and control the activities of those for whom they have
taken responsibility. The meaning and relevance of strategic and tactical
marketing planning in an ordered framework of structures has been
investigated. This has shown that planning is a practical activity that
should be approached in a professional manner; as such plans will give
guidance not only to top management, but also to those whose task it is
to carry out such plans. More to the point, an ordered planning system
will give more security to an organisation in terms of its vision and the
image it presents to both its internal employees and to the outside world.
5.0 SUMMARY
 defined a corporate planner

 stated the role of a corporate planner
  enumerated the functions of corporate planner in an organisation
 discussed the role of marketing planning in the context of
corporate planning.
i. What are the logical steps in marketing planning? List them and
explain.
ii. Who is a corporate planner and what are his functions?
http://www.ehow.com/about_5483596_corporate-planner-job
description.html#ixzz1h5fPZGlY
Geoff Lancaster (2010). Marketing Planning, [email protected]
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MODULE 3 PLANNING TOOLS AND

TECHNIQUES
Unit 1 Operational Planning Tools I – Budgets

Unit 2 Operational Planning Tools II
Unit 3 Operational Planning Tools III
Unit 4 Operational Planning Tools IV
Unit 5 The Portfolio Matrix: A Tool for Allocating Resources
UNIT 1 BUDGETS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Budget
3.2.1 Advantages of Budgeting
3.2.2 Disadvantages of Budgeting
3.2 Importance of Budgets
3.3 Types of Budgets
3.3.1 Revenue Budget
3.3.2 Expense Budget
3.3.3 Profit Budget
3.3.4 Cash Budget
3.3.5 Capital Expenditure Budget
3.3 6 Operating Budget
3.3.7 Master/Comprehensive Budget
3.3.8 Financial Budget
3.4 Classification of Budget
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, we discussed corporate planner extensively. In this unit,

we shall examine budgets as one of the vital planning tool techniques
for managers in an organisation.
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2.0 OBJECTIVES
 define budget
 enumerate the types of budgets
 classify budgets into variable and fixed
  discuss the importance of budget
 list and discuss the various methods for capital investment
criterion.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Budget
Most of us have had some experience, as limited as it might be, with

budget. We probably learnt about them at a very early stage when we
discovered that unless we allocated our “revenues” carefully, our
weekly allowance was gone before the week was half.
A budget, according to Robbins and Coulter (1999), is a numerical plan

for allocating resources to specific activities. Managers typically prepare
budgets for revenues, expenses, and large capital expenditures such as
machinery and equipment. It‟s not unusual, though, for budgets to be
used for improving time, space, and the use of material resources. For
instance budgets can be provided for on daily basis for such items as
person-hours, capacity utilisation, or units of production and other
monthly activities.
Pandey (1979) also defined budget is a comprehensive and coordinated

plan, expressed in financial terms, for the operations and resources
allocation of an enterprise for some specific period in the future. It I also
a systematic and formalised approach for stating and communicating the
firm‟s expectations and accomplishing the planning, coordination and
control responsibilities of management in such a way as to maximise a
given resources to realise objectives.
Inua (2011) stated that a formal definition of budget as “a quantitative

statement for a defined period of time, which may include planned
revenues, expenses, assets, liabilities and cash flows. A budget provides
a focus for the organisation aids the coordination of activities and
facilitates control.
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3.2 Importance of Budgets
A budget is a tool that helps managers in both their planning and control
functions. Interestingly, budgets help managers with their control
function, not only by looking forward, but also by looking backward.
Budgets deal with what managers‟ plan for the future. However, they
can also be used to evaluate what happened in the past. Budgets can be
used as a benchmark that allows managers to compare actual
performance with estimated or desired performance. From the
foregoing, we can say that a budget is a formal business plan. Planning
and budgeting are especially important to keep an organisation going.
Most business organisations use budgets to focus attention on the

company operations and finances, not just to serve as a limit to
spending. Budgets highlight potential problems and advantages early,
allowing managers to take steps to avoid these problems or use the
advantages wisely (Inua, 2011).
Budgets are probably popular because they are applicable to a wide

variety of organisations and units within an organisation. We live in a
world in which almost everything is expressed in monetary units. It
seems logical, then, that monetary budgets would be a useful tool for
directing activities in such diverse departments as production and
marketing research or at various levels in an organisation. Budgets are
one planning device that most managers, regardless of organisational
level, help formulate.
Recent surveys show just how valuable budgets can be. Study after
study has shown the budget to be the most widely used and highest rated
tool for cost reduction and control. Advocates of budgeting go so far as
to claim that the process of budgeting forces a manager to become a
better administrator and puts planning in the forefront of the manager‟s
word. Actually, many seemingly healthy businesses have died because
managers failed to draw up, monitor and adjust budgets to changing
conditions.
Budgets are used to distribute funds and other resources among different
users departments on the bases of priorities of programmes and projects.
Other importance of budget according to Inua (2011) includes:
(1) acting as a target

(2) acting as a plan
(3) being a control measure
(4) a means of motivating managers
(5) acting as a device for measuring performance
(6) promoting a goal congruence
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(7) acting as a medium of communication and coordination

(8) acting as a framework for the delegation of authority and so on.
3.2.1 Advantages of Budgeting
The advantages of budgeting are as listed below.
1. It is the major formal way in which the organisational objectives

are translated into specific plans, tasks and objectives related to
the individual managers and supervisors.
2. It is an important medium of communication for organisational
plans and objectives, and of monitoring the progress towards
meeting those objectives.
3. The development of budgets helps to achieve coordination
between the various departments and functions of the
organisation.
4. The involvement of all levels of management with setting
budgets, the acceptance of defined targets, the two-way flow of
information and the facets of a properly organised budgeting
system will help to promote a coalition of interest and to increase
motivation.
5. Management‟s time can be saved and attention directed to areas
of most concern by the “exception principle,” which is at the
heart of the budgetary control.
6. Performance of all levels is systematically reported and
monitored thus aiding the control of current activities.
7. The investigation of operations and procedures which is part of
budgeting, planning and the subsequent monitoring of
expenditure, may lead to reduced costs and greater efficiency.
3.2.2 Disadvantages of Budgeting
Inua (2001) listed the difficulties which may occur in connection with
budgeting as follows.
1. There may be too much reliance on the technique as a substitute

for good management.
2. The budgeting system, perhaps because of undue pressure or poor
human relations, may cause antagonism and decrease motivation.
3. Variances are just as frequently due to changing circumstances,
poor forecasting or general uncertainties and due to managerial
performance.
4. Budgets are developed round existing organisational structures
and departments which may be inappropriate for current
conditions and may not reflect the underlying economic realities.
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5. The very existence of well-documented plans and budgets may

cause inertia and lack of flexibility in adapting to change.
6. There are inherent lags and delays in the system.
3.3 Types of Budgets
Budgets can be used for a number of areas or items. We are going to

look at the ones managers are most likely to use. They include:
 revenue budget
 expense budget
 profit budget
 cash budget
 capital expenditure budget
 operating budget
 master/comprehensive budget
 financial budget
3.3.1 Revenue Budget
The revenue budget is a specific type of revenue forecast. It is a budget

that projects future sales. If the organisation could be sure of selling
everything it produced, revenue budgets would be very accurate.
Managers would need only to multiply the sale price of each product by
the quantity it could produce. However, such situations rarely exist.
Managers must take into account their competitors‟ actions, planned
advertising expenditures, sales force effectiveness, and other relevant
factors and make an estimate of sale volume. In addition, based on the
estimates of product demand at various prices, managers must select an
appropriate sales price. Then they multiply sales volume by sales price
for each product to get the revenue budget.
3.3.2 Expense Budget
Whereas revenue budgets are essentially a planning device for

marketing and sales activities, expenses budgets are found in all units of
profit and non-profit organisations. Expense budgets list the primary
activities undertaken by a unit to achieve its goals and allocate an
amount to each. Lower expenses, when accompanied by stable quantity
and quality of output, lead to greater efficiency.
In times of intense competition, economic recession, or the like, managers

typically look first at the expense budget as a place to make reduction and
improve economic inefficiencies. Because not all expenses are linked to
volume, they do not decline at the same rate when
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product demand drops. Managers pay particular attention to their so

called fixed expenses – those that remains relatively unchanged
regardless of volume. As production levels fall, the variable expenses
tend to control themselves because they decrease with volume.
3.3.3 Profit Budget
Organisational units that have easily determined revenues are often

designated as profit centres and use profit budgets for planning and
controlling. Profit budgets combine revenue and expense budgets into
one. They are typically used in large organisations that have multiple
facilities and divisions.
Each manufacturing plant, for instance, might measure its monthly

expenses (including a charge for corporate overhead) against its monthly
revenues. In fact, some organisations create artificial profit centres by
developing transfer prices for intra-organisational transactions. For
instance, the exploration division of a multinational company such as
Texaco produces oil only for Texaco‟s refining division, so the
exploration unit has no “real” sales. However, Texaco turned the
exploration unit into a profit centre by establishing prices for each barrel
of oil the division drills and then “sells” to the refining division.
The internal transfers create revenue and allow managers in that division
to formulate and be evaluated against their profit budget.
3.3.4 Cash Budget
Cash budgets are forecasts of how much cash the organisation will have
on hand and how much it will meet its expenses. The budget can reveal
potential cash flow shortages or surpluses. This will in turn allow the
organisation to take decisions on how to profitably reinvest excess cash
and or request for cash to meet daily operations if a deficit is apparent.
3.3.5 Capital Expenditure Budget
Investments in property, buildings, and major equipment are called

capital expenditures. These are typically substantial expenditures in
terms of both magnitude and duration. The magnitude and duration of
these investments justify the development of separate budgets for capital
expenditures. Such capital expenditure budgets allow managers to
forecast future capital requirements, to keep on top of important capital
projects, and to ensure that adequate cash is available to meet these
expenditures as they become due.
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Still on capital expenditure budgets, every company needs to decide

where and how to spend its money on major projects that will affect its
financial results for years to come. Such decisions require investments
of large amounts of resources (capital) that are often called capital
outlays. The term “capital budgeting” describes the long-term planning
for making and financing such outlays.
Capital budgeting according to Inua (2011) has three phases, these are:
(1) identification of potential investments

(2) choosing which investments to make (which includes gathering
data to aid the decision); and
(3) follow-up monitoring of these investments.
Usually, accountants are only involved in the second and third phases.
The question is “Why are accountants involved in capital budgeting
decisions?” This is because they function primarily as information
specialists. As you know, one of the purposes of a cost management
system is to provide cost measurement for strategic decisions such as
major capital budgeting decisions.
Accountants will gather and interpret as much information as possible to

help management to make such decisions. To help organise what could
be pages and pages worth of information, accountants rely on capital
budgeting models. Let us look at how some of these models work.
For planning purposes, the following methods for allocating funds for
capital projects are:
(a) accounting rate of return

(b) payback period
(c) net present value (NPV)
(d) internal rate of return (IRR).
(a) Accounting Rate of Return Method
This method is derived from the concept of Return on Capital Employed

(ROCE) or Return on Investment (ROI) because it measures the ratio of
accounting profits to the accounting investments and evaluates projects
based on this ratio. This is a basic definition only and variations exist in
the definitions as would be seen in the following examples:
 profit may be before or after tax

 capital may or may not include working capital
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 capital invested may mean the initial capital investment or the

average of the capital invested over the life of the project.
The following two ways of determining the ratios are acceptable for
examination purposes:
(i) ARR
= Average annual accounting profit after depreciation, interest

before taxation x 100%
Initial capital invested
Where the initial capital invested is equal to original cost of a new

project or the written down value or net book value of an existing
project. The reason for this assertion is that, since companies are going
concern, there must be replacement of assets, that is, the need for
depreciation.
(ii) ARR
= Average annual accounting profits after depreciation, interest

before taxation x 100%
Average capital invested
Where the average capital invested is equal to initial capital invested

plus scrap value (if any) divided by two. You should note that if a
particular question specifically defines the accounting rate of return,
such definition, as stipulated in the question must be adopted in solving
the question.
Advantages of ARR
1. It is easy to calculate.
2. It makes use of all the profits for all the years of project.
3. For divisionalised companies, managers would find the technique
easier to understand because it is similar to their normal annual
performance evaluation technique.
Disadvantages of ARR
1. It does not recognise the time value of money.

2. It is an average concept and as such will hide the sizes and timing
of the individual cash flow.
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3. It is based on accounting profits which may differ as a result of

differences in accounting methods and does not necessarily
represent relevant cash flows.
4. It recognises depreciation instead of the more relevant capital
allowances.
5. It does not take into consideration the risk associated with each
project as well as the attitude of the management of the company
to risk.
6. There is no unique definition of ARR. For instance, “average
profits” may be profits after depreciation, interest and tax. Initial
investment could be initial investment plus scrap value or just
initial investment.
(b) Payback Period Method
This technique measures projects based on the period over which the
investment pays back itself or the period of recovery of the initial
investment. Payback is defined as the period usually expressed in years,
in which the cash outflows will equate the cash inflows from a project.
It is evident that this method pays attention to the shortness of the

project, which is, the shorter the period of recovery of initial outlay, the
more acceptable the project becomes and this constitutes the decision
rule.
Illustration
Kaura Investment Limited has a project which involves immediate cash

outlay of N100, 000.00. The company estimates that the net cash
inflows from the project will be as follows:
Year Cash flow ( N )
1 20,000.00
2 20,000.00
3 140,000.00
4 40,000.00
Calculate the payback period for the above project.
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Solution:
Kaura Investment Limited – Investment Appraisal
Year Cash flow ( N ) Consecutive Cash flows
0 (100,000.00) (100,000.00)
1 40,000.00 (60,000.00)
2 80,000.00 20,000.00
3 60,000.00 80,000.00
4 40,000.00
Payback period = 2 years + 120,000 x 12 months

100,000
= 2 years + 14.4 months ≈ 3 years 2.4 months
Decision Rules
(a) Using the payback method, accept all projects whose payback
period are shorter than the company‟s predetermined minimum
acceptable payback period.
(b) If mutually exclusive projects are involved, whereby only one of
the projects can be undertaken and others rejected, the rule is to
accept the project with the shortest payback period.
Advantages of Payback Period
(1) It is simple to calculate and understand.

(2) It is the least of all the methods of capital budgeting in exposing
the firm to problems of uncertainty, since it focuses on shortness
of project to pay back the initial outlay.
(3) It is a fast screening technique, especially for the firms that have
liquidity problems.
Disadvantages of Payback Period
(1) It does not incorporate time value of money, that is, it does not
recognise the fact that the value of N1.00 today will be far more
than the value of N1.00 in two or three years‟ time. This
constitutes the alternative forgone of money due to passage of
time and not inflation.
(2) It ignores cash flows after the payback period.
(3) It does not take into account the risks associated with each
project and the attitude of the company to risk.
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(c) Net Present Value Method (NPV)
The net present value is a summation of all discounted cash flows

(present value) associated with a project. The NPV method computes
the present value of all expected future cash flows using a minimum
desired rate of return. The minimum rate of return depends on the risk of
a proposed project – the higher the risk, the higher the rate. Based on the
cost of capital (what the firm pays to acquire more capital), managers
determine the sum of the present values of all expected cash flows from
the project.
You should note that cost of capital is also called required rate of return,
hurdle rate or discount rate. If the sum of the present values of all
expected cash flows from the project is positive, the project is desirable.
If the sum is negative, the project is undesirable.
A positive NPV means that accepting the project will increase the value
of the firm because the present value of the project‟s cash inflows
exceeds the present value of its cash outflows. When choosing among
several investments, managers should pick the one with the greatest net
present value.
Decision Rules
(a) Accept all projects that produce positive net present value.
(b) If mutually exclusive projects are involved, the rule is to accept
the project that produces the highest positive net present value.
Advantages of NPV
(1) The time value of money is recognised.

(2) It measures, in absolute terms (N value), the increase in the
wealth of the shareholders.
(3) It is additive, in that decisions can be reached on a combination
of projects, through the addition of their respective NPVs.
(4) Unlike the payback period, NPV measures projects by the
utilisation of all cash flows of the project.
(5) It is more preferable to internal rate of return (IRR) in decisions
under capital rationing, that is, shortage of investment funds.
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Disadvantages of NPV
(1) It is more difficult to calculate than payback and accounting rate

of return.
(2) It relies heavily on the correct estimation of the cost of capital.
Where errors occur in the cost of capital used for discounting
decision, using the NPV would be misleading.
(3) Unlike the IRR, non-accounting managers may not be conversant
with the decision rule of NPV, especially in large decentralised
organisations.
(4) Like all the other methods, it does not take risk into account.
(5) It ignores inflation.
(d) Internal Rate of Return (IRR) Method
The IRR is that cost of capital that will produce an NPV of zero if
applied to a project. It is a breakeven point cost of capital. It is also the
cost of capital that will equate the cash inflows of a project with the cash
outflows of that project. In order to generate the cost of capital that will
produce exactly zero NPV, the following procedures may be followed.
(1) Generate two opposite values of NPV (+ and – values) using two
different discount rates earlier.
(2) Interpolate between the two discount rates generated in (1) above,
in order to estimate the cost of capital that will produce an NPV
of zero.
(3) The interpolation formulae can be defined as:
IR = R1 + NPV 1 x R2 – R 1
(NPV1 + NPV2)
Where R1 is the lower cost of capital that generates positive NPV1,
and R2 is the highest cost of capital that generates negative NPV2.
You should note that the absolute value of the negative NPV is what is
used in the computation.
Decision Rules
(a) Using the IRR technique, the rule is to accept all projects whose
IRR are greater than the company‟s cost of capital.
(b) If mutually exclusive projects are being considered, the rule is to
accept the project that produces the highest IRR.
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Advantages of IRR
(1) It recognises the time value of money.

(2) It is more attractive to divisional managers in large organisations
since they are used to the return approach in evaluations.
(3) It provides to us a margin of safety in the calculation of a
company‟s cost of capital, that is, it measures all allowable
margin of errors.
Disadvantages of IRR
(1) It is difficult to calculate than the other methods.

(2) Where the cash flows of a project are unconventional, in which
case, cash inflows occur in between cash outflows and vice versa,
the IRR technique will produce more than one IRR for a project.
It can lead to a situation of sub-optimal decision.
(3) Where mutually exclusive projects are being considered, the IRR
may produce a decision that will conflict with the NPV decision
in that the IRR, being a rate of return, does not recognise the size
or scale of project.
(4) A project may produce more than one IRR. This also occurs
when a project has unconventional cash flows.
3.3.6 Operating Budget
Operating budgets allocate resources to various functional programmes

or activities as well as resources for individual responsibility for
example production budget, sales budget, purchasing budget,
advertising budget, training and development budget.
3.3.7 Master/Comprehensive Budget
This is a generic budget, which takes into consideration many changes,

corporate activities and their impact on corporate objectives. It consists
of three important budgets; they are capital budget, operating budget and
financial budget. They all show the total resource allocation of the
organisation.
The master budget, according to Inua (2011), represents a consolidation

of all the supporting budgets and represents the financial effects of the
total plan for the business as a whole. The terms used to describe
specific budget schedules vary from one organisation to another.
However, most master budgets have common elements. The usual
master budget for a non-manufacturing company has the following
components.
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(a) Operating budget
1. Sales budget
2. Purchases budget
3. Cost-of-goods sold budget
4. Operating expenses budget
5. Budgeted income statement
(b) Financial budget
1. Capital budget
2. Cash budget
3. Budgeted balance sheet
In addition to these categories, manufacturing companies that maintain

inventories prepare ending inventory budgets and additional budgets for
each type of resource existing such as labour, materials and factory
overheads.
Each of the parts of the master budget is prepared in the conventional

manner except that budgeted costs, revenues, investments and so on, are
used instead of historical figures.
The two major parts of a master budget are the operating budget and the
financial budget. The operating budget focuses on the income statement
and its supporting schedules. The financial budget focuses on the effects
that the operating budget and other plans such as capital budgets and
repayments of debt will have on cash. In addition to the master budget,
there are countless forms of special budgets and related reports. For
example, a report might detail goals and objectives for improvements in
quality or customer satisfaction during the budget periods.
The master budget, supported by the subsidiary budgets is presented to

top management for approval. If approval is given, the master budget
becomes the financial summary of the agreed plan for the budget period
being considered, usually for the year ahead. If not approved,
amendments are made in underlying budgets (such as the sales budget,
the production budget, and so on) to bring about the desired effects on
the master budget.
3.3.8 Financial Budget
This is the financial implication of resources allocated to various

operations. It consists of expected cash inflows and outflows, financial
position and operating results. Its components include cash budget,
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projected pro-forma balance sheet and income statement, and statement

of changes in financial position of the organisation (sources and
application or uses of funds).
3.4 Classification of Budgets
Budgets can also be classified into variable and fixed budgets. The
budgets just described are based on the assumption of a single specified
volume; that is, they are fixed budgets. They assume a fixed sales or
production volume. Most organisations, however, are not able to predict
volume accurately. Moreover, some costs such as labour, materials, and
some administrative expenses – vary with volume.
Variable budgets are designed to deal with these variations. Because

plans can change, standards need to be flexible to adapt to changes.
Variable budgets represent flexible standards. They can help managers
to better plan costs by specifying cost schedules for varying levels of
volumes.
4.0 CONCLUSION
We learnt from the unit that budgets are a numerical plan for allocating
resources to specific activities. We also learnt that budgets are important
because they are one planning device used by most managers, regardless
of organisational level to guide their day to day operations.
Capital investment decision was described as a firm‟s decision to invest

its current funds in long term activities in anticipation of an expected
flow of future benefits over a number of years. You would also recall
that the capital budgeting models such as: accounting rate of return
(ARR), payback period, net present value (NPV) and internal rate of
return (IRR) were discussed. We stated that:
 accounting rate of return measures the ratio of accounting profits

 to the accounting investments in evaluating projects;
 payback period method measures projects on the basis of the
period over which the investment pays back itself or the period of
 recovery of the initial investment;
 net present value method is a summation of all discounted cash
 flows (present value) associated with a project;
 internal rate of return method is the cost of capital that will
equate the cash inflows of a project with the cash outflows of that
project.
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Finally, we stated that the master budget represents a consolidation of

all the supporting budgets and represents the financial effects of the total
plan for the business as a whole.
5.0 SUMMARY
 defined budget
 enumerated the types of budgets
  classified budgets into variable and fixed
  discussed the importance of budget
 listed and discussed the various methods for capital investment
criterion.
i. What is a master budget?

ii. State five advantages of budgeting.
iii. State four disadvantages of budgeting.
iv. Write short notes on each the following: revenue budget, expense
budget, profit budget, cash budget, capital expenditure budget,
operating budget and master/comprehensive budget.

Inua, O.I. (2011). “Management Accounting.” OU Study Materials

for Undergraduate Programme in Entrepreneurial and Business
Management.
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UNIT 2 OPERATIONAL PLANNING TOOLS II –

SCHEDULING
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Scheduling
3.1.1 Gantt Charts
3.1.2 Load Charts
3.1.3 PERT Network Analysis
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, we defined budget, enumerated the types of budgets,

classified budgets into variable and fixed and discussed the importance
of budget.
In this unit, we shall be looking at the other operational planning tools

available to managers to assist their work in planning for the
organisation. This discussion will dwell on scheduling, Gantt charts,
load charts and PERT network analysis.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 define scheduling
 demonstrate the use of Gantt and load charts
 define and discuss Gantt and load charts
 define PERT network analysis and demonstrate the use of this
tool for operational planning purpose.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Scheduling
Robbins and Coulter (1999) defined scheduling as a list of necessary

activities, their order of accomplishment, who is to do each activity, and
the time needed to complete them. For instance, if you were to observe
207
a group of supervisors or department managers for a few days, you

would see them regularly detailing what activities have to be done, the
order in which they are to be completed, who is to do them and the
timeframe within which to complete the tasks. These managers are
doing what we call scheduling.
The following are the tools under scheduling.
 Gantt charts
  Load charts
 Programme Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)
3.1.2 Gantt Charts
Gantt chart is a scheduling chart which shows actual and planned output
over a period of time. It was developed during the early 1900s by Henry
Gantt, an associate of the scientific management expert, Frederick
Taylor. The idea behind a Gantt chart is simple. It is essentially a bar
graph, with time on the horizontal axis and the activities to be scheduled
on the vertical axis. The bars show output, both planned and actual, and
compare that with the actual progress on each. It is a simple but
important device that allows managers detail easily what has yet to be
done to complete a job or project and to assess whether an activity is
ahead of, behind, or on schedule.
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Activity Months
1 2 3 4
Copyedit manuscript
Design sample pages
Draw artwork
Print galley proofs
Print page proofs
Design cover
Actual progress
Reporting Date
Goals
Figure 2.1: Gantt Chart
Source: Robbins, S.P. & Coulter, M. (1999). Management. (2nd

07458.
Figure 2.1 depicts a simplified Gantt chart that was developed for book
production by a manager in a publishing firm. Time is expressed in
months across the top of the chart. The major activities are listed down
the left side. The planning comes in deciding what activities need to be
done to get the book finished, the order in which those activities need to
be completed, and the time that should be allocated to each activity.
Where a box sits within a timeframe reflects its planned sequence. The
shading represents actual progress. The chart becomes a control tool
when the manager looks for deviations from the plan. In this example,
both the design of the cover and the printing of page proofs are running
behind schedule. Cover design is about three weeks behind, and page
proof printing is about two weeks behind schedule. Given this
information, the manager might need to take some corrective action
either to make up for the two lost weeks or to ensure that no further
209
delay will occur. At this point, the manager can expect that the book will
be published at least two weeks later than planned if no corrective action
is taken.
3.1.2 Load Charts
Robbins and Coulter (1999) defined a load chart as a modified Gantt

chart that schedules capacity by work stations. Instead of listing
activities on the vertical axis, load charts list either whole departments
or specific resources. This arrangement allows managers to plan and
control for capacity use.
Editors Months
1 2 3 4 5 6
Annie
Hal
Kim
Maurice
Dave
Penny
Work scheduled
Fig. 2.2: Load Chart
Source: Robbins, S.P. & Coulter, M. (1999). Management. (2nd

07458.
For example, figure 2.2 shows a load chart for six production editors at
the same publishing firm. Each editor supervises the production and
design of several books. By reviewing a load chart like the one shown in
figure 2.2, the executive editor, who supervises six production editors,
can see who is free to take on a new book. If everyone is fully
scheduled, the executive editor might decide not to accept any new
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projects, to accept new projects and delay others, to make the editors
work overtime, or to employ more production editors. In figure 2.2, only
Hall and Maurice are completely booked for the next six months. The
other editors have some unassigned time, so they might be able to accept
one or more new projects.
3.1.3 Programme Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)

Network Analysis
A technique for scheduling complicated projects comprising many

activities, some of which are interdependent.
Gantt and load charts are useful as long as the activities being scheduled
are few in number and independent of each other. However, what if a
manager had to plan a large project such as unit reorganisation, the
implementation of a cost-reduction campaign, or the development of a
new product that required coordinating inputs from marketing,
production, and product design personnel? Such projects require
coordinating hundreds, and even thousands, of activities, some of which
must be done simultaneously and some of which cannot begin until
earlier activities have been completed.
If you are constructing a building, you obviously cannot start putting up

the walls until the foundation is laid. How, then, can you schedule such
a complex project? The programme evaluation and review technique
(PERT) is highly appropriate for such projects.
PERT network analysis as it is usually called was originally developed

in the late 1950s for coordinating the more than 3,000 contractors and
agencies working on the Polaris submarine weapon system (Fearon,
Ruch, Reuter, Wieters, & Reck, 1986). This project was incredibly
complicated, with hundreds of thousands of activities that had to be
coordinated. PERT is reported to have cut two years off the completion
date for the project.
A PERT network is a flowchart-like diagram that depicts the sequence

of activities needed to complete a project and the time or costs
associated with each activity. With a PERT network, a project manager
must think through what has to be done, determine which events depend
on one another, and identify potential trouble spots. PERT also makes it
easy to compare the effects alternative actions might have on scheduling
and costs. Thus, shift resources as necessary to keep the project on
schedule.
To understand how to construct a PERT network, you need to know four

terms: events, activities, slack time, and critical path. Let us define
211
these terms, outline the steps in the PERT process, and then look at an
example.
1. Events are end points that represent the completion of major

activities.
2. Activities represent the time or resources required to progress
from one event to another.
3. Slack time is the amount of time an individual activity can be
delayed without delaying the whole project.
4. The critical path is the longest or most time-consuming
sequence of events and activities in a PERT network. Any delay
in completing events on this path would delay the completion of
the entire project. In other words, activities on the critical path
will have zero slack time.
Developing a PERT network requires a manager to identify all key

activities needed to complete a project, rank them in order of
occurrence, and estimate each activity‟s completion time. This process
can be translated into five specific steps, which are outlined in table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Steps in Developing a PERT Network
S/N Steps
1. Identify every significant activity that must be achieved for a project to be
completed. The accomplishment of each activity results in a set of events or
outcomes.
2. Determine the order in which these events must be completed.
3. Diagram the flow of activities from start to finish, identifying each activity and
its relationship to all other activities. Use circles to indicate events and arrows
to represent activities. This result in a flowchart diagram called a PERT
network.
4. Compute a time estimate for completing each activity. This is done with a
weighted average that uses an optimistic time estimate (t0) of how long the
activity would take under ideal conditions, a most-likely estimate (tm) of the
time the activity normally should take, and a pessimistic estimate (tp) that
represents the time that an activity should take under the worst possible
conditions. The formula for calculating the expected time (te) is then:
te = t0 + 4tm + tp
6
5. Using the network diagram that contains time estimates for each activity,
determine a schedule for the start and finish dates of each activity and for the
entire project. Any delays that occur along the critical path require the most
attention because they can delay the whole project.
Source: Fearon, H.E., Ruch, W.A., Reuter, V.G, Wieters, C.D. &
Reck, R.R. (1986). Fundamentals of
Production/Operations Management. (3rd ed.). (St. Paul,
MN: West Publishing), p. 97.
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Another example to illustrate the PERT Network is in respect of the

erection of an office building (see table 2.2).
Table 2.2: A PERT Network for Erecting an Office Building
Expected Preceding
Event Description Time (in Event
weeks)
A Approve design and get permits 10 None
B Dig subterranean garage 6 A
C Erect frame and siding 14 B
D Construct floor 6 C
E Install windows 3 C
F Put on roof 3 C
G Install internal wiring 5 D, E, F
H Install elevator 5 G
I Put in floor covering and paneling 4 D
J Put in doors and interior decorative 3 I, H
K trim 1 J
Turn over to building management
group
Source: Kimbler, D.L. (1993). “Operational lanning Going

Beyond ERT with TQM Tools.” Industrial Management,
September-October, pp. 26 – 29; Strassman, P.A. (1988).
“The Best-Laid lans”, Inc., October, pp. 135 – 188.
As we noted at the beginning of this section, most PERT projects are

complicated and may include hundreds or thousands of events. Such
complicated computations are best done with a computer using
specialised PERT software (Strassman, 1988 & Kimbler, 1993). For our
purposes, however, let us work through a simple example. Assuming
that you are the superintendent at a construction company. You have
been assigned to oversee the construction of an office building. Because
time really is money in your business, you must determine how long it
will take to get the building built. You have carefully broken down the
entire project into specific activities and events. Table 2.3 outlines the
major events in the construction project and your estimate of the
expected time required to complete each activity. Figure 2.3 shows the
PERT network based on the data in table 2.2. You have also calculated
the length of time that each path of activities will take:
213
A-B-V-I-J-K (44 weeks)

A-B-C-D-G-H-J-K (50 weeks)
A-B-C-E-G-H-J-K- (47 weeks)
A-B-C-F-G-H-J-K (47 weeks)
Your PERT network shows that if everything goes as planned, the total
project completion time will be 50 weeks. This is calculated by tracing
the project‟s critical path (the longest sequence of activities) A-B-C-D-
G-H-J-K and adding up the times. You know that any delay in
completing the events on this path would delay the completion of the
entire project (in other words, there is no slack time – slack time is
zero).
Taking six weeks instead of four to put in the floor covering and
paneling (Event I) would have no effect on the final completion date.
Why? …Because that event is not on the critical path. But taking seven
weeks instead of six to dig the subterranean garage (Event B) would
likely delay the total project. A manager who needed to get back on
schedule or to cut the 50-week completion time would want to
concentrate on those activities along the critical path that could be
completed faster.
How might the manager do this? He or she could look to see if any of
the other activities not on the critical path had slack time in which
resources could be transferred to activities that were on the critical path.
Fig. 3: A PERT Network for Erecting an Office Building
Source: Kimbler, D.L. (1993). “Operational lanning Going Beyond

PERT with TQM Tools.” Industrial Management,
September-October, pp. 26 – 29; Strassman, P.A. (1988).
“The Best-Laid lans”, Inc., October, pp. 135 – 188.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Gantt chart is a scheduling chart, which shows actual and planned output
over a period of time. While a load chart as a modified Gantt chart that
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schedules capacity by work stations. Instead of listing activities on the

vertical axis, load charts list either whole departments or specific
resources. PERT network is a flowchart-like diagram that depicts the
sequence of activities needed to complete a project and the time or costs
associated with each activity.
5.0 SUMMARY
 defined scheduling
 demonstrated the use of Gantt and load charts
 defined and discussed Gantt and load
 defined PERT network analysis and demonstrated the use of this
tool for operational planning purpose.
i. Contrast a Gantt chart with a load chart.

ii. How would PERT be used as a planning tool?
iii. How would a manger construct and use a PERT network?
Fearon, H.E. et al. (1986). Fundamentals of Production/Operations

Management. (3rd ed.). St. Paul, MN: West Publishing.
Kimbler, D.L. (1993). “Operational lanning Going Beyond ERT with

TQM Tools.” Industrial Management, September-October, pp.
26 – 29.

Strassman, .A. (1988). “The Best-Laid lans.” Inc., October, pp. 135 –
188.
215
UNIT 3 OPERATIONAL PLANNING TOOLS III
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Breakeven Analysis
3.2 Linear Programming
3.3 Queuing Theory
3.4 Probability Theory
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, we discussed scheduling, PERT network analysis, Gantt

and load charts. We also demonstrated the use of this tool for
operational planning purpose.
In this unit, we shall discuss another set of tools available to managers

for planning purposes, namely: breakeven analysis, linear programming,
queuing theory and probability theory.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 define and discuss breakeven analysis

 define and describe linear programming
 explain queuing theory
 discuss probability theory.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Breakeven Analysis
Another important tool available to managers for planning purposes is

the breakeven (BE) analyses. Inua (2011) defined breakeven analysis as
the study of the relationship between costs, volume and profit at
differing activity levels and can be a useful guide for short-term
planning and decision-making. Similarly, Stiansen (1988) stated that
breakeven analysis is widely used techniques for helping managers
make profit projections. He defined breakeven analysis as a technique
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for identifying the point at which total revenue is just sufficient to cover
total costs.
Stiansen also stated that breakeven analysis is a simple formulation, yet

it is valuable to managers because it points out the relationship between
revenues, costs, and profits. To compute the breakeven point (BE), the
manager needs to know the unit price of the product being sold (P), the
variable cost per unit (VC), and total fixed cost (TFC).
As a manager of a corporation, when making decisions that affect the

volume of output, you would classify costs as fixed or variable. You
would want to know how such decisions would affect costs and
revenues. You would also need to know that many factors in addition to
the volume of output will affect costs. For instance, how many units of a
product must an organisation sell to achieve breakeven – that is, to have
neither profit nor loss? A manager might want to know the minimum
number of units that must be sold to achieve her profit objective or
whether a current product should continue to be sold or should be
dropped from the organisation‟s product line.
An organisation breaks even when its total revenue is just enough to

equal its total costs, but total cost has two parts, viz: a fixed component
and a variable component. Fixed costs are expenses that do not change,
regardless of volume. Examples include insurance premiums, rent, and
property taxes. Fixed costs, of course, are fixed only in the short term
because, in the long run, commitments terminate and could change as
they are renegotiated. Variable costs change in proportion to output and
include raw materials, labour costs and energy costs.
The breakeven point can thus be computed graphically or by using the

following formula:
BE= TFC__
P – VC
The formula tells us that:
(1) total revenue will equal total cost when we sell enough units at a
price that covers all variable unit costs, and
(2) the difference between price and variable costs, when multiplied
by the number of units sold, equals the fixed costs.
For instance, assuming that Kaura‟s hotocopying Service charges N0.10

per photocopy, if fixed costs are N27,000.00 a year and variable costs
are N0.04 per copy, Kaura can compute his breakeven point as follows:
N27,000 (N0.10 – N0.04); this is equal to 450,000 copies, or
217
when annual revenues are N45,000 (450,000 copies multiplied by

N0.10). This same relationship is shown graphically in figure 3.1 below.
As a planning tool, breakeven analysis could help Kaura set his sales
objective. For example, he could determine the profit he wants and then
work backward to see what sales level is needed to reach that profit.
Breakeven analysis could also tell Kaura how much volume has to
increase to break even if he is currently running at a loss or how much
volume he can afford to lose and still break even if he is currently
operating profitably. In the management of some professional sports
franchises, breakeven analysis has shown the volume of ticket sales
required to cover all costs to be so unrealistically high that the best
action for management is to get out of the business.
Fig. 3.1: Breakeven Analysis
Source: Stiansen, S. (1988). “Breaking Even.” Success, November,

p. 16.
3.2 Linear Programming
Linear programming, according to Bamdt and Carvey (1982), is defined

as a mathematical technique that solves resource allocation problems.
Dan Collier has a manufacturing plant that produces two kinds of

cinnamon-scented home fragrance products: a woodchip-based
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potpourri sold in bags and wax candles. Business is good. He can sell all
of the cinnamon-scented products he can produce. This is his problem.
Given that the bags of potpourri and the wax candles go through the
same production departments, how many of each type should he
manufacture to maximise his profits?
A close look at Dan‟s operation tells us that he can use a mathematical

technique called linear programming to solve his resource allocation
dilemma. As shown, linear programming is applicable to Dan‟s problem,
but it cannot be applied to all resource allocation situations. Besides
requiring limited resources and the objective of optimization, it requires
that there be alternative ways of combining resources to produce a
number of output mixes. There must also be a linear relationship
between variables (Bamdt & Carvey, 1982), that is, a change in one
variable must be accompanied by an exactly proportional change in the
other. For Dan‟s business, that condition would be met if it took exactly
twice the amount of raw materials and hours of labour to produce two of
a given home fragrance product as it took to produce one.
What kinds of problems can be solved with linear programming? Some

applications include selecting transportation routes that minimise
shipping costs, allocating a limited advertising budget among various
product brands, making the optimal assignment of personnel among
projects, and determining how much of each product to make with a
limited number of resources. Let us return to Dan‟s problem and see
how linear programming could help solve it. Fortunately, Dan‟s problem
is relatively simple, so we can solve it rather quickly. For complex
linear programming problems, three are computer software programmes
designed specifically to help develop optimising solutions.
First, we need to establish some facts about Dan‟s business. Dan has
computed the profit margins on his home fragrance products at N10.00
for a bag of potpourri and N18 for a scented candle. These numbers
establish the basis for Dan to be able to express his objective function
as: maximum profit = N10P + N18S, where P is the number of bags of
potpourri produced and S is the number of scented candles produced.
The objective function is simply a mathematical equation that can
predict the outcome of all proposed alternatives. In addition, Dan knows
how much time each fragrance product must spend in each department
and the monthly production capacity (1,200 hours in manufacturing and
900 hours in assembly) for the two departments (see table 3.1). The
production capacity numbers act as constraints on his overall capacity.
Now Dan can establish his constraints equations:
219
S + 4S ≤ 1,200
S + 2S ≤ 900
Of course, Dan can also state that ≥ 0 and S ≥ 0, because neither

fragrance product can be produced in a volume less than zero.
Dan has graphed his solution as shown in figure 3.2. The shaded area
represents the options that do not exceed the capacity of either
department. What does this mean? Well, let us look first at the
manufacturing constraint line breakeven. We know that total
manufacturing capacity is 1,200 hours, so if Dan decides to produce all
potpourri bags, the maximum he can produce is 600 (1,200 hours ÷ 2
hours required to produce a bag of potpourri). If he decides to produce
all scented candles, the maximum he can produce is 300 (1,200 hours ÷
4 hours required to produce a scented candle). The other constraint Dan
faces is that of assembly, shown by line DF. If Dan decides to produce
all potpourri bags, the maximum he can assemble is 450 (900 hours
production capacity ÷ two hours required to assemble). Likewise, if Dan
decides to produce all scented candles, the maximum he can assemble is
also 450 because the scented candles also take two hours to assemble.
The constraints imposed by these capacity limits establish Dan‟s
feasibility region. Dan‟s optimal resource allocation will be defined at
one of the corners within this feasibility region. Point C provides the
maximum profits within the constraints stated. How do we know? At
point A, profits would be 0 (no production of either potpourri bags or
scented candles). At point B, profits would be N5, 400 (300 scented
candles x N18 profit and 0 potpourri bags produced = N5, 400). At point
D, profits would be N4, 500 (450 potpourri bags x N10 profit and 0
scented candles produced = N4, 500). At point C, however, profits
would be N5, 700 (150 scented candles produced x N18 profit and 300
potpourri bags produced x N10 profit = N5, 700).
Table 3.1: Production Data for Cinnamon-Scented Products
Department No. of Hours Required (per Monthly

unit) production
Potpourri Scented Capacity (in
Bags Candles hours
Manufacturing 2 4 1,200
Assembly 2 2 900
Profit per unit N10 N18
Source: Bamdt, S.E. & Carvey, D.W. (1982). Essentials of

Operations Management. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
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Fig. 3.2: Linear Programming
Source: Bamdt, S.E. & Carvey, D.W. (1982). Essentials of

Operations Management .Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
3.3 Queuing Theory
Adam and Ebert (1992) defined queuing theory as a technique that

balances the cost of having a waiting line against the cost of service to
maintain that line. Assuming you are a supervisor for the San Francisco
Bay Bridge Toll Authority, and one of the decisions you have to make is
how many of the 36 toll booths you should keep open at any given time.
Queuing theory, or, as it is frequently called waiting-line theory, could
help you solve this problem. Such common situations as determining
how many gas pumps are needed at gas stations, tellers at bank
windows, or check-in lines at airline ticket counters are examples. In
each situation, managers want to minimise costs by having as few
stations open as possible, yet not so few as to test the patience of
customers. For instance, the outdoor products firm L.L. Bean developed
a queuing model for handling customers‟ calls that resulted in a $10
million annual savings for the company because resources in its
telemarketing programme were more effectively allocated. Looking
back at our toll booth example, during rush hours you could open all 36
booths and keep waiting time to a minimum, or you could open only
one, thereby minimising staffing costs, and risk a commuter riot.
Assuming that you are a bank supervisor and one of your

responsibilities is assigning tellers, your bank branch has five teller
221
windows, but you want to know whether you can get by with only one
window open during an average morning. You consider 12 minutes to
be the longest you would expect any customer to wait patiently in line.
If it takes four minutes, on average, to serve each customer, the line
should not be longer than three deep (12 minutes ÷ 4 minutes per
customer = 3 customers). If you know from the experience that during
the morning, people arrive at the average rate of two per minute, you
can calculate the probability (P) that the line will become longer than
any number (n) of customers as follows:
Pn = 1 – arrival rate x arrival rate n
service rate service rate
In this case, n = 3 customers, arrival rate = 2 per minute, and service

rate = 4 minutes per customer. Putting these numbers into the above
formula generates the following:
3
P3 = (1 – 2/4) x (2/4) = (½)(8/64) = 8/128
= 0.062
What does a P3 of 0.0625 mean? It implies that the likelihood of having

more than three customers in line during the morning is one chance in
16 (1/16 = 0.0625). Are you willing to have four or more customers in
line six per cent of the time? If so, keeping one teller window open will
be enough. If not, you will need to open additional windows and assign
personnel to staff them.
3.4 Probability Theory
Adam and Ebert (1992) defined probability theory as the use of statistics to
analyse past predictable patterns and to reduce risk in future plans. With
the help of probability theory, managers can use statistics to reduce the
amount of risk in plans. By analysing past predictable patterns, a manger
can improve current and future decisions. It makes for more effective
planning when, for example, the marketing manager at Porsche
– North America, who is responsible for the 968-product line knows that
the mean age of her customers is 35.5 years, with a standard deviation of
3.5. If she assumes a normal distribution of ages, the manager can use
probability theory to calculate that 95 of every 100 customers are
between 28.6 and 42.4 years of age (1.96 x standard deviation of 3.5 =
6.86; then 35.5 ± 6.96). If she was developing a new marketing
programme, she could see this information to get available marketing
dollars effectively.
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4.0 CONCLUSION
From the discussion so far, we learnt that the breakeven point is the
level of sales at which revenue equals expenses and net income is zero.
Breakeven analysis represented in graphic form can be represented by
the traditional approach.
Linear programming was defined as a mathematical technique that

solves resource allocation problems. Queuing theory is another
technique that balances the cost of having a waiting line against the cost
of service to maintain that line. Finally, we defined probability theory as
the use of statistics to analyse past predictable patterns and to reduce
risk in future plans.
5.0 SUMMARY
 defined and discussed breakeven analysis

 defined and described linear programming
 explained queuing theory
 discussed probability theory.
In the next unit, our discussion will focus on marginal analysis and
project management.
i. What is the value of breakeven analysis as a planning tool?

ii. For what types of planning situations would linear programming
be appropriate?
iii. Describe how the following are used in planning: queuing theory,
probability theory and breakeven analysis.
Adam, Jr. E.E. & Ebert, R.J. (1992). Production and Operation
Management. (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Bamdt, S.E. & Carvey, D.W. (1982). Essentials of Operations

Management. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Inua, O.I. (2011). “Management Accounting.” OU Study Materials

for Undergraduate Programme in Entrepreneurial and Business
Management.
223

Stiansen, S. (1988). “Breaking Even.” Success, November, p. 16.
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UNIT 4 OPERATIONAL PLANNING TOOLS IV
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Marginal Analysis
3.2 Simulation
3.3 Project Management
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, our discussion focused on breakeven analysis, linear

programming, queuing theory and probability theory. In this unit, we
shall continue our discussion on operational planning tool.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 define and discuss breakeven analysis

 define and describe linear programming
 explain queuing theory
 discuss probability theory.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Marginal Analysis
Marginal analysis was defined by Russell and Taylor (1995) as a

planning technique that assesses the incremental costs or revenues in a
decision. The concept of marginal or incremental analysis helps decision
makers optimise returns or minimise costs. Marginal analysis deals with
the additional cost in a particular decision, rather than the average cost.
For example, the commercial dry cleaner who wonders whether he
should take on a new customer would consider not total revenue and
total cost that would result after the order was taken, but rather what
additional (marginal or incremental) revenue and costs would be
generated by this particular order. If the incremental revenues exceeded
the incremental costs, total profits would be increased by
accepting the order. Managers also use marginal analysis for
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determining whether to add new product features. For instance, before

Volvo (brand of a car) decided to install its multilink suspension system,
supplemental restraint system, and antilock braking system on its cars,
managers first analysed the marginal costs and revenues generated by
those production additions.
3.2 Simulation
Simulation can be defined as a model of a real-world phenomenon that

contains one or more variables that can be manipulated in order to
assess their impact (Russell & Taylor, 1995).
Managers are increasingly turning to simulation as a means for trying

out various planning options. Simulation can deal with problems
addressed by linear programming, but it can also deal with more
complex situations.
How might a manager use simulation? Managers at the pharmaceutical

manufacturer, Merck used simulation as they considered acquiring
Medco, a mail-order pharmacy company, for $6.6 billion. The problem
Merck‟s managers wanted to simulate was how the company would
perform in the future, with and without Medco. Managers in the finance
department built a model with a vast number of variables including,
among other things, information about US healthcare system and
healthcare reform possibilities, profit-margins, possible future changes
in the mix of generic and brand-name drugs, and how the company‟s
competitors might react to the merger. With the number of variables
involved in this complex model, a simulation was used to change the
variables at random and to test to see how the proposed merger would
perform under different business and economic scenarios. The numerous
simulations helped Merck managers decide that the Medco acquisition
made sense, and they proceeded with their acquisition plan.
3.3 Project Management
Russell and Taylor (1995) defined a project as a one-time-only set of

activities that has a definite beginning and ending point in time. They
also defined project management as the task of getting a project‟s
activities done on time, within budget, and according to specifications.
Different types of organisations, ranging from manufacturers such as

Ford Motor Company to software design firms such as Purple Moon
Company, perform their activities using projects. In this section, we
briefly describe project management and why it has become so popular
in recent years. We include project management as a planning tool and
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technique because it can help managers establish objectives and outline

work activities.
Project management is popular in modern organisation because, its

approach fits into a dynamic environment, the need for flexibility and
rapid response. Organisations are increasingly undertaking projects that
are somewhat unusual or are unique, have specific deadlines, contain
complex interrelated tasks requiring specialised skills, and are
temporary in nature. These types of projects do not fit nicely and neatly
in the standardised planning and operating procedures that guide an
organisation‟s other routine and ongoing work activities.
The 2nd African Council of Distance Education Conference hosted by

the National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN) in July, 2008 is an
example of a project. A planning committee was set up by the
management of the university to mobilise human and material resources
as well as funds separately for this project and successful hosting of this
conference. At the end of the conference, the planning committee was
dissolved and members of staff who participated in the project
assignment returned to their respective units, sections, schools,
directorates and departments. In this typical example, the work was
done by a project team whose members are temporarily assigned to the
project. These members in turn report to a project manager. The project
manager coordinates the project‟s activities and often reports directly to
an upper-level manager. It should borne in mind however that the
project is temporary. A project team exists only long enough to
complete its specific objectives. After a while, it disbands, and members
move on to other projects, return to their permanent usual duty, or leave
the organisation.
The essential features of the project planning process are shown in

figure 4.1. The planning process begins by clearly defining the project‟s
objectives. This step is necessary because the manager and the team
members need to know what is expected of them. All activities in the
project and the resources (labour and materials) needed to accomplish
them must then be identified. This step may be time consuming and
complex, particularly if the project is unique and there is none of the
history or experience that typically exists in planning tasks.
Once the activities have been identified, their sequential relationship

needs to be determined. For instance, what activities must be completed
before others can begin? Which can be undertaken simultaneously? This
step typically is done using flow chart-type diagrams.
Next, the project activities need to be scheduled. The manager estimates

the time required for each activity and then uses these estimates to
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develop an overall project schedule and completion date. Then the

project schedule is compared with the objectives, and any necessary
adjustments are made. If the project time schedule is too long, the
manager might assign more resources to critical activities so they can be
completed faster. The project manager may choose to use any of the
scheduling techniques that we described earlier such as Gantt chart, a
load chart, or a PERT network.
Fig. 4.1: Project Planning Process
Source: Russell, R.S. & Taylor, B.W. III (1995). Production and
Operations Management. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
4.0 CONCLUSION
We note from the unit that marginal analysis deals with the additional
cost in a particular decision, rather than the average cost. It was also
noted that managers are increasingly turning to simulation as a means
for trying out various planning options. Simulation can deal with
problems addressed by linear programming, but it can also deal with
more complex situations.
Finally, we note that a project is a one-time-only set of activities that has

a definite beginning and ending point in time while project management
is the task of getting project activities done on time, within budget, and
according to specifications.
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5.0 SUMMARY
 defined and discussed breakeven analysis

 defined and described linear programming
 explained queuing theory
 discussed probability theory.
i. What is a project and what do you understand by the concept

„project management‟?
ii. What explains the growing popularity of project management?
iii. Compare simulation with marginal analysis.
Russell, R.S. & Taylor, B.W. III (1995). Production and Operations
Management. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Adam, Jr. E.E. & Ebert, R.J. (1992). Production and Operation
Management. (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
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MODULE 4 CASE STUDIES/APPLICATIONS
Unit 1 Foundations of Planning

Unit 2 Decision Making
Unit 3 Planning Tools and Techniques
UNIT 1 FOUNDATIONS OF PLANNING
(1) I CAN SEE CLEARLY NOW
According to Kathleen Cote, Chief Executive Officer of Computervision

Corporation of Bedford, Massachusetts “The most important thing for
any organisation is to have everyone focused on the same objectives and
to have the objectives clearly defined.” Computervision Corporation
http://www.cv.com is a leading supplier of desktop and enterprise-wide
product design and development software and services. Its vision is to be
the partner of choice for the most important thing its customers do –
product development. The company pioneered CAD/CAM (computer-
aided design/computer-aided manufacturing) hardware and software
back in 1971 and was flying high during the 1980s as revenues and
profits soared. Then, the once-profitable company posted losses of
nearly $1.3 billion from 1991 through 1993. Cote headed the operating
committee that developed the strategic plan for Computervision‟s
turnaround and ultimate survival. Her work in that area led to her being
named president and chief operating officer of the company in
December, 1995 and being named to the top management job in June,
1996.
Cote‟s management style happens to be very people oriented, and she

knew how she wanted to run the company. What the company had to do
to become successful again and what she had to do as CEO to make that
happen were crystal-clear in her mind: The Company had to clearly
define its objectives, and then she had to make sure that everyone was
focused on those objectives. Cote stated, “The top three things I am
working on have to be the top three things everyone is working on. We
are only going to be successful together”. How did she go about making
that happen?
The first thing Cote did was to have her senior managers identify where
Computervision was winning business and where it was losing business.
On the basis of that analysis, they decided to shift the company‟s focus
to providing product development solutions through software and
services and putting less of an emphasis on hardware. The top managers
then established corporate objectives and communicated them down
through the organisation. Those objectives were then used to clearly
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define individual performance objectives. In addition, Cote was firmly

committed to sticking to the objectives. She said, “I‟m a firm believer
that if you stay on course and never get off, you will have great success.
There really is no surprise if you have a plan in place.”
Cote is not just focused on establishing and communicating common

objectives for organisational employees. She also is strongly committed
to making sure objectives are met. Managers (and all organisational
employees) are held accountable for meeting their respective objectives
and doing what they say they are going to do. Says Cote, “I don‟t like
surprises. If something isn‟t going right, let me know what you can do
about it to work through the issues and the problem”. According to
Cote, achieving the objectives entails showing employees how they are
a part of making the plans happen and making them feel that they play
an important role in helping the company meet its goals.
How has Computervision performed under Cote‟s leadership? The

company posted a net income of $9.8 million in 1994, a profit of $22.8
million in 1995, and a profit of $26 million in the first three quarters of
1996, but it did suffer a loss of $5.9 million in the fourth quarter of
1996. That loss abruptly ended the company‟s string of 11 consecutive
profitable quarters. But, despite the unexpected fourth-quarter loss,
industry and financial analysis expect Computervision to continue its
history of solid profits.
Questions:
What is your reaction to Cote‟s philosophy that the most important thing
for any organisation is to have everyone focused on the same objectives
and to have the objectives clearly defined? Do you agree? Why or why
not? What would be the drawbacks of such a philosophy?
What role did strategic plans play in Computervision‟s turnaround?

What role should they play in the company‟s future? What role should
operational plans play?
(2) BEHIND-THE-SCHENE PLANNING OF THE FIRST

LUNAR LANDING
“Houston, Tranquility Base here. The Eagle has landed”. Even now,
more than 30 years later, these words stir people‟s imagination. For
those who watched the first lunar landing on July 20, 1969, they are
forever frozen in memory. Yet, what went on behind the scenes of that
feat makes its successful accomplishment seem even more incredible!
What looked like a smooth-sailing operation that worked perfectly and
according to plan came dangerously close to disaster.
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To put three astronauts in the depths of outer space and then to have two
of them take a spacecraft and land it on the moon involved an
unbelievable amount of detailed planning. From the countdown to the
liftoff of the enormously powerful Saturn V rocket to the delicate
maneuvering of the lunar spacecraft, each detail had been meticulously
planned. Or so the technicians and controllers thought!
The first sign of something amiss was when Neil Armstrong and Buzz
Aldrin began the descent toward the lunar surface in the tiny and
extremely fragile Eagle spacecraft. An alarm – soething called the 1202
(“twelve-oh-two”) – went off. The person monitoring the descent of the
Eagle from back on Earth in Mission Control recalls, “I didn‟t have the
foggiest idea of what “1202” was.” There was less than eight minutes to
landing on the surface of the moon, and the only person at Mission
Control who seemed to know what this 1202 alarm meant was Steve
Bales, a 26-year-old technician. For what seemed like an eternity, the
entire space programme waited to see if Bales would call off the moon
landing. Bales finally determined that the problem simply was that the
on-board computer had too much to process, but as long as it did not
shut down completely, they could still make a safe moon landing. The
Eagle was given a “go” for landing despite the alarm.
The next problem arose when the Eagle was 5,000 feet off the surface of
the moon and moving down at 100 feet a second. The computer swung
the spacecraft into position for descent, but when Neil Armstrong
looked out from the window of the Eagle, he saw nothing he recognised
from his earlier studies of the moon‟s surface. The computer guidance
system was taking them right into boulder field – not at all what had
been planned. The delicate lunar lander could not survive landing on
rocks the size of Volkswagen. At 350 feet above the surface, Neil
Armstrong, without saying a word to Mission Control in Houston,
started to fly the spacecraft manually, searching for someplace to land.
The engineers and technicians in Mission Control sat by helplessly,
absolutely unable to offer any assistance. As Armstrong got closer and
closer to the surface, all he could still see was larger boulders.
Meanwhile, in Houston, the computers showed that the Eagle’s landing

tank was running dangerously low on fuel. One of the individuals in
Mission Control that day recalls, “From then on, there was nothing we
could do to help the crew. All we could do was let them know how
much fuel they had left.” The decision was made by Mission Control
that if the Eagle did not land within the next 60 seconds, the mission
would be aborted. At 25 seconds, then 20 seconds, Armstrong was still
100 feet off the moon‟s surface, but he had found a spot that looked safe
for landing if he could get there in time. The silence at this point in the
Mission Control room was deafening. Then the very calm, cool, and
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collected voice of Neil Armstrong came across the communication

system “Houston, Tranquility Base here. The Eagle has landed” and the
rest of the story is history!
Questions:
1. What role would specific plans play in planning the lunar landing
mission? What role would directional plans play?
2. Do you see any evidences of contingency planning in the
description of this situation? Explain.
3. What do you think the stated objectives of the lunar landing
space mission might have been? How about the real objectives?
Source:
Based on “One Giant Leap”, ABC ews Day One, aired July 11, 1994.
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UNIT 2 DECISION MAKING
(1) NICE PANTS
Levi Strauss http://www.levi.com is a corporate icon in the fashion

industry. The privately held company with sales revenues of over $6.7
billion has led many a fashion trend – from the very first blue jeans back
in the mid-1800s to the introduction in 1986 of a line of casual pants
called Dockers. The Dockers brand was in the right place at the right
time as the corporate world began shifting to more casual dressing. This
casual trend led to Dockers‟ becoming a billion dollar brand. In August
of 1995, Levi Strauss rolled out a new line of men‟s dress pants called
Slates. The new pants line reflected another attempt by the company to
capture a piece of the dress-pants market. Levi Strauss had previously
entered this market with a line called Dress Dockers, a more
sophisticated version of its very popular casual Dockers. Sales of this
dressy line never took off, and it was finally discontinued. But Levi‟s
decision makers believed that building upon the Levi Strauss name and
image with a line of dress pants was important to the company‟s future
growth and performance. And, even more important, they felt that
successfully developing and marketing such a line of pants was
achievable; they wanted to prove to themselves that they could compete
in this market as well! Getting to this point took enormous attention to
details and an incredible amount of decision making. What were some of
the decisions that had to be made?
One of the first decisions, Levi‟s managers had to make was whether the
pants line would be a separate and totally new line – only the third in the
company‟s history (Levi‟s and Dockers being the other two). Once they
made the decision that yes, indeed, this new line would be separate from
its other two lines; a name had to be chosen for the line. The new
division‟s marketing team spent four months going through 10,000
possible names looking for one that could be trademarked globally and
that could be pronounced in most languages. In addition, they wanted a
name that was somewhat masculine and also a name that ended in s
because the other two brand names (Levi‟s and Dockers (ended in s.
After selecting the name Slates, the decision makers wanted to keep it as
ceded to “test” the name by inserting the Slates name into sample news
articles to evaluate how it would look in print. But these “clandestine”
marketing actions became irrelevant when the decision makers learned
that Microsoft was preparing to launch an on-line magazine called –
wouldn‟t you know it – Slate. It was too late to choose a different name,
so the managers concluded that they could trademark the name Slates
only against use by other apparel makers, which is what they did.
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With the name decision out of the way, it was time to select a logo. One
initial design was a chiseled rock, which the managers eventually
decided wouldn‟t work because they didn‟t want to give men the
impression that the pants came only in the colour gray. The final design
chosen was a sleek interwoven capital S. Then a decision had to be
made about where the logo would be placed. After several months of
deliberation, the managers decided that the best place was on the inside
waisthand above the zipper so that it would be the last thing a man saw
as he put on his pants.
The next decision had to do with the actual design of the Slates pants.
Based on market research, one design consideration was to have deeper
pockets than those on similar pants and to have both back pockets with
buttons to accommodate left-handed, as well as right-handed, males.
Then the design decision turned to the belt loops. The managers debated
about how many, how far apart, and how thick the belt loops should be.
They ultimately decided on seven belt loops, four and a half inches apart
and three-eighths inch wide. Market research also steered the decision to
add sizes with odd waist measurements (that is, 31, 33, 35, and so on).
Then, it was on to production decisions. After production had already

began on the new pants and just a few months before the shipping
deadline, managers halted production to change the fabric content of
half the product line. The wool content was increased by 10 percent.
Why? The managers said it was because they found out that they could
use better fabric without increasing the price of the pants. However, the
change led to immediate production issues that had to be addressed.
Production workers were getting ready to go on Christmas vacation,
retailers had already placed orders based on the original fabrics, patterns
no longer met specifications, dye colour were off, and to top it all off –
the factories needed fabric right now to keep up production levels, and
changing the fabric meant waiting for the new fabric to be delivered.
Each of these issues required a series of decisions.
Decisions about marketing the new pants line also had to be made. The
Slates marketing team wanted the pants to stand out in stores. They
hired an architectural firm that specialised in designing luxury hotels to
design a roomy, circular display. Also, the managers wanted a new
hanger – something that would display the product in a unique fashion.
Unfortunately, one design required too much effort to assemble; another
one hid the logo; and another crumpled the pants. So the decision was
made to go back to the tried-and-true approach – hangers similar to what
had always been used in displaying pants. Other decisions revolved
around the design of an appropriate promotion programme for the new
pants line.
235
Although little information has been released about the success of the
Slates line, the story of the development process provides a good
description of the managerial decisions that had to be made in several
organisational areas as the new product line was launched.
Questions:
1. What types of problems and decisions do you see managers

dealing with in this story? Explain your choices.
2. How might each of the following be used in the decisions that
had to be made in developing this new pants line:
(a) perfectly rational decision making,
(b) bounded rational decision making; and
(c) intuition.
3. Would you characterise the decision conditions surrounding the
development of the Slates pants line as certainty, risk, or
uncertainty? Explain your choice.
4. Which decision-making style might be most appropriate for each
of the following decisions about the new pants line:
(a) Should the new pants line be a separate and totally new
line?
(b) What should be the name of the new pants line?
(c) What should the design of the new pants line include?
Explain your choice for each decision.
(2) GRACE UNDER FIRE
You probably would not know quite what to expect from a business
named Pyro Media, but you would figure it was going to be something
pretty unusual. Grace Tsjuikawa Boyd‟s business, yro Media, has
pursued a pretty unusual direction, but the decision to do something
different was not made randomly.
Boyd‟s yro Media started off as a manufacturer of huge ceramic glazed

pots such as the ones you might see holding trees or plants in the lobbies
of big hotels. Using her degree in art, Boyd herself initially made the
high-quality glazed pots, which sold for about $1,500 each. As her
business grew to the point at which it had backorders of eight to 12
weeks, Boyd decided it was time to move to a bigger facility and invest
in equipment and employees. She says, “We were in business making
money and assumed that business was going to grow at the same rate it
had been”. Grace soon found, however, that yro Media‟s revenues didn‟t
keep increasing by 30 per cent as they had been, but instead were
dropping off. Upon investigating the situation, Boyd found out that
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huge corporations had begun importing and distributing terracotta

planters, essentially stealing away her business.
Boyd knew that she had to do something. She had this equipment, this
56,000-square-foot facility, and employees who knew ceramics. She
called in some consultants to see what other markets her business might
pursue. Their study, which took about six months, recommended that
Pyro media look into high-tech ceramic applications: in other words,
using the same technology that Boyd had developed and used in making
ceramic pots and applying it to a new area. On the basis of that
information, Boyd hired a ceramics engineer and went after the ceramics
“castables” market. The company‟s decision to move into this new
market has been so successful that the one engineer has since been
joined by seven others!
Recognising that business was falling off and analysing the reason
behind the loss of revenue was instrumental in Pyro Media‟s continued
success. Boyd says that being able to recognize a problem is critical,
especially for small businesses. Why? Because small businesses have no
money to waste and no time to waste. If problems are ignored and not
analysed, the business might face quick failure.
Questions:
1. A decision to move into a new market as Boyd‟s yro Media did

is a major decision. How could Boyd have used the decision-
making process ot help her make this decision?
2. Would you call declining revenues a problem or a symptom of a
problem? Why?
3. Using figure 2.1, identify the type of decision-making style you
think Boyd exhibits. Explain your choice.
4. Do you agree with Boyd‟s assertion that being able to recognize a
problem is critical, especially for small businesses? Why or why
not?
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Fig. 2.1: Decision-Making Styles
Source: Based on Small Business 2000, Show, 108.
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UNIT 3 PLANNING TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
(1) MANAGING CHAOS
Oticon Holding A.S, a company that makes hearing aids, is hardly the
type of business in which you would expect to find radical approaches to
managing. The Danish manufacturer, founded in 1905, was once an ultra
traditional, hierarchical, and conservative, by-the-book organisation.
One day, Oticon‟s executives realised that the marketplace had changed,
technology had changed, and they were now competing with the likes of
Sony, Siemens, and Philips, large and successful global corporations.
Lars Kolind, CEO knew that in order for his company to survive and
ever have a chance of being a strong, viable industry competitor, he
would have to take drastic measures.
Kolind recreated Oticon into what he calls the “ultimate flexible

organisation”. At precisely 8 a.m. on August 8, 1991, the company‟s
revolutionary dis-organisation was born. What exactly happened that
day that totally transformed the company? To begin with, all
organisational departments and employee job titles disappeared. Instead,
all work activities became project based and was implemented by
informal groupings of interested individuals. Employees “jobs” were
reconfigured into unique and fluid combinations of work activities that
fit each employee‟s own specific capabilities and needs. Today, project
teams form, disband, and form again as the work requires. Project
“leaders” are basically anyone in the company with a good idea who is
willing to pursue it. Project leaders compete to attract whatever
resources and people they need to complete the project. Project
“owners”, numbers of Oticon‟s 10-person management team, provide
advice and support, but they make few actual decisions.
Even the company‟s offices facilitate (and support) this seemingly

chaotic free flow of work. All physical barriers and surroundings in the
company‟s offices were eliminated and replaced by open spaces filled
with uniform work stations on wheels that held a computer and a desk
with no drawers. Individuals randomly selected desks and wheeled them
together to form project work teams. Informal communication among
employees replaced memos as the accepted form of
communication. Coffee bars located throughout the company‟s
headquarters building are perfect for informal, stand-up meetings. Large
and small “dialogue rooms” with circular sofas and a tiny table are also
scattered throughout the facility.
This type of radical transformation did encounter employee resistance at

first; Kolind overcame most resistance by involving employees in the
process. He recruited small teams to tackle such projects designing the
239
tremendous electronic infrastructure that would replace the traditional

reliance on pen and paper, and he put other project teams to work
finding an appropriate building site and working with an architect to
design the facilities.
What kind of performance has resulted from the “new” Oticon? One
immediate result was the discovery that the company had already
invented the first fully automatic hearing aid in the mid-1980s, but it had
never made it to the market because of lack of communication between
departments. Company teams immediately realised the potential of this
technological breakthrough and acted quickly to introduce this new type
of hearing aid. Also, Kolind estimates that there are, at any one time,
approximately 100 projects of various magnitudes in progress. He feels
strongly that the company can respond quickly to any opportunities that
emerge anywhere around the globe. In fact, Kolind says, “There‟s a
paradox here. We are developing products twice as fast as anybody else.
But when you look around, you see a very relaxed atmosphere. We‟re
not fast on the surface; we are fast underneath.”
The “ultimate flexible organisation” that Lars Kolind designed is well

poised to adapt to any environmental and competitive challenges sent its
way. As a saying on one of the Greek-style columns found in the facility
so boldly displays, “think the unthinkable.” That is exactly what this
Danish company has done.
Questions:
1. Given the unusual ways in which work is done in Oticon, what

planning tools and techniques might be useful? Explain your
choices.
2. Suppose that some organisations wanted to use Oticon as a
benchmark. What types of things might it learn from Oticon?
3. Compare Oticon‟s approach to project management with what
was described in Unit 4 Module 3. What similarities do you see?
What differences? Is one approach better than the other? Explain.
(2) SUCCESSFULLY SELLING BAGELS – IN JAPAN
By anyone‟s count, 182,600 bagels a week is a lot of bagels! What is

even more surprising is that that is the number currently being sold in
Japan by Jerry Shapiro‟s company; etrofsky‟s Bagels, and he predicts
that sales are about to double and perhaps triple. You might not have
thought there was a market in Japan for that distinct bagel taste, but
Japanese consumers obviously have developed a fondness for
etrofsky‟s bagels.
240
ENT 313 MODULE 4
Jerry Shapiro has been described as a modern-day explorer. It is

probably fitting that Shapiro‟s business is based in St. Louis, Missouri,
because that city was jumping-off point for many explorers preparing to
survey the western United States. Shapiro‟s vision, though, was more
international; he believed that there was a strong potential market for his
bagels in Japan. Although having a vision is important, it takes more
than a vision to be successful. It takes putting the vision into action.
How did Shapiro pursue his vision? How did he get the Japanese
initially to try his bagels and then get them to continue buying them? He
says that getting past that initial hurdle involved several things. First and
foremost was a significant amount of taste testing. Although this step
was time consuming and tedious, he knew he was on the right track
when a couple of elderly Japanese professors who tasted etrofsky‟s
bagels said the bread dough reminded them of something sweet that they
had eaten when they were younger. Shapiro also says that getting his
product into Japan involved several trips to that country and finding the
proper trading partner. He could not anticipate the trends and needs of
the Japanese market by sitting in his office in St. Louis. Instead Shapiro
had to experience the unique characteristics of the Japanese market
firsthand and had to develop a strong, long-term relationship with his
company‟s trading partner. Although the amount of preparation and
planning to get into the Japanese market may have seemed
overwhelming at times, Shapiro was committed to pursuing his strategy
no matter how long it took.
Having successfully implemented his vision, Shapiro gives the

following advice for going into international markets: Put your plan in
writing. Solicit customer participation. And finally, be prepared to do
whatever it takes to build long-term relationships.
Questions:
1. How could environmental scanning, particularly global scanning,

have been used by Jerry Shapiro? What could scanning have
shown him?
2. What other planning tools might Shapiro find necessary as he

continues to do business globally? Be specific.
3. What implications do you see for managers and how they plan
from the advice Shapiro gives for going into international
markets?
Source: Based on Small Business Today, Show 104.
241

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BUS 429 CORPORATE PLANNING

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCES

COURSE CODE: BUS429

COURSE TITLE: CORPORATE PLANNING

Module 1Planning As a Vital Function of

Unit 1 Overview of Management as Science,

Module 2Essentials of Planning and Managing by

Unit 1 Decision Making I…………………………. 70

Module 3Planning Tools and Techniques…………. 133

Unit 1 Operational Planning Tools I – Budget…….. 133

Module 4 Case Studies/Applications………………... 172

Unit 1 Essentials of Planning……………………… 172

Course Team Mr. Aliyu A. Hamza (Course Developer/Writer) –

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

National Open University of Nigeria

All Rights Reserved

BUS429: Corporate Planning is a first semester year four, three-credit

This course is an introduction to corporate planning with tools and

WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THIS COURSE

BUS429: Corporate Planning consists of four modules made up of 17

 overview of management as science, theory and practice

 operational planning tools III

This course aims to give you an understanding of the meaning of

Below are the overall objectives of the course. By meeting these

 explain the relationship between planning and organisational

WORKING THROUGH THIS COURSE

exercises, and at a point in this course, you are required to submit

The list of all the components of the course is as presented.

Major components of the course are:

The study units in this course are as follows.

Module 1 Planning As a Vital Function of Management

Unit 1 Overview of Management as Science, Theory and

Model 2 Essentials of Planning and Managing by Objectives

Unit 1 Decision Making I

Module 3 Planning Tools and Techniques

Unit 1 Operational Planning Tools I – Budget

Module 4 Case Studies/Applications

Unit 1 Essentials of Planning

There are many self-assessment exercises included in this course. These

The presentation schedule included in your course materials consists of

There are two aspects to the assessment of the course: self-assessment

Each unit in this course has a tutor-marked assignment. It is compulsory

three of the four marks shall be used as your continuous assessment

FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING

The final examination forBUS429: Corporate Planning will not be

COURSE MARKING SCHEME

Table 1 Course Marking Scheme

2 Planning As an important 1 Assignment 2

HOW TO GET THE MOST FROM THIS COURSE

 Read this Course Guide thoroughly.

tutor-marked assignment form and also on what is written on

FACILITATION/TUTORS AND TUTORIALS

CONTACT YOUR TUTOR IF:

Endeavour to attend the tutorials as scheduled. This is the only chance to

We hope you enjoy your study at the National Open University of

MODULE 1 PLANNING AS A VITAL FUNCTION OF

Unit 1 Overview of Management as Science, Theory and Practice