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Semiconductor
Types of semiconductors

Create by: Svetlana Chiorescu and Ana Cojuhari

 Semiconductor
Solid-state materials can be classified into three groups: insulators,
semiconductors and conductors. Insulators are materials having an electrical
conductivity (like diamond: 10-14S/cm); semiconductors have a
conductivity (for silicon it can range from 10-5S/cm to
103S/cm); at last conductors are materials with high conductivities
: (like silver: 106S/cm.)
A semiconductor material has an electrical conductivity value falling
between that of a conductor – such as copper, gold etc. – and an insulator, such
as glass. Their resistance decreases as their temperature increases, which is
behavior opposite to that of a metal. Their conducting properties may be altered
in useful ways by the deliberate, controlled introduction of impurities
("doping") into the crystal structure. Where two differently-doped regions exist
in the same crystal, a semiconductor junction is created. The behavior of charge
carriers which include electrons, ions and electron holes at these junctions is the
basis of diodes, transistors and all modern electronics.
Semiconductor devices can display a range of useful properties such as
passing current more easily in one direction than the other, showing variable
resistance, and sensitivity to light or heat. Because the electrical properties of a
semiconductor material can be modified by doping, or by the application of
electrical fields or light, devices made from semiconductors can be used for
amplification, switching, and energy conversion.
The conductivity of silicon is increased by adding a small amount of
pentavalent (antimony, phosphorus, or arsenic) or trivalent (boron, gallium,
indium) atoms (~ part in 108). This process is known as doping and resulting
semiconductors are known as doped or extrinsic semiconductors.
The modern understanding of the properties of a semiconductor relies on
quantum physics to explain the movement of charge carriers in a crystal lattice.
Doping greatly increases the number of charge carriers within the crystal.
When a doped semiconductor contains mostly free holes it is called "p-type",
and when it contains mostly free electrons it is known as "n-type". The
semiconductor materials used in electronic devices are doped under precise
conditions to control the concentration and regions of p- and n-type dopants. A
single semiconductor crystal can have many p- and n-type regions; the p–n
junctions between these regions are responsible for the useful electronic
behavior.
Although some pure elements and many compounds display
semiconductor properties, silicon, germanium, and compounds of gallium are
the most widely used in electronic devices. Elements near the so-called
"metalloid staircase", where the metalloids are located on the periodic table, are
usually used as semiconductors.
 Some of the properties of semiconductor materials were observed
throughout the mid of 19th and first decades of the 20th century. The first
practical application of semiconductors in electronics was the 1904
development of the cat's-whisker detector, a primitive semiconductor diode
widely used in early radio receivers. Developments in quantum physics in turn
allowed the development of the transistor in 1947 and the integrated circuit in
1958.
Semiconductors come in a variety of types and can be classified as per
their majority carriers or dopant types. So we have two types of
semiconductors, intrinsic and extrinsic.

1.Intrinsic semiconductor
Intrinsic semiconductors are semiconductors which do not contain
impurities. They do contain electrons as well as holes. The electron density equals
the hole density since the thermal activation of an electron from the valence band
to the conduction band yields a free electron in the conduction band as well as a
free hole in the valence band. We will identify the intrinsic hole and electron
density using the symbol ni, and refer to it as the intrinsic carrier density.

1.1 Calculation of the intrinsic carrier density

Intrinsic semiconductors are almost always non-degenerate, so that the

expressions for the electron and hole densities in non-degenerate semiconductors
apply. Labeling the Fermi energy of intrinsic material Ei, we can then write two
relations between the intrinsic carrier density and the intrinsic Fermi energy,
namely:

(f7)

It is possible to eliminate the intrinsic Fermi energy from both equations,

simply by multiplying both equations and taking the square root. This provides an
expression for the intrinsic carrier density as a function of the effective density of
states in the conduction and valence band and the bandgap energy Eg = Ec - Ev.

(f16)

A numeric calculation of the intrinsic carrier density for Ge, Si and GaAs as
well as its temperature dependence can be found in section 1.5.
 1.2 The mass action law
It turns out that the product of the electron and hole density, in a non-
degenerate semiconductor is always equal to the square of the intrinsic carrier
density, and not only for intrinsic semiconductors. Multiplying the expressions for
the electron and hole densities in a non-degenerate semiconductor yields:

This property is refered to as the mass action law . It is a powerful relation

which enables to quickly find the hole density if the electron density is known or
vice versa.

1.3 Calculation of the intrinsic Fermi energy

The above equations for the intrinsic electron and hole density can be
solved for the intrinsic Fermi energy, yielding:

The intrinsic Fermi energy is typically close to the midgap energy, half way
between the conduction and valence band edge. The intrinsic Fermi energy can
also be expressed as a function of the effective masses of the electrons and holes in
the semiconductor. For this we use the above expressions for the effective density
of states in the conduction and valence band, yielding:

1.4 The carrier densities as expressed as a function of the intrinsic parameters

Dividing the expression for the carrier densities, by the one for the intrinsic
density allows to write the carrier densities as a function of the intrinsic density
and the Fermi energy, or:

and

We will use primarily these two equations to find the electron and hole
density in a semiconductor. The same relations can also be rewritten to obtain the
Fermi energy from either carrier density, namely:
 and

1.5 Temperature dependence of the intrinsic carrier density

The temperature dependence of the intrinsic carrier density is dominated
by the exponential dependence on the energy bandgap, as derived in section 1.2. In
addition one has to consider the temperature dependence of the effective densities
of states and that of the energy bandgap. A plot of the intrinsic carrier density
versus temperature is shown below. The temperature dependence of the effective
masses was not included since it is small compared to the others.

bandgap.xls - intrinsi.gif

Fig.2.6.1 Intrinsic carrier density versus temperature in GaAs (top/black

curve), Silicon (blue curve) and Germanium (bottom/red curve). The
markers correspond to T = 300 K

2.Extrinsic semiconductor
An extrinsic semiconductor is one that has been doped, that is, into
which a doping agent has been introduced, giving it different electrical
properties than the intrinsic (pure) semiconductor. This doping involves adding
dopant atoms to an intrinsic semiconductor, which changes the electron and
hole carrier concentrations of the semiconductor at thermal equilibrium, the
temperature at which two adjacent substances exchange no heat energy.
Dominant carrier concentrations in an extrinsic semiconductor classify it as
either an n-type or p-type semiconductor. The electrical properties of extrinsic
semiconductors make them essential components of many electronic devices.
 2.1 The two types of semiconductor:
N-type semiconductors
Band structure of an n-type semiconductor. Dark circles in the
conduction band are electrons and light circles in the valence band are holes.
The image shows that the electrons are the majority charge carrier.
The term n-type comes from the negative charge of the electron. In n-
type semiconductors, electrons are the majority carriers and holes are the
minority carriers. N-type semiconductors are created by doping an intrinsic
semiconductor with donor impurities. A common dopant for n-type silicon is
phosphorus or arsenic. In an n-type semiconductor, the Fermi level is greater
than that of the intrinsic semiconductor and lies closer to the conduction band
than the valence band.
P-type semiconductors
Band structure of a p-type semiconductor. Dark circles in the
conduction band are electrons and light circles in the valence band are holes. The
image shows that the holes are the majority charge carrier.
The term p-type refers to a positive charge of the hole. As opposed to
n-type semiconductors, p-type semiconductors have a larger hole concentration
than electron concentration. In p-type semiconductors, holes are the majority
carriers and electrons are the minority carriers. P-type semiconductors are created
by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with acceptor impurities. A common p-type
dopant for silicon is boron or gallium. For p-type semiconductors the Fermi level
is below the intrinsic Fermi level and lies closer to the valence band than the
conduction band.
Semiconductor doping is the process that changes an intrinsic
semiconductor to an extrinsic semiconductor. During doping, impurity atoms are
introduced to an intrinsic semiconductor. Impurity atoms are atoms of a different
element than the atoms of the intrinsic semiconductor. Impurity atoms act as
either donors or acceptors to the intrinsic semiconductor, changing the electron
and hole concentrations of the semiconductor. Impurity atoms are classified as
either donor or acceptor atoms based on the effect they have on the intrinsic
semiconductor.
Donor impurity atoms have more valence electrons than the atoms they
replace in the intrinsic semiconductor lattice. Donor impurities "donate" their
extra valence electrons to a semiconductor's conduction band, providing excess
electrons to the intrinsic semiconductor. Excess electrons increase the electron
carrier concentration (n0) of the semiconductor, making it n-type.
Acceptor impurity atoms have fewer valence electrons than the atoms
they replace in the intrinsic semiconductor lattice. They "accept" electrons from
the semiconductor's valence band. This provides excess holes to the intrinsic
semiconductor. Excess holes increase the hole carrier concentration (p0) of the
semiconductor, creating a p-type semiconductor.
Semiconductors and dopant atoms are defined by the column of the
periodic table in which they fall. The column definition of the semiconductor
determines how many valence electrons its atoms have and whether dopant
atoms act as the semiconductor's donors or acceptors.
Group IV semiconductors use group V atoms as donors and group III
atoms as acceptors.
Group III-V semiconductors, the compound semiconductors, use group
VI atoms as donors and group II atoms as acceptors. Group III-V semiconductors
can also use group IV atoms as either donors or acceptors. When a group IV
atom replaces the group III element in the semiconductor lattice, the group IV
atom acts as a donor. Conversely, when a group IV atom replaces the group V
element, the group IV atom acts as an acceptor. Group IV atoms can act as both
donors and acceptors; therefore, they are known as amphoteric impurities.
2.2 Use of extrinsic semiconductors
Extrinsic semiconductors are components of many common electrical
devices. A semiconductor diode (devices that allow current in only one
direction) consists of p-type and n-type semiconductors placed in junction with
one another. Currently, most semiconductor diodes use doped silicon or
germanium.
Transistors (devices that enable current switching) also make use of
extrinsic semiconductors. Bipolar junction transistors (BJT), which amplify
current, are one type of transistor. The most common BJTs are NPN and PNP
type. NPN transistors have two layers of n-type semiconductors sandwiching a p-
type semiconductor. PNP transistors have two layers of p-type semiconductors
sandwiching an n-type semiconductor.
Field-effect transistors (FET) are another type of transistor which
amplify current implementing extrinsic semiconductors. As opposed to BJTs,
they are called unipolar because they involve single carrier type operation –
either N-channel or P-channel.
Other devices implementing the extrinsic semiconductor:
1. Lasers
2. Solar cells
3. Photodetectors
4. Light-emitting diodes
5. Transistors
 Bibliography:
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extrinsic_semiconductor

2. http://www.optique-
ingenieur.org/en/courses/OPI_ang_M05_C02/co/Contenu_03.html

3. https://ecee.colorado.edu/~bart/book/intrinsi.htm

4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor