My Types of Test

Acids and Bases
A 30-YEAR-OLD MAN HAS

been brought to the emergency
Within minutes, Brianna
determines that Larry’s blood pH
14 Brianna recognizes these signs
and immediately contacts the
room after an automobile accident. is 7.30 and the partial pressure of emergency room to inform them that
The emergency room nurses are CO2 gas is above the desired level. Larry’s airway may be blocked. In the
tending to the patient, Larry, who Blood pH is typically in the range of emergency room, they provide Larry
is unresponsive. A blood sample is 7.35 to 7.45, and a value less than with an IV containing bicarbonate
taken then sent to Brianna, a clinical 7.35 indicates a state of acidosis. to increase the blood pH and begin
laboratory technician, who begins Respiratory acidosis occurs because the process of unblocking his airway.
the process of analyzing the pH, the an increase in the partial pressure of Shortly afterward, Larry’s airway
partial pressures of O2 and CO2, and CO2 gas in the bloodstream prevents is cleared, and his blood pH and
the concentrations of glucose and the biochemical buffers in blood partial pressure of CO2 gas return to
electrolytes. from making a change in the pH. normal.
CAREER
Clinical Laboratory Technician
Clinical laboratory technicians, also known as medical laboratory
technicians, perform a wide variety of tests on body fluids and
cells that help in the diagnosis and treatment of patients. These
tests range from determining blood concentrations of glucose and
cholesterol to determining drug levels in the blood for transplant
patients or a patient undergoing treatment. Clinical laboratory
technicians also prepare specimens in the detection of cancerous
tumors, and type blood samples for transfusions. Clinical laboratory
technicians must also interpret and analyze the test results, which are
then passed on to the physician.
443
CHAPTER READINESS*
+
× ÷ KEY MATH SKILLS CORE CHEMISTRY SKILLS
–
ō Solving Equations (1.4) ō Writing Ionic Formulas (6.2)
ō Converting between Standard Numbers ō Balancing a Chemical Equation (8.2)
and Scientific Notation (1.5) ō Using Concentration as a Conversion Factor (12.4)
ō Writing the Equilibrium Expression (13.3)
ō Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations (13.4)
ō Using Le Châtelier’s Principle (13.5)
*These Key Math Skills and Core Chemistry Skills from previous chapters are listed here for your review as you proceed to the new material in this chapter.
LOOKING AHEAD
14.1 Acids and Bases 14.4 Dissociation Constants for Acids 14.7 Reactions of Acids and Bases
14.2 Brønsted–Lowry Acids and and Bases 14.8 Acid–Base Titration
Bases 14.5 Dissociation of Water 14.9 Buffers
14.3 Strengths of Acids and Bases 14.6 The pH Scale
14.1 Acids and Bases

LEARNING GOAL Describe and name acids and bases.
Acids and bases are important substances in health, industry, and the environment. One of
the most common characteristics of acids is their sour taste. Lemons and grapefruits taste
sour because they contain acids such as citric and ascorbic acid (vitamin C). Vinegar tastes
sour because it contains acetic acid. We produce lactic acid in our muscles when we exer-
cise. Acid from bacteria turns milk sour in the production of yogurt and cottage cheese.
We have hydrochloric acid in our stomachs that helps us digest food. Sometimes we take
antacids, which are bases such as sodium bicarbonate or milk of magnesia, to neutralize
the effects of too much stomach acid.
Citrus fruits are sour because of the The term acid comes from the Latin word acidus, which means “sour.” We are famil-
presence of acids. iar with the sour tastes of vinegar and lemons and other common acids in foods.
In 1887, the Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius was the first to describe acids as sub-
stances that produce hydrogen ions (H + ) when they dissolve in water. Because acids pro-
duce ions in water, they are also electrolytes. For example, hydrogen chloride dissociates
in water to give hydrogen ions, H + , and chloride ions, Cl- . The hydrogen ions give acids a
sour taste, change the blue litmus indicator to red, and corrode some metals.
H2O
HCl(g) H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Polar molecular Dissociation Hydrogen
compound ion
Naming Acids
Acids dissolve in water to produce hydrogen ions, along with a negative ion that may be a
simple nonmetal anion or a polyatomic ion. When an acid dissolves in water to produce a
hydrogen ion and a simple nonmetal anion, the prefix hydro is used before the name of the
nonmetal, and its ide ending is changed to ic acid. For example, hydrogen chloride (HCl)
dissolves in water to form HCl(aq), which is named hydrochloric acid. An exception is
hydrogen cyanide (HCN), which as an acid is named hydrocyanic acid.
When an acid contains oxygen, it dissolves in water to produce a hydrogen ion and an
oxygen-containing polyatomic anion. The most common form of an oxygen-containing
acid has a name that ends with ic acid. The name of its polyatomic anion ends in ate. If the
acid contains a polyatomic ion with an ite ending, its name ends in ous acid.
444
14.1 Acids and Bases 445
The halogens in Group 7A (17) can form more than two oxygen-containing acids.
For chlorine, the common form is chloric acid (HClO3), which contains the chlorate poly-
atomic ion (ClO3- ). For the acid that contains one more oxygen atom than the common ENGAGE
form, the prefix per is used; HClO4 is named perchloric acid. When the polyatomic ion in
the acid has one oxygen atom less than the common form, the suffix ous is used. Thus, Why is HBr named hydrobromic
acid but HBrO3 is named bromic
HClO2 is named chlorous acid; it contains the chlorite ion (ClO2- ). The prefix hypo
acid?
is used for the acid that has two oxygen atoms less than the common form; HClO is named
hypochlorous acid. The names of some common acids and their anions are listed
in TABLE 14.1.
TABLE 14.1 Names of Common Acids and Their Anions

Acid Name of Acid Anion Name of Anion
-
HCl Hydrochloric acid Cl Chloride
-
HBr Hydrobromic acid Br Bromide
HI Hydroiodic acid I- Iodide
-
HCN Hydrocyanic acid CN Cyanide
HNO3 Nitric acid NO3- Nitrate
-
HNO2 Nitrous acid NO2 Nitrite
H2SO4 Sulfuric acid SO42- Sulfate
Sulfuric acid dissolves in
H2SO3 Sulfurous acid SO32- Sulfite water to produce one or
H2CO3 Carbonic acid CO32- Carbonate two H + and an anion.
-
HC2H3O2 Acetic acid C2H3O2 Acetate
H3PO4 Phosphoric acid PO43- Phosphate
H3PO3 Phosphorous acid PO33- Phosphite
HClO3 Chloric acid ClO3- Chlorate
HClO2 Chlorous acid ClO2- Chlorite
Bases
You may be familiar with some household bases such as antacids, drain openers, and oven
cleaners. According to the Arrhenius theory, bases are ionic compounds that dissociate
into cations and hydroxide ions (OH - ) when they dissolve in water. They are another
example of strong electrolytes. For example, sodium hydroxide is an Arrhenius base that
dissociates completely in water to give sodium ions (Na+ ) and hydroxide ions (OH - ). NaOH(s)
Most Arrhenius bases are formed from Groups 1A (1) and 2A (2) metals, such as
NaOH, KOH, LiOH, and Ca(OH)2. The hydroxide ions (OH - ) give Arrhenius bases com-
mon characteristics, such as a bitter taste and a slippery feel. A base turns litmus indicator
blue and phenolphthalein indicator pink. TABLE 14.2 compares some characteristics of
acids and bases.
+ - OH -
+ + -
- + Na+
+ - +
-
TABLE 14.2 Some Characteristics of Acids and Bases + -
- - +
Characteristic Acids Bases + - Water
+ -
Arrhenius Produce H Produce OH
H2O
Electrolytes Yes Yes NaOH(s) Na+(aq) + OH -(aq)
Ionic Dissociation Hydroxide
Taste Sour Bitter, chalky compound ion
Feel May sting Soapy, slippery An Arrhenius base produces cations
Litmus Red Blue and OH - anions in an aqueous
Colorless Pink solution.
Phenolphthalein
Neutralization Neutralize bases Neutralize acids
446 CHAPTER 14 Acids and Bases
Naming Bases
Typical Arrhenius bases are named as hydroxides.
Base Name
LiOH Lithium hydroxide
NaOH Sodium hydroxide
KOH Potassium hydroxide
Ca(OH)2 Calcium hydroxide
Al(OH)3 Aluminum hydroxide
Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2, is used
in the food industry to produce
beverages, and in dentistry as a filler
for root canals.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 14.1 Names and Formulas of Acids and Bases
a. Identify each of the following as an acid or a base and give its name:
1. H3PO4, ingredient in soft drinks
2. NaOH, ingredient in oven cleaner
b. Write the formula for each of the following:
1. magnesium hydroxide, ingredient in antacids
2. hydrobromic acid, used industrially to prepare bromide compounds
TRY IT FIRST
SOLUTION
a. 1. acid, phosphoric acid 2. base, sodium hydroxide
b. 1. Mg(OH)2 2. HBr
STUDY CHECK 14.1

A soft drink contains H3PO4 a. Identify as an acid or a base and give the name for H2CO3.
and H2CO3.
b. Write the formula for iron(III) hydroxide.
ANSWER
a. acid, carbonic acid b. Fe(OH)3
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

14.1 Acids and Bases
LEARNING GOAL Describe and name acids and bases. 14.3 Name each of the following acids or bases:
a. HCl b. Ca(OH)2 c. HClO4
14.1 Indicate whether each of the following statements is d. HNO3 e. H2SO3 f. HBrO2
characteristic of an acid, a base, or both: 14.4 Name each of the following acids or bases:
a. has a sour taste a. Al(OH)3 b. HBr c. H2SO4
b. neutralizes bases d. KOH e. HNO2 f. HClO2
c. produces H + ions in water
14.5 Write formulas for each of the following acids and bases:
d. is named barium hydroxide
a. rubidium hydroxide b. hydrofluoric acid
e. is an electrolyte
c. phosphoric acid d. lithium hydroxide
14.2 Indicate whether each of the following statements is e. ammonium hydroxide f. periodic acid
characteristic of an acid, a base, or both:
14.6 Write formulas for each of the following acids and bases:
a. neutralizes acids
a. barium hydroxide b. hydroiodic acid
b. produces OH - ions in water
c. nitric acid d. strontium hydroxide
c. has a slippery feel
e. acetic acid f. hypochlorous acid
d. conducts an electrical current in solution
e. turns litmus red
14.2 Brønsted–Lowry Acids and Bases 447
14.2 Brønsted–Lowry Acids and Bases

LEARNING GOAL Identify conjugate acid–base pairs for Brønsted–Lowry acids and
bases.
In 1923, J. N. Brønsted in Denmark and T. M. Lowry in Great Britain expanded the defini-
tion of acids and bases to include bases that do not contain OH - ions. A Brønsted–Lowry
acid can donate a hydrogen ion, H + , and a Brønsted–Lowry base can accept a
hydrogen ion.
A Brønsted–Lowry acid is a substance that donates H + .
A Brønsted–Lowry base is a substance that accepts H + .
A free hydrogen ion does not actually exist in water. Its attraction to polar water
molecules is so strong that the H + bonds to a water molecule and forms a hydronium
ion, H3O +.
+
H O + H+ H O H
H H
Water Hydrogen Hydronium ion
ion
We can write the formation of a hydrochloric acid solution as a transfer of H + from

hydrogen chloride to water. By accepting an H + in the reaction, water is acting as a base
according to the Brønsted–Lowry concept.
+ -
HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl-

Hydrogen Water Hydronium Chloride
chloride ion ion
Acid Base
(H+ donor) (H+ acceptor) Acidic solution
In another reaction, ammonia (NH3) acts as a base by accepting H + when it reacts

with water. Because the nitrogen atom of NH3 has a stronger attraction for H + than oxy-
gen, water acts as an acid by donating H + .
+
-
NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OH-

Ammonia Water Ammonium Hydroxide
ion ion
Base Acid
(H+ acceptor) (H+ donor) Basic solution
SAMPLE PROBLEM 14.2 Acids and Bases

In each of the following equations, identify the reactant that is a Brønsted–Lowry acid
and the reactant that is a Brønsted–Lowry base:
a. HBr(aq) + H2O(l) b H3O+ (aq) + Br - (aq)
b. CN- (aq) + H2O(l) b -
a HCN(aq) + OH (aq)
TRY IT FIRST
SOLUTION
a. HBr, Brønsted–Lowry acid; H2O, Brønsted–Lowry base
b. H2O, Brønsted–Lowry acid; CN- , Brønsted–Lowry base
STUDY CHECK 14.2

When HNO3 reacts with water, water acts as a Brønsted–Lowry base. Write the equation
for the reaction.
ANSWER
HNO3(aq) + H2O(l ) b H3O+ (aq) + NO3- (aq)
Conjugate Acid–Base Pairs

CORE CHEMISTRY SKILL According to the Brønsted–Lowry theory, a conjugate acid–base pair consists of mole-
Identifying Conjugate cules or ions related by the loss of one H + by an acid, and the gain of one H + by a base.
Acid–Base Pairs
Every acid–base reaction contains two conjugate acid–base pairs because an H + is trans-
ferred in both the forward and reverse directions. When an acid such as HF loses one H + ,
the conjugate base F - is formed. When the base H2O gains an H + , its conjugate acid,
Conjugate acid–base pair H3O+ , is formed.
Because the overall reaction of HF is reversible, the conjugate acid H3O+ can donate
-
Donates H+ H to the conjugate base F - and re-form the acid HF and the base H2O. Using the relation-
+
ship of loss and gain of one H + , we can now identify the conjugate acid–base pairs as
HF F- HF/F - along with H3O+ /H2O.
Conjugate acid–base pair H+ gain

+
Accepts H+ H+ loss
Acid Conjugate base
H2O H3O+ HF(aq) + H2O(l) F-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
Base Conjugate acid

HF, an acid, loses one H + to form
H+ gain
its conjugate base F - . Water acts
as a base by gaining one H + to
form its conjugate acid H3O + . H+ loss
ENGAGE In another reaction, ammonia (NH3 ) accepts H + from H2O to form the conjugate acid
NH4+ and conjugate base OH - . Each of these conjugate acid–base pairs, NH4+ /NH3 and
Why is HBrO2 the conjugate acid H2O/OH - , is related by the loss and gain of one H + .
of BrO2 -?
Conjugate acid–base pair
Ammonia, NH3, acts as a

base when it gains one H + to
form its conjugate acid NH4 + . NH3(g) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Water acts as an acid by
losing one H + to form its
conjugate base OH - . Conjugate acid–base pair
In these two examples, we see that water can act as an acid when it donates H + or as a
base when it accepts H + . Substances that can act as both acids and bases are amphoteric
or amphiprotic. For water, the most common amphoteric substance, the acidic or basic
behavior depends on the other reactant. Water donates H + when it reacts with a stronger
base, and it accepts H + when it reacts with a stronger acid. Another example of an ampho-
teric substance is bicarbonate (HCO 3-). With a base, HCO 3- acts as an acid and donates
one H + to give CO32- . However, when HCO3- reacts with an acid, it acts as a base and
accepts one H + to form H2CO3.
ENGAGE
Why can H2O be both the H3O+ H2O OH-
conjugate base of H3O+ and the Amphoteric substances act as Acts as a base Acts as an acid
H2CO3 HCO3- CO32-
conjugate acid of OH - ? both acids and bases.
14.2 Brønsted–Lowry Acids and Bases 449
SAMPLE PROBLEM 14.3 Identifying Conjugate Acid–Base Pairs

Identify the conjugate acid–base pairs in the following reaction:
HBr(aq) + NH3(aq) b Br - (aq) + NH4 + (aq)
TRY IT FIRST
SOLUTION Guide to Writing Conjugate
Given Need Connect Acid–Base Pairs
ANALYZE THE
PROBLEM HBr Br -
conjugate lose/gain one STEP 1
NH3 NH4+ acid–base pairs H+ Identify the reactant that loses
H+ as the acid.
STEP 1 Identify the reactant that loses H + as the acid. In the reaction, HBr
STEP 2
donates H + to form the product Br - . Thus HBr is the acid and Br - is its conjugate base.
Identify the reactant that gains
STEP 2 Identify the reactant that gains H + as the base. In the reaction, NH3 H+ as the base.
gains H + to form the product NH4+ . Thus, NH3 is the base and NH4+ is its conjugate
STEP 3
acid.
Write the conjugate acid–base
STEP 3 Write the conjugate acid–base pairs. pairs.
HBr/Br - and NH4+ /NH3
STUDY CHECK 14.3

Identify the conjugate acid–base pairs in the following reaction:
HCN(aq) + SO42- (aq) b - -
a CN (aq) + HSO4 (aq)
ANSWER
The conjugate acid–base pairs are HCN/CN- and HSO4- /SO42- .

14.2 Brønsted–Lowry Acids and Bases
LEARNING GOAL Identify conjugate acid–base pairs for 14.12 Write the formula for the conjugate acid for each of the
Brønsted–Lowry acids and bases. following bases:
a. SO42- b. CN- c. NH3
-
14.7 Identify the reactant that is a Brønsted–Lowry acid and the d. ClO2 e. HS-
reactant that is a Brønsted–Lowry base in each of the following: 14.13 Identify the Brønsted–Lowry acid–base pairs in each of the
a. HI(aq) + H2O(l ) b I -(aq) + H3O+(aq) following equations:
b. F -(aq) + H2O(l ) b a HF(aq) + OH (aq)
-
a. H2CO3(aq) + H2O(l ) b -
a HCO3 (aq) + H3O (aq)
+
c. H2S(aq) + CH3 ¬ CH2 ¬ NH2(aq) b a + b
b. NH4 (aq) + H2O(l ) a NH3(aq) + H3O (aq) +
HS-(aq) + CH3 ¬ CH2 ¬ NH3 +(aq) c. HCN(aq) + NO2 - (aq) b -
a CN (aq) + HNO2(aq)
14.8 Identify the reactant that is a Brønsted–Lowry acid and the d. CHO2-(aq) + HF(aq) b a HCHO -
2(aq) + F (aq)
reactant that is a Brønsted–Lowry base in each of the following: 14.14 Identify the Brønsted–Lowry acid–base pairs in each of the
a. CO32-(aq) + H2O(l ) b -
a HCO3 (aq) + OH (aq)
-
following equations:
b. H2SO4(aq) + H2O(l ) b HSO4 (aq) + H3O+(aq)
-
a. H3PO4(aq) + H2O(l) b -
a H2PO4 (aq) + H3O (aq)
+
c. C2H3O2-(aq) + H3O+(aq) b a HC2H3O2(aq) + H2O(l ) b. CO3 (aq) + H2O(l) b
2- -
a HCO3 (aq) + OH (aq)
-
14.9 Write the formula for the conjugate base for each of the c. H3PO4(aq) + NH3(aq) b -
a H2PO4 (aq) + NH4 (aq)
+
following acids: d. HNO2(aq) + CH3 ¬ CH2 ¬ NH2(aq) b a

a. HF b. H2O c. H2PO3- CH3 ¬ CH2 ¬ NH3 +(aq) + NO2-(aq)
-
d. HSO4 e. HClO2 14.15 When ammonium chloride dissolves in water, the ammonium
14.10 Write the formula for the conjugate base for each of the ion NH4+ donates an H + to water. Write a balanced equation for
following acids: the reaction of the ammonium ion with water.
a. HCO3- b. CH3 ¬ NH3+ c. HPO42- 14.16 When sodium carbonate dissolves in water, the carbonate ion
d. HNO2 e. HBrO CO32- acts as a base. Write a balanced equation for the reaction
14.11 Write the formula for the conjugate acid for each of the of the carbonate ion with water.
following bases:
a. CO32- b. H2O c. H2PO4-
d. Br - e. ClO4-
14.3 Strengths of Acids and Bases

LEARNING GOAL Write equations for the dissociation of strong and weak acids; identify
the direction of reaction.
In the process called dissociation, an acid or a base separates into ions in water. The
strength of an acid is determined by the moles of H3O+ that are produced for each mole of
acid that dissociates. The strength of a base is determined by the moles of OH - that are
produced for each mole of base that dissolves. Strong acids and strong bases dissociate
completely in water, whereas weak acids and weak bases dissociate only slightly, leaving
most of the initial acid or base undissociated.
Strong and Weak Acids

Strong acids are examples of strong electrolytes because they donate H + so easily that their
dissociation in water is essentially complete. For example, when HCl, a strong acid, dissoci-
ates in water, H + is transferred to H2O; the resulting solution contains essentially only the
ions H3O+ and Cl- . We consider the reaction of HCl in H2O as going 100% to products.
Thus, one mole of a strong acid dissociates in water to yield one mole of H3O+ and one mole
of its conjugate base. We write the equation for a strong acid such as HCl with a single arrow.
HCl(g) + H2O(l) b H3O+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
Weak acids are found in foods and There are only six common strong acids, which are stronger acids than H3O+ . All
household products. other acids are weak. TABLE 14.3 lists the relative strengths of acids and bases. Weak
TABLE 14.3 Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases

Acid Conjugate Base
Strong Acids
Hydroiodic acid HI I- Iodide ion
Hydrobromic acid HBr Br - Bromide ion
-
Perchloric acid HClO4 ClO4 Perchlorate ion
Hydrochloric acid HCl Cl- Chloride ion
-
Sulfuric acid H2SO4 HSO4 Hydrogen sulfate ion
Nitric acid HNO3 NO3- Nitrate ion
Hydronium ion H3O+ H2O Water
Weak Acids
Hydrogen sulfate ion HSO4- SO42- Sulfate ion Base Strength Increases
Acid Strength Increases
-
Phosphoric acid H3PO4 H2PO4 Dihydrogen phosphate ion
-
Nitrous acid HNO2 NO2 Nitrite ion
Hydrofluoric acid HF F- Fluoride ion
-
Acetic acid HC2H3O2 C2H3O2 Acetate ion
Carbonic acid H2CO3 HCO3- Bicarbonate ion
-
Hydrosulfuric acid H2S HS Hydrogen sulfide ion
-
Dihydrogen phosphate ion H2PO4 HPO42- Hydrogen phosphate ion
Ammonium ion NH4 + NH3 Ammonia
-
Hydrocyanic acid HCN CN Cyanide ion
-
Bicarbonate ion HCO3 CO32- Carbonate ion
Methylammonium ion CH3 ¬ NH3+ CH3 ¬ NH2 Methylamine
Hydrogen phosphate ion HPO42- PO43- Phosphate ion
Water H2O OH - Hydroxide ion
14.3 Strengths of Acids and Bases 451
acids are weak electrolytes because they dissociate slightly in water, forming only a small
amount of H3O+ ions. A weak acid has a strong conjugate base, which is why the reverse
reaction is more prevalent. Even at high concentrations, weak acids produce low concen-
trations of H3O+ ions (see FIGURE 14.1).
FIGURE 14.1 ▶ A strong acid such

as HCl is completely dissociated,
whereas a weak acid such as
HC2H3O2 contains mostly molecules
HCl HC2H3O2 and a few ions.
1M 1M
What is the difference
between a strong acid and a
weak acid?
- +
+
+ - -
-
- +
- +
+
- +
+
- - -
+
+
Many of the products you use at home contain weak acids. Citric acid is a weak acid
found in fruits and fruit juices such as lemons, oranges, and grapefruit. The vinegar used
in salad dressings is typically a 5% (m/v) acetic acid (HC2 H3 O 2 ) solution. In water, a few
HC2H3O2 molecules donate H + to H2O to form H3O+ ions and acetate ions (C2H3O2- ). The
reverse reaction also takes place, which converts the H3O+ ions and acetate ions (C2H3O2- )
back to reactants. The formation of hydronium ions from vinegar is the reason we notice
the sour taste of vinegar. We write the equation for a weak acid in an aqueous solution with ENGAGE
a double arrow to indicate that the forward and reverse reactions are at equilibrium. -
Why is NO2 a stronger base than
HC2H3O2(aq) + H2O(l ) b - + NO3 - ?
a C2H3O2 (aq) + H3O (aq)
Acetic acid Acetate ion
Diprotic Acids
Some weak acids, such as carbonic acid, are diprotic acids that have two H + , which dis-
sociate one at a time. For example, carbonated soft drinks are prepared by dissolving CO2
in water to form carbonic acid (H2CO3). A weak acid such as H2CO3 reaches equilibrium
between the mostly undissociated H2CO3 molecules and the ions H3O+ and HCO3- .
H2CO3(aq) + H2O(l ) b + -
a H3O (aq) + HCO3 (aq)
Carbonic acid Bicarbonate ion
(hydrogen carbonate)
Because HCO3- is also a weak acid, a second dissociation can take place to produce
another hydronium ion and the carbonate ion (CO32- ).
HCO3-(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + CO32-(aq)

Bicarbonate ion Carbonate ion
(hydrogen carbonate)
Carbonic acid, a weak

acid, loses one H +
to form hydrogen
carbonate ion, which
loses a second H + to
H2CO3 HCO3- CO32- form carbonate ion.
HF
Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is also a diprotic acid. However, its first dissociation is complete
(100%), which means H2SO4 is a strong acid. The product, hydrogen sulfate (HSO4- ) can
F- dissociate again but only slightly, which means that the hydrogen sulfate ion is a weak
acid.
H2SO4(aq) + H2O(l ) b H3O+ (aq) + HSO4- (aq)

Sulfuric acid Bisulfate ion
+ (hydrogen sulfate)
H 3O
HSO4- (aq) + H2O(l) b +

a H3O (aq) + SO4 (aq)
2-
Bisulfate ion Sulfate ion

(hydrogen sulfate)
In summary, a strong acid such as HI in water dissociates completely to form an

aqueous solution of the ions H3O+ and I - . A weak acid such as HF dissociates only slightly
in water to form an aqueous solution that consists mostly of HF molecules and a few H3O+
and F - ions (see FIGURE 14.2).
Strong acid: HI(aq) + H2O(l) b H3O+ (aq) + I - (aq) Completely dissociated
Weak acid: HF(aq) + H2O(l) b + -
a H3O (aq) + F (aq) Slightly dissociated
Hydrofluoric acid is the only halogen

acid that is a weak acid.
Strong acid Weak acid

HI H3O+ I- HF
HF
H2O H2O
H3O+ F-
(a) (b)
H3O+ I- HF
HF
I - H3O+
H3O+ I - HF
HF
- HF
I
H3O+ F-
+ HF
H3O
FIGURE 14.2 ▶ After dissociation in water, (a) the strong acid HI has high concentrations of
H3O + and I- , and (b) the weak acid HF has a high concentration of HF and low concentrations
of H3O + and F - .
How do the heights of H3O + and F - compare to the height of the weak acid HF in the
bar diagram for HF?
Strong and Weak Bases

As strong electrolytes, strong bases dissociate completely in water. Because these strong
bases are ionic compounds, they dissociate in water to give an aqueous solution of metal
ions and hydroxide ions. The Group 1A (1) hydroxides are very soluble in water, which
can give high concentrations of OH - ions. A few strong bases are less soluble in water, but
what does dissolve dissociates completely as ions. For example, when KOH forms a KOH
solution, it contains only the ions K+ and OH - .
H2O
KOH(s) K+(aq) + OH-(aq)
14.3 Strengths of Acids and Bases 453
Strong Bases
Lithium hydroxide (LiOH)
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
Potassium hydroxide (KOH)
Rubidium hydroxide (RbOH)
Cesium hydroxide (CsOH)
Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2)*
Strontium hydroxide (Sr(OH)2 )*
Barium hydroxide (Ba(OH)2)*
*Low solubility Bases in household products are used
to remove grease and to open drains.
Weak bases are weak electrolytes that are poor acceptors of hydrogen ions and pro-
duce very few ions in solution. A typical weak base, ammonia (NH3) is found in window
cleaners. In an aqueous solution, only a few ammonia molecules accept hydrogen ions to Bases Used in Household
form NH4 + and OH - . Products
Weak Bases
NH3(g) + H2O(l ) b + -
a NH4 (aq) + OH (aq) Window cleaner, ammonia, NH3
Ammonia Ammonium hydroxide Bleach, NaOCl
Laundry detergent, Na 2CO3, Na 3PO4
Direction of Reaction Toothpaste and baking soda, NaHCO3
Baking powder, scouring powder, Na 2CO3
There is a relationship between the components in each conjugate acid–base pair. Strong Lime for lawns and agriculture, CaCO3
acids have weak conjugate bases that do not readily accept H + . As the strength of the acid Laxatives, antacids, Mg(OH)2, Al(OH)3
decreases, the strength of its conjugate base increases.
In any acid–base reaction, there are two acids and two bases. However, one acid is Strong Bases
stronger than the other acid, and one base is stronger than the other base. By comparing Drain cleaner, oven cleaner, NaOH
their relative strengths, we can determine the direction of the reaction. For example, the
strong acid H2SO4 readily gives up H + to water. The hydronium ion H3O+ produced is a
weaker acid than H2SO4, and the conjugate base HSO4- is a weaker base than water.
H2SO4(aq) + H2O(l ) b H3O+ (aq) + HSO4- (aq) Mostly products

Stronger Stronger Weaker Weaker
acid base acid base
Let’s look at another reaction in which water donates one H + to carbonate (CO32- ) to
form HCO3- and OH - . From Table 14.3, we see that HCO3- is a stronger acid than H2O.
We also see that OH - is a stronger base than CO32- . To reach equilibrium, the stronger
acid and stronger base react in the direction of the weaker acid and weaker base.
CO32- (aq) + H2O(l ) b - -

a HCO3 (aq) + OH (aq) Mostly reactants
Weaker Weaker Stronger Stronger
base acid acid base
SAMPLE PROBLEM 14.4 Direction of Reaction

Does the equilibrium mixture of the following reaction contain mostly reactants or
products?
HF(aq) + H2O(l ) b + -
a H3O (aq) + F (aq)
TRY IT FIRST
SOLUTION
From Table 14.3, we see that HF is a weaker acid than H3O+ and that H2O is a weaker
base than F - . Thus, the equilibrium mixture contains mostly reactants.
HF(aq) + H2O(l ) b + -
a H3O (aq) + F (aq) Mostly reactants
Weaker Weaker Stronger Stronger
acid base acid base
STUDY CHECK 14.4

Does the equilibrium mixture for the reaction of nitric acid and water contain mostly
reactants or products?
ANSWER
HNO3(aq) + H2O(l) b H3O+ (aq) + NO3- (aq) Mostly products
The equilibrium mixture contains mostly products because HNO3 is a stronger acid than
H3O+ , and H2O is a stronger base than NO3- .

LEARNING GOAL Write equations for the dissociation of strong 14.23 Predict whether each of the following reactions contains mostly
and weak acids; identify the direction of reaction. reactants or products at equilibrium:
a. H2CO3(aq) + H2O(l ) b -
+
14.17 What is meant by the phrase “A strong acid has a weak b. NH4 +(aq) + H2O(l ) b a NH3 (aq) + H3O +
(aq)
conjugate base”? c. HNO2(aq) + NH3(aq) b -
a NO2 (aq) + NH4 (aq)
+
14.18 What is meant by the phrase “A weak acid has a strong 14.24 Predict whether each of the following reactions contains mostly
conjugate base”? reactants or products at equilibrium:
14.19 Identify the stronger acid in each of the following pairs: a. H3PO4(aq) + H2O(l ) b +
a H3O (aq) + H2PO4 (aq)
-
a. HBr or HNO2 b. H3PO4 or HSO4- b. CO3 (aq) + H2O(l ) b

2- -
a OH (aq) + HCO3 (aq)
-
c. HCN or H2CO3 c. HS-(aq) + F -(aq) b a HF(aq) + S (aq)

2-
14.20 Identify the stronger acid in each of the following pairs: 14.25 Write an equation for the acid–base reaction between
a. NH4 + or H3O+ b. H2SO4 or HCl ammonium ion and sulfate ion. Why does the equilibrium
c. H2O or H2CO3 mixture contain mostly reactants?
14.21 Identify the weaker acid in each of the following pairs: 14.26 Write an equation for the acid–base reaction between nitrous
a. HCl or HSO4- b. HNO2 or HF acid and hydroxide ion. Why does the equilibrium mixture
c. HCO3- or NH4 + contain mostly products?
14.22 Identify the weaker acid in each of the following pairs:
a. HNO3 or HCO3- b. HSO 4- or H2 O
-
c. H2SO4 or H2CO3
14.4 Dissociation Constants for Acids and Bases

LEARNING GOAL Write the dissociation expression for a weak acid or weak base.
As we have seen, acids have different strengths depending on how much they dissociate
in water. Because the dissociation of strong acids in water is essentially complete, the
reaction is not considered to be an equilibrium situation. However, because weak acids in
water dissociate only slightly, the ion products reach equilibrium with the undissociated
weak acid molecules. For example, formic acid (HCHO2) the acid found in bee and ant
stings, is a weak acid. Formic acid is a weak acid that dissociates in water to form hydro-
nium ion (H3O+ ) and formate ion (CHO2- ).
HCHO2(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + CHO2-(aq)
Formic acid, a weak

acid, loses one H + to
HCHO2 CHO2- form formate ion.
14.4 Dissociation Constants for Acids and Bases 455
Writing Dissociation Constants

An acid dissociation expression, Ka, can be written for weak acids that gives the ratio
of the concentrations of products to the weak acid reactants. As with other dissociation
expressions, the molar concentration of the products is divided by the molar concentration
of the reactants. Because water is a pure liquid with a constant concentration, it is omitted.
The numerical value of the acid dissociation expression is the acid dissociation constant.
For example, the acid dissociation expression for the equilibrium equation of formic acid
shown above is written
[H3O+ ][CHO2- ]
Ka =
[HCHO2]
The numerical value of the Ka for formic acid at 25 °C is determined by experiment to

be 1.8 * 10-4. Thus, for the weak acid HCHO2, the Ka is written
[H3O+ ][CHO2- ]
Ka = = 1.8 * 10-4 Acid dissociation constant
[HCHO2]
The Ka for formic acid is small, which confirms that the equilibrium mixture of formic ENGAGE
acid in water contains mostly reactants and only small amounts of the products. (Recall
Why is an acid with a
that the brackets in the Ka represent the molar concentrations of the reactants and prod-
Ka = 1.8 * 10 -5 a stronger
ucts). Weak acids have small Ka values. However, strong acids, which are essentially 100% acid than an acid with a
dissociated, have very large Ka values, but these values are not usually given. TABLE 14.4 Ka = 6.2 * 10 -8 ?
gives Ka and Kb values for selected weak acids and bases.
TABLE 14.4 Ka and Kb Values for Selected Weak Acids and Bases
Acids Ka
Phosphoric acid H3PO4 7.5 * 10-3
Nitrous acid HNO2 4.5 * 10-4
Hydrofluoric acid HF 3.5 * 10-4
Formic acid HCHO2 1.8 * 10-4
Acetic acid HC2H3O2 1.8 * 10-5
Carbonic acid H2CO3 4.3 * 10-7
Hydrosulfuric acid H2S 9.1 * 10-8
-
Dihydrogen phosphate H2PO4 6.2 * 10-8
Hydrocyanic acid HCN 4.9 * 10-10
-
Hydrogen carbonate HCO3 5.6 * 10-11
Hydrogen phosphate HPO42- 2.2 * 10-13
Bases Kb
Methylamine CH3 ¬ NH2 4.4 * 10-4
Carbonate CO32- 2.2 * 10-4
Ammonia NH3 1.8 * 10-5
Let us now consider the dissociation of the weak base methylamine:

CH3 ¬ NH2(aq) + H2O(l) b + -
a CH3 ¬ NH3 (aq) + OH (aq)
As we did with the acid dissociation expression, the concentration of water is omitted
from the base dissociation expression, Kb. The base dissociation constant for methyl-
amine is written
[CH3 ¬ NH3 + ][OH - ]
Kb = = 4.4 * 10-4
[CH3 ¬ NH2]
TABLE 14.5 summarizes the characteristics of acids and bases in terms of strength and equi-
librium position.
TABLE 14.5 Characteristics of Acids and Bases

Characteristic Strong Acids Weak Acids
Equilibrium Position Toward products Toward reactants
Ka Large Small
+ − 100% of [HA] dissociates Small percent of [HA] dissociates
[H3O ] and [A ]
Conjugate Base Weak Strong
Characteristic Strong Bases Weak Bases
Equilibrium Position Toward products Toward reactants
Kb Large Small
+ − 100% of [B] reacts Small percent of [B] reacts
[BH ] and [OH ]
Conjugate Acid Weak Strong
SAMPLE PROBLEM 14.5 Writing an Acid Dissociation Expression

Write the acid dissociation expression for the weak acid nitrous acid.
TRY IT FIRST
SOLUTION
Guide to Writing the Acid
Dissociation Expression STEP 1 Write the balanced chemical equation. The equation for the dissociation
of nitrous acid is written
STEP 1
Write the balanced chemical HNO2(aq) + H2O(l ) b + -
a H3O (aq) + NO2 (aq)
equation.
STEP 2 Write the concentrations of the products as the numerator and the
STEP 2 reactants as the denominator. The acid dissociation expression is written as the
Write the concentrations of concentration of the products divided by the concentration of the undissociated weak
the products as the numerator acid.
and the reactants as the
denominator. [H3O+ ][NO2- ]
Ka =
[HNO2]
STUDY CHECK 14.5

Write the acid dissociation expression for hydrogen phosphate (HPO42- ).
ANSWER
[H3O+ ][PO43- ]
Ka =
[HPO42- ]

14.4 Dissociation Constants for Acids and Bases
LEARNING GOAL Write the dissociation expression for a weak 14.28 Answer true or false for each of the following: A weak acid
acid or weak base. a. is completely dissociated in aqueous solution
b. has a small value of Ka
14.27 Answer true or false for each of the following: A strong acid c. has a strong conjugate base
a. is completely dissociated in aqueous solution d. has a weak conjugate base
b. has a small value of Ka e. is slightly dissociated in aqueous solution
c. has a strong conjugate base
d. has a weak conjugate base
e. is slightly dissociated in aqueous solution
14.5 Dissociation of Water 457
14.29 Consider the following acids and their dissociation constants: a. Which is the weaker acid, HPO42- or HCHO2?
H2SO3(aq) + H2O(l) b + - b. What is the conjugate base of HPO42-?
a H3O (aq) + HSO3 (aq)
Ka = 1.2 * 10-2 c. Which acid has the weaker conjugate base?
d. Which acid has the stronger conjugate base?
HS - (aq) + H2O(l) b +
a H3O (aq) + S (aq)
2-
e. Which acid produces more ions?
Ka = 1.3 * 10-19 14.31 Phosphoric acid dissociates to form hydronium ion and
a. Which is the stronger acid, H2SO3 or HS-? dihydrogen phosphate. Phosphoric acid has a Ka of 7.5 * 10-3.
b. What is the conjugate base of H2SO3? Write the equation for the reaction and the acid dissociation
c. Which acid has the weaker conjugate base? expression for phosphoric acid.
d. Which acid has the stronger conjugate base?
14.32 Aniline, C6H5 ¬ NH2, a weak base with a Kb of 4.0 * 10-10,
e. Which acid produces more ions?
reacts with water to form C6H5 ¬ NH3 + and hydroxide ion.
14.30 Consider the following acids and their dissociation constants: Write the equation for the reaction and the base dissociation
HPO42-(aq) + H2O(l) b +
a H3O (aq) + PO4 (aq)
3- expression for aniline.
Ka = 2.2 * 10-13
HCHO2(aq) + H2O(l) b + -
a H3O (aq) + CHO2 (aq)
Ka = 1.8 * 10-4
14.5 Dissociation of Water

LEARNING GOAL Use the water dissociation expression to calculate the [H3O+]
and [OH -] in an aqueous solution.
In many acid–base reactions, water is amphoteric, which means that it can act either as
an acid or as a base. In pure water, there is a forward reaction between two water mol-
ecules that transfers H + from one water molecule to the other. One molecule acts as an
acid by losing H + , and the water molecule that gains H + acts as a base. Every time H + is
transferred between two water molecules, the products are one H3O+ and one OH - , which
react in the reverse direction to re-form two water molecules. Thus, equilibrium is reached
between the conjugate acid–base pairs of water.
-
O H + O H H O H+ + O H
H H H

Acid Base Acid Base
(H+ donor) (H+ acceptor) (H+ donor) (H+ acceptor)
Writing the Water Dissociation Expression, Kw

Using the equation for water at equilibrium, we can write its equilibrium expression that
shows the concentrations of the products divided by the concentrations of the reactants.
Recall that square brackets around the symbols indicate their concentrations in moles per
liter (M).
H2O(l ) + H2O(l ) b + -
a H3O (aq) + OH (aq)
[H3O+ ][OH - ]
K =
[H2O][H2O]
By omitting the constant concentration of pure water, we can write the water dissociation
expression, Kw.
Kw = [H3O+ ][OH - ]
ENGAGE Experiments have determined, that in pure water, the concentration of H3O+ and OH - at
25 °C are each 1.0 * 10-7 M.
Why is the [H3O+] equal to the
[OH -] in pure water? Pure water [H3O+ ] = [OH - ] = 1.0 * 10-7 M
When we place the [H3O+ ] and [OH - ] into the water dissociation expression, we obtain
the numerical value of Kw, which is 1.0 * 10-14 at 25 °C. As before, the concentration
units are omitted in the Kw value.
Kw = [H3O+ ][OH - ]
= [1.0 * 10-7][1.0 * 10-7] = 1.0 * 10-14
Neutral, Acidic, and Basic Solutions

The Kw value (1.0 * 10-14) applies to any aqueous solution at 25 °C because all aqueous
solutions contain both H3O+ and OH - (see FIGURE 14.3). When the [H3O+ ] and [OH - ] in
a solution are equal, the solution is neutral. However, most solutions are not neutral; they
ENGAGE have different concentrations of [H3O+ ] and [OH - ]. If acid is added to water, there is an
increase in [H3O+ ] and a decrease in [OH - ], which makes an acidic solution. If base is
Why is the product of the
added, [OH - ] increases and [H3O+ ] decreases, which gives a basic solution. However, for
concentrations of H3 O+ and OH -
any aqueous solution, whether it is neutral, acidic, or basic, the product [H3O+ ][OH - ] is
in a solution equal to 1.0 * 10 -14 ?
equal to Kw (1.0 * 10-14) at 25 °C (see TABLE 14.6).
100
Concentration (mol/L)
H3O+ OH-
10-7
H3O+ OH-
FIGURE 14.3 ▶ In a neutral
solution, [H3O + ] and [OH - ] are
equal. In acidic solutions, the [H3O + ]
is greater than the [OH - ]. In basic OH- H3O+
solutions, the [OH - ] is greater than
the [H3O + ].
10-14
Is a solution that has a [H3O + ] [H3O+] > [OH-] [H3O+] = [OH-] [H3O+] < [OH-]
of 1.0 * 10 -3 M acidic, basic,
or neutral? Acidic solution Neutral solution Basic solution
TABLE 14.6 Examples of [H3O+] and [OH −] in Neutral, Acidic, and Basic Solutions
Type of Solution [H3O+ ] [OH − ] Kw
-7 -7
Neutral 1.0 * 10 M 1.0 * 10 M 1.0 * 10-14
Acidic 1.0 * 10-2 M 1.0 * 10-12 M 1.0 * 10-14
Acidic 2.5 * 10-5 M 4.0 * 10-10 M 1.0 * 10-14
Basic 1.0 * 10-8 M 1.0 * 10-6 M 1.0 * 10-14
Basic 5.0 * 10-11 M 2.0 * 10-4 M 1.0 * 10-14
14.5 Dissociation of Water 459
Using the Kw to Calculate 3H3O+ 4 and 3OH− 4 in a Solution

If we know the [H3O+ ] of a solution, we can use the Kw to calculate the [OH - ]. If we CORE CHEMISTRY SKILL
Calculating [H3O+] and
know the [OH - ] of a solution, we can calculate [H3O+ ] from their relationship in the Kw,
[OH -] in Solutions
as shown in Sample Problem 14.6.
Kw = [H3O+ ][OH - ]
Kw Kw ENGAGE
[OH - ] = [H3O+ ] =
[H3O+ ] [OH - ] +
If you know the [H3O ] of a
solution, how do you use the Kw to
calculate the [OH - ]?
SAMPLE PROBLEM 14.6 Calculating the 3H3O+ 4 of a Solution

A vinegar solution has a [OH - ] = 5.0 * 10-12 M at 25 °C. What is the [H3O+ ] of the
vinegar solution? Is the solution acidic, basic, or neutral?
TRY IT FIRST
SOLUTION
STEP 1 State the given and needed quantities.
ANALYZE THE Given Need Connect

+
PROBLEM -
[OH ] = 5.0 * 10 -12
M [H3O ] Kw = [H3O+][OH -]
Guide to Calculating [H3O+]
and [OH–] in Aqueous
STEP 2 Write the Kw for water and solve for the unknown [H3O+ ]. Solutions
STEP 1
Kw = [H3O+ ][OH - ] = 1.0 * 10-14
State the given and needed
+
Solve for [H3O ] by dividing both sides by [OH ]. - quantities.
STEP 2
Kw [H3O+ ][OH - ] 1.0 * 10-14
= = Write the Kw for water and
- -
[OH ] [OH ] [OH - ] solve for the unknown [H3O+]
1.0 * 10-14 or [OH –].
[H3O+ ] =
[OH - ] STEP 3
Substitute the known [H3O+]
STEP 3 Substitute the known [OH−] into the equation and calculate. or [OH –] into the equation
and calculate.
1.0 * 10-14
[H3O+ ] = = 2.0 * 10-3 M
[5.0 * 10-12]
Because the [H3O+ ] of 2.0 * 10-3 M is larger than the [OH - ] of 5.0 * 10-12 M,
the solution is acidic.
STUDY CHECK 14.6

What is the [H3O+ ] of an ammonia cleaning solution with [OH - ] = 4.0 * 10-4 M?
Is the solution acidic, basic, or neutral?
ANSWER
[H3O+ ] = 2.5 * 10-11 M, basic

LEARNING GOAL Use the water dissociation expression to 14.40 Calculate the [H3O+] of each aqueous solution with the
+ -
calculate the [H3O ] and [OH ] in an aqueous solution. following [OH -]:
a. NaOH, 1.0 * 10-2 M
14.33 Why are the concentrations of H3O+ and OH - equal in pure b. milk of magnesia, 1.0 * 10-5 M
water? c. aspirin, 1.8 * 10-11 M
14.34 What is the meaning and value of Kw at 25 °C? d. seawater, 2.5 * 10-6 M
14.35 In an acidic solution, how does the concentration of H3O+
Applications
compare to the concentration of OH -?
14.36 If a base is added to pure water, why does the [H3O+] 14.41 Calculate the [OH -] of each aqueous solution with the
decrease? following [H3O+]:
a. stomach acid, 4.0 * 10-2 M
14.37 Indicate whether each of the following solutions is acidic, b. urine, 5.0 * 10-6 M
basic, or neutral: c. orange juice, 2.0 * 10-4 M
a. [H3O+] = 2.0 * 10-5 M d. bile, 7.9 * 10-9 M
b. [H3O+] = 1.4 * 10-9 M
c. [OH -] = 8.0 * 10-3 M 14.42 Calculate the [OH -] of each aqueous solution with the
d. [OH -] = 3.5 * 10-10 M following [H3O+]:
a. baking soda, 1.0 * 10-8 M
14.38 Indicate whether each of the following solutions is acidic, b. blood, 4.2 * 10-8 M
basic, or neutral: c. milk, 5.0 * 10-7 M
a. [H3O+] = 6.0 * 10-12 M d. pancreatic juice, 4.0 * 10-9 M
b. [H3O+] = 1.4 * 10-4 M
c. [OH -] = 5.0 * 10-12 M
d. [OH -] = 4.5 * 10-2 M
14.39 Calculate the [H3O+] of each aqueous solution with the
following [OH -]:
a. coffee, 1.0 * 10-9 M
b. soap, 1.0 * 10-6 M
c. cleanser, 2.0 * 10-5 M
d. lemon juice, 4.0 * 10-13 M
14.6 The pH Scale

LEARNING GOAL Calculate pH from [H3O+]; given the pH, calculate the [H3O+] and
[OH -] of a solution.
In the environment, the acidity, or pH, of rain, water, and soil can have significant effects.
When rain becomes too acidic, it can dissolve marble statues and accelerate the corrosion
of metals. In lakes and ponds, the acidity of water can affect the ability of plants and fish
to survive. The acidity of soil around plants affects their growth. If the soil pH is too acidic
or too basic, the roots of the plant cannot take up some nutrients. Most plants thrive in soil
with a nearly neutral pH, although certain plants, such as orchids, camellias, and blueber-
ries, require a more acidic soil.
Personnel working in food processing, medicine, agriculture, spa and pool mainte-
nance, soap manufacturing, and wine making measure the [H3O+ ] and [OH - ] of solu-
tions. Although we have expressed H3O+ and OH - as molar concentrations, it is more
convenient to describe the acidity of solutions using the pH scale. On this scale, a num-
ber between 0 and 14 represents the H3O+ concentration for common solutions. A neutral
solution has a pH of 7.0 at 25 °C. An acidic solution has a pH less than 7.0; a basic solu-
tion has a pH greater than 7.0 (see FIGURE 14.4).
If soil is too acidic, nutrients are
not absorbed by crops. Then lime Acidic solution pH 6 7.0 [H3O+] 7 1.0 * 10-7 M
(CaCO3), which acts as a base, may Neutral solution pH = 7.0 [H3O+] = 1.0 * 10-7 M
be added to increase the soil pH. Basic solution pH 7 7.0 [H3O+] 6 1.0 * 10-7 M
14.6 The pH Scale 461
pH Value
1 M HCl solution 0.0
0
1
Gastric juice 1.6
2 Lemon juice 2.2
Vinegar 2.8
Carbonated beverage 3.0
3
Orange 3.5
Acidic Apple juice 3.8
4 Tomato 4.2
Coffee 5.0
5
Bread 5.5
Potato 5.8
Urine 6.0
6
Milk 6.4
Neutral Water (pure) 7.0

7 Drinking water 7.2
Blood plasma 7.4
Bile 8.1 Detergents 8.0–9.0

8
Seawater 8.5
10
Milk of magnesia 10.5
Basic
Ammonia 11.0
11
Bleach 12.0
12
13
1 M NaOH solution (lye) 14.0

14
FIGURE 14.4 ▶ On the pH scale, values below 7.0 are acidic, a value of 7.0 is neutral,
and values above 7.0 are basic.
Is apple juice an acidic, a basic, or a neutral solution?
When we relate acidity and pH, we are using an inverse relationship, which is when
one component increases while the other component decreases. When an acid is added
to pure water, the [H3O+ ] (acidity) of the solution increases but its pH decreases. When a
base is added to pure water, it becomes more basic, which means its acidity decreases and
the pH increases.
In the laboratory, a pH meter is commonly used to determine the pH of a solution.
There are also various indicators and pH papers that turn specific colors when placed in
solutions of different pH values. The pH is found by comparing the color on the test paper
or the color of the solution to a color chart (see FIGURE 14.5).
FIGURE 14.5 ▶ The pH of a
solution can be determined using
(a) a pH meter, (b) pH paper, and
(c) indicators that turn different colors
corresponding to different pH values.
If a pH meter reads 4.00, is
the solution acidic, basic, or
neutral?
(a) (b) (c)
SAMPLE PROBLEM 14.7 pH of Solutions

Consider the pH of the following body fluids:
Body Fluid pH
Stomach acid 1.4
Pancreatic juice 8.4
Sweat 4.8
Urine 5.3
Cerebrospinal fluid 7.3
a. Place the pH values of the body fluids on the list in order of most acidic to most
basic.
b. Which body fluid has the highest [H3O+ ]?
TRY IT FIRST
SOLUTION
a. The most acidic body fluid is the one with the lowest pH, and the most basic is the body
A dipstick is used to measure the pH
of a urine sample. fluid with the highest pH: stomach acid (1.4), sweat (4.8), urine (5.3), cerebrospinal
fluid (7.3), pancreatic juice (8.4).
b. The body fluid with the highest [H3O+ ] would have the lowest pH value, which is
stomach acid.
STUDY CHECK 14.7

Which body fluid has the highest [OH - ]?
ANSWER
The body fluid with the highest [OH - ] would have the highest pH value, which is
pancreatic juice.
+ Calculating the pH of Solutions

× ÷
– KEY MATH SKILL
The pH scale is a logarithmic scale that corresponds to the [H3O+ ] of aqueous solutions.
Calculating pH from [H3O+]
Mathematically, pH is the negative logarithm (base 10) of the [H3O+ ].
pH = -log[H3O+ ]
Essentially, the negative powers of 10 in the molar concentrations are converted to positive
numbers. For example, a lemon juice solution with [H3O+ ] = 1.0 * 10-2 M has a pH of
2.00. This can be calculated using the pH equation:
pH = -log[1.0 * 10 -2]
pH = -(-2.00)
= 2.00
The number of decimal places in the pH value is the same as the number of significant
figures in the [H3O+ ]. The number to the left of the decimal point in the pH value is the
power of 10.
[H3O+] = 1.0 * 10-2 pH = 2.00
Two SFs Two SFs
Because pH is a log scale, a change of one pH unit corresponds to a tenfold change in ENGAGE
[H3O+ ]. It is important to note that the pH decreases as the [H3O+ ] increases. For example,
a solution with a pH of 2.00 has a [H3O+ ] that is ten times greater than a solution with a Explain why 6.00 but not 6.0
pH of 3.00 and 100 times greater than a solution with a pH of 4.00. The pH of a solution is is the correct pH for
calculated from the [H3O+ ] by using the log key and changing the sign as shown in Sample [H3O+] = 1.0 * 10-6 M.
Problem 14.8.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 14.8 Calculating pH from [H3O+]

Aspirin, which is acetylsalicylic acid, was the first nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
drug (NSAID) used to alleviate pain and fever. If a solution of aspirin has a
[H3O+ ] = 1.7 * 10-3 M, what is the pH of the solution?
Acidic H
that dissociates in
aqueous solution
Aspirin, acetylsalicylic acid, is a weak acid.
TRY IT FIRST
SOLUTION
Guide to Calculating pH
STEP 1 State the given and needed quantities. of an Aqueous Solution
STEP 1
ANALYZE THE Given Need Connect State the given and needed
PROBLEM +
[H3O ] = 1.7 * 10 -3
M pH pH equation quantities.
STEP 2
STEP 2 Enter the [H3O + ] into the pH equation and calculate. Enter the [H3O+] into the pH
equation and calculate.
pH = -log[H3O+ ] = -log[1.7 * 10-3]
STEP 3
Calculator Procedure Calculator Display Adjust the number of SFs
1.7 EE or EXP +/- 3 log +/- = or +/- log 1.7 EE or EXP +/- 3 = 2.769551079 on the right of the decimal
point.
Be sure to check the instructions for your calculator. Different calculators can have dif-
ferent methods for pH calculation.
STEP 3 Adjust the number of SFs on the right of the decimal point. In a pH
value, the number to the left of the decimal point is an exact number derived from the
power of 10. Thus, the two SFs in the coefficient determine that there are two SFs after
the decimal point in the pH value.
Coefﬁcient Power of ten

1.7 * 10-3 M pH = -log[1.7 * 10-3] = 2.77
Two SFs Exact Exact Two SFs
STUDY CHECK 14.8

What is the pH of bleach with [H3O+ ] = 4.2 * 10-12 M?
ANSWER
pH = 11.38
When we need to calculate the pH from [OH - ], we use the Kw to calculate [H3O+ ],
place it in the pH equation, and calculate the pH of the solution as shown in Sample
Problem 14.9.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 14.9 Calculating pH from [OH −]

What is the pH of an ammonia solution with [OH - ] = 3.7 * 10-3 M?
TRY IT FIRST
SOLUTION
Given Need Connect

ANALYZE THE
PROBLEM
-
[OH ] = 3.7 * 10 -3
M pH Kw = [H3O+][OH -],
pH equation
STEP 2 Enter the [H3O + ] into the pH equation and calculate. Because [OH - ] is
given for the ammonia solution, we have to calculate [H3O+ ]. Using the water dissocia-
tion expression, Kw, we divide both sides by [OH - ] to obtain [H3O+ ].
Kw = [H3O+ ][OH - ] = 1.0 * 10-14

Kw [H3O+ ][OH - ]
=
[OH - ] [OH - ]
1.0 * 10-14
[H3O+ ] = = 2.7 * 10-12 M
[3.7 * 10-3]
Now, we enter the [H3O+ ] into the pH equation.
pH = -log[H3O+] = -log[2.7 * 10-12]
Calculator Procedure Calculator Display

2.7 EE or EXP +/- 12 log +/- = 11.56863624
or
+/- log 2.7 EE or EXP +/- 12 =
STEP 3 Adjust the number of SFs on the right of the decimal point.
2.7 * 10-12 M pH = 11.57
Two SFs Two SFs to the right of the decimal point
STUDY CHECK 14.9

Calculate the pH of a sample of bile that has [OH - ] = 1.3 * 10-6 M.
ANSWER
pH = 8.11
pOH
The pOH scale is similar to the pH scale except that pOH is associated with the [OH - ] of
an aqueous solution.
pOH = -log[OH - ]
Solutions with high [OH - ] have low pOH values; solutions with low [OH - ] have high
pOH values. In any aqueous solution, the sum of the pH and pOH is equal to 14.00, which
is the negative logarithm of the Kw.
pH + pOH = 14.00
For example, if the pH of a solution is 3.50, the pOH can be calculated as follows:
pH + pOH = 14.00
pOH = 14.00 - pH = 14.00 - 3.50 = 10.50
A comparison of [H3O+ ], [OH - ], and their corresponding pH and pOH values is given
in TABLE 14.7.
TABLE 14.7 A Comparison of pH and pOH Values at 25 °C, [H3O+ ], and [OH - ]
pH 3H3O+ 4 3OH− 4 pOH
0 -14
0 10 10 14
-1 -13
1 10 10 13 pH = 3.4
-2 -12 pH = 3.9
2 10 10 12
3 10-3 10-11 11 pH = 2.0
Acidic pH = 2.4
4 10-4 10-10 10
-5 -9
5 10 10 9
Acids produce the sour taste of the
-6 -8
6 10 10 8 fruits we eat.
7 10-7 10-7 7 Neutral
8 10-8 10-6 6
-9 -5
9 10 10 5
-10 -4
10 10 10 4 Basic
-11 -3
11 10 10 3
-12 -2
12 10 10 2
-13 -1
13 10 10 1
-14 0
14 10 10 0
×
+
÷ Calculating [H3O+ ] from pH
– KEY MATH SKILL
If we are given the pH of the solution and asked to determine the [H3O+ ], we need to
Calculating [H3O+] from pH
reverse the calculation of pH.
[H3O+ ] = 10-pH
For example, if the pH of a solution is 3.0, we can substitute it into this equation. The
number of significant figures in [H3O+ ] is equal to the number of decimal places in the pH
value.
[H3O+ ] = 10-pH = 10-3.0 = 1 * 10-3 M
For pH values that are not whole numbers, the calculation requires the use of the 10x key,
which is usually a 2nd function key. On some calculators, this operation is done using the
inverse log equation as shown in Sample Problem 14.10.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 14.10 Calculating [H3O +] from pH

Calculate [H3O+ ] for a urine sample, which has a pH of 7.5.
TRY IT FIRST
SOLUTION
Guide to Calculating [H3O+]
from pH STEP 1 State the given and needed quantities.
STEP 1
State the given and needed ANALYZE THE Given Need Connect
quantities. PROBLEM pH = 7.5 [H3O ]+
[H3O+] = 10-pH
STEP 2
Enter the pH value into the
inverse log equation and STEP 2 Enter the pH value into the inverse log equation and calculate.
calculate.
[H3O+ ] = 10-pH = 10-7.5
STEP 3
Adjust the SFs for the Calculator Procedure Calculator Display
coefficient. 2nd log +/- 7.5 = or 7.5 +/- 2nd log = 3.16227766 E -08
Be sure to check the instructions for your calculator. Different calculators can have dif-
ferent methods for this calculation.
STEP 3 Adjust the SFs for the coefficient. Because the pH value 7.5 has one digit to
the right of the decimal point, the coefficient for [H3O+ ] is written with one SF.
[H3O+ ] = 3 * 10-8 M
One SF
STUDY CHECK
What are the [H3O+ ] and [OH - ] of Diet Coke that has a pH of 3.17?
ANSWER
[H3O+ ] = 6.8 * 10-4 M, [OH - ] = 1.5 * 10-11 M
The pH of Diet Coke is 3.17.
CHEMISTRY LINK TO HEALTH

Stomach Acid, HCl
Gastric acid, which contains HCl, is Esophagus

produced by parietal cells that line the stomach.
When the stomach expands with the intake of food, Epithelial
the gastric glands begin to secrete a strongly acidic Stomach cell
lining
solution of HCl. In a single day, a person may Parietal
secrete 2000 mL of gastric juice, which contains cell
hydrochloric acid, mucins, and the enzymes pepsin Mucous
cell
and lipase.
The HCl in the gastric juice activates a diges-
tive enzyme from the chief cells called pepsinogen Duodenum
to form pepsin, which breaks down proteins in food
entering the stomach. The secretion of HCl contin-
ues until the stomach has a pH of about 2, which
is the optimum for activating the digestive enzymes
without ulcerating the stomach lining. In addition,
the low pH destroys bacteria that reach the stom-
ach. Normally, large quantities of viscous mucus Gastric
are secreted within the stomach to protect its lining gland
from acid and enzyme damage. Gastric acid may
also form under conditions of stress when the ner-
vous system activates the production of HCl. As the
contents of the stomach move into the small intes-
tine, cells produce bicarbonate that neutralizes the Chief cell
gastric acid until the pH is about 5. Parietal cells in the lining of the stomach secrete gastric acid HCl.

ww
14.6 The pH Scale
LEARNING GOAL Calculate pH from [H3O +]; given the pH, Applications
calculate the [H3O + ] and [OH - ] of a solution.
14.51 Complete the following table:
14.43 Why does a neutral solution have a pH of 7.0? Acidic,
14.44 If you know the [OH -], how can you determine the pH of a Basic, or
[H3O+ ] [OH − ] pH pOH Neutral?
solution?
-6
14.45 State whether each of the following solutions is acidic, basic, 1.0 * 10 M
or neutral: 3.49
a. blood plasma, pH 7.38 b. vinegar, pH 2.8 -5
2.8 * 10 M
c. drain cleaner, pOH 2.8 d. coffee, pH 5.52
e. tomatoes, pH 4.2 f. chocolate cake, pH 7.6 2.00
14.46 State whether each of the following solutions is acidic, basic, 14.52 Complete the following table:
or neutral:
a. soda, pH 3.22 b. shampoo, pOH 8.3 Acidic,
c. laundry detergent, pOH 4.56 d. rain, pH 5.8 Basic, or
[H3O+ ] [OH − ] pH pOH Neutral?
e. honey, pH 3.9 f. cheese, pH 4.9
14.47 A solution with a pH of 3 is 10 times more acidic than a 10.00
solution with pH 4. Explain. Neutral
14.48 A solution with a pH of 10 is 100 times more basic than a 5.66
solution with pH 8. Explain. 6.4 * 10-12 M
14.49 Calculate the pH of each solution given the following:
a. [H3O+] = 1 * 10-4 M b. [H3O+] = 3 * 10-9 M 14.53 A patient with severe metabolic acidosis has a blood plasma
c. [OH -] = 1 * 10-5 M d. [OH -] = 2.5 * 10-11 M pH of 6.92. What is the [H3O+] of the blood plasma?
+ -8
e. [H3O ] = 6.7 * 10 M f. [OH -] = 8.2 * 10-4 M 14.54 A patient with respiratory alkalosis has a blood plasma pH of
14.50 Calculate the pOH of each solution given the following: 7.58. What is the [H3O+] of the blood plasma?
a. [H3O+] = 1 * 10-8 M b. [H3O+] = 5 * 10-6 M
- -2
c. [OH ] = 1 * 10 M d. [OH -] = 8.0 * 10-3 M
+ -2
e. [H3O ] = 4.7 * 10 M f. [OH -] = 3.9 * 10-6 M
14.7 Reactions of Acids and Bases

LEARNING GOAL Write balanced equations for reactions of acids with metals,
carbonates or bicarbonates, and bases.
Typical reactions of acids and bases include the reactions of acids with metals, carbonates or
bicarbonates, and bases. For example, when you drop an antacid tablet in water, the bicar-
bonate ion and citric acid in the tablet react to produce carbon dioxide bubbles, water, and
salt. A salt is an ionic compound that does not have H + as the cation or OH - as the anion.
Acids and Metals

Acids react with certain metals to produce hydrogen gas (H2) and a salt. Active metals
include potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, aluminum, zinc, iron, and tin. In these
single replacement reactions, the metal ion replaces the hydrogen in the acid.
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) b H2(g) + MgCl2(aq)
Metal Acid Hydrogen Salt
Zn(s) + 2HNO3(aq) b H2(g) + Zn(NO3)2(aq)

Metal Acid Hydrogen Salt
Magnesium reacts rapidly with
acid and forms H2 gas and a salt
of magnesium. Acids React with Carbonates or Bicarbonates
When an acid is added to a carbonate or bicarbonate, the products are carbon dioxide gas,
water, and a salt. The acid reacts with CO32- or HCO3- to produce carbonic acid (H2CO3),
which breaks down rapidly to CO2 and H2O.
2HCl(aq) + Na 2CO3(aq) b CO2(g) + H2O(l) + 2NaCl(aq)
Acid Carbonate Carbon Water Salt
dioxide
HBr(aq) + NaHCO3(aq) b CO2(g) + H2O(l ) + NaBr(aq)

Acid Bicarbonate Carbon Water Salt
dioxide
Acids and Hydroxides: Neutralization

Neutralization is a reaction between a strong or weak acid with a strong base to produce
water and a salt. The H + of the acid and the OH - of the base combine to form water. The
salt is the combination of the cation from the base and the anion from the acid. We can
write the following equation for the neutralization reaction between HCl and NaOH:
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) b H2O(l ) + NaCl(aq)
Acid Base Water Salt
If we write the strong acid HCl and the strong base NaOH as ions, we see that H + combines
When sodium bicarbonate (baking with OH - to form water, leaving the ions Na+ and Cl- in solution.
soda) reacts with an acid (vinegar),
the products are carbon dioxide gas, H + (aq) + Cl- (aq) + Na+ (aq) + OH - (aq) b H2O(l ) + Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
water, and a salt.
When we omit the ions that do not change during the reaction (spectator ions), we obtain
the net ionic equation.
CORE CHEMISTRY SKILL
Writing Equations for
H + (aq) + Cl- (aq) + Na+ (aq) + OH - (aq) b H2O(l ) + Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
Reactions of Acids and
The net ionic equation for the neutralization of H + and OH - to form H2O is
Bases
H + (aq) + OH - (aq) b H2O(l) Net ionic equation
Balancing Neutralization Equations

In a neutralization reaction, one H + always reacts with one OH - . Therefore, a neutraliza-
tion equation may need coefficients to balance the H + from the acid with the OH - from
the base as shown in Sample Problem 14.11.
14.7 Reactions of Acids and Bases 469
SAMPLE PROBLEM 14.11 Balancing Equations for Acids

Write the balanced equation for the neutralization of HCl(aq) and Ba(OH)2(s).
TRY IT FIRST
SOLUTION
Guide to Balancing an
STEP 1 Write the reactants and products. Equation for Neutralization
HCl(aq) + Ba(OH)2(s) b H2O(l) + salt STEP 1
Write the reactants and
STEP 2 Balance the H+ in the acid with the OH− in the base. Placing a coefficient products.
of 2 in front of the HCl provides 2H + for the 2OH - from Ba(OH)2.
STEP 2
2HCl(aq) + Ba(OH)2(s) b H2O(l) + salt Balance the H+ in the acid with
the OH – in the base.
STEP 3 Balance the H2O with the H+ and the OH− . Use a coefficient of 2 in front
of H2O to balance 2H + and 2OH - . STEP 3
Balance the H2O with the H+
2HCl(aq) + Ba(OH)2(s) b 2H2O(l) + salt and the OH –.
STEP 4 Write the formula of the salt from the remaining ions. Use the ions Ba2+ STEP 4
and 2Cl- and write the formula for the salt as BaCl2. Write the formula of the salt
from the remaining ions.
2HCl(aq) + Ba(OH)2(s) b 2H2O(l) + BaCl2(aq)
STUDY CHECK 14.11

Write the balanced equation for the neutralization of H2SO4(aq) and LiOH(aq).
ANSWER
H2SO4(aq) + 2LiOH(aq) b 2H2O(l ) + Li2SO4(aq)

Antacids
Antacids are substances used to neutralize excess where it elevates the level of serum calcium. Calcium carbonate is not
stomach acid (HCl). Some antacids are mixtures of aluminum recommended for patients who have peptic ulcers or a tendency to form
hydroxide and magnesium hydroxide. These hydroxides are not very kidney stones, which typically consist of an insoluble calcium salt.
soluble in water, so the levels of available OH - are not damaging
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) b CO2(g) + H2O(l ) + CaCl2(aq)
to the intestinal tract. However, aluminum hydroxide has the side
effects of producing constipation and binding phosphate in the intes- Still other antacids contain sodium bicarbonate. This type of
tinal tract, which may cause weakness and loss of appetite. Mag- antacid neutralizes excess gastric acid, increases blood pH, but also
nesium hydroxide has a laxative effect. These side effects are less elevates sodium levels in the body fluids. It also is not recommended
likely when a combination of the antacids is used. in the treatment of peptic ulcers.
Al(OH)3(s) + 3HCl(aq) b 3H2O(l) + AlCl3(aq) NaHCO3(s) + HCl(aq) b CO2(g) + H2O(l) + NaCl(aq)

The neutralizing substances in some antacid preparations are
Mg(OH)2(s) + 2HCl(aq) b 2H2O(l) + MgCl2(aq) given in TABLE 14.8.
TABLE 14.8 Basic Compounds in Some Antacids

Antacid Base(s)
Amphojel Al(OH)3
Milk of magnesia Mg(OH)2
Mylanta, Maalox, Di-Gel, Gelusil, Riopan Mg(OH)2, Al(OH)3
Antacids neutralize Bisodol, Rolaids CaCO3, Mg(OH)2
excess stomach acid. Titralac, Tums, Pepto-Bismol CaCO3
Some antacids use calcium carbonate to neutralize excess stom- Alka-Seltzer NaHCO3, KHCO3
ach acid. About 10% of the calcium is absorbed into the bloodstream,

14.7 Reactions of Acids and Bases
LEARNING GOAL Write balanced equations for reactions of 14.58 Balance each of the following neutralization reactions:
acids with metals, carbonates or bicarbonates, and bases. a. HNO3(aq) + Ba(OH)2(s) b H2O(l ) + Ba(NO3)2(aq)
b. H2SO4(aq) + Al(OH)3(s) b H2O(l ) + Al2(SO4)3(aq)
14.55 Complete and balance the equation for each of the following 14.59 Write a balanced equation for the neutralization of each of the
reactions: following:
a. ZnCO3(s) + HBr(aq) b a. H2SO4(aq) and NaOH(aq)
b. Zn(s) + HCl(aq) b b. HCl(aq) and Fe(OH)3(s)
c. HCl(aq) + NaHCO3(s) b c. H2CO3(aq) and Mg(OH)2(s)
d. H2SO4(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s) b
14.60 Write a balanced equation for the neutralization of each of the
14.56 Complete and balance the equation for each of the following following:
reactions: a. H3PO4(aq) and NaOH(aq)
a. KHCO3(s) + HBr(aq) b b. HI(aq) and LiOH(aq)
b. Ca(s) + H2SO4(aq) b c. HNO3(aq) and Ca(OH)2(s)
c. H2SO4(aq) + Ca(OH)2(s) b
d. Na 2CO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) b
14.57 Balance each of the following neutralization reactions:
a. HCl(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s) b H2O(l ) + MgCl2(aq)
b. H3PO4(aq) + LiOH(aq) b H2O(l ) + Li3PO4(aq)
14.8 Acid–Base Titration

LEARNING GOAL Calculate the molarity or volume of an acid or base solution from
titration information.
Suppose we need to find the molarity of a solution of HCl, which has an unknown concen-
tration. We can do this by a laboratory procedure called titration in which we neutralize
an acid sample with a known amount of base. In a titration, we place a measured volume
of the acid in a flask and add a few drops of an indicator, such as phenolphthalein. An
indicator is a compound that dramatically changes color when pH of the solution changes.
In an acidic solution, phenolphthalein is colorless. Then we fill a buret with a NaOH solu-
tion of known molarity and carefully add NaOH solution to neutralize the acid in the flask
(see FIGURE 14.6). We know that neutralization has taken place when the phenolphthalein
in the solution changes from colorless to pink. This is called the neutralization endpoint.
From the measured volume of the NaOH solution and its molarity, we calculate the num-
ber of moles of NaOH, the moles of acid, and use the measured volume of acid to calculate
its concentration.
FIGURE 14.6 ▶ The titration of an acid.

A known volume of an acid is placed in a
flask with an indicator and titrated with a
measured volume of a base solution, such
as NaOH, to the neutralization endpoint.
What data is needed to determine
the molarity of the acid in the
flask?
14.8 Acid–Base Titration 471
SAMPLE PROBLEM 14.12 Titration of an Acid

CORE CHEMISTRY SKILL
If 16.3 mL of a 0.185 M Sr(OH)2 solution is used to titrate the HCl in 0.0250 L of gastric Calculating Molarity or
juice, what is the molarity of the HCl solution? Volume of an Acid or Base
in a Titration
Sr(OH)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) b 2H2O(l) + SrCl2(aq)
Guide to Calculations for an

TRY IT FIRST Acid–Base Titration
SOLUTION STEP 1
State the given and needed
STEP 1 State the given and needed quantities and concentrations.
quantities and concentrations.
Given Need Connect

STEP 2
Write a plan to calculate the
0.0250 L of HCl molarity of the molarity, mole– molarity or volume.
solution, HCl solution mole factor
ANALYZE THE STEP 3
16.3 mL of 0.185 M
PROBLEM State equalities and
Sr(OH)2 solution
conversion factors, including
Neutralization Equation concentrations.
Sr(OH)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) b 2H2O(l ) + SrCl2(aq)
STEP 4
Set up the problem to
STEP 2 Write a plan to calculate the molarity. calculate the needed quantity.
mL of Sr(OH)2 Metric L of Sr(OH)2 moles of Mole–mole moles of Divide by molarity of

Molarity
solution factor solution Sr(OH)2 factor HCl liters HCl solution
STEP 3 State equalities and conversion factors, including concentrations.
1 L of Sr(OH)2 solution = 1000 mL of Sr(OH)2 solution 1 L of Sr(OH)2 solution = 0.185 mol of Sr(OH)2
1000 mL Sr(OH)2 solution 1 L Sr(OH)2 solution 0.185 mol Sr(OH)2 1 L Sr(OH)2 solution
and and
1 L Sr(OH)2 solution 1000 mL Sr(OH)2 solution 1 L Sr(OH)2 solution 0.185 mol Sr(OH)2
2 mol of HCl = 1 mol of Sr(OH)2

2 mol HCl 1 mol Sr(OH)2
and
1 mol Sr(OH)2 2 mol HCl
STEP 4 Set up the problem to calculate the needed quantity.
1 L Sr(OH)2 solution 0.185 mol Sr(OH)2 2 mol HCl

16.3 mL Sr(OH)2 solution * * *
1000 mL Sr(OH)2 solution 1 L Sr(OH)2 solution 1 mol Sr(OH)2
= 0.006 03 mol of HCl
0.006 03 mol HCl

molarity of HCl solution = = 0.241 M HCl solution
0.0250 L HCl solution
STUDY CHECK 14.12 Interactive Video

What is the molarity of an HCl solution if 28.6 mL of a 0.175 M NaOH solution is
needed to titrate a 25.0-mL sample of the HCl solution?
ANSWER
0.200 M HCl solution Acid–Base Titration

LEARNING GOAL Calculate the molarity or volume of an acid 14.65 If 38.2 mL of a 0.163 M KOH solution is required to neutralize
or base solution from titration information. completely 25.0 mL of a solution of H2SO4, what is the molarity
of the H2SO4 solution?
14.61 If you need to determine the molarity of a formic acid solution, H2SO4(aq) + 2KOH(aq) b 2H2O(l) + K2SO4(aq)
HCHO2, how would you proceed?
14.66 A solution of 0.162 M NaOH is used to titrate 25.0 mL of a
HCHO2(aq) + H2O(l) b + -
a H3O (aq) + CHO2 (aq) solution of H2SO4. If 32.8 mL of the NaOH solution is required
to reach the endpoint, what is the molarity of the H2SO4
14.62 If you need to determine the molarity of an acetic acid solution, solution?
HC2H3O2, how would you proceed?
H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) b 2H2O(l) + Na 2SO4(aq)
HC2H3O2(aq) + H2O(l ) b + -
a H3O (aq) + C2H3O2 (aq) 14.67 A solution of 0.204 M NaOH is used to titrate 50.0 mL of a
14.63 What is the molarity of a solution of HCl if 5.00 mL of the HCl 0.0224 M H3PO4 solution. What volume, in milliliters, of the
solution is titrated with 28.6 mL of a 0.145 M NaOH solution? NaOH solution is required?
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) b H2O(l) + NaCl(aq) H3PO4(aq) + 3NaOH(aq) b 3H2O(l) + Na 3PO4(aq)

14.68 A solution of 0.312 M KOH is used to titrate 15.0 mL of a
14.64 What is the molarity of an acetic acid solution if 25.0 mL of 0.186 M H3PO4 solution. What volume, in milliliters, of the
the HC2H3O2 solution is titrated with 29.7 mL of a 0.205 M KOH solution is required?
KOH solution?
H3PO4(aq) + 3KOH(aq) b 3H2O(l) + K3PO4(aq)
HC2H3O2(aq) + KOH(aq) b H2O(l ) + KC2H3O2(aq)
14.9 Buffers
LEARNING GOAL Describe the role of buffers in maintaining the pH of a solution; calcu-
late the pH of a buffer.
The lungs and the kidneys are the primary organs that regulate the pH of body fluids,
including blood and urine. Major changes in the pH of the body fluids can severely affect
biological activities within the cells. Buffers are present to prevent large fluctuations in pH.
Plasma The pH of water and most solutions changes drastically when a small amount of acid
or base is added. However, when an acid or a base is added to a buffer solution, there is
little change in pH. A buffer solution maintains the pH of a solution by neutralizing small
White blood cells amounts of added acid or base. In the human body, whole blood contains plasma, white
and platelets blood cells and platelets, and red blood cells. Blood plasma contains buffers that maintain
a consistent pH of about 7.4. If the pH of the blood plasma goes slightly above or below
Red blood cells 7.4, changes in our oxygen levels and our metabolic processes can be drastic enough to
cause death. Even though we obtain acids and bases from foods and cellular reactions, the
buffers in the body absorb those compounds so effectively that the pH of our blood plasma
remains essentially unchanged (see FIGURE 14.7).
In a buffer, an acid must be present to react with any OH - that is added, and a base
Whole blood consists of plasma, must be available to react with any added H3O+ . However, that acid and base must not
white blood cells and platelets, neutralize each other. Therefore, a combination of an acid–base conjugate pair is used in
and red blood cells. buffers. Most buffer solutions consist of nearly equal concentrations of a weak acid and a
salt containing its conjugate base. Buffers may also contain a weak base and the salt of the
ENGAGE weak base, which contains its conjugate acid.
For example, a typical buffer can be made from the weak acid acetic acid (HC2H3O2)
Why does a buffer require the and its salt, sodium acetate (NaC2H3O2). As a weak acid, acetic acid dissociates slightly in
presence of a weak acid or weak
water to form H3O+ and a very small amount of C2H3O2- . The addition of its salt, sodium
base and the salt of that weak acid
or weak base?
acetate, provides a much larger concentration of acetate ion (C2H3O2- ), which is necessary
for its buffering capability.
+ -
HC2H3O2(aq) + H2O(l) b
a H3O (aq) + C2H3O2 (aq)
Large amount Large amount
14.9 Buffers 473
pH
+
O
H3
Add
pH OH -
H2O
pH
pH
+
O
H3
Add
pH OH -
Buffer
pH
FIGURE 14.7 ▶ Adding an acid or a base to water changes the pH drastically,

but a buffer resists pH change when small amounts of acid or base are added.
Why does the pH change several pH units when acid is added to water,
but not when acid is added to a buffer?
We can now describe how this buffer solution maintains the [H3O+ ]. When a small
amount of acid is added, the additional H3O+ combines with the acetate ion, C2H3O2- ,
causing the equilibrium to shift in the direction of the reactants, acetic acid and water.
There will be a slight decrease in the [C2H3O2- ] and a slight increase in the [HC2H3O2],
but both the [H3O+ ] and pH are maintained (see FIGURE 14.8).
HC2H3O2 C2H3O2-
HC2H3O2 C2H3O2-
C2H3O2- HC2H3O2
H3O+ OH -
Weak acid Conjugate base Weak acid Conjugate base Weak acid Conjugate base
FIGURE 14.8 ▶ The buffer described here consists of about equal concentrations of acetic
acid (HC2H3O2) and its conjugate base acetate ion (C2H3O2- ). Adding H3O + to the buffer
neutralizes some C2H3O2 - , whereas adding OH- neutralizes some HC2H3O2. The pH of the
solution is maintained as long as the added amount of acid or base is small compared to the
concentrations of the buffer components.
How does this acetic acid–acetate ion buffer maintain pH?
HC2H3O2(aq) + H2O(l ) a H3O+ (aq) + C2H3O2- (aq)

Equilibrium shifts in the
direction of the reactants
ENGAGE If a small amount of base is added to this same buffer solution, it is neutralized by the
acetic acid, HC2H3O2, which shifts the equilibrium in the direction of the products acetate
Which part of a buffer neutralizes ion and water. The [HC2H3O2] decreases slightly and the [C2H3O2- ] increases slightly, but
any H3O+ that is added? again the [H3O+ ] and thus the pH of the solution are maintained.
HC2H3O2(aq) + OH - (aq) b H2O(l ) + C2H3O2- (aq)
direction of the products
CORE CHEMISTRY SKILL Calculating the pH of a Buffer

Calculating the pH of a By rearranging the Ka expression to give [H3O+ ], we can obtain the ratio of the acetic
Buffer acid /acetate buffer.
[H3O+ ][C2H3O2- ]
Ka =
[HC2H3O2]
Solving for [H3O+ ] gives:
[HC2H3O2] a Weak acid
[H3O+ ] = Ka *
[C2H3O2- ] a Conjugate base
In this rearrangement of Ka, the weak acid is in the numerator and the conjugate base
in the denominator. We can now calculate the [H3O+ ] and pH for an acetic acid buffer as
shown in Sample Problem 14.13.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 14.13 Calculating the pH of a Buffer

The Ka for acetic acid, HC2H3O2, is 1.8 * 10-5. What is the pH of a buffer prepared
with 1.0 M HC2H3O2 and 1.0 M C2H3O2- ?
+ -
HC2H3O2(aq) + H2O(l ) b
TRY IT FIRST
Guide to Calculating pH SOLUTION

of a Buffer
STEP 1
State the given and needed Given Need Connect
quantities.
1.0 M HC2H3O2, pH Ka expression
STEP 2 ANALYZE THE 1.0 M C2H3O2 -
Write the Ka expression and PROBLEM
Equation
rearrange for [H3O+].
HC2 H3 O2 (aq) + H2 O(l ) b + -
STEP 3
–
Substitute [HA] and [A ] into
the Ka expression. STEP 2 Write the Ka expression and rearrange for [H3O+ ].
STEP 4 [H3O+ ][C2H3O2- ]
+ Ka =
Use [H3O ] to calculate pH. [HC2H3O2]
[HC2H3O2]
[H3O+ ] = Ka *
[C2H3O2- ]
STEP 3 Substitute [HA] and [A− ] into the Ka expression.
[1.0]
[H3O+ ] = 1.8 * 10-5 *
[1.0]
[H3O+ ] = 1.8 * 10-5 M
14.9 Buffers 475
STEP 4 Use [H3O + ] to calculate pH. Placing the [H3O+ ] into the pH equation gives
the pH of the buffer.
pH = -log[1.8 * 10 -5] = 4.74
STUDY CHECK 14.13

One of the conjugate acid–base pairs that buffers the blood plasma is H2PO4- /HPO42- ,
which has a Ka of 6.2 * 10-8. What is the pH of a buffer that is prepared from
0.10 M H2PO4- and 0.50 M HPO42- ?
ANSWER
pH = 7.91
Because Ka is a constant at a given temperature, the [H3O+ ] is determined by the ENGAGE

[HC2H3O2]/[C2H3O2- ] ratio. As long as the addition of small amounts of either acid or
base changes the ratio of [HC2H3O2]/[C2H3O2- ] only slightly, the changes in [H3O+ ] will How would a solution composed of
be small and the pH will be maintained. If a large amount of acid or base is added, the HPO42- and PO43- act as a buffer?
buffering capacity of the system may be exceeded. Buffers can be prepared from conjugate
acid–base pairs such as H2PO4- /HPO42- , HPO42- /PO43- , HCO3- /CO32- , or NH4 + /NH3.
The pH of the buffer solution will depend on the conjugate acid–base pair chosen.
Using a common phosphate buffer for biological specimens, we can look at the effect
of using different ratios of [H2PO4- ]/[HPO42- ] on the [H3O+ ] and pH. The Ka of H2PO4-
is 6.2 * 10-8. The equation and the [H3O+ ] are written as follows:
H2PO4- (aq) + H2O(l) b +
a H3O (aq) + HPO4 (aq)
2-
[H2PO4- ]
[H3O+ ] = Ka *
[HPO42- ]
3 H2PO4 − 4
Ka 3 HPO42− 4 Ratio 3 H 3O + 4 pH
6.2 * 10-8 1.0 M 10 6.2 * 10-7 6.21

0.10 M 1
6.2 * 10-8 1.0 M 1 6.2 * 10-8 7.21
1.0 M 1
6.2 * 10-8 0.10 M 1 6.2 * 10-9 8.21
1.0 M 10
To prepare a phosphate buffer with a pH close to the pH of a biological sample, 7.4, we would
choose concentrations that are about equal, such as 1.0 M H2PO4 - and 1.0 M HPO42- .

Buffers in the Blood Plasma
The arterial blood plasma has a normal pH of 7.35 to CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq)
7.45. If changes in H3O+ lower the pH below 6.8 or raise it above
8.0, cells cannot function properly and death may result. In our cells, H3O+(aq) + HCO3-(aq)
CO2 is continually produced as an end product of cellular metabo-
Excess H3O+ entering the body fluids reacts with the HCO3- , and
lism. Some CO2 is carried to the lungs for elimination, and the rest
excess OH - reacts with the carbonic acid.
dissolves in body fluids such as plasma and saliva, forming carbonic
acid, H2CO3. As a weak acid, carbonic acid dissociates to give bicar-
bonate, HCO3 -, and H3O+ . More of the anion HCO3- is supplied by
the kidneys to give an important buffer system in the body fluid—
the H2CO3 / HCO3 - buffer.
In the body, the concentration of carbonic acid is closely associated

H2CO3(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + HCO3(aq)
with the partial pressure of CO2, PCO2. TABLE 14.9 lists the normal
direction of the reactants values for arterial blood. If the CO2 level rises, increasing [H2CO3],
the equilibrium shifts to produce more H3O+ , which lowers the pH.
H2CO3(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O (l) + HCO3-(aq) This condition is called acidosis. Difficulty with ventilation or gas diffu-
Equilibrium shifts in the sion can lead to respiratory acidosis, which can happen in emphysema
direction of the products or when an accident or depressive drugs affect the medulla of the brain.
A lowering of the CO2 level leads to a high blood pH, a condi-
For carbonic acid, we can write the equilibrium expression as
tion called alkalosis. Excitement, trauma, or a high temperature may
cause a person to hyperventilate, which expels large amounts of CO2.
[H3O+][HCO3-] As the partial pressure of CO2 in the blood falls below normal, the
Ka =
[H2CO3] equilibrium shifts from H2CO3 to CO2 and H2O. This shift decreases
the [H3O+ ] and raises the pH. The kidneys also regulate H3O+ and
To maintain the normal blood plasma pH (7.35 to 7.45), the ratio
HCO3- , but they do so more slowly than the adjustment made by the
of [H2CO3] / [HCO3-] needs to be about 1 to 10, which is obtained
lungs during ventilation.
by the concentrations in the blood plasma of 0.0024 M H2CO3 and
TABLE 14.10 lists some of the conditions that lead to changes in
0.024 M HCO3-.
the blood pH and some possible treatments.
[H2CO3]
[H3O+] = Ka *
[HCO3-] TABLE 14.9 Normal Values for Blood Buffer in
+ -7 [0.0024] Arterial Blood
[H3O ] = 4.3 * 10 *
[0.024] PCO2 40 mmHg
= 4.3 * 10-7 * 0.10 = 4.3 * 10-8 M H2CO3 2.4 mmol/L of plasma
-8 -
pH = -log[4.3 * 10 ] = 7.37 HCO3 24 mmol/L of plasma
pH 7.35 to 7.45
TABLE 14.10 Acidosis and Alkalosis: Symptoms, Causes, and Treatments

Respiratory Acidosis: CO2 c pH T
Symptoms: Failure to ventilate, suppression of breathing, disorientation, weakness, coma
Causes: Lung disease blocking gas diffusion (e.g., emphysema, pneumonia, bronchitis, asthma);
depression of respiratory center by drugs, cardiopulmonary arrest, stroke, poliomyelitis,
or nervous system disorders
Treatment: Correction of disorder, infusion of bicarbonate
Metabolic Acidosis: H + c pH T
Symptoms: Increased ventilation, fatigue, confusion
Causes: Renal disease, including hepatitis and cirrhosis; increased acid production in diabetes mellitus,
hyperthyroidism, alcoholism, and starvation; loss of alkali in diarrhea; acid retention in renal
failure
Treatment: Sodium bicarbonate given orally, dialysis for renal failure, insulin treatment for diabetic ketosis
Respiratory Alkalosis: CO2 T pH c
Symptoms: Increased rate and depth of breathing, numbness, light-headedness, tetany
Causes: Hyperventilation because of anxiety, hysteria, fever, exercise; reaction to drugs such as
salicylate, quinine, and antihistamines; conditions causing hypoxia (e.g., pneumonia,
pulmonary edema, heart disease)
Treatment: Elimination of anxiety-producing state, rebreathing into a paper bag
Metabolic Alkalosis: H + T pH c
Symptoms: Depressed breathing, apathy, confusion
Causes: Vomiting, diseases of the adrenal glands, ingestion of excess alkali
Treatment: Infusion of saline solution, treatment of underlying diseases
14.9 Buffers 477

14.9 Buffers
LEARNING GOAL Describe the role of buffers in maintaining b. The weak acid is needed to:
the pH of a solution; calculate the pH of a buffer. 1. provide the conjugate base
2. neutralize added OH -
14.69 Which of the following represents a buffer system? Explain. 3. provide the conjugate acid
a. NaOH and NaCl b. H2CO3 and NaHCO3 c. If H3O+ is added, it is neutralized by:
c. HF and KF d. KCl and NaCl 1. the salt 2. H2O
14.70 Which of the following represents a buffer system? Explain. 3. OH -
a. HClO2 b. NaNO3 d. When OH - is added, the equilibrium shifts in the direction
c. HC2H3O2 and NaC2H3O2 d. HCl and NaOH of the:
1. reactants 2. products
14.71 Consider the buffer system of hydrofluoric acid, HF, and its
3. does not change
salt, NaF.
14.73 Nitrous acid has a Ka of 4.5 * 10-4. What is the pH of a buffer
HF(aq) + H2O(l) b + -
a H3O (aq) + F (aq) solution containing 0.10 M HNO2 and 0.10 M NO2-?
a. The purpose of this buffer system is to: 14.74 Acetic acid has a Ka of 1.8 * 10-5. What is the pH of a buffer
1. maintain [HF] 2. maintain [F -] solution containing 0.15 M HC2H3O2 and 0.15 M C2H3O2-?
3. maintain pH 14.75 Using Table 14.4 for Ka values, compare the pH of a HF buffer
b. The salt of the weak acid is needed to: that contains 0.10 M HF and 0.10 M NaF with another HF
1. provide the conjugate base buffer that contains 0.060 M HF and 0.120 M NaF.
2. neutralize added H3O+ 14.76 Using Table 14.4 for Ka values, compare the pH of a H2CO3
3. provide the conjugate acid buffer that contains 0.10 M H2CO3 and 0.10 M NaHCO3
c. If OH - is added, it is neutralized by: with another H2CO3 buffer that contains 0.15 M H2CO3 and
1. the salt 2. H2O 3. H3O+ 0.050 M NaHCO3.
d. When H3O+ is added, the equilibrium shifts in the direction
of the: Applications
1. reactants 2. products
3. does not change 14.77 Why would the pH of your blood plasma increase if you
breathe fast?
14.72 Consider the buffer system of nitrous acid, HNO2, and its salt,
NaNO2. 14.78 Why would the pH of your blood plasma decrease if you hold
your breath?
HNO2(aq) + H2O(l) b + -
a H3O (aq) + NO2 (aq) 14.79 Someone with kidney failure excretes urine with large amounts
a. The purpose of this buffer system is to: of HCO3- . How would this loss of HCO3- affect the pH of the
1. maintain [HNO2] 2. maintain [NO2-] blood plasma?
3. maintain pH 14.80 Someone with severe diabetes obtains energy by the
breakdown of fats, which produce large amounts of acidic
substances. How would this affect the pH of the blood plasma?
Follow Up
ACID REFLUX DISEASE
Larry has not been feeling well lately. Lower
He tells his doctor that he has discomfort esophageal Lower
esophageal
and a burning feeling in his chest, and Esophagus sphincter
a sour taste in his throat and mouth. At closed sphincter open
allowing
times, Larry says he feels bloated after a
reflux
big meal, has a dry cough, is hoarse, and
sometimes has a sore throat. He has tried
antacids, but they do not bring any relief. Pylorus
The doctor tells Larry that he thinks he has acid reflux. At
the top of the stomach there is a valve, the lower esophageal Liquid
sphincter, that normally closes after food passes through Stomach
it. However, if the valve does not close completely, acid In acid reflux disease, the lower esophageal
produced in the stomach to digest food can move up into sphincter opens, allowing acidic fluid from
the esophagus, a condition called acid reflux. The acid, which the stomach to enter the esophagus.
is hydrochloric acid, HCl, is produced in the stomach to kill
bacteria, microorganisms, and to activate the enzymes we of 40 mg once a day for 4 weeks. In severe GERD cases, an
need to break down food. artificial valve may be created at the top of the stomach to
If acid reflux occurs, the strong acid HCl comes in contact strengthen the lower esophageal sphincter.
with the lining of the esophagus, where it causes irritation and
Applications
produces a burning feeling in the chest. Sometimes the pain
in the chest is called heartburn. If the HCl reflux goes high 14.81 At rest, the [H3O+] of the stomach fluid is 2.0 * 10-4 M.
enough to reach the throat, a sour taste may be noticed in the What is the pH of the stomach fluid?
mouth. If Larry’s symptoms occur three or more times a week, 14.82 When food enters the stomach, HCl is released and the
he may have a chronic condition known as acid reflux disease [H3O+] of the stomach fluid rises to 4 * 10-2 M. What is the
or gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). pH of the stomach fluid while eating?
Larry’s doctor orders an esophageal pH test in which the 14.83 In Larry’s esophageal pH test, a pH value of 3.60 was
amount of acid entering the esophagus from the stomach is recorded in the esophagus. What is the [H3O+] in his
measured over 24 h. A probe that measures the pH is inserted esophagus?
into the lower esophagus above the esophageal sphincter. 14.84 After Larry had taken Nexium for 4 weeks, the pH in his
The pH measurements indicate a reflux episode each time the stomach was raised to 4.52. What is the [H3O+] in his
pH drops to 4 or less. stomach?
In the 24-h period, Larry has several reflux episodes and 14.85 Write the balanced chemical equation for the neutralization
his doctor determines that he has chronic GERD. He and reaction of stomach acid HCl with CaCO3, an ingredient in
Larry discuss treatment for GERD, which includes eating some antacids.
smaller meals, not lying down for 3 h after eating, making 14.86 Write the balanced chemical equation for the neutralization
dietary changes, and losing weight. Antacids may be used reaction of stomach acid HCl with Al(OH)3, an ingredient in
to neutralize the acid coming up from the stomach. Other some antacids.
medications known as proton pump inhibitors (PPIs), such as 14.87 How many grams of CaCO3 are required to neutralize 100. mL
Prilosec and Nexium, may be used to suppress the production of stomach acid HCl, which is equivalent to 0.0400 M HCl?
of HCl in the stomach (gastric parietal cells), which raises 14.88 How many grams of Al(OH)3 are required to neutralize 150. mL
the pH in the stomach to between 4 and 5, and gives the of stomach acid HCl with a pH of 1.5?
esophagus time to heal. Nexium may be given in oral doses
CONCEPT MAP
ACIDS AND BASES
undergo
Acid Base Dissociation of H2O Neutralization
is a is a gives to form in a
–
H+ Donor H+ Acceptor H3O+ OH Water Titration
100% small % 100% small % gives product and determines

+ + –
Strong Weak Strong Weak –log[H3O ] Kw = [H3O ][OH ] Salt Concentration
Acid Acid Base Base of an Acid
is of a Solution
has a has a gives
pH Weak
+
[H3O ][A ] –
[BH+][OH–] –log[OH–] Acid or
Ka = Kb = Base
[HA] [B]
is
with its
pOH conjugate
forms a
Buffer
to maintain
pH
CHAPTER REVIEW
14.1 Acids and Bases š According to the Brønsted–Lowry theory, acids are H + donors and
NaOH(s) bases are H + acceptors.
LEARNING GOAL Describe and š A conjugate acid–base pair is related by the loss or gain of one H +.
name acids and bases.
š For example, when the acid HF donates H +, the F - is its conjugate
š An Arrhenius acid produces H + base. The other acid–base pair would be H3O+/H2O.
- OH -
and an Arrhenius base produces -
+ + - +
+ Na+
HF(aq) + H2O(l ) b + -
a H3O (aq) + F (aq)
- + - +
OH in aqueous solutions. + -
-
- +
š Acids taste sour, may sting, and +
-
- Water
neutralize bases. HO
Na+(aq) + OH -(aq)
2
NaOH(s)
š Bases taste bitter, feel slippery, and Ionic Dissociation Hydroxide
LEARNING GOAL Write equations for
neutralize acids. compound ion the dissociation of strong and weak acids;
š Acids containing a simple anion use a hydro prefix, whereas acids identify the direction of reaction.
HC2H3O2
with oxygen-containing polyatomic anions are named as ic or ous 1M
š Strong acids dissociate completely in
acids.
water, and the H + is accepted by H2O
acting as a base.
14.2 Brønsted–Lowry Acids and Bases š A weak acid dissociates slightly in water,
+ -
LEARNING producing only a small percentage of -
GOAL Identify H3O+.

conjugate acid–base HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl- š Strong bases are hydroxides of Groups 1A +
pairs for Brønsted– Hydrogen Water Hydronium Chloride (1) and 2A (2) that dissociate completely
chloride ion ion
Lowry acids and in water.
Acid Base š An important weak base is ammonia, NH3.
bases. (H+ donor) (H+ acceptor) Acidic solution
14.4 Dissociation Constants for Acids and Bases š The pOH is the negative log of the hydroxide ion concentration,
pOH = -log[OH -].
LEARNING GOAL š The sum of the pH + pOH is 14.00.
Write the dissociation
expression for a 14.7 Reactions of Acids and Bases
weak acid or weak HCHO2 CHO2-
base. LEARNING GOAL Write balanced
equations for reactions of acids with metals,
š In water, weak acids and weak bases produce only a few ions when carbonates, or bicarbonates, and bases.
equilibrium is reached.
š Weak acids have small Ka values whereas strong acids, which are š An acid reacts with a metal to produce
essentially 100% dissociated, have very large Ka values. hydrogen gas and a salt.
š The reaction for a weak acid can be written as š The reaction of an acid with a carbonate
HA + H2O b + -
a H3O + A . The acid dissociation or bicarbonate produces carbon dioxide,
expression is written as water, and a salt.
š In neutralization, an acid reacts with a
[H3O+][A-] base to produce water and a salt.
Ka = .
[HA]
š For a weak base, B + H2O b + -
a BH + OH , the base
dissociation expression is written as LEARNING GOAL Calculate the
+ - molarity or volume of an acid or base
[BH ][OH ]
Kb = . solution from titration information.
[B]
š In a titration, an acid sample is
neutralized with a known amount of a
base.
LEARNING GOAL Use the water š From the volume and molarity of the
dissociation expression to calculate the H3O+ OH- base, the concentration of the acid is
[H3O + ] and [OH - ] in an aqueous solution. calculated.
š In pure water, a few water molecules

14.9 Buffers
transfer H + to other water molecules,
producing small, but equal, amounts of LEARNING GOAL Describe the role of buffers in maintaining
[H3O+] = [OH-]
[H3O+] and [OH -]. the pH of a solution; calculate the pH of a buffer.
š In pure water, the molar concentrations of Neutral solution
+ -
H3O and OH are each 1.0 * 10 mol/L. -7 š A buffer solution resists changes in pH when small amounts of an
š The water dissociation expression, acid or a base are added.
Kw, [H3O+][OH -] = 1.0 * 10-14 at 25 °C. š A buffer contains either a weak acid and its salt or a weak base and
š In acidic solutions, the [H3O+] is greater than the [OH -]. its salt.
š In basic solutions, the [OH -] is greater than the [H3O+]. š In a buffer, the weak acid reacts with added OH -, and the anion of
the salt reacts with added H3O+.
š Most buffer solutions consist of nearly equal concentrations of a
14.6 The pH Scale
weak acid and a salt containing its conjugate base.
LEARNING GOAL Calculate pH from š The pH of a buffer is calculated by solving the Ka expression for
[H3O + ]; given the pH, calculate the [H3O+].
[H3O + ] and [OH - ] of a solution.
š The pH scale is a range of numbers

typically from 0 to 14, which represents pH
the [H3O+] of the solution. +

3O
H
š A neutral solution has a pH of 7.0. In acidic solutions, the pH is pH
Add O
H-
below 7.0; in basic solutions, the pH is above 7.0. Buffer
š Mathematically, pH is the negative logarithm of the hydronium ion pH
concentration,
pH = - log[H3O+].
KEY TERMS
acid A substance that dissolves in water and produces hydrogen ions base A substance that dissolves in water and produces hydroxide
(H +), according to the Arrhenius theory. All acids are hydrogen ions (OH -) according to the Arrhenius theory. All bases are
ion donors, according to the Brønsted–Lowry theory. hydrogen ion acceptors, according to the Brønsted–Lowry
acid dissociation expression, Ka The product of the ions from the theory.
dissociation of a weak acid divided by the concentration of the base dissociation expression, Kb The product of the ions from the
weak acid. dissociation of a weak base divided by the concentration of the
amphoteric Substances that can act as either an acid or a base in weak base.
water.
Core Chemistry Skills 481
Brønsted–Lowry acids and bases An acid is a hydrogen ion donor; neutral The term that describes a solution with equal concentrations
a base is a hydrogen ion acceptor. of [H3O+] and [OH -].
buffer solution A solution of a weak acid and its conjugate base neutralization A reaction between an acid and a base to form water
or a weak base and its conjugate acid that maintains the pH by and a salt.
neutralizing added acid or base. pH A measure of the [H3O+ ] in a solution; pH = -log[H3O+ ].
conjugate acid–base pair An acid and a base that differ by one H + . pOH A measure of the [OH - ] in a solution; pOH = - log[OH - ].
When an acid donates a hydrogen ion, the product is its salt An ionic compound that contains a metal ion or NH 4 + and a
conjugate base, which is capable of accepting a hydrogen ion in nonmetal or polyatomic ion other than OH -.
the reverse reaction. strong acid An acid that completely dissociates in water.
dissociation The separation of an acid or a base into ions in water. strong base A base that completely dissociates in water.
endpoint The point at which an indicator changes color. For the titration The addition of base to an acid sample to determine the
indicator phenolphthalein, the color change occurs when the concentration of the acid.
number of moles of OH - is equal to the number of moles of water dissociation expression, Kw The product of [H3O+ ] and
H3O+ in the sample. [OH -] in solution; Kw = [H3O+][OH -].
hydronium ion, H3O+ The ion formed by the attraction of a weak acid An acid that is a poor donor of H + and dissociates only
hydrogen ion, H +, to a water molecule. slightly in water.
indicator A substance added to a titration sample that changes color weak base A base that is a poor acceptor of H + and produces only a
when the pH of the solution changes. small number of ions in water.
+
×
–
÷ KEY MATH SKILLS
The chapter section containing each Key Math Skill is shown in paren- Calculating [H3O+] from pH (14.6)
theses at the end of each heading. š The calculation of [H3O+] from the pH is done by reversing the pH
+ calculation using the negative pH.
Calculating pH from [H3O ] (14.6)
š The pH of a solution is calculated from the negative log of the [H3O+] = 10-pH
[H3O+]. Example: What is the [H3O+ ] of a solution with a pH of 4.80?
+
pH = - log[H3O ]
Answer: [H3O+] = 10-pH
Example: What is the pH of a solution that has = 10-4.80
[H3O+] = 2.4 * 10-11 M? = 1.6 * 10-5 M
Two SFs in the [H3O+ ] equal the
Answer: We substitute the given [H3O+] into the pH equation and two decimal places in the pH.
calculate the pH.
pH = - log[H3O+]
= - log[2.4 * 10-11 M]
= 10.62 Two decimal places equal the two SFs in the
[H3O+ ] coefficient.
CORE CHEMISTRY SKILLS

The chapter section containing each Core Chemistry Skill is shown in Answer: H2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) b HSO4-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
parentheses at the end of each heading. Acid Base Conjugate base Conjugate acid
Identifying Conjugate Acid–Base Pairs (14.2) Conjugate acid9base pairs: H2SO4 /HSO4- and H3O+/H2O
š According to the Brønsted–Lowry theory, a conjugate acid–base
Calculating [H3O+] and [OH −] in Solutions (14.5)
pair consists of molecules or ions related by the loss of one H + by
an acid, and the gain of one H + by a base. š For all aqueous solutions, the product of [H3O+] and [OH -] is
š Every acid–base reaction contains two conjugate acid–base pairs equal to the water dissociation expression, Kw.
because an H + is transferred in both the forward and reverse Kw = [H3O+][OH -]
directions.
š Because pure water contains equal numbers of OH - ions and H3O+
š When an acid such as HF loses one H + , the conjugate base F - is
ions each with molar concentrations of 1.0 * 10-7 M, the numeri-
formed. When H2O acts as a base, it gains one H + , which forms its
cal value of Kw is 1.0 * 10-14 at 25 °C.
conjugate acid, H3O+.
Kw = [H3O+][OH -] = [1.0 * 10-7][1.0 * 10-7]
Example: Identify the conjugate acid–base pairs in the following
= 1.0 * 10-14
reaction:
H2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) b HSO4- (aq) + H3O+(aq)
š If we know the [H3O+] of a solution, we can use the Kw expression š From the measured volume of the NaOH solution required for
to calculate the [OH -]. If we know the [OH -] of a solution, we can titration and its molarity, the number of moles of NaOH, the moles
calculate the [H3O+] using the Kw expression. of acid, and the concentration of the acid are calculated.
Kw Kw Example: A 15.0-mL sample of a H2SO4 solution is titrated with
[OH -] = [H3O+] =
[H3O+] [OH -] 24.0 mL of a 0.245 M NaOH solution. What is the
Example: What is the [OH - ] in a solution that has molarity of the H2SO4 solution?
[H3O+] = 2.4 * 10-11 M? Is the solution acidic or basic? H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) b 2H2O(l) + Na 2SO4(aq)
Answer: We solve the Kw expression for [OH -] and substitute in the
Answer:
known values of Kw and [H3O+].
1 L NaOH solution
Kw 1.0 * 10-14 24.0 mL NaOH solution *
-
[OH ] = = = 4.2 * 10-4 M 1000 mL NaOH solution
[H3O+] [2.4 * 10-11]
0.245 mol NaOH 1 mol H2SO4
Because the [OH -] is greater than the [H3O+], this is a * * = 0.002 94 mol of H2SO4
1 L NaOH solution 2 mol NaOH
basic solution.
0.002 94 mol H2SO4
Molarity (M) = = 0.196 M H2SO4 solution
Writing Equations for Reactions of 0.0150 L H2SO4 solution
Acids and Bases (14.7) Calculating the pH of a Buffer (14.9)
š Acids react with certain metals to produce hydrogen gas (H2) and š A buffer solution maintains pH by neutralizing small amounts of
a salt. added acid or base.
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) b H2(g) + MgCl2(aq) š Most buffer solutions consist of nearly equal concentrations of a
Metal Acid Hydrogen Salt weak acid and a salt containing its conjugate base such as acetic
š When an acid is added to a carbonate or bicarbonate, the products acid, HC2H3O2, and its salt NaC2H3O2.
are carbon dioxide gas, water, and a salt. š The [H3O+] is calculated by solving the Ka expression for [H3O+],
then substituting the values of [H3O+], [HA], and Ka into the equation.
2HCl(aq) + Na 2CO3(aq) b CO2(g) + H2O(l) + 2NaCl(aq)
Acid Carbonate Carbon Water Salt [H3O+][C2H3O2-]
dioxide Ka =
[HC2H3O2]
š Neutralization is a reaction between a strong or weak acid and a
strong base to produce water and a salt. Solving for [H3O+] gives:
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) b H2O(l) + NaCl(aq) [HC2H3O2] a Weak acid

[H3O+] = Ka *
Acid Base Water Salt [C2H3O2-] a Conjugate base
Example: Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction of š The pH of the buffer is calculated from the [H3O+].
ZnCO3(s) and hydrobromic acid HBr(aq).
pH = - log[H3O+]
Answer:
Example: What is the pH of a buffer prepared with 0.40 M HC2H3O2
ZnCO3(s) + 2HBr(aq) b CO2(g) + H2O(l) + ZnBr2(aq) and 0.20 M C2H3O2- if the Ka of acetic acid is 1.8 * 10-5?
[HC2H3O2] [0.40]
Calculating Molarity or Volume of an Acid or Answer: [H3O+] = Ka * - = 1.8 * 10
-5
*
Base in a Titration (14.8) [C2H3O2 ] [0.20]
š In a titration, a measured volume of acid is neutralized by a = 3.6 * 10-5 M

NaOH solution of known molarity. pH = -log[3.6 * 10-5] = 4.44
UNDERSTANDING THE CONCEPTS

The chapter sections to review are shown in parentheses at the end of 14.90 Adding a few drops of a strong acid to water will lower the
each question. pH appreciably. However, adding the same number of drops
14.89 Determine if each of the following diagrams represents a strong to a buffer does not appreciably alter the pH. Why? (14.9)
acid or a weak acid. The acid has the formula HX. (14.3)
HX HX
HX X- H3O+
HX H3O+ X-
HX
H3O+ HX X- H O+
H3O+
3
X- + X- pH = pH = pH = pH =
HX HX H3O - 7.0 3.0 7.0 6.9
X
A B
Water Buffer
Additional Questions and Problems 483
14.91 Identify each of the following as an acid or a base: (14.1) b. How does breathing into a paper bag help return blood pH
a. H2SO4 b. RbOH to normal?
c. Ca(OH)2 d. HI
14.92 Identify each of the following as an acid or a base: (14.1)
a. Sr(OH)2 b. H2SO3
c. HC2H3O2 d. CsOH
14.93 Complete the following table: (14.2)
Acid Conjugate Base
H2O
CN-
HNO2
H2PO4-
Breathing into a paper bag
14.94 Complete the following table: (14.2) can help a person who is
hyperventilating.
Base Conjugate Acid
14.96 In the blood plasma, pH is maintained by the carbonic acid–
HS-
bicarbonate buffer system. (14.9)
H3O+ a. How is pH maintained when acid is added to the buffer system?
NH3 b. How is pH maintained when base is added to the buffer system?
HCO3- 14.97 State whether each of the following solutions is acidic, basic,
or neutral: (14.6)
Applications a. sweat, pH 5.2 b. tears, pH 7.5
c. bile, pH 8.1 d. stomach acid, pH 2.5
14.95 Sometimes, during stress or trauma, a person can start to
14.98 State whether each of the following solutions is acidic, basic,
hyperventilate. Then the person might breathe into a paper
or neutral: (14.6)
bag to avoid fainting. (14.9)
a. saliva, pH 6.8 b. urine, pH 5.9
a. What changes occur in the blood pH during
c. pancreatic juice, pH 8.0 d. blood, pH 7.45
hyperventilation?
ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

14.99 Identify each of the following as an acid, base, or salt, and 14.104 Using Table 14.3, identify the stronger base in each of the
give its name: (14.1) following pairs: (14.3)
a. HBrO2 b. CsOH a. H2O or Cl- b. OH - or NH3
c. Mg(NO3)2 d. HClO4 c. SO42- or NO2- d. CO32- or H2O
14.100 Identify each of the following as an acid, base, or salt, and 14.105 Determine the pH and pOH for each of the following
give its name: (14.1) solutions: (14.6)
a. HNO2 b. MgBr2 a. [H3O+] = 2.0 * 10-8 M
c. NH3 d. Li2SO3 b. [H3O+] = 5.0 * 10-2 M
14.101 Complete the following table: (14.2) c. [OH -] = 3.5 * 10-4 M
d. [OH -] = 0.0054 M
Acid Conjugate Base
14.106 Determine the pH and pOH for each of the following
HI
solutions: (14.6)
Cl- a. [OH -] = 1.0 * 10-7 M
NH4 + b. [H3O+] = 4.2 * 10-3 M
c. [H3O+] = 0.0001 M
HS-
d. [OH -] = 8.5 * 10-9 M
14.102 Complete the following table: (14.2) 14.107 Are the solutions in problem 14.105 acidic, basic, or neutral? (14.6)
Base Conjugate Acid 14.108 Are the solutions in problem 14.106 acidic, basic, or neutral? (14.6)
F- 14.109 Calculate the [H3O+] and [OH -] for a solution with each of
HC2H3O2 the following pH values: (14.6)
a. 3.00 b. 6.2
HSO3-
c. 8.85 d. 11.00
-
ClO
14.110 Calculate the [H3O+] and [OH -] for a solution with each of
14.103 Using Table 14.3, identify the stronger acid in each of the the following pH values: (14.6)
following pairs: (14.3) a. 10.00 b. 5.0
a. HF or HCN b. H3O+ or H2S c. 6.54 d. 1.82
c. HNO2 or HC2H3O2 d. H2O or HCO3-
14.111 Solution A has a pH of 4.5, and solution B has a pH of 6.7. (14.6) 14.113 What is the pH and pOH of a solution prepared by dissolving
a. Which solution is more acidic? 2.5 g of HCl in water to make 425 mL of solution? (14.6)
b. What is the [H3O+] in each? 14.114 What is the pH and pOH of a solution prepared by dissolving
c. What is the [OH -] in each? 1.0 g of Ca(OH)2 in water to make 875 mL of solution? (14.6)
14.112 Solution X has a pH of 9.5, and solution Y has a pH of 7.5. (14.6)
a. Which solution is more acidic?
b. What is the [H3O+] in each?
c. What is the [OH -] in each?
CHALLENGE QUESTIONS
The following groups of questions are related to the topics in this chap- 14.123 One of the most acidic lakes in the United States is Little Echo
ter. However, they do not all follow the chapter order, and they require Pond in the Adirondacks in New York. Recently, this lake had a
you to combine concepts and skills from several sections. These ques- pH of 4.2, well below the recommended pH of 6.5. (14.6, 14.8)
tions will help you increase your critical thinking skills and prepare for a. What are the [H3O+] and [OH -] of Little Echo Pond?
your next exam. b. What are the [H3O+] and [OH -] of a lake that has a pH of 6.5?
14.115 For each of the following: (14.2, 14.3) c. One way to raise the pH of an acidic lake (and restore
1. H2S 2. H3PO4 aquatic life) is to add limestone (CaCO3). How many
a. Write the formula for the conjugate base. grams of CaCO3 are needed to neutralize 1.0 kL of the
b. Write the Ka expression. acidic water from the lake if the acid is sulfuric acid?
c. Which is the weaker acid? H2SO4(aq) + CaCO3(s) b CO2(g) + H2O(l) + CaSO4(aq)
14.116 For each of the following: (14.2, 14.3)
1. HCO3- 2. HC2H3O2
a. Write the formula for the conjugate base.
b. Write the Ka expression.
c. Which is the stronger acid?
14.117 Using Table 14.3, identify the conjugate acid–base pairs in each
of the following equations and whether the equilibrium mixture
contains mostly products or mostly reactants: (14.2, 14.3)
a. NH3(aq) + HNO3(aq) b +
a NH4 (aq) + NO3 (aq)
-
b. H2O(l) + HBr(aq) b +
a H3O (aq) + Br (aq)
-
14.118 Using Table 14.3, identify the conjugate acid–base pairs in each
of the following equations and whether the equilibrium mixture
contains mostly products or mostly reactants: (14.2, 14.3)
a. HNO2(aq) + HS-(aq) b a H2S(g) + NO3 (aq)
-
b. Cl-(aq) + H2O(l) b a OH -
(aq) + HCl(aq) A helicopter drops calcium
carbonate on an acidic
14.119 Complete and balance each of the following: (14.7)
lake to increase its pH.
a. ZnCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) b
b. Al(s) + HNO3(aq) b
14.120 Complete and balance each of the following: (14.7) Applications
a. H3PO4(aq) + Ca(OH)2(s) b
14.124 The daily output of stomach acid (gastric juice) is 1000 mL to
b. KHCO3(s) + HNO3(aq) b
2000 mL. Prior to a meal, stomach acid (HCl) typically has a
14.121 Determine each of the following for a 0.050 M KOH pH of 1.42. (14.6, 14.7, 14.8)
solution: (14.6, 14.7, 14.8) a. What is the [H3O+] of stomach acid?
a. [H3O+] b. One chewable tablet of the antacid Maalox contains
b. pH 600. mg of CaCO3. Write the neutralization equation, and
c. pOH calculate the milliliters of stomach acid neutralized by two
d. the balanced equation for the reaction with H2SO4 tablets of Maalox.
e. milliliters of KOH solution required to neutralize 40.0 mL c. The antacid milk of magnesia contains 400. mg of
of a 0.035 M H2SO4 solution Mg(OH)2 per teaspoon. Write the neutralization equation,
14.122 Determine each of the following for a 0.10 M HBr solution: and calculate the number of milliliters of stomach acid that
(14.6, 14.7, 14.8) are neutralized by 1 tablespoon of milk of magnesia.
a. [H3O+] 14.125 Calculate the volume, in milliliters, of a 0.150 M NaOH
b. pH solution that will completely neutralize each of the
c. pOH following: (14.8)
d. the balanced equation for the reaction with LiOH a. 25.0 mL of a 0.288 M HCl solution
e. milliliters of HBr solution required to neutralize 36.0 mL b. 10.0 mL of a 0.560 M H2SO4 solution
of a 0.25 M LiOH solution
Answers 485
14.126 Calculate the volume, in milliliters, of a 0.215 M NaOH 14.129 A buffer solution is made by dissolving H3PO4 and NaH2PO4
solution that will completely neutralize each of the in water. (14.9)
following: (14.8) a. Write an equation that shows how this buffer neutralizes
a. 3.80 mL of a 1.25 M HNO3 solution added acid.
b. 8.50 mL of a 0.825 M H3PO4 solution b. Write an equation that shows how this buffer neutralizes
14.127 A solution of 0.205 M NaOH is used to 20.0 mL of a H2SO4 added base.
solution. If 45.6 mL of the NaOH solution is required to reach c. Calculate the pH of this buffer if it contains 0.50 M H3PO4
the endpoint, what is the molarity of the H2SO4 solution? and 0.20 M H2PO4 -. The Ka for H3PO4 is 7.5 * 10-3.
(14.8) 14.130 A buffer solution is made by dissolving HC2H3O2 and
H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) b 2H2O(l) + Na 2SO4(aq) NaC2H3O2 in water. (14.9)
a. Write an equation that shows how this buffer neutralizes
14.128 A 10.0-mL sample of vinegar, which is an aqueous added acid.
solution of acetic acid, HC2H3O2, requires 16.5 mL of a b. Write an equation that shows how this buffer neutralizes
0.500 M NaOH solution to reach the endpoint in a titration. added base.
What is the molarity of the acetic acid solution? (14.8) c. Calculate the pH of this buffer if it contains
HC2H3O2(aq) + NaOH(aq) b H2O(l) + NaC2H3O2(aq) 0.20 M HC2H3O2 and 0.40 M C2H3O2-. The Ka for
HC2H3O2 is 1.8 * 10-5.
ANSWERS
Answers to Selected Questions and Problems 14.23 a. reactants b. reactants c. products
+
14.25 NH4 (aq) + SO42-(aq ) b -
a NH3 (aq) + HSO4 (aq)
14.1 a. acid b. acid
c. acid d. base The equilibrium mixture contains mostly reactants because
e. both NH4 + is a weaker acid than HSO4-, and SO42 - is a weaker
14.3 a. hydrochloric acid b. calcium hydroxide base than NH3.
c. perchloric acid d. nitric acid 14.27 a. true b. false c. false
e. sulfurous acid f. bromous acid d. true e. false
14.5 a. RbOH b. HF 14.29 a. H2SO3 b. HSO3- c. H2SO3
c. H3PO4 d. LiOH d. HS- d. H2SO3
e. NH4OH f. HIO4
14.31 H3PO4(aq) + H2O(l ) b + -
a H3O (aq) + H2PO4 (aq)
14.7 a. HI is the acid (hydrogen ion donor), and H2O is the base
(hydrogen ion acceptor). [H3O+][H2PO4-]
b. H2O is the acid (hydrogen ion donor), and F - is the base Ka =
[H3PO4]
(hydrogen ion acceptor).
c. H2S is the acid (hydrogen ion donor), and 14.33 In pure water, [H3O+] = [OH -] because one of each is
CH3 ¬ CH2 ¬ NH2 is the base (hydrogen ion acceptor). produced every time a hydrogen ion is transferred from one
14.9 a. F - b. OH - water molecule to another.
c. HPO32- d. SO42- 14.35 In an acidic solution, the [H3O+] is greater than the [OH -].
e. ClO2- 14.37 a. acidic b. basic
14.11 a. HCO3- b. H3O+ c. basic d. acidic
c. H3PO4 d. HBr 14.39 a. 1.0 * 10-5 M b. 1.0 * 10-8 M
e. HClO4 c. 5.0 * 10-10 M d. 2.5 * 10-2 M
14.13 a. The conjugate acid–base pairs are H2CO3 /HCO3- and 14.41 a. 2.5 * 10-13 M b. 2.0 * 10-9 M
H3O+ /H2O. c. 5.0 * 10-11 M d. 1.3 * 10-6 M
b. The conjugate acid–base pairs are NH4 + /NH3 and
H3O+ /H2O. 14.43 In a neutral solution, the [H3O+] is 1.0 * 10-7 M and the pH
c. The conjugate acid–base pairs are HCN/CN- and is 7.00, which is the negative value of the power of 10.
HNO2 /NO2-. 14.45 a. basic b. acidic c. basic
d. The conjugate acid–base pairs are HF/F - and d. acidic e. acidic f. basic
HCHO2 /CHO2-. 14.47 An increase or decrease of one pH unit changes the [H3O+] by
14.15 NH4 (aq) + H2O(l ) b
+
a NH3 (aq) + H3O (aq)
+ a factor of 10. Thus a pH of 3 is 10 times more acidic than a
14.17 A strong acid is a good hydrogen ion donor, whereas its pH of 4.
conjugate base is a poor hydrogen ion acceptor. 14.49 a. 4.0 b. 8.5 c. 9.0
14.19 a. HBr b. HSO4- c. H2CO3 d. 3.40 e. 7.17 f. 10.92
14.21 a. HSO4- b. HF c. HCO3-

14.51 14.93 Acid Conjugate Base

Acidic, Basic,
H2O OH -
3H3O+ 4 3OH− 4 pH pOH or Neutral?
HCN CN-
1.0 * 10-8 M 1.0 * 10-6 M 8.00 6.00 Basic
HNO2 NO2-
3.2 * 10-4 M 3.1 * 10-11 M 3.49 10.51 Acidic
H3PO4 H2PO4-
2.8 * 10 -5
M 3.6 * 10-10 M 4.55 9.45 Acidic
14.95 a. During hyperventilation, a person will lose CO2 and the
-12
1.0 * 10 M 1.0 * 10-2 M 12.00 2.00 Basic blood pH will rise.
14.53 1.2 * 10-7 M b. Breathing into a paper bag will increase the CO2
concentration and lower the blood pH.
14.55 a. ZnCO3(s) + 2HBr(aq) b
CO2(g) + H2O(l) + ZnBr2(aq) 14.97 a. acidic b. basic
b. Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) b H2(g) + ZnCl2(aq) c. basic d. acidic
c. HCl(aq) + NaHCO3(s) b 14.99 a. acid, bromous acid
CO2(g) + H2O(l) + NaCl(aq) b. base, cesium hydroxide
d. H2SO4(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s) b 2H2O(l) + MgSO4(aq) c. salt, magnesium nitrate
14.57 a. 2HCl(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s) b 2H2O(l) + MgCl2(aq) d. acid, perchloric acid
b. H3PO4(aq) + 3LiOH(aq) b 3H2O(l) + Li3PO4(aq) 14.101 Acid Conjugate Base
14.59 a. H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) b 2H2O(l) + Na 2SO4(aq)
b. 3HCl(aq) + Fe(OH)3(s) b 3H2O(l) + FeCl3(aq) HI I-
c. H2CO3(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s) b 2H2O(l) + MgCO3(s) HCl Cl-
+
14.61 To a known volume of a formic acid solution, add a few drops NH4 NH3
of indicator. Place a solution of NaOH of known molarity in
H2S HS-
a buret. Add base to acid until one drop changes the color of
the solution. Use the volume and molarity of NaOH and the 14.103 a. HF b. H3O+
volume of a formic acid solution to calculate the concentration c. HNO2 d. HCO3-
of the formic acid in the sample. 14.105 a. pH = 7.70; pOH = 6.30
14.63 0.829 M HCl solution b. pH = 1.30; pOH = 12.70
c. pH = 10.54; pOH = 3.46
14.65 0.124 M H2SO4 solution
d. pH = 11.73; pOH = 2.27
14.67 16.5 mL
14.107 a. basic b. acidic
14.69 b and c are buffer systems. b contains the weak acid H2CO3 c. basic d. basic
and its salt NaHCO3. c contains HF, a weak acid, and its salt
14.109 a. [H3O+] = 1.0 * 10-3 M; [OH -] = 1.0 * 10-11 M
KF.
b. [H3O+] = 6 * 10-7 M; [OH -] = 2 * 10-8 M
14.71 a. 3 b. 1 and 2 c. [H3O+] = 1.4 * 10-9 M; [OH -] = 7.1 * 10-6 M
c. 3 d. 1 d. [H3O+] = 1.0 * 10-11 M; [OH -] = 1.0 * 10-3 M
14.73 pH = 3.35 14.111 a. Solution A
14.75 The pH of the 0.10 M HF/0.10 M NaF buffer is 3.46. b. Solution A [H3O+] = 3 * 10-5 M;
The pH of the 0.060 M HF/0.120 M NaF buffer is 3.76. Solution B [H3O+] = 2 * 10-7 M
c. Solution A [OH -] = 3 * 10-10 M;
14.77 If you breathe fast, CO2 is expelled and the equilibrium shifts
Solution B [OH -] = 5 * 10-8 M
to lower H3O+ , which raises the pH.
14.113 pH = 0.80; pOH = 13.20
14.79 If large amounts of HCO3- are lost, equilibrium shifts to
higher H3O+ , which lowers the pH. 14.115 a. 1. HS-
14.81 pH = 3.70 2. H2PO4-
14.83 2.5 * 10-4 M [H3O+][HS-]
b. 1.
14.85 CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) b CO2(g) + H2O(l) + CaCl2(aq) [H2S]
14.87 0.200 g of CaCO3 [H3O+][H2PO4-]
2.
14.89 a. This diagram represents a weak acid; only a few HX [H3PO4]
molecules separate into H3O+ and X- ions.
c. H2S
b. This diagram represents a strong acid; all the HX molecules
separate into H3O+ and X- ions. 14.117 a. HNO3 /NO3- and NH4 + /NH3; equilibrium mixture
contains mostly products
14.91 a. acid b. base
b. HBr/Br - and H3O+ /H2O; equilibrium mixture contains
c. base d. acid
mostly products
Answers 487
14.119 a. ZnCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) b 14.125 a. 48.0 mL of NaOH solution

CO2(g) + H2O(l) + ZnSO4(aq) b. 74.7 mL of NaOH solution
b. 2Al(s) + 6HNO3(aq) b 3H2(g) + 2Al(NO3)3(aq) 14.127 0.234 M H2SO4 solution
14.121 a. [H3O+] = 2.0 * 10-13 M 14.129 a. acid:
b. pH = 12.70 H2PO4-(aq) + H3O+(aq) b H3PO4(aq) + H2O(l)
c. pOH = 1.30 b. base:
d. 2KOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) b 2H2O(l) + K2SO4(aq) H3PO4(aq) + OH -(aq) b H2PO4-(aq) + H2O(l)
e. 56 mL of the KOH solution c. pH = 1.72
14.123 a. [H3O+] = 6 * 10-5 M; [OH -] = 2 * 10-10 M
b. [H3O+] = 3 * 10-7 M; [OH -] = 3 * 10-8 M
c. 3 g of CaCO3
COMBINING IDEAS from CHAPTERS 11 to 14
CI.21 Methane is a major component of purified natural gas used for smog. One component of gasoline is octane, C8H18, which
heating and cooking. When 1.0 mol of methane gas burns with has a density of 0.803 g/mL. In one year, a typical automobile
oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water vapor, 883 kJ uses 550 gal of gasoline and produces 41 lb of nitrogen oxide.
of heat is produced. At STP, methane gas has a density of (2.7, 7.2, 7.3, 8.2, 8.3, 9.2, 11.6)
0.715 g/L. For transport, the natural gas is cooled to - 163 °C to a. Write balanced chemical equations for the production of
form liquefied natural gas (LNG) with a density of 0.45 g/mL. nitrogen oxide and nitrogen dioxide.
A tank on a ship can hold 7.0 million gallons of LNG. (2.7, 7.2, b. If all the nitrogen oxide emitted by one automobile is
7.3, 8.2, 8.3, 9.5, 10.1, 11.6) converted to nitrogen dioxide in the atmosphere, how
many kilograms of nitrogen dioxide are produced in one
year by a single automobile?
c. Write a balanced chemical equation for the combustion of
octane.
d. How many moles of C8H18 are present in 15.2 gal of
octane?
e. How many liters of CO2 at STP are produced in one year
from the gasoline used by the typical automobile?
CI.23 A mixture of 25.0 g of CS2 gas and 30.0 g of O2 gas is placed
in 10.0-L container and heated to 125 °C. The products of the
reaction are carbon dioxide gas and sulfur dioxide gas. (7.2,
An LNG carrier transports liquefied natural gas. 7.3, 8.2, 9.2, 9.3, 11.1, 11.7)
a. Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
a. Draw the Lewis structure for methane, which has the b. How many grams of CO2 are produced?
formula CH4. c. What is the partial pressure, in millimeters of mercury, of
b. What is the mass, in kilograms, of LNG (assume that LNG the remaining reactant?
is all methane) transported in one tank on a ship? d. What is the final pressure, in millimeters of mercury, in the
c. What is the volume, in liters, of LNG (methane) from one container?
tank when the LNG (methane) from one tank is converted CI.24 In wine-making, glucose (C6H12O6) from grapes undergoes
to methane gas at STP? fermentation in the absence of oxygen to produce ethanol and
d. Write the balanced chemical equation for the combustion carbon dioxide. A bottle of vintage port wine has a volume of
of methane and oxygen in a gas burner, including the heat 750 mL and contains 135 mL of ethanol (C2H6O). Ethanol has
of reaction. a density of 0.789 g/mL. In 1.5 lb of grapes, there are 26 g of
glucose. (2.7, 7.2, 7.3, 8.2, 9.2, 12.4)
Methane is the fuel burned in a

gas cooktop.
Port is a type of fortified When the glucose in
e. How many kilograms of oxygen are needed to react with wine that is produced in grapes is fermented,
all of the methane in one tank of LNG? Portugal. ethanol is produced.
f. How much heat, in kilojoules, is released after burning all
of the methane from one tank of LNG? a. Calculate the volume percent (v/v) of ethanol in the port
CI.22 Automobile exhaust is a major wine.
cause of air pollution. One b. What is the molarity (M) of ethanol in the port wine?
pollutant is nitrogen oxide, c. Write the balanced chemical equation for the fermentation
which forms from nitrogen reaction of sugar in grapes.
and oxygen gases in the air d. How many grams of sugar from grapes are required to
at the high temperatures in produce one bottle of port wine?
an automobile engine. Once e. How many bottles of port wine can be produced from
emitted into the air, nitrogen 1.0 ton of grapes (1 ton = 2000 lb)?
oxide reacts with oxygen to
produce nitrogen dioxide, a Two gases found in
reddish brown gas with a sharp, automobile exhaust
pungent odor that makes up are carbon dioxide and
nitrogen oxide.
Combining Ideas from Chapters 11 to 14 489
CI.25 Consider the following reaction at equilibrium: d. How many milliliters of the HCl solution are needed to
2H2(g) + S2(g) b a 2H2S(g) + heat
neutralize the Mg(OH)2?
e. How many milliliters of the HCl solution are needed to
In a 10.0-L container, an equilibrium mixture contains 2.02 g
neutralize the Al(OH)3?
of H2, 10.3 g of S2, and 68.2 g of H2S. (7.2, 7.3, 13.2, 13.3,
13.4, 13.5) CI.29 A KOH solution is prepared by dissolving 8.57 g of KOH in
a. What is the numerical value of Kc for this equilibrium enough water to make 850. mL of KOH solution. (12.4, 14.6,
mixture? 14.7, 14.8)
b. If more H2 is added to the equilibrium mixture, how will a. What is the molarity of the KOH solution?
the equilibrium shift? b. What is the [H3O+] and pH of the KOH solution?
c. How will the equilibrium shift if the mixture is placed in a c. Write the balanced chemical equation for the neutralization
5.00-L container with no change in temperature? of KOH by H2SO4.
d. If a 5.00-L container has an equilibrium mixture of d. How many milliliters of a 0.250 M H2SO4 solution is
0.300 mol of H2 and 2.50 mol of H2S, what is the [S2] if required to neutralize 10.0 mL of the KOH solution?
temperature remains constant? CI.30 A solution of HCl is prepared by diluting 15.0 mL of a
CI.26 A saturated solution of silver hydroxide has a pH of 10.15. 12.0 M HCl solution with enough water to make 750. mL
(7.2, 7.3, 13.2, 13.6) of HCl solution. (12.4, 14.6, 14.7, 14.8)
a. Write the solubility product expression for silver a. What is the molarity of the HCl solution?
hydroxide. b. What is the [H3O+] and pH of the HCl solution?
b. Calculate the numerical value of Ksp for silver hydroxide. c. Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction of
c. How many grams of silver hydroxide will dissolve in 2.0 L HCl and MgCO3.
of water? d. How many milliliters of the diluted HCl solution is
required to completely react with 350. mg of MgCO3?
CI.27 A metal M with a mass of 0.420 g
completely reacts with 34.8 mL of CI.31 A volume of 200.0 mL of a carbonic acid buffer for blood
a 0.520 M HCl solution to form H2 plasma is prepared that contains 0.403 g of NaHCO3 and
gas and aqueous MCl3. (7.2, 7.3, 0.0149 g of H2CO3. At body temperature (37 °C), the Ka of
8.2, 9.2, 11.7) carbonic acid is 7.9 * 10-7. (7.2, 7.3, 8.4, 14.9)
a. Write a balanced chemical H2CO3(aq) + H2O(l) b -
+
equation for the reaction of the a. What is the [H2CO3]?

metal M(s) and HCl(aq). b. What is the [HCO3- ]?
b. What volume, in milliliters, of c. What is the [H3O+ ]?
H2 at 720. mmHg and 24 °C is d. What is the pH of the buffer?
produced? e. Write a balanced chemical equation that shows how this
c. How many moles of metal M buffer neutralizes added acid.
reacted? f. Write a balanced chemical equation that shows how this
d. Using your results from part c, When a metal reacts buffer neutralizes added base.
determine the molar mass and with a strong acid, CI.32 In the kidneys, the ammonia buffer system buffers high H3O+.
name of metal M. bubbles of hydrogen Ammonia, which is produced in renal tubules from amino
e. Write the balanced chemical gas form. acids, combines with H + to be excreted as NH4Cl. At body
equation for the reaction.
temperature (37 °C), the Ka = 5.6 * 10-10. A buffer solution
CI.28 In a teaspoon (5.0 mL) of a liquid with a volume of 125 mL contains 3.34 g of NH4Cl and
antacid, there are 400. mg 0.0151 g of NH3. (7.2, 7.3, 8.4, 14.9)
of Mg(OH)2 and 400. mg of
NH4 +(aq) + H2O(l) b a NH3(aq) + H3O (aq)
+
Al(OH)3. A 0.080 M HCl
+
solution, which is similar a. What is the [NH4 ]?
to stomach acid, is used to b. What is the [NH3]?
neutralize 5.0 mL of the liquid c. What is the [H3O+ ]?
antacid. (12.4, 14.6, 14.7, 14.8) d. What is the pH of the buffer?
a. Write the equation for the e. Write a balanced chemical equation that shows how this
neutralization of HCl and buffer neutralizes added acid.
Mg(OH)2. f. Write a balanced chemical equation that shows how this
b. Write the equation for the buffer neutralizes added base.
neutralization of HCl and
Al(OH)3.
c. What is the pH of the HCl An antacid neutralizes
solution? stomach acid and raises
the pH.
490 CHAPTER 14 Combining Ideas from Chapters 11 to 14
ANSWERS
CI.21 a. H CI.27 a. 2M(s) + 6HCl(aq) b 3H2(g) + 2MCl3(aq)
H b. 233 mL of H2
H C H or H C H c. 6.03 * 10-3 mol of M
H d. 69.7 g/mol; gallium
H e. 2Ga(s) + 6HCl(aq) b 3H2(g) + 2GaCl3(aq)
b. 1.2 * 107 kg of LNG (methane) CI.29 a. 0.180 M
c. 1.7 * 1010 L of LNG (methane) b. [H3O+] = 5.56 * 10-14 M; pH = 13.255
∆
d. CH4(g) + 2O2(g) b CO2(g) + 2H2O(g) + 883 kJ c. 2KOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) b 2H2O(l) + K2SO4(aq)
e. 4.8 * 10 kg of O2
7
d. 3.60 mL
f. 6.6 * 1011 kJ
∆
CI.31 a. 0.001 20 M
CI.23 a. CS2(g) + 3O2(g) b CO2(g) + 2SO2(g) b. 0.0240 M
b. 13.8 g of CO2 c. 4.0 * 10-8 M
c. 37 mmHg d. 7.40
d. 2370 mmHg e. HCO3-(aq) + H3O+(aq) b H2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)
CI.25 a. Kc = 248 f. H2CO3(aq) + OH - (aq) b HCO3 - (aq) + H2O(l)
b. If H2 is added, the equilibrium will shift in the direction of
the products.
c. If the volume decreases, the equilibrium will shift in the
direction of the products.
d. [S2] = 0.280 M

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Acids and Bases

A 30-YEAR-OLD MAN HAS

14.1 Acids and Bases

TABLE 14.1 Names of Common Acids and Their Anions

STUDY CHECK 14.1

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

14.2 Brønsted–Lowry Acids and Bases

We can write the formation of a hydrochloric acid solution as a transfer of H + from

HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl-

In another reaction, ammonia (NH3) acts as a base by accepting H + when it reacts

NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OH-

SAMPLE PROBLEM 14.2 Acids and Bases

STUDY CHECK 14.2

Conjugate Acid–Base Pairs

Conjugate acid–base pair H+ gain

H2O H3O+ HF(aq) + H2O(l) F-(aq) + H3O+(aq)

Base Conjugate acid

Conjugate acid–base pair

Ammonia, NH3, acts as a

SAMPLE PROBLEM 14.3 Identifying Conjugate Acid–Base Pairs

STUDY CHECK 14.3

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

following acids: d. HNO2(aq) + CH3 ¬ CH2 ¬ NH2(aq) b a

14.3 Strengths of Acids and Bases

Strong and Weak Acids

TABLE 14.3 Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases

FIGURE 14.1 ▶ A strong acid such

HCO3-(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + CO32-(aq)

Carbonic acid, a weak

H2SO4(aq) + H2O(l ) b H3O+ (aq) + HSO4- (aq)

HSO4- (aq) + H2O(l) b +

Bisulfate ion Sulfate ion

In summary, a strong acid such as HI in water dissociates completely to form an

Hydrofluoric acid is the only halogen

Strong acid Weak acid

Strong and Weak Bases

H2SO4(aq) + H2O(l ) b H3O+ (aq) + HSO4- (aq) Mostly products

CO32- (aq) + H2O(l ) b - -

SAMPLE PROBLEM 14.4 Direction of Reaction

STUDY CHECK 14.4

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

a. HBr or HNO2 b. H3PO4 or HSO4- b. CO3 (aq) + H2O(l ) b

c. HCN or H2CO3 c. HS-(aq) + F -(aq) b a HF(aq) + S (aq)

14.4 Dissociation Constants for Acids and Bases

HCHO2(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + CHO2-(aq)

Formic acid, a weak

Writing Dissociation Constants

The numerical value of the Ka for formic acid at 25 °C is determined by experiment to

Let us now consider the dissociation of the weak base methylamine:

TABLE 14.5 Characteristics of Acids and Bases

SAMPLE PROBLEM 14.5 Writing an Acid Dissociation Expression

STUDY CHECK 14.5

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

14.5 Dissociation of Water

Conjugate acid–base pair

Conjugate acid–base pair

Writing the Water Dissociation Expression, Kw

Neutral, Acidic, and Basic Solutions