49

5 Chemical energetics

Enthalpy changes and entropy changes accompany chemical reactions. This topic
demonstrates why some reactions and processes are spontaneous and others are
not.

5.1 Enthalpy change, ∆H

5.2 Hess’ Law, including Born-Haber cycles

ENERGETICS

CEDAR COLLEGE ENERGETICS

 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701 syllabus Syllabus content

50

5 Chemical energetics
Enthalpy changes and entropy changes accompany chemical reactions. This topic demonstrates why
some reactions and processes are spontaneous and others are not.

Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:

5.1 Enthalpy change, ΔH a) explain that chemical reactions are accompanied by energy changes,
principally in the form of heat energy; the energy changes can be
exothermic (ΔH is negative) or endothermic (ΔH is positive)
b) explain and use the terms:
(i) enthalpy change of reaction and standard conditions, with
particular reference to: formation, combustion, hydration, solution,
neutralisation, atomisation
(ii) bond energy (ΔH positive, i.e. bond breaking)
(iii) lattice energy (ΔH negative, i.e. gaseous ions to solid lattice)
c) calculate enthalpy changes from appropriate experimental results,
including the use of the relationship
enthalpy change, ΔH = –mcΔT
d) explain, in qualitative terms, the effect of ionic charge and of ionic
radius on the numerical magnitude of a lattice energy

5.2 Hess’ Law, including a) apply Hess’ Law to construct simple energy cycles, and carry out
Born-Haber cycles calculations involving such cycles and relevant energy terms, with
particular reference to:
(i) determining enthalpy changes that cannot be found by direct
experiment, e.g. an enthalpy change of formation from enthalpy
changes of combustion
(ii) average bond energies
(iii) the formation of a simple ionic solid and of its aqueous solution
(iv) Born-Haber cycles (including ionisation energy and electron
affinity)
b) construct and interpret a reaction pathway diagram, in terms of the
enthalpy change of the reaction and of the activation energy

Back to contents page www.cie.org.uk/alevel 21

CEDAR COLLEGE ENERGETICS
 51

ENTHALPY CHANGES
Every chemical reaction involves the exchange of energy between (what we
call) the system and its surroundings. For example, when magnesium and
sulphuric acid react in a test-tube:
1. The system consists of the chemical bonds and other forces of attraction
and repulsion between the atoms of reactants and of the products formed.
2. The surroundings include:
a. The test tube.
b. The air around the test tube.
c. The thermometer dipped into the reacting mixture etc…
1

ENTHALPY CHANGES
The total heat (energy) content of any substance at constant pressure is called
its enthalpy. Because of how difficult it is to observe things at the atomic and sub-
atomic level, it is not possible to measure the total enthalpy of a substance.
A good analogy for this is trying to measure the volume of the Pacific Ocean. The
structure of the seabed is so diverse it is practically impossible to measure just
how much volume the Pacific Ocean has. However, you can easily measure
changes in the volume of the Ocean.
Similarly, we can easily measure the enthalpy change that accompanies
reactions. This is written as ∆H and pronounced ‘delta H.’ ∆H can either have a
positive or a negative value, depending on the nature of energy exchange in the
reaction.
2

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 52

ENTHALPY CHANGES
When energy flows from the system to the surroundings, the temperature of the
surroundings increases. This indicates that heat was given out as a result of the
reaction, and so the products of the reaction are at a lower energy level than the
reactants were. These types of reactions are called exothermic reactions.
The value for ∆H is negative for exothermic reactions.
When energy flows from the surroundings to the system, the temperature of the
surroundings decreases. This indicates that heat was taken in as a result of the
reaction, and so the products of the reaction are at a higher energy level than the
reactants were. These types of reactions are called endothermic reactions.
The value for ∆H is positive for endothermic reactions.

SKILL CHECK
Classify the following reactions as exothermic or endothermic:
1. Burning magnesium in excess oxygen.

2. Crystallisation of copper (II) sulphate from a saturated solution.

3. The thermal decomposition of magnesium nitrate.

4. Fermentation of glucose by yeast.

5. Evaporation of sea water.

CEDAR COLLEGE ENERGETICS

 53

ENTHALPY CHANGES
To summarise:

Enthalpy change (∆H) = Enthalpy of products – Enthalpy of reactants

Enthalpy
Enthalpy

reactants Ea
Ea products
∆H ∆H
reactants
products

Enthalpy of reactants > products,∆H = —ve Enthalpy of reactants < products, ∆H = +ve
EXOTHERMIC: Heat given out ENDOTHERMIC: Heat absorbed

ENTHALPY CHANGES
We can draw enthalpy profile diagrams (also known as reaction
pathway diagrams) to show enthalpy changes, as shown on the previous
slide.
1. The enthalpy of the reactants and products is shown on the y-axis.

2. The x-axis shows the reaction pathway, with reactants on the left and
products on the right.

CEDAR COLLEGE ENERGETICS

 54

SKILL CHECK
Draw enthalpy profile diagrams for:

a. Combustion of sulphur to form sulphur dioxide.

b. The neutralisation of potassium hydroxide by nitric acid.

STANDARD ENTHALPY CHANGES

The energy change that accompanies a reaction depends on:

1. The amount of reactants.

2. The physical state of the reactants and products.

3. The temperature of the reactants and products.

As reactants can exist at a variety of energy levels at different physical states,

temperatures and pressures, there was a need to standardise conditions under which
these values were measured. These are now known as standard conditions. They are
a pressure of 105 Pa (100 KPa), temperature of 298K (25 °C) and each substance
involved in the reaction is in its normal state at these values of temperature and
pressure.
8

CEDAR COLLEGE ENERGETICS

 Standard enthalpy changes For example, the equation:
Standard conditions
Cambridge International AS Level Chemistry H2(g) + _12 O2(g) H2O(l) Δ
To make any comparison of enthalpy
55 changes a fair

Standard enthalpy changes

called standard conditions:
Thechange
comparison, we must use the same conditions. These are
shows us the enthalpy
formed from hydrogen
equation
and
when
oxygen
For example,
energy are released.
Standard
Standard enthalpy conditions
a pressure of 105 Pa (105 Pa is 100 kPa, approximately normal
changes
■
atmospheric pressure)
The equation that describes the reaction
However, if we write
H (g) +
m
_1 O
the equatio
To makeof any For example, the equation: 2 2
■ a temperature 298 Kcomparison
(25 °C) (add 273ofto enthalpy
the Celsius changes a fair
Standard STANDARD
conditions ENTHALPY CHANGES
comparison,
temperature to convertwea temperature
must use the intosame
kelvin)conditions. These2H2(g)
are+ O2(g)
H2(g) + _12 O2(g) H2shows
2H2O(l)
O(l) us ΔHtheO e
—
=
Δ
■ each substance involved inconditions:
the reaction r
To make any comparison of enthalpy
called standard changes a fair is in its normal of waterformed from h
Enthalpy changephysical
measured under
state (solid, liquidstandard
comparison, we must use the same conditions. or gas) at 10conditions
These are
5 Pa and 298 K.
is knowntwo
shows us the enthalpy
as moles
standard
change whenare
are formed
one
from
In this
■ a pressure of 105 Pa (105 Pa is 100 kPa, approximately case 572
normal energy
kJ of energy are relm
rel
called standard
enthalpy conditions:
The
change. symbol
The —O indicates
symbolthat
atmospheric
the enthalpy change refers
indicates
pressure) that the enthalpy
to change
formed from hydrogen and oxygen.
refers to In thii
However,
a reaction carried out under standard conditions.
of 105 Paout
a pressurecarried (10 5 Pa is 100 kPa, approximately normal energy Standard enthalpy chang
are released.
a■ reaction a temperature
■ under standard of 298 K (25 °C) (add
conditions. The273 to the
unit Celsius
of measurement
The information
atmospheric pressure)
in the equation: formation,
However,
temperature to convert a temperature into kelvin) ∆Hequation
if we write the
—
O
f 2(g) +
2H as O
for standard enthalpy change is the kilojoule per mole, written as kJmol-1.
■ a temperature of 298 K (25 °C) (add 273 to the Celsius
CH4(g)
■ + 2O2substance
each (g) CO 2(g) + 2H
involved 2O(l)
in the reaction is in its normal
5 2H (g) + O 2(g)
standard 2H 2O(l)molesΔH of rof=fw
—
O
temperature to convert aphysical temperature stateinto kelvin)
(solid, liquid or gas)ofatkJ
10molPa–12and 298
The
K.
two
enthalpy change
The equation below shows us that when ΔH —O mole
one = –890.3 methane gas reacts
enthalpy change when one mole o
■ each substance involved in the reaction is in its normal In this case 57
The two moles of water
formed are
from formed
its from
elements hydro
under st
withphysical stateshows
two moles (solid,
of oxygenthatsymbol
usliquid orgas
gas)one
when at
to—
O10indicates
5 Pa and 298
mole
form ofone that
methane K. the
mole gasofenthalpy
reacts with change
carbon dioxiderefersgas andto
reactants and products must be in
two moles a reaction
of oxygencarriedgas to formout under
one molestandard
In this
of carbon conditions.
case 572 kJ of energy are released.
Standard
The symbol
two moles — ofindicates
O water inthat thethe enthalpy
liquid statechange refers to enthalpy change is
the standard
dioxide gas and two moles of water in the liquid state the
a reaction carried
–890.3 -1. out under
kJmolstandard
Thestandard conditions. equation: Standard
information in
enthalpy change is –890.3 kJ mol–1.
the enthalpy
The symbol
formation
change
for standard enthalpyofc
The information in the CH equation: CO2(g) + formation, ∆H f changes of formati
—O
2H2O(l) ΔH f . Enthalpy
—
O
92 4(g) + 2O2(g)
or endothermic. We write
Thethe form
standar
CH4(g) + 2O A variety
(g) of
CO enthalpy
(g) + 2H changes
O(l) ΔH —
O
= –890.3 kJ mol –1
2 2 2 ΔH f to he
in square brackets afterenthalpy —
O
ch
We can describe enthalpy changes
ΔH —O = –890.3
according to
kJ mol –1 the type The standard enthalpy change of formatio
calculations involving enthalpy
formed cha
from
of methane enthalpy change
withwhen one mole of a com
9
of chemical showsreaction
us that taking
when place.
oneFormole
example: gas reacts
formed from its elements reactants
under standard a
shows us that when onetwo
■ enthalpy mole moles ofof
of methane
change oxygen
formation gas gas to with
reacts form one molereactantsof carbon2Fe(s) + 1_12 O2(g) Fe2O3(s)
and products must be in their st
■ enthalpy tochange
gasdioxide formgas of combustion
two moles of oxygen one and
moletwo of moles
carbonof water in the liquid state ΔH —Of the
[Fe2O3(s)] = –824.2 kJ mol–1
■ enthalpy change of neutralisation The symbol fo
dioxide gas and two moles of water
standard in the liquid
enthalpy changestateis the
–890.3 kJ mol–1.
■ enthalpy change of solution –1
standard enthalpy change is –890.3 kJ mol . The symbolC(graphite)
for standard + enthalpy
2S(s) change
CS2(l)
ΔH —Of . Enthalp
92■ enthalpy change of atomisation
ΔH f . Enthalpy—Ochanges of or
—O
formation can
92 ■ enthalpy A variety of enthalpy changes
change of hydration. ΔH f [CS2(l)] = +98.7endotherm
kJ mol–1
or endothermic. We write the formulabrac of
A variety ofInenthalpy
more We canchanges
general describe
cases we canenthalpy changes according
use the term: to the type
in square
in square Note
brackets
that after
the state
—
O
f to help
ΔHcalculations
symbol for us
carbwin
We can describe enthalpy of changes according
chemical reaction to the type
taking place. For example:
■ enthalpy change of reaction. calculations involving enthalpy changes. E
‘graphite’. This is because there are
of chemical reaction
STANDARD taking place. For example:
ENTHALPY CHANGES carbon but the most stable
■ enthalpy change of formation
_1 Ostable 2Fe(s)is +graph
1_12
■ enthalpy change of formation
Standard enthalpy change of 2Fe(s) + 1
most2 2 (g) form Fe
when
2 3O (s)
writing equ
■ enthalpy change of combustion
Enthalpy
■ enthalpychanges
change are described
of combustion depending on what type of reaction ischanges
taking are shown.
place. ΔH –1 f [Fe2O3
—
O
reaction, ∆H Or change of neutralisation
■ enthalpy
—
ΔH —
O
f [Fe O
2 By (s)] = –824.2 kJ mol
3 definition, the standard enth
■ enthalpy
The change
following of neutralisation
are some of the most commonly used enthalpy changes:
■ enthalpy change of solution formation of any element
■ enthalpy change of solution
C(graphite) + 2S(s) CSC(graphite)
in its stan
1. Standard enthalpy
The enthalpy
■change
standard of change
formation.
enthalpy change ofofatomisation
reaction is the enthalpy 2(l)
■ enthalpy change of atomisation
change ■ when the amounts
enthalpy change of reactants shown in
of hydration. Standard enthalpy
ΔH —Of [CS2(l)] = +98.7 kJ molΔH –1 f chang
—
O
[CS2(l)
■ enthalpy change of hydration.
the equation
2. Standard enthalpy changereactoftoneutralisation.
give products under standard combustion, ∆H —Oc
In more general cases Incan
conditions.
we more usegeneral
The reactants
the term: cases
and we can
products mustusebethe term:
in their
Note that the state symbol for Note that the
carbon is sh
standard
3. Standard enthalpy states. of combustion.
change
■ enthalpy change of reaction.
■ enthalpy change of reaction. ‘graphite’. This Theisstandard ‘graphite’.
becauseenthalpy
there are Thi
severa
change of c
4. Standard enthalpy change of atomisation. enthalpy change when
carbon
carbon but the most stable is graphite and one mole
but tho
The symbol for standard enthalpy change of reaction is excess oxygen under standard con
Standard most stable form when writingmost instable
be equations fo
Standard

 enthalpy
ΔH —Or . Enthalpy changesenthalpy
change of reaction canchange
of be exothermic of and products must their stan
changes are shown. changes are sh
reaction, ∆H —
r reaction, ∆H r
or endothermic.
O —
O
By definition, the standard By enthalpy ch
definiti
formation of any element information its standard of sa
The standard enthalpy change of reaction
The standard is the enthalpy
enthalpy change of reaction is the enthalpy
change when the amounts of reactants shown10 in
change when the amounts
Standard enthalpy Standard
of reactants shown in
change of
the equation react to give products under standard
the equation react to give products under combustion,
standard ∆H c combustio
—
O
conditions. The reactants and products must be in their
conditions. The reactants and products must be in their
standard states.
standard states. The standard enthalpy change of combus
enthalpy change when one moleTheofstandar
a subs
The
CEDAR symbol for standard enthalpy change of reaction is
COLLEGE excess oxygen under standardenthalpy
ENERGETICS
ch
conditions
The symbol for standard
ΔH . Enthalpy changes of reaction can be exothermic
—
O enthalpy change of reaction is excess oxyg
and products must be in their standard st
r
ΔH —Or . Enthalpy changes of reaction can be exothermic and produc
or endothermic.
 56

STANDARD ENTHALPY CHANGE OF FORMATION

Definition The enthalpy change when one mole of a compound is formed in its
standard state from its elements in their standard states under standard
conditions.
Symbol ∆HOf

Values Usually, but not exclusively, exothermic.

Examples C(graphite) + O2(g) CO2(g)

H2(g) + ½O2(g) H2O(l)
2C(graphite) + ½O2(g) + 3H2(g) C2H5OH(l)

Notes There should be only one mole of product on the right side of the equation.
Elements in their standard states have zero enthalpy of formation
Carbon is usually taken as the graphite allotrope
11

STANDARD ENTHALPY CHANGE OF COMBUSTION

Definition The enthalpy change when one mole of a substance undergoes complete combustion
under standard conditions. All reactants and products are in their standard states.

Symbol ∆HOc

Values Always exothermic

Examples C(graphite) + O2(g)   CO2(g)

H2(g) + ½O2(g) H2O(l)
C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)

Notes There should only one mole of what is being combusted on the left side of the equation.

To aid balancing the equation, remember that you get one carbon dioxide molecule for
every carbon atom in the original and one water molecule for every two hydrogen
atoms. When you have done this, go back and balance the oxygen.

12

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 57

STANDARD ENTHALPY CHANGE OF NEUTRALISATION

Definition The enthalpy change when an acid and a base react to form one mole of
water under standard conditions.
Symbol ∆HOneutralisation

Values Exothermic

Example H+ (aq) + OH— (aq) H2O(l)

Notes A value of -57kJmol-1 is obtained when strong acids react with strong
alkalis.

13

SKILL CHECK
Classify the following reactions as standard enthalpy changes of
formation, combustion or neutralisation:
1. MgCO3 (s) MgO (s) + CO2 (g)

2. C(graphite) + O2 (g) CO2 (g)

3. HCl (g) + NH3 (g) NH4Cl (s)

4. H2 (g) + ½O2 (g) H2O (l)

14

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 58

5 Energy changes in chemistry

MEASURING
5 ENTHALPY CHANGES Energy changes in chemistry

Calorimetry 5.2 enthalpy

is used to measure Measuring enthalpy changes directly
changes.
Figure 5.7 In a bomb calorimeter, accurate
It usually involves values
heating Exothermic
(or cooling)
of the enthalpy known and
change of combustion endothermic
amounts of water.reactions
thermometer
can be measured because heat losses to the air
are minimised. The Law of Conservation of Energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed;
Many reactions take place in aqueous
it can only be solution
converted into– reactants
another and/or products
form of energy.

dissolved in water - so water isThe enthalpy change of a reaction usually appears as heat, which means that there is
the natural choice to measure a variety of
a temperature change. If the products have less enthalpy than the reactants, there is
an enthalpy decrease during the reaction water (∆H is negative) and an equivalent amount
enthalpy changes. of heat energy must be given out by the reaction; the reaction is said to be
exothermic. The heat given out is passed to the surroundings – that is, the ‘bomb’
calorimeter
The enthalpy change of reaction causes
environment thethetemperature
around reaction – where itof canthe water to
be measured. change:
Most chemical
reactions are exothermic, but there are some in which the enthalpy increases (∆H is oxygen under pressure
and the reaction is then said to be endothermic. These reactions take in
Endothermic reactions take positive), in energy, temperature of water falls.
heat from the surroundings because the enthalpy of the products is more than the
exothermic reactions, ∆H is heated wire crucible containing
enthalpy of the reactants. to ignite sample fuel under test
Exothermic reactions give energy
negative. The temperature of the It is notout, temperature
surprising that most chemical of water
reactionsrises.
are exothermic. In everyday life, stirrer
surroundings increases and the
the changes we observe are usually those in which the potential energy decreases
potential energy of the system (that
and the kinetic energy increases in heated
outer the form of heat. If we push a book to the side
is, the reacting chemicals) decreases.
of a desk, we expect to see it fall water
frombath
the desk to the floor (its potential energy
endothermic reactions, ∆H is
therefore 15
decreases). We would be very surprised if it suddenly rose back up again
positive. The temperature of the
surroundings decreases and the (its potential energy would increase). Both processes are possible in theory, as they

Experiment doThe
potential energy of the system (the
reacting chemicals) increases.
not break the Law of Conservation of Energy.
direction of a chemical change is determined by the relative energy levels
To measure
of the reactants and products. If the enthalpy ∆Hof 1the
c
reactants is higher than that
of the products (exothermic, ∆H negative), the reaction is thermodynamically
A simple
possible. It might not, however, takeapparatus
place because the rate is too slow; it is then
05_075.8
Figure Cam/Chem
shows AS&A2
said to be kinetically controlled. These akinetic
simplefactors
apparatus aretoconsidered
measure the
in enthalpy
Topic 8).change of combustion
forBarking
a fuel Dog
suchArt
as methanol. A known volume of water is placed in a copper
Measuring temperature calorimeter and its changes
temperature andis measured. The calorimeter is clamped so that its
base is just a few centimetres above a spirit burner, which contains the fuel. The
calculating ∆H spirit burner is weighed, placed under the calorimeter and lit. The water in the
The enthalpy change of a reaction, ∆H, If we measure the heat given out or taken in during a reaction, we can find this
calorimeter is stirred with the thermometer. When the temperature has risen about
is the change in enthalpy accompanying enthalpy change. The simplest way of measuring it is to use the energy to heat (or
10 °C, the flame is put out, the temperature is noted and the spirit burner re-weighed.
reactants into products.
SIMPLE CALORIMETERS
the complete conversion of one mole of cool) some water or a solution. We need to make the following measurements:

Figure 5.8 A simple the mass used

● apparatus of the
to reactants
measure enthalpy changes
● the of of water, m (or its volume, since its density is 1.00 g cm−3)
combustion
mass
● the water or solution, ∆T.
the rise (or fall) in temperature of thermometer

We also need to know the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of
thermometer
water by one degree. This is known as the specific heat capacity of water and is
given the symbol c. It has the value 4.18 J g−1 K−1. (Note that we can measure the
temperature change using a thermometer marked in degrees Celsius, because a
change in temperature is the same on either the Celsius or the kelvin scale.)
If we represent the heat change as q, we have the following equation:
lid
q = mc∆T
copper rather than pure water, it is the mass of
If we are dealing with aqueous solutions
polystyrene cup calorimeter
water in the solution that should be included as the ‘m’ in this equation. Since the
solutions are often quite dilute, and since the volume and heat capacity of a dilute
solution are about the same as thosewater
of the water it contains, we normally use the
following equation:
solution
q = 4.18 × v × ∆T, where v = volume of the solution in cm3
spirit burner
Figure 5.3 A basic calorimeter, used for Figure 5.3 shows a simple apparatus that can be used measure the heat change. The
simple heat experiments expanded polystyrene cup has a lid to keep heat losses to a minimum.

16
99
105
05_08 Cam/Chem AS&A2
05_03 Cam/Chem AS&A2
Barking Dog Art
Barking Dog Art
181333_05_AS_Chem_BP_097-117.indd 99 15/10/14 10:43 AM
181333_05_AS_Chem_BP_097-117.indd 105 15/

CEDAR COLLEGE ENERGETICS

 59

MEASURING ENTHALPY CHANGES

The energy required to change the temperature of a substance can be calculated
using:

q = m x c x ∆T

where q = heat energy, measured in Joules (J)

m = mass, measured in grams (g)
∆T = change in temperature, measured in Kelvin (K) or degree Celsius (°C)
c = Specific Heat Capacity, measured in JK-1g-1 or J°C-1g-1
17

MEASURING ENTHALPY CHANGES

We can measure the temperature change using a thermometer marked in
degrees Celsius, because a change in temperature is the same on either the
Celsius or the Kelvin scale. The value for the specific heat capacity of water is 4.18
JK-1g-1 (or J°C-1g-1).

If we are dealing with aqueous solutions rather than pure water, it is the mass of
water in the solution that should be included as the ‘m’ in this equation. Since the
solutions are often quite dilute, and since the volume and heat capacity of a
dilute solution are about the same as those of the water it contains, we normally
use the volume of the solution rather than its mass to give this equation:

q = volume x c x ∆T
18

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 60

CALCULATING ENTHALPY CHANGES

Step 2: work out how Step 3: work out how

Step 1: work out the many moles of water much energy is
enthalpy change during the are made from the evolved per mole of
reaction reaction water

19

CALCULATING ENTHALPY CHANGES

25cm³ of 1 moldm-3 HCl (aq) was neutralized by 25 cm³ of 1 moldm-3 NaOH (aq). The
temperature was increased by 5°C. Calculate the enthalpy change of neutralisation.

Enthalpy change q = mc ∆T where m = 50 g, c = 4.2 J°C-1g-1, ∆T = 5.0°C

So, enthalpy change = 50 x 4.2 x 5.0 = 1050 J

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

1 mole 1 mole

Number of moles of H2O = number of moles of HCl = 0.025 x 1.0 = 0.025.

So, 0.025 moles of water are made.

20

CEDAR COLLEGE ENERGETICS

 61

CALCULATING ENTHALPY CHANGES

Number of moles of H2O = number of moles of HCl = 0.025 x 1.0 =
0.025. So, 0.025 moles of water are made.

Enthalpy change when 0.025 moles of water made = 1050J

Enthalpy change when 1 mole of water made = 1050/0.025 = 42000 J

Enthalpy change of neutralisation = — 42 kJmol-1

Heat energy gained by the
water is lost by the reaction
so change the sign!

21

CALCULATING ENTHALPY CHANGES

0.16g of methanol was burned in a spirit burner. 50g of water was
heated from 19°C to 23°C.

(a) Calculate the enthalpy change of combustion of methane.

q = mc ∆T m = 50g, c = 4.2 JK—1g—¹, ∆T = 4.0°C

So, enthalpy change of water = 50 x 4.2 x 4.0 = 840 J

moles of methanol burned = mass/mass of 1 mole = 0.16/32 = 0.005

moles
22

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 62

CALCULATING ENTHALPY CHANGES

Enthalpy change of water for 1 mole of methane= 840/0.005 =
168000J = 168kJ

Enthalpy change of combustion = —168 kJ mol—¹

(b) Comment on why this experimental value is lower than the data
booklet value.

Energy is lost to the surroundings, so that the temperature increase of

the water is lower than that under ideal conditions.
23

CALCULATING ENTHALPY CHANGES

On complete combustion, 0.18g of hexane raised the temperature of
100g water from 22°C to 47°C. Calculate its enthalpy of combustion.

Heat absorbed by the water (q) = 100 x 4.18 x 25 = 10450 J = 10.45 kJ

Moles of hexane burned = mass/Mr = 0.18/86 = 0.00209

Enthalpy change = heat energy/moles = 10.45/0.00209 = 5000 kJ mol—¹

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 63

CALCULATING ENTHALPY CHANGES

25cm³ of 2.0M HCl was added to 25cm³ of 2.0M NaOH in an insulated beaker.
The initial temperature of both solutions was 20°C. The highest temperature
reached by the solution was 33°C. Calculate the Molar Enthalpy of Neutralisation.

NaOH + HCl NaCl + H 2O

Temperature rise (∆T) = 306K — 293K = 13K

Volume of resting solution = 25 + 25 = 50cm³ = 0.05dm³

Equivalent mass of water = 50g (density is 1 gcm-3)

25

CALCULATING ENTHALPY CHANGES

Heat absorbed by the water (q) = m x c x ∆T = 500 x 4.18 x 13 = 2717 J = 2.717 kJ

Moles of HCl reacting = 2 x 25/1000 = 0.05 mol

Moles of NaOH reacting = 2 x 25/1000 = 0.05 mol

Moles of water produced = 0.05 mol

Enthalpy change per mole (∆H) = heat energy/moles of water = 2.717/0.05 =

54.34 kJmol—1

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 64

CALCULATING ENTHALPY CHANGES

25cm³ of 2.0M HCl was added to 25cm³ of 2.0M NaOH in an insulated beaker.
The initial temperature of both solutions was 20°C. The highest temperature
reached by the solution was 33°C. Calculate the Molar Enthalpy of Neutralisation.

NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O

Temperature rise (∆T) = 306K — 293K = 13K

Volume of resting solution = 25 + 25 = 50cm³ = 0.05dm³

Equivalent mass of water = 50g (density is 1 gcm-3)

27

CALCULATING ENTHALPY CHANGES

Heat absorbed by the water (q) = m x c x ∆T = 500 x 4.18 x 13 = 2717 J = 2.717 kJ

Moles of HCl reacting = 2 x 25/1000 = 0.05 mol

Moles of NaOH reacting = 2 x 25/1000 = 0.05 mol

Moles of water produced = 0.05 mol

Enthalpy change per mole (∆H) = heat energy/moles of water = 2.717/0.05 =

54.34 kJmol—1

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 65

SKILL CHECK
75cm3 of 2.0 moldm−3 ethanoic acid, CH3CO2H, were placed in a
plastic cup. The temperature was 18.2°C. To this were added 75cm3 of
2.0 moldm−3 ammonium hydroxide, NH4OH, whose temperature was
18.6 °C. After mixing, the highest temperature was 31.0 °C.

Calculate ∆H for the neutralisation. 


29

SKILL CHECK
A burner containing hexanol, C6H13OH, had a mass of 325.68g. It was
lit and placed under a copper calorimeter containing 250 cm3 of
water. The temperature of the water rose from 19.2°C to 31.6°C.
Afterwards the burner’s mass was 324.37 g.

Calculate:

A. The heat evolved.

B. ∆Hc for hexanol.

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 66

Hess’s law En
Conserving energy fro
HESS’ LAW
The Law of Conservation of Energy states that ‘energy for
There are very few reactionscannot
whosebeenthalpy
created or destroyed’.
change Thismeasured
can be is called the First Law We c
of Thermodynamics. the t
directly by measuring the change in temperature in a calorimeter. We can
This law also applies to chemical reactions. The total
find enthalpy changes for other reactions
energy indirectly.and
of the chemicals To their
do this we make must
surroundings
use of Hess’ Law. remain constant. In 1840 Germain Hess applied the Law of
Conservation of Energy to enthalpy changes.
Hess’ law is an application of the first law of thermodynamics, which in its
simplest form is the law of conservation of energy. Since energy cannot
Hess’s law states that ‘the total enthalpy change in a
be destroyed or created the energy change
chemical in is
reaction a independent
chemical process
of the route by which
Figur
should be the same as long as the
thechemical reaction
initial and takes place
final states are as
thelong as the initial and
same. chan
final conditions are the same’.
step)

31 We u
Enthalpy cycles and p
We can illustrate Hess’s law by drawing enthalpy cycles react
(Hess cycles). In Figure 6.7, the reactants A and B combine find
directly to form C. This is the direct route. Whe
Two indirect routes are also shown. One other way
of changing A + B to C is to convert A + B into different di
substances F + G (intermediates), which then combine to
So Δ
form
HESS’C. LAW
T
Hess’ law states that ‘the total type
F+G
enthalpy change in a chemical ■ w
irect route 1 d
ind
■
reaction is independent of the ■ d
route by which the chemical A+B C co
reaction takes place as long as direct route ■ ap
o
the initial and final conditions are
ind If the
the same’. i rect route 2
mult
X Y+Z
reme
of an
Figure 6.7 ∆H(direct)
The enthalpy change is1)the
= ∆H(indirect same no matter
= ∆H(indirect 2) which
route is followed.
32 W
Hess’s law tells us that the enthalpy change of reaction
1
for the direct route is the same as for the indirect route. It
does not matter how many steps there are in the indirect
CEDAR COLLEGE route. We can still use Hess’s law. ENERGETICS
We can use Hess’s law to calculate enthalpy
changes that cannot be found by experiments using
 67

HESS’ LAW
Some enthalpy changes are easy to measure experimentally, e.g.:

∆H°c, enthalpy change of combustion.

Some values for ∆H°f, enthalpy change of formation.

These can be used to calculate some enthalpy changes that are

difficult to measure experimentally e.g. :

Some values for ∆H°f, enthalpy change of formation.

Some values for ∆H°r, enthalpy change of reaction.

33

HESS’ LAW
This can be shown by making a Hess cycle as shown below:

∆H1
A B

∆H2 ∆H3
C

A→B = A→C + C→B

∆H1 = ∆H2 + ∆H3

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 68

HESS’ LAW
1. Write out balanced equations for all energy changes mentioned in question.

2. Choose the most complicated (or populated) equation.

3. Fill the first two boxes with it.

4. Put everything else in the third box.

5. Balance each box to ensure the number of atoms in each box is the same.

6. The box with which your cycle begins is the start box and the one where the
cycle ends is the stop box.

7. Construct an equation and solve.

Note: The enthalpies given are per mole therefore as the number of moles change,
the energies have to be multiplied by the same number.
35

SUMMARY CYCLES
Box A Box B
∆H FOR FORMATION REACTIONS
reactants products
Start box: C End box: B
∆H cts C ➜ A + A ➜B = C ➜ B
du
f re pro
∆H
ac f
tan elements
ts

Box C: Elements

Box A Box B
FOR COMBUSTION REACTIONS ∆H
reactants products
Start box: A End box: C
A ➜ B + B ➜C = A ➜ C ∆H cts
du
cr
ea pro
∆H
cta c
nts elements

Box C: Combustion Products

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 69

EXAMPLE 1
Consider the following two reactions:

C(graphite) + O2(g) CO2(g) ∆H1 = – 394 kJ mol–1

CO(g) + ½O2(g) CO2(g) ∆H2 = – 283 kJ mol–1

We can use Hess’s Law to find the value of the incomplete combustion of
carbon to form CO.

C(graphite) + ½ O2(g) CO(g) ∆H3 = ?

37

EXAMPLE 1
Box A Box B
∆H1 = – 394 kJ mol–1
C CO2
–1
mol
∆H kJ
3 83
–2
CO =
2
∆H
Box C

A→B = A→C + C→B

∆H1 = ∆H3 + ∆H2

– 394 = ∆H3 + (– 283)

∆H3 = ?
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 70

EXAMPLE 2
Calculate the standard enthalpy of formation of methane from the following data:

∆H°c (C) = —393 kJ mol—1

∆H°c (H2) = —286 kJ mol—¹

∆H°c (CH4) = —890 kJ mol—¹

Step 1: form the equation of the formation of methane from its

elements in their standard state.

C(s) + 2H2(g) CH4(g)

39

EXAMPLE 2
Step 2: enter the reactants Box A Box B
∆H1 = ?
(in Box A) and products (in C(s) + 2H2(g) CH4(g)
Box B) of Step 1 into the 2x
∆H ∆H 0
Hess cycle °
c (C °c (H 89
)=
—3 2)
=2 ) =—
93 (— H4
28 C
6) ° c(
Step 3: enter the combustion ∆H
products of the Box A and CO2 + 2 H2O
Box B into Box C
Box C : Combustion products

A ➜B + B ➜ C = A ➜ C
Step 4: work out ∆H1 from
∆H1 + ∆H°c(CH4) = ∆H°c(C) + 2 x ∆H°c(H2)
∆H1 = ∆H2 + ∆H3
∆H1 + (—890) = (—393) + 2(—286)
∆H1 = ?
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 71

SKILL CHECK
Calculate the standard enthalpy change for the following reaction, given
that the standard enthalpies of formation of water, nitrogen dioxide and
nitric acid are —286, +33 and —173 kJ mol—1 respectively. The value for
oxygen is ZERO as it is an element (—252 kJ mol—1)

2H2O(l) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g) 4HNO3(l)

41

SKILL CHECK
Calculate the standard enthalpy change of combustion of ethane from the
following data:

Standard enthalpy change of formation of carbon dioxide = – 394 kJ mol–1

Standard enthalpy change of formation of water = – 288 kJ mol–1

Standard enthalpy change of formation of ethane = – 92 kJ mol–1

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 72

SKILL CHECK
Calculate the enthalpy change for the reaction:

4CH3NHNH2(l) + 5N2O4(l) 4CO2 + 12H2O + 9N2

Given the following data:

Standard enthalpy change of formation of carbon dioxide = – 394 kJ mol–1

Standard enthalpy change of formation of water = – 288 kJ mol–1

Standard enthalpy change of formation of CH3NHNH2 = +53 kJ mol–1

Standard enthalpy change of formation of N2O4 = – 20 kJ mol–1

43

BOND ENTHALPY
Bond Enthalpy is the energy required to break one mole of a particular
type of bond in gaseous molecules under standard conditions.

Bond enthalpy values are all positive, showing that bond enthalpies are
endothermic (breaking bonds takes in energy).

The values found in the data booklet are average values for each type of
bond. The same bond may have very slightly different bond enthalpies in
different compounds.

The O—H bond has a slightly different enthalpy value in each compound.

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 73

BOND ENTHALPY
When a particular bond is broken, energy is taken in (endothermic):

H—H(g) H(g) + H(g) ∆H = +436 kJ mol—¹

When the same bond is made, energy is given out (exothermic):

H(g) + H(g) H—H(g) ∆H = —436 kJ mol—¹

Note: The amount of energy needed to break or form the same type of
bond is the same.

45

÷ EXAMPLE

=÷ ÷
Calculate the enthalpy change of reaction when 1 mole of methane, CH4 ,

÷
=÷
burns completely to form carbon dioxide and water.

÷
t O H

=÷
A
- -

÷
1

t H

=÷
O A
H
-

C
-

-
-

H + +

÷
1

I t -

O -

H H CA H

=÷
-
-

H I1

=÷
H -
C
H
-

H
4 x C—H bonds 2 x O=O bonds 2t x C=O
- -

H
O bonds 4A
x O—H bonds I

H
1

Energy needed to Energy given out when

Reactant Bonds - -

H
t breakO bonds A Product bonds H -
C H -

/kJ mol—¹ bonds form /kJ mol—¹

t -

O -

H A
1
I

4 x C—H 4 x +413 = +1652 2 x C=O 2 x —805

H = —1610
H -
C1
-

H
2 x O=O 2 x +498 = +996 4 x O—H 4 x —464 = —1856
H -
CI H
-

Total energy needed = +2648 H

I Total energy given out = —3466
H
Enthalpy change of reaction = +2648 + (—3466) = —818 kJ mol—¹
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 74

EXAMPLE

The information from the example before

Breaking all the
can be shown on an enthalpy level diagram. bonds gives single
gaseous atoms.
C(g) + 4H(g) + 4O(g)
Energy / kJmol—1

Bond breaking
+2648 kJ

Bond forming
—3466kJ
CH4(g) + 2O2(g)

∆H CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Progress of reaction (reactants to products)

47

STANDARD ENTHALPY OF ATOMISATION

Standard enthalpy of atomisation (∆Hatm) of an element is the enthalpy change when
1 mole of gaseous atoms is formed from the elements in their standard states.

½Cl2(g) Cl(g) ∆H = +121 kJ mol—1

For chlorine ∆Hatm = ½ bond dissociation energy

Na(s) Na(g) ∆H = +108 kJ mol—1

For sodium ∆Hatm = energy of sublimation

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 75

STANDARD ENTHALPY OF ATOMISATION

½I2(s) I(g) ∆H = +107 kJ mol—1

For iodine ∆Hatm = ½(energy of sublimation + bond dissociation energy)

= ½(63 + 151) = ?

½Br2(l) Br(g) ∆H = +112 kJ mol—1

For bromine ∆Hatm = ½(enthalpy of vaporisation + bond dissociation

energy)

49

SKILL CHECK
The equation for the combustion of ethanol is:

C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)

A. Rewrite this equation to show all the bonds in the reactants and products.

B. Use bond energies (in kJ mol–1) to calculate a value for the standard
enthalpy change of this reaction.

C. The standard enthalpy change of combustion of ethanol is –1367.3 kJ mol–1.

Suggest why this value differs from the value obtained using bond energies. 


50

CEDAR COLLEGE ENERGETICS