Chapter I

INTRODUCTION

Attachment

Attachment is our fundamental biotic need for social construction which prevents us
from threatening by ensuring that one retains closeness to loving and caring for others
(Bowlby, 1982).

One of the most basic human needs is to develop a secure emotional

connection and attachment to those who are closest to us (Johnson, 2003). Losing this
connection with our nearby others (i.e. attachment figures) is what often pushes
individuals and families into therapy (Johnson, 2003).

The theory of attachment (Bowlby, 1982) conceptualizes the need of the universal
human being to form affectionate bonds with others. In this theory, attachment is
defined as an inherited driven behavioral mechanism (Bowlby, 1969/1982). The
theory of adult attachment starts with the premise that adults in close relationships
enter into relationships with well-developed mental representations of themselves and
others that control patterns of cognitive, affective, and behavioral reaction (Collins &
Read, 1994). Such cognitive-affective representations are referred to by attachment
theorists as inner working models of attachment and are believed to be embedded, at
least in part, in the performance of one's early relationships with caretakers and other
important attachment figures (Bowlby, 1973). Once these representations have been
established, they are believed to function automatically and unconsciously, making
them immune to dramatic change (but certainly not impervious). Working attachment
models are thus thought to be the core feature of personality, which plays an
important role in guiding how individuals interact with others and construe their
social works.

Ainsworth Attachment Styles. Ainsworth discusses different styles of commitment

to his own view.
Secure Attachment. Positive vulnerability characterizes secure attachment style.
When people move with their parents, they enhance their compromises, statements,
positivity, and cooperation skills, using their skills at intervals throughout their lives
(Cassidy, 2001; Simons, Paternite, & Shore, 2001). You constantly assume with the
passing of your time that others are trustworthy and depend on, that individuals
usually have respectable goals We see themselves as welcoming and deserving of
insane and loving care from others; we are also compassionate, supportive and
sensitive partners within their relationships with higher rates of mutually beneficial
levels of understanding and dependence, caring and trusting (Gomez & McLaren,
2007; Cassidy, 2001 & his co-worker).

Insecure Attachment. Insecure types of attachment are characterized by negative

self, other, and relationships perceptions.

Hazan and shever (1987) Created an adult romantic love typology close to the
representations of child attachment by Ainsworthʼs (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, &
Wall, 1978). They distinguished between self-reported stable, avoiding and concerned
definition of attachment to adult relationships based on their belief that early
relationships have an effect on adult relationships and that the process of engaging in
an intimate adult relationship shares parallels with the attachment of infant caregivers
(Bartholomew & Shaver, 1998; Collins & Read, 1994).

Recent research has shown that the portrayal of attachments is fairly stable over time,
but is also open to change through new experiences (e.g., Crowell, Treboux, &
Waters, 2002). In addition, a distinction between global and local relational
attachment models has been theorized (e.g., Collins & Read, 1994; Crittenden, 1990).
International or universal mental models are thought to evolve in novel relationships
on the basis of models of attachment with parents and could develop internal working
models from the initial basis. Specific relational models (Collins & Read; Crittenden)
are thought to develop, however, as discrepant information presents itself in a new
relationship. More recent research has established the distinction between global and
local relational models, and over time global models form particular models (Pierce &
Lydon, 2001). Overall, Fletcher and Friesen (2003) have found support for a
framework that suggests that particular relational models (e.g. attachment to your
partner) operate within relational domains (e.g. romantic domains) which, in effect,
work within a global relational model. It has also been found that relationship-specific
mental models are similar to relationship-specific outcomes, such as relationship
satisfaction, than generic models (Cozzarelli, Hoekstra, & Bylsma, 2000).

The current study has also shown that one of the three attachment dimensions
proposed by Collins and Read (1990), the Anxiety dimension, is an important factor
affecting the relationship status in young adulthood. The results obtained indicate that
a high level of anxiety about being rejected or unloved leads most to the probability of
being single among young adults. On the other hand, the lower the level of concern
about being rejected or not involved, the higher the likelihood of committing. Collins
(1996) study also revealed the importance of this aspect of working models in which
anxiety about relationships was found to be a significant predictor of relationship
events explanations All in all, these results support the hypothesis that fears about
being discarded or unloved can be a more significant factor influencing relationship
status (and functioning) than care and responsiveness experience of partners.
Individuals worrying about being rejected may have difficulty putting aside their fears
in any relationship, constantly monitoring their spouses in search of signs suggesting
a lack of care, things going wrong, and believing the worst in a relationship (Collins,
1996).

Stockholm syndrome

Stockholm Syndrome (SS) is a psychological response in which captives

begin to identify closely with their captors, their agenda and their demands. In 1973,
when four hostages were taken during a bank robbery in Stockholm Sweden, the word
was first used by the press. Since that many other high-profile cases have been
reported in the press and this condition has also been found in women, abused
children and war prisoners and is no longer limited to the situation of hostage.
Stockholm syndrome is the development of the victim's positive feeling towards his /
her offenders in terms of social relationships (Demarest, 2009). This also prompted
clinicians to define the core signs of Stockholm syndrome as the continuation of the
victim's positive feelings towards the aggressor or abuser, strengthening the
relationship as it progresses (Graham, Rawlings & Rimini, 1994).
Graham (1995) conceptualized SS based on four precursors needed for its
development; perceived threat to survival, perceived kindness, perceived isolation,
and perceived inability to escape. Stockholm syndrome is considered to be a coping
mechanism with three main components. Optimistic feelings on the part of the
hostage towards the captor, optimistic reciprocal feelings on the part of the captor
towards the captives, and negative feelings on the part of the captives towards figures
of authority and/or authority This condition arises from specific external situations:
power imbalances in hostage situations, or kidnappings, and abusive relationships
(Auerbach, Kiesler, Strentz, Schmidt, & Serio, 1994; Graham, Rawlings, & Rimini,
1994)..

Over the last 30 years, there have been several high-profile incidents where
Stockholm syndrome has been confirmed to have been involved. Stockholm
Syndrome, as identified by one of the early psychiatrists involved in the condition, is
a syndrome in which abductees bind or demonstrate allegiance to their captors in an
attempt to save their lives or make their suffering more tolerable (Strentz, 1980).

Based on hostage-related literature (Graham, 1994), classic Stockholm syndrome has

been expanded to provide an overarching theory called the Stockholm Syndrome
Hypothesis of Graham. She theorized that there could be psychological bonding
between a victim and an abuser and analyzed the literature on nine groups of victims
to assess if bonding with an offender happened as in Stockholm syndrome. Such
categories included Chinese Communist inmates, pimp-procured slaves, survivors of
incest, children physically and/or emotionally abused, battered women, prisoners of
war, and genera hostages It was found that bonding between an attacker and a
survivor occurred in all nine classes when the following four factors coexisted: (a)
Perceived threat to survival and the expectation that the captor was willing to carry
out that danger; (b) The captive's interpretation of some small kindness from the
captor in a terror context; (c) Isolation from experiences other than the captor's; and
Perceived inability to escape (Graham, 1994, p.33).

Perceived Threat to Survival

Graham (1994) concluded that there was a risk to physical survival from
emotional abuse or the threat of harm While most people view physical violence as a
more serious offense than psychological violence, emotionally more harmful than
actual physical violence is documented by both battered women and prisoners of war.
Emotional abuse is often perceived as a threat to physical survival, such as the threat
of mutilation or killing. Psychological violence can, for these reasons, encourage the
creation of the disorder as much or more as physical violence. That’s important. A
person who threatens to shoot you may be the one knocking on your driveway or
waiting for the next shot, you should relax as you know where and how the shooting
took place, how badly you are injured, what you need to do to take care of the injury,
and so on (cf. Browne 1987, p.115).

Perceived Kindness

A person whose survival is threatened perceives kindness differently from a

person whose survival is not under threat For example, a small kindness — one that
would usually not be noticed under a safety condition--appears huge under risk and/or
weakening conditions. (Angela Browne, 1987) states that some battered women view
the end of abuse as a gesture of love from their husbands. If prisoners of war are
deprived of food, sleep, and human contact, and then these items are given, but not
enough to satisfy their basic human needs for them, they frequently view their
torturers as kind (cf. Amnesty International 1975).

Isolation

The isolation of victims from individuals other than the captor / abuser is
ideological and is usually also physical in nature. For instance, a wife batterer is
unlikely to allow his wife to maintain relations with her family unless her family gives
her messages that affirm or at least not contradict her messages (for example, "You
made your bed, now lie in it," "You just need to be a better wife, and" A woman's
place is with her husband).

Perceived inability to escape

Prisoners and physically confined captives certainly experienced a diminished ability

to escape, Hostage-takers or captors used the threat of violence to avoid any escape
(Graham, 1994). Graham, Ott, and Rawlings (1990) studied the degree of threat to
survival, isolation, and inability to escape, as well as the amount of kindness shown
by abusive partners in emotionally abusive relationships to women in shelters and
women. They found that the measure of threat to survival, inability to escape, and
isolation were so closely associated in such relationships that a high degree of these
three precursors — for example, isolation — would be very unlikely to be seen unless
one also saw a high degree of threat to survival and inability to escape. Therefore, if a
woman was isolated, one can be pretty sure that her survival was also threatened and
that her options to escape her partner were diminished. For other "hostage parties"
there may also be clear associations among these three precursors.

Major indicators of Stockholm syndrome

Graham (1994) argued that all signs of the condition to be identified as having
Stockholm syndrome should not be shown by survivors She concluded that a
spectrum was defined by Stockholm's syndrome, that is, a mixture of indicators could
be present at varying degrees However, to identify as having Stockholm syndrome, a
victim would need to display more than one indicator. Graham (1994, pp.42-43)
suggested that the following criteria should be used as a guide for the existence of
Stockholm syndrome.

1. The patient has recurrent trauma or post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms.

2. The victim is bonded in the offender.

3. The victim is grateful for small kindness shown by the offender.

4. The survivor disputes the violence that happens or can rationalize the abuse.
The victim denies to others and to him or her own anger.

5. The victim becomes hypervigilant to the wishes of the perpetrator and tries to
please the abuser. This is a one-way, not reciprocal, hypervigilance

6. The victim sees the world from the perspective of the offender. She or he may
not have his or her own perspective; thus, through the eyes of the perpetrator,
the victim encounters his or her own sense of self.

7. The victim sees as the "bad guys" would-be rescuers and the perpetrator as the
"good guys" or the defender.
 8. The victim finds it hard either to abandon the perpetrator or emotionally
detach from the abuser.

9. The victim suspects the offender's revenge.

Defeat and Entrapment

Strube (1988) applied a structure for entrapment (perceived inability to escape an

aversive situation) to theorize that the decision to maintain an abusive relationship
may explain past efforts and devoted time to the relationship. Defeat definitions,
representing a failed social struggle and imprisonment, representing a blocked desire
to escape from aversive conditions (Gilbert & Allan, 1998), have been involved in the
development and management of mental health issues among medical and non-
clinical communities (Taylor et al., 2011a). While initially presented as separate
concepts, the latest theory and work has conceptualized loss and clogging as a single
construct that incorporates feelings of failure without escape routes (e.g. Taylor et al.,
2009) or as sub-facets within a higher-order framework commonly referred to as '
involuntary subordination ' (Sturman, 2011). It has been theorized within this
framework that acknowledging defeating and entrapment conditions is crucial in
whether involuntary subordination is sustained and expressed in depressive symptoms
(Sturman et al., in the press). Taylor and colleagues (2011a) proposed that after an
aversive occurrence, loss and trap form a self-reinforcing process in which one's
experience constantly affects the other, leading them to co-occur in such a way that
they cannot be separated. In addition, the Johnson, Gooding, and Tarrier's (2008)
model indicated that defeat and entrapment contain similar themes reflecting a
skewed evaluation of an aversive condition and a lack of escape options available to
the person which precedes the mental health experience. Furthermore, Sturman (2011)
suggested that the experiences of defeat and entrapment overlap with the perception
of involuntary subordination, which plays a role in the development of mental health
problems. Each of these models considers defeat and entrapment as a single construct,
or a sub-face of a single higher order construct, that plays a trans-diagnostic role in
psychopathological condition development and maintenance.

Defeat
Defeat was conceived as a submissive defensive behavior involving perceptions of
failed social struggle and impotence resulting from a lack of individualization of goals
and associated with a loss of social status or hierarchy (Gilbert, 2000a; Gilbert &
Allan, 1998). Defeat can arise from external circumstances, such as unstable or
unemployed relationships, or uncontrollable internal strife (Williams & Pollock,
2001). Gilbert (2000b) indicated that there are three key groups of events that could
cause individual experiences of loss. Next, a lack of resources or a loss of valued
assets, such as financial instability (Sloman, Gilbert & Hasey, 2003) and deprivation
(Gilbert, Gilbert & Irons, 2004a), that precede these perceptions. Alternatively,
perceptions of social put-downs or being targeted by others, or perceptions of attacks
from internal sources such as unattainable targets or unfavorable correlations with
others can contribute to perceptions of loss (Gilbert, 2000b); for instance, being the
target of racism can include individuals in circumstances of aversion (Gilbert, et al.,
2004a).

Entrapment

Entrapment was described as blocking a powerful motivation to escape

from a stressful or threatening situation due to a lack of escape possibilities or the
possibility of rescue from others (Gilbert & Allan, 1998), and was derived from the
definition of ' arrested flight ' (Dixon, Fisch, Huber, & Walser, 1989). Perceptions of
entrapment can be accompanied by internal feelings and thoughts, known as internal
entrapment, or external conditions and events, such as social situations, known as
external entrapment (Taylor et al., 2011a). Entrapment as a weakness in problem-
solving skills as a reaction to adverse situations has been suggested (Williams &
Pollock, 2001). Animals suffering social losses are likely to engage in self-protective
behaviors such as short-term self-protective withdrawal measures, including social
withdrawal, reduced sleep and eating, and hyper vigilance (Sloman et al., 2003),
which are thought to deter more physical hazards that may arise as a result of further
disputes and signify a "no-threat" status (Price & Sloman, 1987). These submissive
behaviors aim to ' cut ' the animal off the environment (Dixon, 1998) and are adaptive
in response to dangerous situations as a short-term response and can therefore be seen
as serving a specific function as a strategy for protecting the animal. Nevertheless,
this can lead to maladaptive effects when these submissive attitudes fail to disengage.
Entrapment was differentiated from hopelessness, since concepts of hopelessness
concentrated only on the possibility of future events happening, rather than on the
presence of motivation to escape from the situation and the consequences of thwarted
motivation to escape (Gilbert & Allan, 1998).

The evolution of defeat and entrapment as constructs

As the conceptualization of defeat and entrapment originated from

findings in animal literature, it is not yet clear if they reflect a central psychological
phenomenon present in all humans, or whether defeat and entrapment are causes that
are only seen in medical populations with mental health problems. There are
contrasting viewpoints on this, with some theories seeing defeat and entrapment as
particular responses to stressful situations (e.g. O'Connor, 2003), while other theories
view defeat and entrapment as a systemic mechanism with adaptive bases present in
all individuals, which can become problematic when functioning for prolonged
periods of time in certain situations or circumstances (e.g., Gilbert, 2001). The
following section will address how perceptions of defeat and entrapment can evolve
and influence negative outcomes for animals and humans, as well as the best way to
measure defeat and entrapment.

The Involuntary Defeat Strategy in animals

When animals engage in social competition and experience defeat, they

are likely to react with involuntary responses to yield mechanisms that leave them
physically unable to fight (Price et al., 1994). By yielding, the animal signals that they
are willing to submit to other animals, thereby reducing their chance of injury
(Sqaloman, 2000). This is known as the Involuntary Defeat Strategy (IDS), a short-
term, pre-programmed protective strategy aimed at protecting the animal from further
harm (Sloman, 2000). In response to a social defeat (Gilbert, 1992), this strategy is
automatically activated as a damage-limitation strategy and is believed to be a
primitive, threat-defense response to perceptions of defeat (Sloman, 2000). The tactic
prevents animals from following unattainable targets that would weaken their ability
to survive (Gilbert, 1998a).

The IDS will deactivate as an evolutionary mechanism once the individual escapes
from the losing condition and recognizes that there has been a clear failure causing
them to pursue new objectives (Nesse, 1998). Nevertheless, animals are engaged in a
defensive strategy known as ' arrested flight ' when a powerful desire to flee from the
aversive situation is blocked and animals can not physically escape due to low chance
of escape or being saved by others (Dixon, et al., 1989; Gilbert & Allan, 1998). If the
strategy does not disengage, it becomes an animal problem and can precede poor
results. Many types of animal behavior arising from an ID that does not disengage,
such as avoidance and hyper vigilance, are thought to reflect the signs of human
mental health problems (Wood, Boyce, Moore, & Brown, 2012). It is assumed that
the IDS will lead to the perception of entrapment, depending on the interpretation of
the individual's incapacity from the situation (Siddaway, Taylor, Wood, & Schulz, in
the press). Parallels have been drawn between the behaviors resulting from sustained
IDS in group living animals with certain behaviors associated with people with
serious mental health issues (Wood et al., 2012).

The Involuntary Defeat Strategy in humans

Although social rank is obviously a priority for group living animals, where it has
adverse effects to be low rank, in this way people do not live or communicate with a
group.

It is known, however, that rank is important to humans compared to others, especially

when selecting a mate, since higher-ranking individuals have access to more resources
for potential offspring and are therefore considered more desirable than low-ranking
individuals (Brown, Gardner, Oswald, & Qian, 2008). It is believed that while social
threats that trigger submissive behavior among animals are focused on aggression,
these threats are focused among humans on loss of approval or acceptance through
unfavorable social comparisons with others (Gilbert, 2000a). Human beings can
therefore be seen as vying not only for resources with others, but also as becoming
more socially appealing to others (Sloman et al., 2003). Recognizing the importance
of social rank for humans may help to understand the high prevalence of poor
physical and mental health among low socioeconomic status individuals (Taylor,
Wood, Gooding, Johnson, & Tarrier, 2009). An evolved, innate and adaptive response
to combat situations is assumed to be the IDS response. Therefore, after a situation of
loss, people are also thought to undergo IDS that can precede mental health problems
such as depression and anxiety disorders if it does not disengage. Examples of loss
circumstances cited as common sources contributing to increased susceptibility to
depression include physical and sexual abuse and harassment in the workplace or
school (Bifluco & Moran, 1998). In the sense of such situations, it would be expected
that an adaptive IDS response would be deactivated when individuals could escape
the situation by acknowledging the loss, seeking support from others and continuing
to pursue new goals (Sloman, 2000). Acceptance of defeat is a crucial variable in
whether involuntary subordination is prolonged and manifests in symptoms of
depression (Sturman, Rose, McKeighan, Burch, & Evanico, in the press). If a person
is unable to accept a loss, they are bound to a struggle that they cannot resolve and are
likely to continue to experience general dysphoria and that depression that contributes
to depressive symptoms (Sloman, 2000).

Examples of accepting a defeat would be to end an abusive relationship or get help

from others (Siddaway et al., in the press). Although there are issues related to
individual differences in IDS responses and vulnerability to subsequent mental health
issues. Acceptance of a social rank position, for instance, is assumed to end an IDS;
but, in all cases, not all individuals can accomplish this (Swallow, 2000).

Socioeconomic status has been suggested to represent the role of the social rank of
humans. Rank position for social living animals is based on the results of
competitions with others; while rank position among humans is determined by their
attention and social status, obtained through interactions with others (Gilbert, 1992).
Gaining rank is typically associated with positive effect (e.g. increased body-esteem)
and negative effect-related loss of rank (Gilbert, 1990). In addition, a social decline
was associated with depression-related symptoms and a self-reported desire to
increase one's rank (Brewer & Oliver, 2014).

Defeat and entrapment as an inter-related process

Because the Involuntary Defeat Strategy is considered to be an evolutionary process,

defeat and entrapment should be a common process for all humans following a
circumstance of surrender, rather than a process unique to individuals with mental
health problems. Suggestions of events that may lead to defeat are far broader than the
circumstances of direct conflict with others that predict animal literature's feelings of
defeat (Price et al., 1994). It includes indications that defeat expectations may not be
correlated with a specific objective occurrence, but may be internal to the person
(Gilbert, 2000b) and may not necessarily be derived from social situations (Taylor et
al., 2011a).

Conceptualizing defeat and entrapment

In the literature, the philosophical relationship between defeat and entrapment was the
subject of debate (Siddaway, 2013). When humans experience feelings of defeat or
entrapment in response to stressful situations, it is not yet clear whether the two
constructs function as separate but interacting constructs or whether a single factor
underlies both defeat and entrapment. Several hypotheses were presented about the
nature and interrelationship of defeat and entrapment; whether they should be
regarded as separate structures or as a single factor that involves feelings of failure
and inability to escape. Questions remain about the structure of defeat and
entrapment, which have implications in research for their measurement and their
implementation in therapeutic interventions. The following section presents an
overview of four key models focusing on the defeat and entrapment structure. The
following section presents an overview of four key models focusing on the defeat and
entrapment structure. Theories that consider overcoming a entrapment as two factors
will first be discussed, as one of these theories in particular affected a one-factor
theory's later development.

Relationship Satisfaction

Relationships Satisfaction is the variable outcome for this study.

Understanding how it is theoretically crucial is why I predict communication
satisfaction will be associated with it. Sabetalli (1988) developed a significant theory
about the relationships satisfaction. Sabetelli's theory of exchange suggests that
people choose to be in a cost / reward balance relationship of how much they have to
put forward as compared to how much they receive in return. The outcomes for the
relationship an individual predicts are measured on the basis of the characteristics of
the other person and the expected form of interactions between partners. In addition to
a person's "comparison rate," perceptions, these two measures are then used; the
"comparison level" is influenced by the common standards of relationships in society.
His analysis of social interaction on relationship satisfaction shows that perceptions of
relationships play a role in relationship assessment.

Relationship satisfaction is the best predictor of relationship stability (Horn et al.,

1997). Several psychologists have described relationship satisfaction; Locke &
Wallace defined it in 1959 as “adjustment”, Honeycutt (1986) described it as
“functioning” and “well-being” (Acitelli, 1992) and Rusbult et al. (1998, p.359) define
relationship satisfaction as the “positive versus negative impact encountered in a
relationship and is determined by the degree to which a partner meets the most
important needs” of the individual and generates well-being (Baumeister & Leary,
1995).

What causes satisfaction is relationship is a) one's commitment to relationship; b)

ability to resolve conflicts; c) relationship positivity. Satisfaction requirements can
also be achieved when an individual's ideal relationship is in line with his / her actual
experience. Based on past experiences and observing the relationships of others, this
expectation for an ideal relationship can be formed (Guerrero, Anderson, & Afifi,
2011). According to Murray et al. (1996), seeing the partner's positivity may be
regarded as a critical function for improving close relationships.

Both love components are found to contribute positively to the satisfaction of

adolescents with their romantic relationships (Murray, Holmes, & Griffin, 1996) as
well as the relationship's time-span (Overbeek et al., 2007). A multiple statistical
analysis of regression was conducted which found that relationship satisfaction was
strongly predicted by the three components of love (Doreen, 2001).

Individuals want to maximize their benefits and decrease their costs in a

partnership, according to independence theory. Mentally, people account for benefits
and losses in order to be able to measure the outcomes of their partnership as either
positive or negative. The effect is optimistic when the benefits outweigh the costs; on
the contrary, if the costs outweigh the rewards, the outcome is negative The
psychological task of understanding if the relationship has a positive or negative
outcome is not always sufficient to satisfy people as people often have previous
perceptions of what they think the relationship should be like. For example, some
people have highly rewarding relationships, so for them to be happy, the outcomes
must be particularly positive. The definition of comparison rates is included in the
interdependence theory to compensate for these standards in the relationship. The
level of comparison involves the expectations of the kinds of results that a person
expects in a relationship to receive. This presumption is based on past relationship
experiences of individuals and personal observations of the relationships of other
people (Guerrero, Anderson & Afifi, 2011).

Previous research on relationship satisfaction focused on different components that

were shown to be important markers of relationship satisfaction. Many behaviors used
to maintain relationships are prossocial, helping to promote relationship proximity,
confidence, and enjoyment. Positivity, openness, assurances, social networking, and
collaboration of tasks are five key methods for prosaically retaining. Research
suggests that partnerships that contain high rates of prosaically preserving approaches
tend to be stable and dedicated, and people in their relationship seem to be more
fulfilled (Guerrero, Anderson & Afifi, 2011).

Attachment Style and Stockholm syndrome

Some researchers believe that the ability to practice and consider is closely
linked to the growth of attachment (Gilbert, 2005, 2009; Gillath et al., 2005).

Study explored the moderating impact of insecure (anxious, avoiding)

attachment on the relations between Stockholm syndrome and intimate partner
violence. In addition, higher levels of anxious attachment are expected to increase the
degree to which higher scores on the Stockholm scale were correlated with intimate
partner violence.

This would be the case for two reasons. First, anxiously attached individuals
may feel the need to control the partners and be less able to regulate their own level of
aggression which would predict violence (Follingstad, Bradley, Helff, & Laughin,
2002). Second, when violence is more prevalent in the relationship, higher levels of
anxiety are likely to be generated (Bookwala & Zdaniuk, 1998). In comparison, this
correlation should be buffered by lower levels of anxious attachment and the link
between Stockholm syndrome and violence. The relationship between avoiding
attachment and Stockholm syndrome is therefore positive. In short, the extent to
which higher score on the Stockholm scale was supposed to be correlated with a
higher degree of insecure attachment, whether anxious or avoiding.
Attachment Style and Perceived inability to escape

Sloman et al. (2003) theoretical study suggests the link between attachment
insecurities and defeat, where they argue that people lacking adequate support from
their caregivers may develop attachment insecurities that impair the ability to cope
with subsequent life setbacks or defeats. The relation between attachment and
entrapment is indicated by Fischer-Mamblona's (2000) ethological analysis, in which
she hypothesized that people who missed the reassurance and encouragement of their
caregivers developed — as the goose she observed — attachment insecurities that
could promote strong motivation to escape when circumstances became stressful.
Empirically, insecurities of attachment and defeat and entrapment can be related
because they are associated with depression.

Attachment Style and Relationship satisfaction

In both heterosexual and homosexual relationships, the correlation between

attachment and relationship satisfaction (Elizur & Mintzer, 2001) and Collins & Read
(1990) work was also expected to provide dominant evidence that variables such as
relationship satisfaction, confidence and adequate interaction lead to particular styles
of attachment. Attachment can also account for the dissatisfaction of the relationship
due to attachment concerns and insecurities (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007). Attachment
injuries such as refusal can cause hyper activation or deactivation of the attachment
system. The secure attachment style was associated with greater interdependence,
commitment, confidence and satisfaction relationships for both sexes. In the romantic
relationships, the insecure attachment types display more negative emotions than
positive ones.

The length of the relationship often depends on the attachment of the parties
and the satisfaction of the relationship. Hazan and Shaver (1987) found that
individuals who identified themselves as insecure attachment had shorter relationships
(4-6 years) than secure individuals (10 years) and higher marital divorce rates. A
study conducted by Fraley & Shaver (1998) examined the attachment and separation
behavior in romantic couples using a naturalistic observation. The question was if
differences in style of attachment would predict differences in behavior of separation.
Even females demonstrated the complex attachment that was originally found in the
sense of their romantic adult relationship in infant studies.
Rationale

The proposed study aims at discerning the prevalence of Stockholm syndrome

among Pakistani married and dating women. Moreover, it intends to examine the
dynamics through which perceived inability to escape from an abusive relationship
may modulate the relationship between attachment styles and Stockholm syndrome
and how Stockholm syndrome does and attachment styles may influence relationship
satisfaction.

Originally, Stockholm syndrome is a psychological response where captives begins to

identify closely with their captors, as well as with their agenda and demands. This
term was firstly use by media in 1973 when four hostages were taken during a bank
robbery in Stockholm Sweden. After that many other high-profile cases were reported
in media and this disorder was also observed in women, abused children and prisoners
of war and it is no more limited to the hostage situation. In terms of social
relationships, Stockholm syndrome is the development of positive feeling on the part
of the victim for his/her abusers.

Attachment theory (Bowlby, 1982) conceptualizes the universal human need to form
affectional bonds with others. Therefore, attachment styles may have a direct bearing
on staying in an abusive relationship. Secure attachment style is characterized by
positive whereas insecure attachment styles are characterized by negative views of the
self, others, and the relationships. One’s perceived inability to leave an abusive
relationship is another important factor that may lead to Stockholm syndrome. Strube
(1988) applied an entrapment (perceived inability to escape an aversive situation)
framework in theorizing that the decision to maintain an abusive relationship may
justify past efforts and time devoted to the relationship. Specifically, a woman
confronted with partner violence must decide whether to stay and attempt to improve
her relationship or to leave. Insecure attachment, entrapment, and Stockholm
syndrome are likely to deteriorate relationship quality. The conceptual framework of
the present study has been schematically presented in Figure 1.

Conceptual Frame work

Figure 1. Conceptual model of the proposed study
 Chapter II

Method

Research Design

This study was planned to investigate impact of attachment styles and

Stockholm syndrome on relationship satisfaction among married and dating women:
Role of entrapment. Three scales were used to meet the study's goals. The planned
study will use a cross-sectional study design. Age was also calculated to provide a
summary of the participants in the chapter on the outcomes of the descriptive
statistics.

Sample

The sample of current study comprise of 300 married and dating women (girls) (age
range of 18 to 40 years) from Sargodha. The participants will have a minimum
marriage or dating duration of 1 year and their minimum qualification will be
graduation. Only those married/dating women (girls) will be included in the sample
who conform to the open-ended question of being exposed to violence (any form i.e.,
physical, psychological, sexual) from their husband or partner. The married
participants will be approached at their houses whereas the dating girls will be
approached in the premises of different educational institutions.

Operational definitions of variables. The present study explored four variables;

Attachment styles, Stockholm syndrome, Perceived inability to escape and
Relationship satisfaction. Below are the basic definitions for these variables.

Attachment styles. Attachment is our basic need for survive. Originally formulated by
Bowlby (1973, 1969/1982), Attachment theory conceptualizes the universal human
need to from affectional bonds with others. Within this theory, attachment is
described as a behavioral system which is based on hereditary motivation (Bowlby,
1969/1982).

Ainsworth Attachment Styles. Ainsworth explains different attachment styles

according to his own perspective.
Secure attachment. It is characterized by positive view of the self, others, and
relationships. An adult’s attachment style is the way in which adults in a romantic
relationship relate to each other Ainsworth (1970).

Insecure attachment. Whereas insecure attachment style is characterized by negative

view of the self, others and relationships. In people with insecure attachment,
however, the expectation is the complete opposite. They expect the other person to
abandon them or harm them in some way Ainsworth (1970).

Stockholm syndrome. Stockholm syndrome has been described by psychological and

criminological studies as a disorder arising from situations where there is face-to-face
interaction between captors and prisoners, with captors caus Victims do not see any
means of escape and fear for their lives and, under these conditions, any act of
kindness on the part of the captors or even the absence of violence, assault or rape
causes victims to see their captors as "good guys" (Symonds, 1980). ing extreme fear
or anxiety in their victims, leaving them weak, vulnerable and submissive.

Entrapment. Strube (1988) applied a framework for entrapment (perceived inability

to escape and aversive situation) to theorize that the decision to maintain an abusive
relationship can justify past efforts and devoted time to the relationship.

Relationship satisfaction. Researcher describes relationship satisfaction as the

"positive versus negative impact experienced in a relationship and is influenced by the
extent to which a partner meets the most important needs of the individual and
produces well-being" (Baumeister & Leary, 1995).

Instruments

The research used the following instruments:

Revised adult attachment scale (Collins, 1996). It is a 18-item scale which is use for
measure of relationship attachment. It contains reliability and stability (rʼs ranging
from .72 to .96). This scale contains three subscales, each composed of six items. It
items are rated on 5-likert response scale is ranging from 1 (not at all characteristic
like me) to 5 (very characteristic of me). The three subscales are CLOSE, DEPEND,
and ANXIETY. The CLOSE scale measures the extent to which a person is
comfortable with closeness and intimacy. The DEPEND scale measures the extent to
which a person feels he/she can depend on others to be available when needed. The
ANXIETY subscale measures the extent to which a person is worried about being
rejected or unloved.

Stockholm syndrome scale (SSS). The Stockholm syndrome scale (SSS; Graham et
al., 1995) is a 49-item scale to identify the existence of SS. The items are equally
divided in three subscales; Core SS, Psychological Damage, and Love-Dependence.
The current study used to modify version of the original scale (George, 2015). The
modified version has 24 items, eight items for each subscale of SS. The responses
range from Never (1) to Always (7). The score range for each subscale is 8 to 56, with
high scores indicating high levels of Core SS symptoms, Psychological Damage, and
Love-Dependency, respectively. SSS is measured on a 7-point Likert Scale with two
items of Psychological Damage reversed scored. The Cronbach alphas for the
subscales as reported by the authors are, Core Stockholm syndrome, α = .94,
Psychological Damage, α = .89, and Love-Dependence, α = .74.

The short defeat and entrapment scale. This scale has 8-item SDES Gilbert and
Allan (1998) a scale which uses to determine entrapment. Items are rated on a Likert
scale ranging from “0 – not at all like me” to “4 – extremely like me”. The scale is
psychometrically sound with an alpha, as reported by Gilbert and Allan (1998) as .88,
-.94.

Relationship Satisfaction Subscale of Investment Model Scale. The present study

utilized satisfaction subscale of Investment Model Scale (Rusbult, Martz, & Agnew,
1998) for measuring the relationship satisfaction. It comprised of 5 items with 9-point
Likert response format from 0 (do not agree at all) to 8 (agree completely). The
subscale has satisfactory level of internal consistency (α = .92, Rusbult et al., 1998).
The responses on the five items are summated to compute the total score on the
subscale. No item of this subscale was reverse scored. High score reflected high
degree of relationship satisfaction and vice versa.

Hypotheses. In the present study following hypothesis has been formulated:

With respect to the role of entrapment in the relationship between attachment style
and Stockholm syndrome on relationships satisfaction:
 1. Women with high degree of Stockholm syndrome will perceive high
degree of role of entrapment.
2. Attachment style will modulate their perceived level of role of
entrapment.
3. Effects and psychological outcomes of relationship satisfaction on
attachment styles and Stockholm syndrome.
4. There is a positive association between attachment style, and
Stockholm syndrome, and perceived inability to escape.
5. There will be a statistically significant difference between attachment
styles and their influence on relationship satisfaction. With respect to the
relationship between Stockholm syndrome and relationship satisfaction.
6. There will be a statistically significant difference between Stockholm
syndrome and their influence on relationship satisfaction. With respect to
relationship between entrapment and relationship satisfaction.

Objectives

This study's main objective was to test the scale's psychometric properties.

 To maintain the scale's psychometric properties.

 • See the initial association pattern between research variables.

The following goals were formulated in the current study to investigate the
relationship between attachment styles, Stockholm syndrome, entrapment, and
relationship satisfaction.

 To find the effect of entrapment on relationship satisfaction in

the relationship between attachment styles and Stockholm syndrome.
 Determine the positive relationship between the types of
entrapment and Stockholm and attachment and the fulfillment of the
relationship.

Procedure

I select different universities, organizations and different areas of the city of Sargodha
to collect data samples that have been married and women dating equally. First, I was
given permission from the head of the institute to obtain data, then I went to various
classes, organizations and different areas. The study assures participants that this is
academic research and findings are used for academic purposes only. Then
participants were presented with a research information sheet that gave an overview
of the study's objectives, the extent of potential personal discomfort, tolerance, and
the approximate amount of time it would take to complete the questionnaire booklet.
Ethical policy was maintained: participants were assured of their information's
privacy and anonymity, and their right to withdraw from the research at any time.
They were given brief instructions to complete the scales and provide the data on the
statistical sheet after inspiring those participants who demonstrated their willingness
to participate in the study. The researcher remains present and attentive at the
completion of the scales and if, during the completion of the scales or other
interpretation of the questions, the participants encounter any kind of difficulties, the
researcher addresses their questions in a suitable manner and answers their questions.
Upon completing the scales, the researcher paid special thanks to the participants,
without taking any concrete reward due to voluntary participation in the experiment.
The author appreciates their involvement in the knowledge of psychology as a
worthwhile contribution.