IB MATHEMATICS SL INTERNAL ASSESSMENT

A Simple Derivation of the Most

Beautiful Theorem in Mathematics:

Euler’s Identity and Formula

Florence Gilda
I. Introduction

Euler’s identity sparked my interest by earning the title “The Most Beautiful Theorem in

Mathematics” back in the 1990s [1]. In the least stereotypically feminine way possible, naturally, I

have always been drawn to things of beautiful nature. In fact, I almost chose to investigate the golden

ratio and Fibonacci’s sequence in order to measure beauty. However, upon seeing the title “The Most

Beautiful Theorem in Mathematics” , I was curious as to how a mathematics identity or theorem

could be considered beautiful.

Being an IB student who was trained to study from multiple resources outside traditional textbooks, I

quickly found a favourite math teacher on YouTube named Eddie Woo. Because I have insomnia,

I’ve found that the easiest way for me to sleep was to work my brain into exhaustion by using

educational videos as a “lullaby” to fall asleep to. Thus, during one of my many sleepless nights, I

found Eddie Woo’s video titled “The Most Beautiful Identity” on my YouTube recommended bar,

which sparked my interest in beauty immediately. However, due to the video being an 8-part series, I

figured I would save it for another day.

It turns out that this day came when I was going through a list of prompts for math IA topics and its

iconic title of “The Most Beautiful Theorem in Mathematics” caught my eye in familiarity, thus

leading me to investigate its derivation and applications in real life. However, upon researching the

derivation of Euler’s identity, I found that I was unfamiliar with many of the steps within the

derivation, such as the Taylor Series. The first website I opened when I began researching the proof of

Euler’s identity contained this picture:

From this picture alone, I had no idea where to begin. I didn’t

know where the first line spawned from and I was unfamiliar

with the Taylor Series, never having learned it before. My

definition of understanding a new concept is to be able to teach

it to my less mathematically gifted friends. Taking a look at the

picture from the website, I myself was barely able to explain it.

Thus, I decided investigate the derivation of Euler’s identity

Figure 1

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 from the most basic concepts of mathematics, its influence on mathematical operations, and its current

day applications.

II. Mathematical Beauty and Background Information

Leonard Euler was an extremely influential Swiss mathematician whose greatest achievements were

the discovery the 𝑒 "# = cos 𝑥 + 𝑖 sin (𝑥), which is now known as Euler’s formula and Euler’s

identity, 𝑒 "0 + 1 = 0. The beauty of Euler’s identity can be found in the 5 fundamental constants and

3 basic arithmetic operations included in it. ‘0’ represents the additive unit, in which if one added this

value to any equation, its result would not change. ‘1’ represents the multiplicative unit, in which if

one multiplied any equation by this value, the result would not change. ‘π’ represents the ratio

between a circle’s diameter and circumference, valued at around 3.14159. ‘e’ is actually called

Euler’s number and it represents the base of a natural logarithm, in which its natural logarithm (ln) is

equals to 1. ‘i’ is an imaginary number, which when added to real numbers form complex numbers.

The 3 arithmetic operations in this identity includes addition, between 𝑒 "0 and 1; multiplication,

between i and π; and exponentiation, between e and 𝑖𝜋 [2].

However, the understand how exactly the identity came to be, the derivation process must first be

discovered. Prior to that, a distinction needs to be made between a formula and an identity. A formula

is when a number is substituted into a variable, which is then manipulated under various operations,

acting much like a set of instructions, in order to gain a desired value. An identity, on the other hand,

is the establishment of a relationship between two sides of the ‘equals’ sign (=), in which whatever

value is substituted into a variable, the opposite side will generate the same result [3]. Euler created

both a formula and an identity, which both will be derived in this paper.

III. Derivation Process

1. The Imaginary and Complex Numbers

One of the most crucial parts of Euler’s identity is the unit ‘i’. It’s also one of the

fundamental mathematic constants. The discovery of ‘i’ came from the equation

𝑥 4 + 1 = 0, which when solved goes as follows:

𝑥 4 + 1 = 0

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 𝑥 4 = −1

𝑥 = ± −1

Here, the problem arises that one cannot square a number and obtain a negative

result, meaning you cannot take the square root of a negative number. However, in

the same way people created negative integers to solve problems that they could not

physically fathom- because negative integers are intangible in real life,

mathematicians created an imaginary number to overcome the dead-end they had

faced. This imaginary number comes in the form of ‘i’.

‘i’ is defined as the square root of negative 1, 𝑖 = −1 and therefore the square root

of any negative number is a multiple of ‘i’, as seen below:

−1 = 𝑖

−2 = −1× 2 = 𝑖 2

−3 = −1× 3 = 𝑖 3

−4 = −1× 4 = 2𝑖

−𝑛 = −1× 𝑛 = 𝑖 𝑛

By creating this unit, it allows mathematicians to solve problems they were

previously unable to, because though the number itself does not exist, ‘i’ can still

interact with other numbers and within equations and operations. When ‘i’ interacts

with real numbers, it forms what is called a complex number. This complex number

can be represented in different forms in order to better suit the problem at hand.

2. Indices of ‘i’, Its Diagrammatic Representation, and The Rectangular Form

Once again comparing imaginary numbers with negative numbers, when one creates
−1< = 1
−1= = −1 Figure 2
−14 = 1
−1> = −1
−1? = 1
−1@ = −1
−1A = 1
−1B = −1
list 1

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a diagrammatic representation of integers, they create a number line with the negative

numbers on the left side and the positive numbers on the right side. Thinking back to

the fundamental negative number, which is -1, the number can be used as a ‘switch’,

which changes the direction of the number line from positive to negative and so on,

so forth.

However, when considering ‘i’ and its diagrammatic representation, the analogy of a

switch, as well as the diagrammatic representation of a number line can no longer be

employed due to the the trends of ‘i’ when interacting with exponents.

𝑖 < = 1
𝑖 = = 𝑖
𝑖 4 = −1 Figure 3
𝑖 > = −𝑖
𝑖? = 1
𝑖 @ = 𝑖
𝑖 A = −1
𝑖 B = −𝑖
list 2

As seen in list 2 above, it takes ‘i’ a gap of 4 increments in order to return back to its

original value. As the integers used as indices increase, the results oscillate between

1, i, -1, and –i, meaning they alternate between real and imaginary numbers. As a

result, instead of a typical number line, a plane is introduced known as the Argand or

Complex Plane (see figure 3). This plane consists of a real axis and an imaginary

axis. Similar to a Cartesian plane, when there is a given value of x on the real axis

and an imaginary value of y on the imaginary axis, a position can be mapped out. As

previously mentioned, the square root of any negative number is a multiple of ‘i’,

therefore any value of y on the imaginary axis would be represented by iy. When the

position from the x and y values on the real and imaginary axes are mapped out, the

result garnered is a complex number typically expressed in the form of z, which is

equals to x added to iy, 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, also known as the rectangular form because of

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 the rectangular shape it creates, as seen in figure 4.

Figure 4

3. The Polar Form

Z in the rectangular form is depicted as the corner of a rectangle. Another way of

depicting Z is by imagining it as a point in the circumference of a circle, in which

case we are able to emphasize the graphical features of Z such as its absolute value,

depicted by r, known as the modulus, as well as the angle it forms with the real axis,

θ, known as the argument.

As previously learned through

Figure 5
trigonometry, the distance between the

origin and the x-component of the

r
y
complex number is by x units. Similarly,

x the distance between the origin and the y-

component of the imaginary axis is y

units. The line formed from the origin to

the complex number at the circumference

of the circle is the radius of the circle, which can be depicted by r, the modulus. Using

SOH CAH TOA and the basic trigonometric functions, one can find that:
# H
cos θ = and sin 𝜃 = , and thus 𝑥 = rcos θ and 𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ .
F F

When substituted back into the original equation of 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, the result is

𝑧 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃

𝑧 = 𝑟[cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 ]

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 This form is known as the polar form.

4. Polynomial Interpolation of Sin and Cos

Here, multiple concepts are applied, such as the use of polynomials to approximate

functions, small-angle approximation, and the Taylor Series.

The first concept to be discussed is that polynomials can be used to approximate

functions, known as polynomial interpolation. In this case, polynomials are being

used to approximate trigonometric functions. However, it is also known that for a

small enough value of θ, it is equal to the value of sin(θ), 𝜃 ≈ sin 𝜃 , meaning the

graph of 𝑦 = sin 𝜃 can be approximated with 𝑦 = 𝜃 in a very specific

neighbourhood. This concept commensurate to lower orders of the Taylor Series

Approximation. Thus, it can be concluded that for larger values of θ, the Taylor

Series can be used to approximate trigonometric functions.

For sin, the Taylor Series is:

T
−1 Q 𝑥 4QR=
sin 𝑥 =
2𝑛 + 1 !
QU<

T
−1 Q 𝑥 4Q
cos 𝑥 =
2𝑛 !
QU<

Thus when expanded, it becomes:

𝑥> 𝑥@ 𝑥B 𝑥X
sin 𝑥 = 𝑥 − + − + …
3! 5! 7! 9!

𝑥4 𝑥? 𝑥A 𝑥\
cos 𝑥 = 1 − + − + …
2! 4! 6! 8!

And therefore, when substituted back into 𝑧 = 𝑟 cos 𝑥 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 which 𝜃 = 𝑥,

the equation becomes:

𝑥4 𝑥? 𝑥A 𝑥\ 𝑥> 𝑥@ 𝑥B 𝑥X
𝑧=𝑟 1− + − + … +𝑖 𝑥− + − + …
2! 4! 6! 8! 3! 5! 7! 9!

Which can be expanded to:

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 𝑥 4 𝑖𝑥 > 𝑥 ? 𝑖𝑥 @ 𝑥 A 𝑖𝑥 B 𝑥 \ 𝑥 X
𝑧 = 𝑟 1 + 𝑖𝑥 − − + + − − + + …
2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7! 8! 9!

The pattern of the signs within the equation is positive (+), positive (+), negative (-),

negative (-). Referring back to list 2 in section 3, it has been established that the

results of the indices of ‘i’ alternate between 1, i, -1, and –i, which also has the

𝑖 < = 1 pattern positive (+), positive (+), negative (-), negative (-).
𝑖 = = 𝑖 Because 1 is the multiplicative unit and -1 is the fundamental
𝑖 4 = −1
𝑖 > = −𝑖 negative integer, the existence of these values within the
𝑖? = 1
𝑖 @ = 𝑖 equation of z would account for the alternating signs (between
𝑖 A = −1
𝑖 B = −𝑖 positive and negative) and the how the numbers alternate
list 2
between real and complex polynomials. From this observation,

it can be deduced that hidden within the equation of z lies increasing indices of ‘i’,

which is causing the alternation between positive, negative, real, and complex.

When the indices of ‘i’ are inserted into the equation, it becomes:

𝑖 <𝑥 < 𝑖=𝑥= 𝑖 4𝑥 4 𝑖 >𝑥 > 𝑖 ?𝑥 ? 𝑖 @𝑥 @

𝑧=𝑟 + + + + + …
0! 1! 2! 3! 4! 5!

𝑖𝑥 < 𝑖𝑥 = 𝑖𝑥 4 𝑖𝑥 > 𝑖𝑥 ? 𝑖𝑥 @
𝑧=𝑟 + + + + + …
0! 1! 2! 3! 4! 5!

And so, if z is considered as a function instead of an equation

by observing the equation of z as well as the relationship between the variables, a

function can be made in place of it, 𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑥 :

𝑖𝑥 < 𝑖𝑥 = 𝑖𝑥 4 𝑖𝑥 > 𝑖𝑥 ? 𝑖𝑥 @
𝑓(𝑥) = + + + + + …
0! 1! 2! 3! 4! 5!

However, because ix appears in every term, it could be replaced by a single term to

form in order to create a new, simplified function, in this case:

𝑋 < 𝑋 = 𝑋 4 𝑋 > 𝑋 ? 𝑋 @
𝑓 𝑋 = + + + + + …
0! 1! 2! 3! 4! 5!

where X=ix

*x= 𝜃

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 ∴𝑋 = 𝑖𝜃

or alternatively,

𝑋 4 𝑋 > 𝑋 ? 𝑋 @
𝑓 𝑋 =1+𝑥+ + + + …
2! 3! 4! 5!

5. The Derivation of 𝑓 𝑋 and The Exponential Form

A crucial observation that Euler made in creating his formula and identity is that if

you derive 𝑓 𝑋 , the equation will not change. This can be seen below:

𝑋 < 𝑋 = 𝑋 4 𝑋 > 𝑋 ? 𝑋 @
𝑓 𝑋 = + + + + + …
0! 1! 2! 3! 4! 5!
`
𝑋 < `
= 1 = 0
0!

`
𝑋 = `
= 𝑋 = 1
1!

`
𝑋 4 2𝑋
= = 𝑥
2! 2!

`
𝑋 > 3𝑋 4 𝑋 4
= =
3! 3! 2!

`
𝑋 ? 4𝑋 > 𝑋 >
= =
4! 4! 3!

`
𝑋 @ 5𝑋 ? 𝑋 ?
= =
5! 5! 4!

Therefore,

𝑋 4 𝑋 > 𝑋 ?
𝑓` 𝑋 = 1 + 𝑥 + + + …
2! 3! 4!

This means that 𝑓 𝑋 = 𝑓′ 𝑋 and since the only function in which when derived is

its own is 𝑒 # , 𝑓 𝑋 must be 𝑒 # , 𝑓 𝑋 = 𝑒 b .

In the middle of section 4, X was substituted in place of 𝑖𝜃, 𝑋 = 𝑖𝜃, therefore

𝑓 𝑋 = 𝑒 "c , and since it was previously established the 𝑓 𝑋 was representative of z,

a complex number. , 𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑋 = 𝑒 "c , therefore, , 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 "c . This form of

writing z is known as the exponential form.

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 6. Euler’s formula

Earlier, in section 3, it was established that 𝑧 = 𝑟[cos 𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ]. In section 4, it

was established that by studying the relationship and interaction between z, 𝑓 𝑋 can

be used in its place and x can be used in place of 𝜃. In section 5, it was established

that 𝑓 𝑋 = 𝑒 "c , and because x= 𝜃, the equation of z found in section 3 can be re-

written as:

𝑒 "# = cos(𝑥) + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥)

This is known as Euler’s formula.

7. Revisiting Polar Form and Establishing Euler’s Identity

In section 3, ‘z’ was imagined as a point in the circumference of a circle. That point

was defined as 𝑧 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 . ‘r’ is the radius of the circle and 𝜃 was the

angle the radius forms with the real axis. The value of r and 𝜃 that can be inserted

into the equation is up to the individual. In section 5, it was found that ‘z’ can be

written as 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 "c . In this case, when you insert 1 as the modulus and π, with a

radius of 1 and an angle of π, the position of ‘z’ will lie on the real axis, 1 unit to the

negative direction from the origin, meaning ‘z’ lies on -1. This can be depicted in as:

Figure 5 Figure 6 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 "c

1𝑒 "e = −1

𝑒 "e + 1 = 0

Which is known as Euler’s

identity.

IV. Conclusion and Closing Thoughts

A quote by mathematician, Keith Devlin, states “like a Shakespearean sonnet that captures the very

essence of love, or a painting that brings out the beauty of the human form that is far more than just

skin deep, Euler’s equation reaches down into the very depths of existence”.

This is representative of its complex derivation process that leads to a deceivingly simple identity of "

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𝑒 "0 + 1 = 0”, as well as the interaction between the 5 fundamental constants, with application of the

3 basic arithmetic operations that all balances each other out perfectly to result in 0.

Upon starting my investigation process, despite having known how highly other mathematicians

regarded the beauty of this identity, I was unable to recognize it. To me, it seemed convenient that the

5 fundamental constants when applied 3 basic arithmetic operations would result in 0 but in no way

would I have regarded it as beautiful. I found the quote by Keith Devlin before investigating the

derivation process of Euler’s identity and truth be told, when I read it, I genuinely thought it was over-

romanticized and melodramatic. After all, how could a 7 component identity be compared to a

Shakespearean sonnet that can be analysed through a multitude of literary devices or thousands of

brush strokes upon a canvas deliberately placed to convey a story? However, upon attempting to

derive the identity myself, I came to find how tedious the work was. How Euler used the most

fundamental and basic concepts in mathematics to find a way to place the additive unit, multiplicative

unit, e, π, and i into one equation and have them interact in such a way that the final result is in a

perfect 0 is almost paradoxical. In addition, having struggled greatly to comprehend the processes in

which the derivation of the identity and formula took place, to have pages of derivation and discovery

only be summarized into a 7 component identity is both infuriating and exquisite. That being said, I

believe that I have substantially simplified the process of derivation to a level in which someone with

a bare minimum understanding of mathematics could understand as I, myself, who was previously

unfamiliar with the entire process, had finally understood it to a point where I was capable of writing

a somewhat step-by-step guide of derivation.

As a English A Language and Literature student, I have grown accustomed to analysing a couple lines

of poetry, analysing it and then creating a deeper assumption of the author’s message. I’ve also

analysed works of art, advertisements, and pieces from the media in order to detect subliminal

messaging and obtain a deeper understanding of the message intended to be received. I’ve come to

find that in the same way, Euler’s identity, when traced back and analysed, holds relations to almost

every area of mathematics from basic to advanced. Its exquisite beauty goes beyond a 14-line

Shakespearean sonnet or a complex, hundreds of thousands stroke painting because it is able to

summarize so much more into a simple 7 component identity. Moreover, what Euler was able to

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summarize are the fundamentals of the workings of today’s world and his identity aids in various

fields such as navigation, medicine, finance, energy, etc [4]. Its practicality, in combination with its

simultaneous simplicity and complexity, has finally made it clear to me why Euler’s identity is known

as “The Most Beautiful Theorem in Mathematics” and by all means, I agree with that statement and I

hope its beauty is conveyed through my attempt of simplifying its derivation.

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References

Figure 1: https://www.mathsisfun.com/algebra/complex-plane.html

Figure 2: https://www.onlinemathlearning.com/integer-number-line.html

Figure 3: https://www.mathsisfun.com/algebra/complex-plane.html

Figure 4: https://gaurish4math.wordpress.com/2017/03/12/real-vs-complex-plane-2/

Figure 5: http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes/152.mf1i.spring02/ComplexNumbers.htm

Figure 6: https://www.mathsisfun.com/algebra/eulers-formula.html

[1]: https://sciencehook.com/equations/eulers-identity-1682

[2]: Paulos, John Allen (1992), Beyond Numeracy: An Uncommon Dictionary of Mathematics, P. 117

Penguin Books ISBN 0-14-014574-5

[3]: http://www.mathswithgraham.org.uk/?p=2873

[4]: http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20160120-the-most-beautiful-equation-is-eulers-identity

Other references:

- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mnw4gfImrRc

- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mgNtPOgFje0&t=75s

- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=epgwuzzDHsQ

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