CARBOHYDRATES provide the cells with carbon atoms for

building molecules of protein, lipids, and

Carbohydrates nucleic acids.
hydrates of carbon: general formula Cn(H2O)n  In plants, a polymer of glucose called
Plants: photosynthesis cellulose builds the structural framework
6 CO2 + 6 H2O C6H12O6 + 6 O2 .
Polymers: large molecules made up of repeating Basic Chemical Formula:
smaller units (monomer) (CH2O)n
Biopolymers: C-carbon
carbohydrates H-hydrogen
peptides and proteins O-oxygen
nucleic acids
Monomer units: Biomedical Importance
monosaccharides  Carbohydrates have important structural and
amino acids metabolic roles.
nucleotides  Glucose is the most important carbohydrate
 most dietary carbohydrate is absorbed into
the blood stream as glucose.
 Glucose is the major metabolic fuel of
mammals
 a universal fuel of the fetus.

1. Energy source for plants and animals

(glucose).
75% of energy in cell comes from CHO.
25% from others (fats)
1 g CHO =4 K.calories
1 g protein =4 K.calories.
Carbohydrates
 The largest fraction of biomolecules in the 1 g lipid =9K.calories.
biosphere in terms of mass  Why body not use lipid as major energy
 Are organic compounds made up of carbon, source instead of CHO?
hydrogen and oxygen
 It is the basic fuel biological molecules of the 2. Cell membrane components:
cell eg. Glycolipid and glycoprotein
 In plants, energy from the Sun is used to
convert carbon dioxide and water into the 3. Form structural tissues in plants and in
carbohydrate glucose. microorganisms
 Many of the glucose molecules are made eg. (cellulose, chitin,)
into long-chain polymers of starch that store
energy. 4. Glucose is the precursor for synthesis of all
 About 65% of the foods in our diet consist of other carbohydrates in the body, including
carbohydrates. Galactose in lactose of milk.
 Each day we utilize carbohydrates in foods
such as bread, pasta, potatoes, and rice. 5. Associated with Pathological Conditions
 Other carbohydrates called disaccharides (Diabetes Mellitus, Lactose Intolerance).
include sucrose (table sugar) and lactose in
milk.
 During digestion and cellular metabolism,
carbohydrates are converted into glucose,
which is oxidized further in our cells to
provide our bodies with energy and to
Classification of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are mainly classified into four
different groups:
 Monosachharides
 Disaccharides
 Oligosaccharides
 Polysaccharides

Sugars are simple carbohydrates...

 A ‘saccharide’ is simply a sugar or a Monosaccharides are further classified on the
substance made from sugar. They are basis of:
classified as ‘monosaccharides’ (simple Aldehyde or Ketone Group:
sugars including glucose) or ‘disaccharides’  Aldomonosaccharides (Aldoses).
(two monosaccharides bonded together).  Ketomonosaccharides (Ketoses).
 Granulated sugar (table sugar), brown sugar, Carbon Chain Length.
and confectioners sugar (powdered sugar) are  Trioses.
made from sugar cane or sugar beets. These  Tetroses.
are examples of the disaccharide sucrose.  Pentoses.
 Maltose, the sugar from grains, and lactose,  Hexoses.
the sugar from milk, are also disaccharides.  Heptoses.
 The monosaccharide fructose is found in
fruit; glucose is found in corn syrup, honey,
and tree sap (maple syrup)

Carbohydrates categorized into:

1. Monosaccharides
 are the simplest form of sugars
 in appearance, they tend to be colorless and
crystalline, and dissolve easily in water.
 some , but not all, are sweet-tasting.
 (glucose, dextrose, fructose, galactose, ribose,
formaldehyde)
 at room temperature, these are crystalline
solids that are white in color.
 chemical formula of GLUCOSE found in the
blood
 C6(H2O)6 chemical formula of
FRUCTOSE.

Carbonyl Group
  may be purified from plant sources into
brown, white and powdered sugars.
 used in baking and the creation of many
different types or processed sweets
Maltose
 Often used in the reaction of soft candies,
such as chocolates and fruit-based treats.
 While glucose molecules are still present,
they tend to create less of a spike in blood
sugar levels and are usually absorbed into the
body easier than the carbohydrates that
compose regular table sugar.

b. Glucose + Galactose =LACTOSE

the primary sugar in milk and milk
products.
many people have problems digesting large
amounts of lactose(lactose intolerance)

c. Glucose + Glucose = MALTOSE

produced when starch breaks down.
used naturally in fermentation reactions of
alcohol and beer manufacturing

2. Disaccharides
 Chemical formula: n=11
 C12H2nOn

2. Disaccharides
 composed of 2 monosaccharides
 cells can make disaccharides by joining 2 3. Polysaccharides
 The linked of one or more sugar molecules
monosaccharides by biosynthesis
into a large molecules.
(condensation reactions)  One of the primary functions of
 water molecule is removed as part of the polysaccharides is energy storage or reserve.
union.  Starch, found in plants, is a polymer actually
a. Glucose + Fructose=SUCROSE made up of two more Polysaccharides are
 Table sugar chains of sugar units that form in
configuration from tens to thousands units
 found naturally in plants: sugar cane, sugar long.
beets, honey, maple syrup.  Chemical formula: (C6H10O5)n
  Plants make starches as their storage in slightly acidic drinks. Sucrose seems
polysaccharides, while animals store sweeter when used in the same recipes as
glycogen. small amounts of salt.
 The polymeric carbohydrate structure for  When this apple is baked, it needs brown
glycogen and starch comprises chains of sugar added. The fructose tastes less sweet
glucose linked by glycosidic bonds. when warm.
 These are bonds in which the adjoining –OH  This frosting calls for 2 pounds of powdered
groups of glucose join together, forming sugar (sucrose) and a pinch of salt. Salt
water as a byproduct. makes the sugar taste ‘sweeter’.
 These bonds are easily broken, making starch  Caramelization is the browning reaction that
and glycogen ready sources of energy in the can occur with any kind of sugar. It requires
form of glucose. either a low (acidic) or high (alkaline) pH.
 The advantages of having glucose stored in As sugar is heated, its molecular structure is
these polysaccharides is that individual changed, and the new molecules with a
glucose molecules absorb water and take up a higher concentration of carbon create the
lot of space distinctive caramel color.
 These storage polymers are compact and do  Sugars differ in the degree to which they
not absorb water. carmelize and the temperature at which they
 They are efficient ways are storing large react. Sucrose and glucose carmelize at
amounts of glucose that can be readily 170ºC (338 ºF) , and fructose carmelizes at
metabolized, and do not affect the cell (230ºF).
 Starch is found in many plants, such as  Onions carmelize when cooked slowly up to
potatoes and cereal grains. 230ºF; the process brings out the sweetness
 It is the major carbohydrate that humans  Sugars are highly soluble in water because
consume. they contain many hydroxyl groups, which
 Both plants and humans produce the enzyme form hydrogen bonds with water molecules.
amylase to degrade starch. The solubility of sugar increases as the
 When starch is broken down to glucose, it temperature of the water rises.
causes blood glucose levels to increase.
 You can make a ‘supersaturated’ solution:
 This leads to the secretion of insulin from the Dissolve more sugar in water than would
pancreas. Glycogen is synthesized after normally be possible…by heating the water,
eating, when blood glucose levels increase. changing volume, and/ or adding pressure.
Then, with absolutely no agitation, cool the
 The glucose is released into the blood, solution. This is a ‘supersaturated’ solution.
circulating to other tissues, such as the brain.  A carbonated beverage is a supersaturated
 In the muscle, the stored glycogen is used solution of carbon dioxide gas in sugar water.
internally and is not transferred to other cells.  Rock candy is made from a supersaturated
 One advantage of obtaining energy from solution of sugar and water.
glycogen, rather than from fatty acids, is that
the process can proceed in the absence of Derivatives of Carbohydrates
oxygen 1. Deoxycarbohydrate molecule that has fewer
oxygen
Properties of sugar: sweetness 2. A sugar alcohol is formed when the carbonyl
group is reduced to hydroxyl group., can be
 Some sugars are sweeter than others. In taste
useful as a dietary substitute.
tests of pure sugars, fructose is the sweetest,
 Candy that is sweetened with a sugar
and then decreasing in order of sweetness is
alcohol is less likely to contribute to
sucrose, glucose, maltose, and finally lactose.
tooth decay.
 Factors such as concentration, consistency,
 An important use of sugar alcohols is
temperature, and pH level affect how
in the manufacture of diabetic-
sweetness is judged. For example, fructose
friendly foods.
seems sweeter when used in cold foods and
  Partially absorbed in the small
intestine resulting in smaller changes
in blood-glucose levels.

How we digest carbohydrates?

What determines speed of carbohydrates
digestion?

Digesting Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates must be digested and absorbed
How Fast Are Carbohydrates Metabolized?
in order to transform them into energy that can be
 To digest and metabolize a simple sugar such
used by the body. Food preparation often aids in the
as glucose may take less than 30 minutes.
digestion process. When starches are heated, they
Because juice would be quickly digested, it
swell and become easier for the body to break down.
may be one of the quickest to process. The
release of energy would be quick…but brief!
 The more complex structure of starches may
require as much as 2-4 hours to digest and
metabolize. The release of energy would be
slower, but last over a longer period of time.

Energy value of Carbohydrates

 Metabolize energy (ME)
 The total amount of energy in a food (TE)
can be determined by calorimetry, but ME is
less than TE because not all the energy in
food is absorbed and some is absorbed, but
lost in the urine.

Blood sugar and diabetes...

 Diabetes is a condition in which the body
cannot regulate blood glucose levels. In Type
I diabetes that affects children and young
adults, the pancreas secretes little or no
insulin. In the more common Type II
diabetes that can affect people of all ages, the
pancreas does produce insulin, but either not
enough or the insulin isn’t used effectively.
 Both types of diabetes cause abnormally
high blood sugar levels that can strain and
damage the heart and kidneys. This high
blood sugar level is called ‘hyperglycemia’.
The kidneys filter some of the glucose and
excrete it in the urine; very little actually
reaches the cells.