Dramaturgy

 for  THE  ROVER  

 
 
 
Concept  
• Set  in  Naples,  Italy,  February  21-­‐22,  1653,  during  Carnavale  
• Some  dance  sequences  that  are  postmodern  and  playing  with  a  flipped  
version  of  the  #MeToo  movement,  in  that  women  of  Aphra  Behn’s  time  really  
advocating  for  equality  in  all  things  including  agency  in  sexuality.  
• Clothing  and  set  pieces  that  are  reminiscent  of  the  time  period,  but  could  also  
have  shades  of  modern  EDM  concerts/Raves.  
 
Aphra  Behn  

 
• 1640-­‐1689  
• Playwright,  Fiction  Writer,  Poet  
• Wrote  18  plays,  THE  ROVER  was  written  in  1677.    Only  John  Dryden,  a  
contemporary,  exceeded  her  output.    Most  men  of  the  time  period  wrote  14  
plays  or  less.  
• Considered  the  first  professional  English  Woman  Writer,  albeit  she  was  
never  able  to  receive  a  resident  playwright,  as  other  ‘wits’  of  the  time  period  
(women  were  not  allowed  this  status),  and  was  only  able  to  receive  payment  
on  the  3rd  performance  of  her  plays.  
• Atheist  
• She  wanted  to  be  equal  to  the  ‘wits’  of  the  time  period.  
• Spy  for  Charles  II  

  1  
 • Prisoner  
• World  Traveler:  visited  Surinam,  Denmark,  Holland,  and  many  more  
• Used  the  name  Estrella  (Star)  while  living  in  Surinam  
• Buried  in  Poet’s  Corner  of  Westminster  Abbey.  
• Upended  traditional  plays  with  unmarried  sex,  stranger,  sex,  and  male  frontal  
nudity.  
• Differentiated  herself  from  famous  lover  of  Charles  II/actress,  Nell  Gwynn,  in  
that  Behn  wanted  to  be  known  for  her  writing,  not  her  conquests.  
 
Restoration  Period  
From  Norton.com:  
• The  Restoration  period  begins  in  1660,  the  year  in  which  King  Charles  II  (the  
exiled  Stuart  king)  was  restored  to  the  English  throne.  
• England,  Scotland,  and  Wales  were  united  as  Great  Britain  by  the  1707  Act  of  
Union.  
• The  period  is  one  of  increasing  commercial  prosperity  and  global  trade  for  
Britain.  
• Literacy  expanded  to  include  the  middle  classes  and  even  some  of  the  poor.  
• Emerging  social  ideas  include  politeness  –  a  behavioral  standard  to  which  
anyone  might  aspire  –  and  new  rhetoric  of  liberty  and  rights,  sentiment  and  
sympathy.  
• The  monarchical  restoration  was  accompanied  by  the  re-­‐opening  of  English  
theaters  (closed  during  Cromwell’s  Puritan  regime)  and  the  restoration  of  
the  Church  of  England  as  the  national  church.  
• Church  and  state  continued  to  be  closely  intertwined.    The  Test  Act  of  1673  
required  all  hoders  of  civil  and  military  offices  to  take  the  sacrament  in  the  
Anglican  Church  and  deny  transubstantiation;  those  who  refused  (e.g.,  
Protestant  Dissenters  and  Roman  Catholics)  were  not  allowed  to  attend  
university  or  hold  public  office.  
• King  Charles  II,  though  he  outwardly  conformed  to  Anglicanism,  had  Catholic  
sympathies  that  placed  him  at  odds  with  his  strongly  anti-­‐Catholic  
Parliament.  
• Charles  had  no  legitimate  heir.    His  brother  James  (a  Catholic)  was  next  in  
line  to  the  throne.    Parliament  tried  to  force  Charles  to  exclude  his  brother  
from  the  line  of  succession.    Charles  ended  this  “Exclusion  Crisis”  by  
dissolving  Parliament.  
• The  court  of  King  Charles  II  championed  the  right  of  England’s  social  elite  to  
pursue  pleasure  and  libertinism.  
• King  Charles  II  authorized  two  new  companies  of  actors.    Women  began  to  
appear  on  stage  in  female  roles.  
• Dogmatism,  or  the  acceptance  of  received  religious  beliefs,  was  widely  
regarded  as  dangerous.  
• Charles  II  approved  the  Royal  Society  for  London  for  the  Improving  of  
Natural  Knowledge  (1662).    The  Royal  Society  revolutionized  scientific  
method  and  dispersal  of  knowledge.  

  2  
 • The  specialized  modern  “scientist”  did  not  exist;  Royal  Society  members  
studied  natural  history  (the  collection  and  description  of  facts  of  nature),  
natural  philosophy  (study  of  the  causes  of  what  happens  in  nature),  and  
natural  religion  (study  of  nature  as  a  book  written  by  God).  
• The  major  idea  of  the  period  (founded  on  Francis  Bacon’s  earlier  work)  was  
that  of  empiricism.  
• Empiricism  is  the  direct  observation  of  experience,  which  infers  that  
experience  (including  experimentation)  is  a  reliable  source  of  knowledge.    
John  Locke,  George  Berkeley,  and  David  Hume  all  pursued  differing  
interpretations  of  empiricism,  and  the  concept  itself  had  a  profound  impact  
on  society  and  literature.  
• Writers  (including  women  such  as  Mary  Astell)  began  to  advocate  for  
improved  education  for  women  during  this  period.  
• Literature:  1660-­‐1700  (death  of  John  Dryden):  emphasis  on  “decorum,”  or  
critical  principles  based  on  what  is  elegant,  fit,  and  right.  
• England’a  Augustan  age  was  modeled  on  that  of  Rome,  when  Augustus  
Caesar  re-­‐established  stability  after  civil  war  following  Julius  Caesar’s  
assassination.    English  writers,  following  the  restoration  of  King  Charles  II,  
felt  themselves  to  be  in  a  similar  situation,  in  which  the  arts  (repressed  under  
Cromwell)  could  now  flourish.  
• English  writers  endeavored  to  formulate  rules  of  good  writing,  modeled  on  
classical  works,  but  with  a  new  appeal  to  the  passions,  in  simple,  often  highly  
visual  language.    This  embrace  of  new  (new)  aims  and  old  models  is  called  
“neoclassicism.”  
• Horace’s  phrase,  ut  picture  poesis  (meaning  “as  in  painting,  so  in  poetry”)  
was  interpreted  to  mean  that  poetry  ought  to  be  a  visual  as  well  as  a  verbal  
art.  
• Augustan  poets  began  the  century’s  focus  on  nature,  be  examining  the  
enduring  truths  of  human  nature.  
• The  classical  genres  from  which  Augustan  writers  sought  to  learn  included  
epic,  tragedy,  comedy,  pastoral,  satire,  and  ode.    Ensuring  a  good  fit  between  
the  genre  and  its  style,  language,  and  tone  was  crucial.  
• Augustan  writing  celebrates  wit,  or  inventiveness,  quickness  of  thought,  and  
aptness  of  descriptive  images  or  metaphors.      
• The  heroic  couplet  (two  lines  of  rhymed  iambic  pentameter(  was  the  most  
important  verse  form  of  Pope’s  age,  for  it  combined  elegance  and  wit.    Poets  
also  continued  to  use  blank  verse  (unrhymed  iambic  pentameter,  not  closed  
in  couplets).  
• Not  just  aristocrats  and  classically  educated  scholars  wrote  verse:  ordinary  
people  also  began  to  write  poetry,  often  featuring  broad  humor  and  
burlesque,  thereby  creating  a  distinction  between  high  and  low  verse.  
• Dryden  was  the  most  influential  writer  of  the  Restoration,  for  he  wrote  in  
every  form  important  to  the  period  –  occasional  verse,  comedy,  tragedy,  
heroic  plays,  odes,  satires,  translations  of  classical  works  –  and  produced  
influential  critical  essays  concerning  how  one  ought  to  write  these  forms.  

  3  
 • Restoration  prose  style  grew  more  like  witty,  urbane  conversation  and  less  
like  the  intricate,  rhetorical  style  of  previous  writes  like  John  Milton  and  John  
Donne.  
• Simultaneously,  Restoration  literature  continued  to  appeal  to  heroic  ideals  of  
love  and  honor,  particularly  on  stage,  in  heroic  tragedy.  
• The  other  major  dramatic  genre  was  the  Restoration  comedy  of  manners,  
which  emphasizes  sexual  intrigue  and  satirizes  the  elite’s  social  behavior  
with  witty  dialogue.  
 
The  Restoration  Performance  Style  
• Licentiousness  and  Libertine  ideals  rule.  
• Bawdry  
• Mocks  conservative  values  
• Mockery  of  people  who  think  that  they  can  rule  over  others  
 
From  PERIOD  STYLE  FOR  THE  THEATRE  by  Douglas  A  Russell  
 
Manners  and  Movement:  
Obviously,  the  test  for  the  actor  wearing  the  clothes  of  this  Louis  XIV  period  
is  whether  the  moves  in  them  with  the  assurance  of  a  true  courtier.    Portraits  and  
paintings  of  this  period  should  be  studied  in  great  details,  brought  to  rehearsals,  and  
discussed.    An  excelled  visual  source  is  the  Gobelin  tapestry,  designed  by  Charles  
Lebrun,  depicting  the  meeting  of  Louis  XIV  and  Philip  IV  of  Spain  in  1660.

 
 
Concentrating  on  the  overall  mood  of  the  clothing  and  the  total  effect  created  by  the  
costume  silhouette,  on  should  practice,  before  a  mirror,  wearing  and  moving  in  such  
dress.  

  4  
   Male  movement  in  this  period  was  primarily  influenced  by  the  high-­‐heeled  
shoes  worn;  the  poses  and  many  steps  were  like  those  in  a  ballet,  an  art  highly  
respected  by  Louis  XIV,  who  prided  himself  on  his  perfect  legs  and  on  his  own  ballet  
performances.    Fencing  was  the  other  major  activity  that  affected  male  movement.    
Movement  based  on  certain  ballet  positions  and  fencing  stances  has  grace,  
simplicity,  and,  if  understood,  a  classic  and  structure  beauty.    It  is  a  complete  
mistake  for  an  actor  to  think  that  the  heavy  beribboned  costumes  betoken  fussy  and  
frivolous  movement.    In  fact,  the  contrast  between  the  simplicity  of  the  movement  
and  the  frivolity  of  the  costume  trim  gave  this  period  its  dignity  and  theatricality.  
  The  tapestry  showing  Louis  XIV  greeting  Philip  IV  reveals  three  important  
stances  for  the  courtier.    The  first,  a  simple  and  rather  heroic  posture  not  acceptable  
in  the  presence  of  one’s  superior,  was  the  second  ballet  position,  with  feet  about  a  
foot  apart  and  slightly  spread  and  hands  gracefully  on  the  hips.    The  second  was  the  
third  enclosed  position;  that  is,  feet  perpendicular  to  one  another  with  the  weight  on  
the  rear  foot.    Since  the  front  foot  bore  no  weight,  the  knee  as  slightly  bent.    Hands  
were  placed  between  the  folds  of  the  coat  or  the  waistcoat  if  it  were  partially  
unbuttoned,  or  one  hand  rested  lightly  on  the  sword  and  the  other  on  the  head  of  
the  high  walking  stick.    The  third  was  to  have  the  enclosed  foot  open  sideways,  
bearing  no  weight  and  with  toes  pointed  out.    The  hat  was  placed  under  the  arm  that  
was  on  the  same  side  as  the  foot  that  took  the  weight;  the  head  turned  toward  the  
free  foot;  and  the  other  arm  rested  easily  but  low  on  the  hip.  
  One  always  walked  with  “toes  handsomely  turned  out.”    Pointing  the  toes  
forward  with  each  movement,  with  the  heels  raising  the  body  up  and  forward,  was  
very  important  in  capturing  the  calculated  beauty  of  movement  that  was  so  much  
admired.    In  fact,  the  feet  remained  in  an  almost  ninety-­‐degree  relationship  to  one  
another  as  the  courtier  stepped  forward,  carefully  pointing  his  ribboned,  high-­‐
heeled  shoes  as  he  moved.  
  The  appropriate  movements  for  removing  the  broad-­‐brimmed  hat  were  as  
follows:  The  arm  was  brought  to  shoulder  level  and  then  the  elbow  was  bent  as  the  
hat  was  grasped  firmly,  lifted  from  the  head,  and  allowed  to  fall  easily  to  the  side  
with  the  head  hole  to  the  front.    The  head  itself  did  not  move,  and  the  hands  never  
covered  the  face.    If  the  hat  were  large  and  thus  not  easily  lifted  away  from  the  wig,  
the  other  hand  was  sometimes  used  to  help  remove  it  or  put  it  on  again.    The  hat  
could  be  worn  or  carried  under  the  arm  at  all  times  except  in  the  presence  of  the  
king.  
  In  sitting,  one  foot  was  usually  placed  well  ahead  of  the  other  with  the  toes  
well  turned  out,  and  a  little  tap  was  given  to  the  sword  hilt  on  its  hanger  under  the  
coat  in  order  to  flip  the  skirts  of  the  coat  out  of  the  way.    Seldom  did  the  man  push  
fully  back  in  the  chair;  he  sat  squarely  in  it  or  a  bit  to  one  side  and  kept  an  alert  yet  
relaxed  pose  with  one  arm  usually  overlapping  the  chair’s  arm  as  if  to  dominate  the  
chair  and  the  scene  that  he  surveyed.    Unlike  the  sixteenth-­‐century  man  who  
perched  uneasily  on  the  chair  and  seemed  locked  in  by  it,  the  seventeenth-­‐century  
man  dominated  the  chair  as  if  it  were  a  throne.  
 

  5  
  

 
  The  walking  sticks  of  the  period  were  frequently  a  good  forty  inches  high,  
topped  with  ribbons  and  usually  equipped  with  a  loop  through  which  one  passed  
the  hand.    Many  elegant  poses  were  possible,  but  almost  always  the  stick  was  held  at  
arm’s  length  away  from  the  body  to  widen  the  pose  and  give  controlled  dignity  to  
the  ballet  stance.  The  walking  stick  was  used  to  achieve  an  unaffected  grace  and  
interesting  variations  in  movement  and  pose  rather  than  an  excessive  dignity  as  in  
this  portrait.  
  Another  major  male  accessory  was  the  handkerchief,  which  was  large,  
beautifully  trimmed  in  lace,  and  held  between  the  index  and  second  fingers  with  the  
four  corners  falling  down  the  back  of  the  hand.    Other  accessories  that  enhanced  the  
gentleman’s  sense  of  importance  were  round,  egg-­‐shaped  watches  hung  from  the  
neck  by  a  ribbon  or  put  in  the  waistcoat  pocket;  large  square  or  round  muffs,  with  
ribbon  bows  and  frills  of  lace,  hung  from  the  neck  or  waist;  and  dress  swords  hung  
by  a  shoulder  hanger  under  the  coat.  
  Probably  the  most  important  ritual  movement  for  the  modern  actor  to  
master  from  this  period  is  the  courtly  bow.    In  many  ways,  mastering  the  “best”  bow  
is  more  a  matter  of  personality  and  an  instinctive  feeling  for  the  movement  of  the  
costume  than  it  is  a  matter  of  following  precise  rules.    Though  there  were  numbers  
of  variations,  three  very  stageworthy  bows  can  be  abstracted  for  modern  
performance.    The  first  is  to  step  back  with  knees  bent  and  then  bow  with  the  hand  
swept  over  the  heart.      Then  straighten  the  body  and  drop  the  hand,  bringing  the  
front  foot  back  to  the  third  position.    The  second  is  to  place  the  feet  in  third  position,  
heel  to  the  hollow  of  the  rear  foot;  draw  the  body  up  again;  and  put  the  hand  to  the  
heart  as  if  to  say  “My  heart  is  yours.”    Then  step  back  and  bow  as  suggested  in  the  
first  bow,  bringing  the  hand  down  in  front  of  the  body  with  palm  uppermost  as  if  to  
say  “I  lay  it  at  your  feet.”    Finally,  straighten  up  by  drawing  back  the  front  foot  to  the  

  6  
third  position,  with  the  hand  sweeping  up  at  the  side  so  as  to  conclude  the  process  
with  a  flourish.    The  third  involves  bowing  as  described  with  a  hat  carried  under  the  
left  arm.    While  completing  the  bow,  take  the  hat  in  the  right  hand  and  sweep  it  back  
and  down  low  at  arm’s  length  on  the  right  side  of  the  body.  Pause  for  a  second  
before  straightening  up  and  returning  the  hat  to  under  the  left  arm.      
  In  addition,  the  bow  en  passant  was  used  during  receptions  and  balls  to  
acknowledge  people  when  one  did  not  wish  to  pause  for  a  conversation.    It  consisted  
of  bowing  from  the  waist  while  dragging  one  foot  from  behind  to  the  front  of  the  
body  without  stopping  the  onward  movement  of  the  walk.    The  same  bow  was  used  
by  ladies,  although  they  also  waved  their  fans  gently.      
  Female  movement  was  also  like  that  of  a  trained  ballet  dancer,  graceful  and  
vital  with  the  center  of  motion  at  the  waist,  which  was  both  flexible  and  yet  firmly  
controlled  at  all  times.    The  gown  often  had  to  be  lifted  and  set  down  again;  this  was  
accomplished  by  making  a  graceful  sweeping  curve,  not  by  merely  picking  up  and  
dropping  the  skirt.    A  grand  manner  had  to  be  adopted  in  walking  in  order  to  carry  
the  heavy  looped-­‐up  skirts  and  the  high  headdresses  of  the  later  French  Baroque  
style.  A  lady  learned  to  walk  in  high-­‐heeled  shoes  with  a  firm  but  graceful  step  
rather  than  an  unsteady  mincing  one.    In  dancing,  the  skirt  was  firmly  picked  up  on  
one  side  or  even  on  both  sides,  and  the  insides  of  the  wrists  were  always  turned  out  
when  the  lady  was  in  repose  so  as  to  display  the  line  of  the  hands  and  arms  to  the  
best  advantage.    In  addition,  when  sitting  on  the  grand  furniture  of  the  period,  the  
lady  had  to  gracefully  but  firmly  ensure  that  her  skirt  was  smoothly  placed  under  
her  while  she  sat  straight  and  tall,  conveying  a  combination  of  queenly  authority  and  
feminine  charm.      
  Probably  the  most  vital  weapon  for  the  lady  of  this  age  was  the  fan,  which  
was  used  in  the  “pitched  battles”  and  “absolute  surrenders”  of  love  and  
conversation.    The  lady  always  handled  it  with  technical  proficiency,  never  fluttering  
it  in  a  rapid  or  random  way.    Because  the  first  folding  fans  were  not  developed  in  
France  until  about  1670,  the  rigid  fans  of  the  earlier  period  lacked  many  subtleties  
of  movement  possible  with  the  later  collapsible  fans.    The  fan  was  usually  held  away  
from  the  body  with  very  flexible  movements  of  the  arms,  wrists,  and  shoulder  
socket.    The  modern  actress  should  begin  with  exaggerated  movements  and  then,  
after  mastering  them,  attempt  more  subtle  and  delicate  gestures.    
  In  their  book  Manners  and  Movement  sin  Costume  Plays,  Chisman  and  
Ravenhart  suggest  some  exercises  that  might  be  useful.    Hold  the  fan  in  front  of  the  
body,  not  too  close  to  the  face,  with  the  painted  side  facing  the  audience;  then  bring  
the  arm  straight  down  in  front  of  you  and  to  the  side.    With  the  fan  toward  the  
ground,  turn  the  wrist  sharply  so  that  the  fan  is  turned  up  to  its  original  position;  
then  swing  it  in  toward  you  to  the  starting  position.    Then  practice  running  all  these  
movements  together  into  a  rhythmic  swing.    Once  you  have  accomplished  this  with  
deftness  and  elegance,  try  dropping  the  fan  open  and  then  twisting  it  into  position  
with  a  quick  turn  of  the  wrist.      
  The  earlier  noncollapsible  fan  was  wafted  back  and  forth  with  movements  of  
the  wrist  and  forearm;  the  same  was  done  with  the  collapsible  fan.    There  was  no  
fluttering  of  the  fan  as  in  the  nineteenth  century,  and  all  movement  was  controlled  

  7  
and  subtle  –  used  to  emphasize  a  point  or  accent  an  idea  rather  than  to  create  a  
picturesque  effect.  
  The  curtsy  was  the  basic  movement  of  the  female  reverence  from  the  
sixteenth  century  onward,  and  variations  developed,  based  on  the  costume  worn  or  
the  amount  of  reverence  shown.    Basically,  the  lady  slid  back  on  the  instep  of  the  
right  foot  with  the  instep  pressing  the  ground,  behind  and  slightly  to  the  left  of  the  
left  leg;  the  instep  of  the  sliding  foot  took  the  weight,  and  the  lady  gradually  sank  
down  sitting  on  the  bent  right  leg,  arms  falling  to  the  side,  and  head  lowered.    The  
important  point  was  the  crossing  under  of  the  sliding  right  leg,  this  movement  being  
supported  by  crossed  thighs.    The  lady  then  rose  with  her  weight  on  the  left  foot  
since  this  foot  did  not  move  during  the  entire  sequence  of  the  curtsy.      
  For  entering  a  room,  the  curtsy  en  avant  was  in  order.    Her  the  lady  paused  
on  the  foot  that  made  the  last  step,  slid  the  disengaged  foot  into  the  fourth  position,  
or  to  the  front,  and  bent  the  knees  with  weight  equally  distributed  and  without  
bending  the  body  or  shaking.  The  lady  rose  with  the  weight  on  the  front  foot.    For  
leaving  a  room,  the  curtsy  en  arrière  was  appropriate.    Stepping  aside,  the  lady  
curtsied  in  the  first  or  third  position  with  the  weight  evenly  distributed  and  then  
rose  with  the  weight  on  the  rear  foot.    A  compliment  in  the  conversation  might  also  
be  acknowledge  in  this  way.    In  walking,  the  curtsy  en  passant  was  appropriate.    To  
accomplish  this,  the  lady  positioned  herself  parallel  to  the  person  being  greeted,  
made  a  step  on  the  left  foot  and  half  turned  to  the  person,  and  then  bent  her  knees,  
bringing  forward  the  right  foot  and  coming  up  with  the  weight  on  the  right  foot.    
This  was  repeated  to  many  different  individuals  in  a  group  or  receiving  line.      The  
lady  might  have  also  waved  her  fan  gently  while  curtsying.  In  all  of  this,  the  
gentleman  led  the  lady,  walking  slightly  ahead  and  turning  slightly  toward  her.  

  8  
Antithesis  of  the  Play:    “…inconstancy’s  the  sin  of  all  mankind…”  (Act  II,  Scene  1,  
line  173).      A  courtesan  (a  high-­‐end  prostitute,  Angellica)  who  is  constant/faithful  to  
Willmore  (the  rover),  even  though  she  professes  that  all  mankind  is  inconstant,  and  
a  future  nun  (Hellena)  who  aims  to  be  insconstant  by  seeking  a  love  affair  before  
taking  the  veil/constancy  to  Jesus  and  God.  
 
Verse  vs.  Prose:  
From  Dr.  Debora  Schwartz’s  English  Class  at  Cal  Polytech  
PROSE  is  used  whenever  verse  would  seem  bizarre:    in  serious  letters  
(Macbeth  to  Lady  Macbeth;  Hamlet  to  Horatio),  in  proclamations,  and  in  the  
speeches  of  characters  actually  or  pretending  to  be  mad  (Lady  Macbeth;  Hamlet  and  
Ophelia;  Edgar  and  King  Lear)  -­‐-­‐  verse  is  apparently  too  regular  and  orderly  for  
expressing  madness.    Prose  is  used  for  cynical  commentary  (e.g.  Jacques  and  
Touchstone  in  As  You  Like  It;  Edmund  in  King  Lear)  or  reducing  flowery  speech  to  
common  sense  terms  (all  over  As  You  Like  It).    It  is  used  when  the  rational  is  
contrasted  with  the  emotional  (Brutus  vs.  Antony  in  Julius  Caesar).    It  is  used  for  
simple  exposition,  transitions,  or  contrast  (the  first  scenes  of  As  You  Like  It,  The  
Tempest,  King  Lear  or  A  Winter's  Tale).    It  is  used  for  scenes  of  everyday  life  (Bottom  
and  company  in  A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream;  Corin  in  As  You  Like  It;  William,  Bates  
and  Court  in  Henry  V);  for  low  comedy  (Bottom  and  company;  Touchstone  and  
Audrey  in  As  You  Like  It;  Fluellen  and  Pistol  in  Henry  V;  Sir  Toby  Belch,  Maria  and  
Malvolio  in  Twelfth  Night);  and  for  bantering,  relaxed  or  unbuttoned  conversation  
(Celia,  Rosalind  and  Touchstone  in  As  You  Like  It;  Gower,  Fluellen,  MacMorris  and  
Jamie  in  Henry  V;  Prince  Hal  and  Falstaff  in  2  Henry  IV).    
PLEASE  NOTE:  it  is  NOT  ACCURATE  to  say  that  "the  lower  classes  speak  
prose  and  the  upper  classes  speak  verse."    The  highborn  cousins  Rosalind  and  Celia  
speak  prose  to  one  another  in  As  You  Like  It,  as  do  King  Henry  and  Katherine  of  
France  in  Henry  V.    Hamlet,  Prince  of  Denmark,  tends  to  use  prose  both  when  he  is  
being  very  rational  and  when  he  is  very  irrational  (but  the  passionate  Hamlet  speaks  
in  verse).  Similarly,  when  the  lower  classes  figure  in  serious  or  romantic  situations,  
they  may  speak  verse  (e.g.  Silvius  and  Phebe  in  As  You  Like  It;  the  gardeners  in  
Richard  II).  
RHYME  is  often  used  for  ritualistic  or  choral  effects  and  for  highly  lyrical  or  
sententious  passages  that  give  advice  or  point  to  a  moral  (the  Duke's  speech  at  the  
end  of  Act  3  in  Measure  for  Measure).  Rhyme  is  used  for  songs  (Amiens  in  As  You  
Like  It;  Feste  in  Twelfth  Night;  Ariel  in  The  Tempest);  in  examples  of  bad  verse  (the  
Pyramus  and  Thisbe  play  in  A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream  and  Orlando's  bad  poetry  in  
As  You  Like  It);  in  Prologues,  Epilogues  and  Choruses  (the  Chorus  in  Henry  V;  Puck's  
epilogue);  in  masques  (Hymen  in  As  You  Like  It;  Iris,  Ceres  and  Juno  in  The  Tempest)  
and  in  plays-­‐within-­‐plays  (Pyramus  and  Thisbe  in  A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream;  the  
Mousetrap  play  in  Hamlet),  where  it  distinguishes  these  imaginary  performances  
from  the  "real  world"  of  the  play.    It  is  also  used  for  many  manifestations  of  the  
supernatural  (e.g.  the  witches  in  Macbeth;  the  fairies  in  A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream;  
Ariel  in  The  Tempest)  -­‐-­‐  but  not  for  ghosts  (e.g.  Hamlet's  father),  who  retain  the  
human  use  of  blank  verse.    

  9  
 BLANK  VERSE  is  employed  in  a  wide  range  of  situations  because  it  comes  
close  to  the  natural  speaking  rhythms  of  English  but  raises  it  above  the  ordinary  
without  sounding  artificial  (unlike  the  "singsong"  effect  produced  by  dialogue  in  
rhyme).    Art  elevates  and  distills  the  everyday;  writing  in  blank  verse  helps  sharpen  
that  distinction.  Blank  verse,  as  opposed  to  prose,  is  used  mainly  for  passionate,  
lofty  or  momentous  occasions  and  for  introspection;  it  may  suggest  a  refinement  of  
character.  Many  of  Shakespeare's  most  famous  speeches  are  written  in  blank  verse:  
Macbeth's  and  Lady  Macbeth's  plotting;  the  great  soliloquies  of  Henry  V  and  Hamlet;  
Caliban's  complaints  and  Prospero's  farewell  to  magic  in  The  Tempest.  As  noted  
above,  a  speech  or  scene  in  blank  verse  may  end  with  a  single  rhyming  couplet  
known  as  a  capping  couplet.    It  is  used  to  lend  a  final  punch,  a  concluding  flourish  
or  a  note  of  climax  to  the  end  of  a  speech  or  scene.      
 
Humors:  
From  the  National  Library  of  Medicine:  
The  four  bodily  humors  were  part  of  Shakespearean  cosmology,  inherited  
from  the  ancient  Greek  philosophers  Aristotle,  Hippocrates,  and  Galen.  
Organized  around  the  four  elements  of  earth,  water,  air,  and  fire;  the  four  
qualities  of  cold,  hot,  moist,  and  dry;  and  the  four  humors,  these  physical  qualities  
determined  the  behavior  of  all  created  things  including  the  human  body.  
 
Melancholic  
• Humor:  Black  Bile  
• Element:  Earth  
• Season:  Winter  
• Age:  Old  Age  
• Qualities:  Cold  &  Dry  
• Organ:  Spleen  
• Planet:  Saturn  
Phlegmatic  
• Humor:  Phlegm  
• Element:  Water  
• Season:  Autumn  
• Age:  Maturity  
• Qualities:  Cold  &  Moist  
• Organ:  Brain  
• Planet:  Moon  
Choleric  
• Humor:  Yellow  Bile  
• Element:  Fire  
• Season:  Summer  
• Age:  Childhood  
• Qualities:  Hot  &  Dry  
• Organ:  Gall  Bladder  
• Planet:  Mars  

  10  
Sanguine  
• Humor:  Blood  
• Element:  Air  
• Season:  Spring  
• Age:  Adolescence  
• Qualities:  Hot  &  Moist  
• Organ:  Heart  
• Planet:  Jupiter  
 
In  the  human  body,  the  interaction  of  the  four  humors  explained  differences  of  
age,  gender,  emotions,  and  disposition.  The  influence  of  the  humors  changed  with  
the  seasons  and  times  of  day  and  with  the  human  life  span.  Heat  stimulated  action,  
cold  depressed  it.  The  young  warrior’s  choler  gave  him  courage  but  phlegm  
produced  cowards.  Youth  was  hot  and  moist,  age  cold  and  dry.  Men  as  a  sex  were  
hotter  and  drier  than  women.  
 
Carnavale  
Derived  from  the  Italian  word  from  the  Latin  carnem  (meat)  and  levare  (remove).    
The  party  before  Lent,  where  most  Catholics  remove  meat  from  their  diet.    Masks  
are  worn  to  hide  the  identity  of  the  wearer  and  their  social  status.    It  encourages  
license  and  pleasure.      

 
From  visitnaples.eu:  

  11  
   Carnival  is  a  very  much  appreciated  holiday  by  Neapolitans,  in  this  period  the  
city  gets  festive  and  happy.    There  are  many  Neapolitan  Carnival  traditions  and  they  
are  very  ancient,  but  they  are  respected  even  today.      
  During  Carnival  week  Neapolitans  usually  eat  “chiacchiere”  and  
sanguinaccio”.    “Chiacchiere”  are  a  very  famous  dessert  in  Italy,  but  the  nare  are  
known  with  different  names  in  several  parts  of  the  country.    Napolitan  “chiacchiere”  
consist  of  thin  strips  of  fried  dough  with  powdered  sugar  on  top.    “Chiacchiere”  are  
usually  served  with  “sanguinaccio”,  which  is  a  dark  chocolate  cream.    In  acient  
times,  “sanguinaccio”  used  to  be  prepared  adding  pig’s  blood  to  the  recipe.      
  As  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  also  in  Naples  children  dress  up  for  Carnival.    
It’s  really  fun  walking  on  the  streets  of  the  city  curing  the  Carnival  week  and  
watching  the  amazing  costumes  of  the  children.    Neapolitans  have  a  huge  fantasy  
and  their  costumes  are  often  surprising.  
  But  in  the  Carnival  week  you  also  have  to  watch  out  fro  jokes  of  Neapolitan  
“scugnizzi”.    The  rule  is  “at  Carnival  every  kind  of  prank  is  allowed”  and  children  
enjoy  playing  funny  and  original  tricks  on  adults.  Don’t  wear  your  best  clothes,  you  
could  get  dirty.  
  Carnival  has  very  ancient  origins  and  it  has  always  been  of  great  importance  
in  the  history  of  Naples.    In  the  18th  century,  the  king  Charles  of  Bourbon  used  to  
organize  huge  celebrations  all  over  the  city,  which  were  highly  anticipated  by  
common  people  and  noble  families.    The  king  used  to  build  all  over  the  city  the  so-­‐
called  “cuccagne”,  wooden  structures  covered  with  food,  which  was  given  away  to  
the  people.    Also  the  Neapolitan  nobles  loved  Carnival,  throwing  elegant  costume  
parties  in  the  most  beautiful  palaces  of  the  city  of  Naples.    

  12  
  
 
Charles  II  and  his  time  in  exile  
From  the  Britain  Magazine:  
  Charles  II  ran  a  hedonistic  court,  despite  the  early  years  of  his  reign  being  
marred  by  the  bubonic  plague  and  Great  Fire  of  London.    He  reigned  from  1660-­‐
1685.  
  Known  as  the  ‘Merry  Monarch’,  Charles  II’s  reign  came  in  direct  contrast  to  
the  previous  Puritan  regime;  his  wan  an  era  of  flamboyant  fashions  and  courtly  
excess.  
  Born  on  29  May  1630,  Charles  was  the  eldest  surviving  son  of  the  King  
Charles  I.    After  the  parliamentary  victory  in  English  Civil  War,  he  was  forced  into  
exile  and  was  living  in  the  Netherlands  when  he  learned  of  his  father’s  execution.  
  The  following  year,  Charles  made  a  deal  with  the  Scots  that  saw  him  
proclaimed  their  king.    He  invaded  England  only  to  be  defeated  by  Cromwell  and  
forced  to  flee  to  mainland  Europe.    He  spent  the  next  nine  years  in  exile,  until  a  crisis  
following  the  death  of  Oliver  Cromwell  in  1658  and  his  son  Richard’s  ineffectual  rule  
resulted  in  the  restoration  of  the  monarchy.    In  29  May  1660,  he  was  received  in  
London  to  public  acclaim  as  King  Charles  II.    Hedonism  was  paramount  in  Charles’  
court  despite  the  early  years  of  his  reign  being  marred  by  tragedy,  as  plagues  and  
great  fires  wiped  out  great  swathes  of  the  population.  
  He  tried  to  pursue  a  policy  of  religious  tolerance,  largely  due  to  his  own  
Catholic  leanings,  but  this  caused  clashes  with  his  Protestant  parliament,  which  he  
dissolved  in  1681.    He  ruled  alone  until  his  death  four  years  later.    Without  an  heir,  
the  crown  passed  to  his  Catholic  brother  James.  

  13  
  
From  Wikipedia:  
  Charles  raised  a  ragtag  army  from  his  exiled  subjects;  this  small,  underpaid,  
poorly-­‐equipped  and  ill-­‐disciplined  force  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  post-­‐Restoration  
army.      
 
 
 
 
 

  14  
Naples,  Italy  
From  TripAdvisor.com:

 
  Romantic  Naples,  two  hours  south  of  Rome  is  the  largest  city  in  southern  
Italy.    It  has  some  of  the  world’s  best  opera  and  theater  houses  and  is  often  called  an  
open-­‐air  museum,  due  to  its  many  historic  statues  and  monuments.    Join  families  on  
promenade  as  the  sun  sets  on  the  Bay  of  Naples.    View  finds  form  Pompeii  and  
Herculaneum,  destroyed  by  Mount  Vesuvius  in  79  A.D.,  at  the  Museo  Archeologico  
Nazionale  or  revel  in  the  art  and  architecture  of  Museo  Cappella  Sansevero,  built  in  
the  late  1500s.  
 
Inquisition  
From  Brittanica.com:  
The  Inquisition  was  a  group  of  institutions  within  the  government  system  of  
the  Catholic  Church  whose  aim  was  to  combat  public  heresy  committed  by  baptized  
Christians.    It  started  in  12th-­‐century  France  to  combat  religious  dissent.    
  The  Spanish  Inquisition  was  used  both  for  political  and  religious  reasons.    
Ferdinand  and  Isabella  chose  Catholicism  to  unite  Spain  and  in  1478  asked  
permission  of  the  pope  to  begin  the  Spanish  Inquisition  to  purify  the  people  of  
Spain.    They  began  by  driving  out  Jews  (which  was  among  the  largest  population  in  
Europe),  Protestants,  and  non-­‐believers.  
  At  its  peak,  the  grand  inquisitor  acted  as  the  head  of  the  Inquisition  in  Spain.    
The  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  that  he  had  received  from  the  Vatican  empowered  him  
to  name  deputies  and  hear  appeals.    In  deciding  appeals,  the  grand  inquisitor  was  
assisted  by  a  council  of  five  members  and  by  consultors.    All  those  offices  were  filled  
by  agreement  between  the  government  and  the  grand  inquisitor.    The  council  
especially  after  its  reorganization  during  the  reign  of  Philip  II  (1556-­‐98),  put  the  
effective  control  of  the  institution  more  and  more  into  the  hands  of  the  civil  power.    
After  the  papacy  of  Clement  VII  (1523-­‐34),  priests  and  bishops  were  at  times  judged  
by  the  Inquisition.    In  procedure  the  Spanish  Inquisition  was  much  like  the  medieval  
inquisition.    The  first  grand  inquisitor  in  Spain  was  the  Dominican  Tomás  de  
Torquemada;  his  name  became  synonymous  with  the  brutality  and  fanaticism  
associated  with  the  Inquisition.    Torquemada  used  torture  and  confiscation  to  

  15  
terrorize  his  victims,  and  his  methods  were  the  product  of  a  time  when  judicial  
procedure  was  cruel  by  design.    The  sentencing  of  the  accused  took  place  at  the  
auto-­‐da-­‐fé  (Portuguese:  “act  of  faith”),  an  elaborate  public  expression  of  the  
Inquisition’s  power.    The  condemned  were  presented  before  a  large  crowd  that  
often  included  royalty,  and  the  proceedings  had  a  ritualized,  almost  festive,  quality.    
The  number  of  burnings  at  the  stake,  during  Torquemada’s  tenure  was  exaggerated  
by  Protestant  critics  of  the  Inquisition,  but  it  is  generally  estimated  to  have  been  
about  2,000.  
 
From  Ten  Ways  to  Break  the  Law  in  16th  Century  Spain:  
  From  the  perspective  of  a  twenty-­‐first-­‐century  secular  democracy  that  
upholds  religious  pluralism,  gender  equality,  and  LBGT  rights,  sixteenth-­‐century  
Spain  was  a  harsh  and  unforgiving  place.    Though  some  crimes,  such  as  murder  and  
robbery,  were  crimes  just  as  they  are  today,  others  were  specific  to  a  Catholic  
country  whose  rulers  were  intent  on  enforcing  absolute  religious,  cultural,  and  
moral  conformity  on  their  subjects,  and  whose  laws  often  targeted  particular  ethnic,  
social,  or  religious  groups  considered  to  be  alien  or  deviant.    Here  are  ten  common  
offenses:  
• Eating  certain  foods:  If  you  were  one  of  the  Muslims  known  as  Moriscos,  
forcibly  converted  to  Catholicism,  and  you  ate  couscous  –  even  in  your  own  
home  –  you  might  find  yourself  hauled  up  in  front  of  the  Inquisition  and  
accused  of  worshipping  the  “sect  of  Muhammad,”  regardless  of  whether  your  
dietary  preferences  had  any  religious  significance  for  you.    Moriscos,  like  
converted  Jews  or  conversos,  were  also  liable  to  arrest  if  they  refused  to  eat  
pork.  
• Washing  and  bathing:  The  old  Moorish  practice  of  public  bathing  was  
generally  frowned  upon  in  sixteenth-­‐century  Spain,  since  public  baths  were  
associated  with  prostitution  and  immorality.    However,  Moriscos  who  
performed  the  full-­‐body  guadoc,  or  even  washed  their  hands  and  face  on  a  
hot  day,  were  often  suspected  of  preparing  themselves  for  Islamic  prayer.    
Case  in  point:  a  Morisco  woodcutter  from  Murcia  named  Juan  de  Spuche  died  
from  torture  after  being  denounced  to  the  Inquisition  for  washing  his  face  
and  hands  in  the  1550s.  
• Women  walking  in  public  with  their  faces  covered:  The  wearing  of  the  
almalafa  –  the  equivalent  of  the  niqab  –  by  Morisca  women  was  prohibited  by  
various  Hapsburg  ordinances  as  a  Moorish  practice,  and  punishments  could  
include  fines,  flogging,  or  banishment.    Christian  women  who  covered  their  
faces  with  cloaks  or  veils  were  also  subject  to  punishment,  since  they  were  
suspected  of  engaging  in  clandestine  romantic  or  sexual  liaisons.  
• Prostitution  during  Lent:  Prostitutes  or  “public  women,”  were  tolerated  in  
Hapsburg  Spain,  and  in  some  towns  and  cities  established  their  own  
municipal  brothels.    Nevertheless,  prostitutes  were  obliged  to  wear  yellow  
cloaks  and  confine  themselves  to  designated  areas,  and  were  not  allowed  to  
practice  their  profession  during  Lent  or  on  important  religious  festivals.  
• Reading  The  Decameron  or  the  Divine  Comedy:  Both  texts  were  included  in  
the  Inquisition’s  Index  of  banned  books  in  an  attempt  to  keep  the  influence  of  

  16  
 Protestantism  out  of  Spain.    Those  books  were  not  only  religious  texts.    A  
1554  royal  ordinance  decreed  than  anyone  bringing  unlicensed  foreign  
novels  into  the  country  would  be  subject  to  confiscation  of  property  and  the  
death  penalty.  
• Homosexuality:  An  extremely  serious  offense.    Punishable  by  burning  at  the  
stake  or  by  a  stretch  in  the  galleys  at  “the  king’s  oars”  –  a  punishment  
intended  to  provide  manpower  for  the  Spanish  fleet  that  frequently  
amounted  to  a  death  sentence.  
• Adultery:    Cuckolded  husbands  were  legally  entitled  to  kill  their  wives  and  
their  wives’  lovers  in  a  public  place,  and  such  executions  did  occur,  though  
there  were  also  occasions  in  which  the  adulterous  wife  begged  her  husband  
for  forgiveness  and  received  it.  
• Blasphemy:    A  wide-­‐ranging  offense  that  could  include  anything  from  taking  
the  Lord’s  name  in  vain  or  doubting  the  existence  of  God  to  questioning  the  
Virgin  Birth.    Dreams  and  visions  with  religious  content  were  also  considered  
blasphemous  or  an  expression  of  dangerous  religious  individualism.    Better  
not  to  talk  about  them.  
• Banditry:    This  endemic  threat  to  public  order  in  sixteenth-­‐century  Spain  was  
facilitated  by  the  advent  of  flintlock  weapons  (easier  to  carry  out  ambushes).    
Perpetrators  included  aristocratic  “gentleman-­‐bandits,”  disgruntled  friars,  
impoverished  day  laborers,  and  Moriscos.    Their  crimes  were  considered  
particularly  serious  because  they  were  committed  in  despoblado  –  on  the  
open  road  or  in  the  wilderness  –  and  therefore  beyond  the  reach  of  Spanish  
law.    Punishments  included  hanging,  flogging,  imprisonment,  and  the  display  
of  the  body  parts  of  notorious  bandits  on  the  city  walls  or  on  the  public  
highway.  
• Wearing  gold  or  silver  embroidery  on  your  clothing  or  on  your  nightclothes:  
Such  adornments  were  supposedly  reserved  for  royalty  and  constituted  a  
challenge  to  the  social  hierarchy  when  worn  by  others.    The  “abuse  and  
disorder  in  the  matter  of  clothing  and  garments”  were  also  regarded  as  social  
evils  since  they  led  both  men  and  women  to  “use  up  their  wealth  in  vain”  on  
articles  of  ostentatious  clothing.    Such  prohibitions  were  not  effective,  and  
sixteenth-­‐century  “bling”  remained  extremely  popular.  

  17  
  
Honor  and  Virtue  
From  Elizabethan.org:  a  compendium  of  common  knowledge  
Honor  and  Dueling  
  Is  nowhere  described  better  than  by  Lawrence  Stone  in  Crisis  of  the  
Aristocracy:  
   
Tempers  were  short  and  weapons  easy  to  hand.    The  basic  characteristics  of    
  nobility,  like  those  of  the  poor,  were  ferocity  and  childishness  and  lack  of  self  
  control.  
 
Calling  someone  a  liar,  or  otherwise  impugning  his  honor,  his  courage,  or  his  name  
is  a  challenge  in  itself.  
  Dueling  is  illegal,  so  you  take  the  fight  out  of  the  way,  and  sometimes  out  of  
the  country  (any  war-­‐zone  will  do).    Usually  this  is  single  combat,  unlike  the  group  
duels  of  France,  which  lead  to  long-­‐standing  feuds.  
  If  you  are  angry  enough,  you  may  not  wait  for  a  duel,  or  even  for  a  fair  fight.    
One  (or  some)  of  your  men  may  lie  in  ambush.    People  get  killed  this  way  all  the  
time,  though  often  it’s  a  gentleman’s  retainers  who  take  the  brunt  of  the  attack.  
  Sir  John  Hawkins  was  killed  by  someone  who  mistook  him  for  Sir  
Christopher  Hatton.    Sir  Drew  Drury  was  killed  in  a  dispute  over  precedence.  
 
From  internetshakespeare.uvic.ca:  
Chivalry  and  the  code  of  Honour  
  Chivalry  began  as  an  ethic  glorifying  the  martial  values  of  medieval  knights,  a  
warrior  elite  which  after  the  10th  century  held  a  virtual  monopoly  on  military  and  
political  power.      

  18  
   The  knights  held  an  exalted  view  of  warfare  and  armed  conflict  as  the  
testing-­‐ground  of  true  honour  and  nobility.    They  sough  to  excel  in  martial  arts  and  
to  prove  their  courage  in  battle;  the  need  to  hone  their  skills  in  arms  and  
horsemanship  led  to  an  emphasis  upon  peacetime  activities  such  as  hunting  and  
formal  tournaments.    Other  peacetime  pursuits  included  the  pursuit  of  suitably  
courtly  ladies.  
  The  danger  was  that  honour  would  come  to  be  seen  as  an  attribute  to  be  
gained  by  physical  prowess,  rather  than  moral  integrity:  
   
The  reputation  and  worth  of  a  man  consisteth  in  his  heart  and  will;  therein    
  lies  true  honour.  (Montaigne,  Essays  1.30)  
   
  In  Henry  IV,  Part  One,  Hotspur  thinks  of  honour  as  something  to  pluck  
physically  from  the  ocean  or  the  moon,  or  to  crop  from  Prince  Hal’s  crest.    Other  
figures  in  Shakespeare  (Cassio  in  Othello,  Antony,  in  Antony  and  Cleopatra,  Laertes  
in  Hamlet)  struggle  with  this  same  question;  the  whole  play  of  Troilus  and  Cressida  
debates  the  meaning  of  honour  –  and  comes  close  to  suggesting  that  honour  and  
arms  are  incompatible.  
  Perhaps  the  most  moving  statement  of  the  importance  of  inner  honour  
comes  from  Hermione,  in  The  Winter’s  Tale,  as  she  stands  accused  of  adultery,  and  
threatened  with  death:  
  But  yet  hear  this—mistake  me  not:  for  life,  
  I  prize  it  not  a  straw,  but  for  mine  honour,  
  Which  I  would  free—if  I  should  be  condemned  
  Upon  surmises,  all  proofs  sleeping  else,    
  But  what  your  jealousies  awake,  I  tell  you,  
  ‘Tis  rigour,  and  not  law.  
  (3.2.107-­‐12)  
 
From  Milligen’s  History  of  Dueling  
The  French  admit  three  sorts  of  offenses:  
First:  A  simple  offense.  
Second:    An  offense  of  an  insulting  nature.  
Third:    An  offense  with  personal  acts  of  violence.    In  these  cases  they  have  
established  the  following  rules,  which,  indeed,  so  long  as  dueling  is  tolerated,  may  
be  considered  most  judicious,  and  such  as  should  regulate  the  arrangement  of  all  
quarrels.  
 
Rule  1.     If,  the  course  of  a  discussion,  an  offense  is  offered,  the  person  who  has    
    been  offended  is  the  injured  party.    If  this  injury  is  followed  by  a  blow,    
    unquestionably  the  party  that  has  been  struck  is  the  injured  one.    To  
    return  one  blow  by  another  of  a  more  serious  nature  –  severely    
    wounding,  for  instance,  after  a  slap  in  the  face  –  does  not  constitute    
    who  received  the  second  blow,  however  severe  it  may  have  been,  the    
    party  originally  insulted.    In  this  case,  satisfaction  may  be  demanded    
    by  the  party  that  was  first  attack.    Such  a  case  must  be  referred  to  the    

  19  
     chances  of  a  meeting.  
 
Rule  2.     If  an  insult  follows  and  unpolite  expression  –  if  the  aggressor    
    considers  himself  offended,  or  if  the  person  who  has  received  the    
    insult,  considers  himself  insulted  –  the  case  must  also  be  referred  to  a    
    meeting.  
 
Rule  3.     If,  in  the  course  of  a  discussion,  during  which  the  rules  of  politeness    
    have  not  been  transgressed,  but  in  the  consequence  of  which    
    expressions  have  been  made  use  of  which  induce  one  of  the  party  to  
    consider  himself  offended.    The  man  who  demands  satisfaction  cannot    
    be  considered  the  aggressor,  or  the  person  who  gives  it  to  the    
    offender.    This  case  must  be  submitted  to  the  trial  of  chance.  
 
Rule  4.     But  if  a  man  sends  a  message  without  a  sufficient  cause,  in  this  case  he    
    becomes  the  aggressor;  and  the  seconds,  before  they  allow  a  meeting    
    to  take  place,  must  insist  upon  a  sufficient  reason  being  manifestly    
    shown.  
 
Rule  5.     A  son  may  espouse  the  cause  of  his  father,  if  he  is  too  aged  to  resent    
    an  insult,  or  if  the  age  of  the  aggressor  is  of  great  disparity;  but  a  son    
    cannot  espouse  the  quarrel  of  his  father  if  he  has  been  the  aggressor.  
 
Rule  6.     There  are  offenses  of  such  a  galling  nature,  that  they  may  lead  the    
    insulted  party  to  have  recourse  to  acts  of  violence.    Such  acts  ought  to  
    be  avoided,  as  they  can  only  tend  to  mortal  combat.  
 
Rule  7.     The  offended  party  has  the  choice  of  arms.  
 
Rule  8.     When  the  offense  has  been  of  a  degrading  nature,  the  offended  has  the  
    right  to  name  both  the  arms  and  the  duel…  
 
Many  more  rules…  
Basically,  to  organized  a  duel  at  this  time  was  a  large  legal  matter,  so  unwarranted  
duels,  were  frowned  upon.    These  rules  were  new  and  not  generally  followed.    A  
code  of  honor  was  regarded  more  highly  than  the  codes  of  duty.  
 
From  THE  AGE  OF  VIRTUE,  by  D.  Morse  
  In  the  eighteenth  century  ‘virtue’  was  a  word  to  conjure  with.    It  called  to  
mind  heroic  predecessors  from  the  Roman  Republic  such  as  Cato  and  Brutus  and  
invoked  qualities  of  personal  integrity,  selflessness  and  a  concern  for  the  common  
good,  which,  though  urgently  needed,  seemed  desperately  lacking,  both  in  the  
ruthless  party  struggles  of  the  age  of  Anne  and  subsequently  in  the  all-­‐pervading  
political  corruption  of  the  Walpole  administration.    When  the  longed-­‐for  political  
saviour  failed  to  materialize  it  was  increasingly  felt  that  if  virtue  existed  at  all  then  it  
would  have  to  be  sought  for  among  the  lower  orders  of  society  or  else  in  provincial  

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areas,  where  simpler  and  nobler  values  might  still  prevail.    But  with  the  coming  of  
the  French  Revolution  and  Romanticism  virtue  began  to  lose  its  powerful  
resonances  –  it  now  seemed  naïve  and  simplistic,  all  too  ready  to  deny  both  the  
complexities  of  human  nature  and  the  possibility  of  determination  by  external  
cultural  forces.  
 
From  Attitudes:  an  anthology:  
OF  WOMEN,  MARRIAGE,  AND  THE  FAMILY  
  Marriage:  Early  marriage  was  more  common  among  the  nobility  and  gentry  
than  further  down  the  social  scale.    In  England,  there  was  a  fairly  widespread  belief  
that  freedom  of  choice  was  right  among  marriage  partners.    In  fact,  even  the  
Medieval  Church  had  reminded  parents  of  their  duty  to  consider  their  children’s  
inclinations  in  marriage  arrangements.    
  In  the  upper  classes,  marriage  was  seen  as  a  means  of  gaining  property,  
friends,  and  allies;  therefore,  marriages  among  wealthy  landowners  were  more  
likely  arranged  than  those  among  people  from  lower  classes.    In  practice,  marriages  
ranged  over  a  spectrum  running  from  arranged  at  one  end  to  completely  free  at  the  
other.  
  Christian  teaching  gave  prominence  to  three  purposes  for  marriage:  
procreation  of  children,  regulation  of  sexual  activity,  and  mutual  comfort  and  
support.  
  Roles:    Because  women  were  thought  to  be  man’s  inferior  in  intellect  and  
virtue,  women  were  held  to  be  subordinate  and  inferior  to  their  husbands,  who  
were  considered  to  be  superior  partners  in  marriage.  
  Common  law  vested  control  of  property  in  the  man,  though  dower,  
inheritance,  and  settlements  gave  many  wives  the  propertied  classes  some  
safeguards.  
  A  good  deal  of  mutual  affection  existed  in  most  marriages,  with  wives  
occupying  a  separate  but  subordinate  sphere  in  the  family  economy.    Though  
marriage  was  an  unequal  partnership,  it  was  less  unequal  than  we  might  imagine.  
 
The  Role  of  Chastity  in  Society  (from  Westmorelandschool.org)  
William Shakespeare's heroines have long been remembered for their impact in
his many plays. They have been representations, stereotypes, and even emotionally
moving individuals. All of these women have been created in the confine of
Shakespeare's literary worlds. Some of these restraints, however, were a result of the
demands of Shakespeare's own time and society. Perhaps the most important of women's
imposed limitations is that of chastity. Shakespeare illustrates the societal and
mythological importance of women's chastity in the patriarchal societies of Elizabethan
and Jacobean England. Chastity was held to be particularly important for women; it was
believed that a woman’s social and religious virtue was based on her chastity.
Chastity was an important concept in Elizabethan social and religious life. In
Renaissance society, chastity was the quality most frequently praised in women. Chastity
was the greatest gift a woman brought from her father's house to her husband's. Chastity
did not simply mean abstinence from sexual intercourse; rather, it meant refraining from

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sexual intercourse that was not condoned by contemporary morality. A faithful married
woman, for example, was considered chaste. Although bodily purity was a must, it was
secondary to the "purity of mind" that a chaste woman displayed to others. Her natural
modesty, humility, and temperance were preserved as a result of her chaste existed.
Furthermore, as can also be seen in Much Ado About Nothing, in Shakespeare's
society, "a man's trustworthiness in worldly matters is called into question if he cannot
manage his own household, control the sexuality of his daughter or wife".
The sexual liberation, or assumed liberation, of Shakespeare's confined heroines (
or in the case of Woolf’s fictional Judith) must result in some form of societal disorder.
Renaissance belief in the connection between women's sexuality and societal order
demands that there be consequences when women's sexual behavior threatens this order;
therefore, the idea that a girl of Shakespeare’s time (like the fictional Judith) breaking
away or rebelling from this societal norm [rule] would certainly have caused “Judith” or
any woman of that time serious problems, such as being called out or ostracized from the
community.
Commedia  dell’arte  
An  improvised  kind  of  popular  comedy  in  Italian  theaters  in  the  16th-­‐18th  centuries,  
based  on  stock  characters.    Actors  adapted  their  comic  dialogue  and  action  
according  to  a  few  basic  plots  (commonly  love  intrigues)  and  to  topical  issues.  
 
Commdedia  dell’Arte  is  a  form  of  improvisational  theater,  employing  the  use  of  
stock  masks  which  developed  in  Italy  during  the  Renaissance  and  spread  through  
Western  Europe,  lasting  into  the  18th  century.    There  were  rarely  written  scripts;  
instead,  the  performers  each  developed  a  character  and  then  chose  a  scenario  
within  which  they  would  improvise.    These  performers  often  traveled  rather  than  
using  a  theater,  and  faced  audiences  who  did  not  hesitate  to  throw  tomatoes  if  it  
wasn’t  funny.    The  comedy  depended  on  the  interaction  between  the  characters  and  
the  skills  of  the  performers,  who  need  great  physical  abilities  to  survive,  such  as  
juggling,  acrobatics,  slight-­‐of-­‐hand,  even  fire  eating.  
 
Some  of  the  standard  characters  include  The  Trickster;  The  Lover;  The  Glutton;  The  
Know-­‐It-­‐All;  The  Rich;  Lecherous  Miser;  and  The  Boastful,  Cowardly  Soldier.    
Performers  wore  masks  to  portray  the  basic  nature  of  their  character,  so  that  an  
audience  could  see  right  away  who  was  who.    Italy  at  the  time  had  many  dialects,  
and  the  performers  could  not  be  sure  anybody  could  understand  what  they  were  
saying.    And  on  the  open  air  stages,  competing  with  all  the  noises  of  the  town,  the  
couldn’t  even  be  sure  anyone  could  hear  them.  
 
The  commedia  characters  are  defined  by  what  they  want,  and  how  much  they  want  
it  –  they  are  defined  by  their  obsessions.    They  don’t  love  to  eat,  or  make  money  or  
make  love,  they  live  for  it.    Unlike  complex,  well-­‐rounded  characters,  the  comic  
characters  are  nothing  without  their  obsessions.    The  masks  represent  a  type,  and  
those  types  are  not  defined  by  the  mask,  the  mask  only  helps  us  recognize  them.  
 

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Comedy  is  taken  to  the  extreme.    A  person  who  eats  too  much  can  be  seen  as  tragic.    
But  if  a  person  –  like  Homer  Simpson  for  example  –  loves  to  eat  so  much  they  pull  a  
three-­‐week  old  sandwich  out  of  the  dumpster  because  they  are  obsessed  with  
eating,  that’s  funny.    Homer  Simpson’s  done  many  obsessive  things  about    food  –  
strange,  unnatural,  even  terrifying  things,  but  they’re  so  extreme  they’re  
recognizable  and  we  laugh.  
 
It’s  hard  to  know  where  to  draw  the  line;  what’s  funny,  what’s  not?    Tragedy  is  a  
lover,  pinning  away  for  love.    Comedy  is  a  lover  who  dresses  in  drag,  disguises  
themselves,  endures  humiliation,  bankruptcy  and  prison,  all  for  love  and,  in  the  end,  
dies  not  from  pining  away  or  suicide,  as  many  tragic  characters  do,  but  because  after  
all  the  suffering,  the  beloved  marries  another.    Or  worse,  love  wins  out  and  the  
lovers  finds  the  object  of  affection  is  nothing  like  what  he  or  she  imagined.    The  
marriage  is  a  disaster,  and  we  see  the  wisdom  of  being  careful  what  you  wish  for.  
 
So  what  makes  comedy  funny?    Nobody  really  knows.    But  a  lot  of  it  depends  on  
types  –  stereotypes  maybe,  that  have  survived  since  the  ancient  Greeks.    Many  of  
these  were  formalized  by  the  Commedia  dell’Arte  hundreds  of  years  ago  but  are  still  
with  us  today.    For  example,  “The  Simpsons”  is  full  of  such  characters.  
 
Bart  Simpson  is  the  Trickster,  called  Arlecchino  or  Harlequin,  always  in  trouble,  
always  with  a  scheme.    Bart  Simpson,  the  Harlequin  scamp,  is  part  of  a  long  tradition  
that  includes  Huckleberry  Finn  and  Dennis  the  Menace.    No  matter  how  zany  the  
problem,  he  always  has  a  solution.    Despite  his  pranks,  he’s  never  malicious,  and  in  
fact  ends  up  the  hero  of  many  adventures,  such  as  saving  Krusty  the  Klown  from  
prison,  or  bringing  Principal  Skinner  and  Mrs.  Krabappel  together.    He  regularly  
torments  the  mighty  and  exposes  hypocrisy,  in  an  ancient  tradition  of  clowns.  
 
His  sister  Lisa  is  the  Dottore,  the  know  it  all,  whose  braniness  never  makes  her  
happy.    Homer  is  the  gluttonous  oaf,  Pulcinella,  always  eating,  always  wrong.    Marge  
is  the  faithful  but  complaining  wife;  Chief  Wiggum,  the  inept  policeman,  the  modern  
version  of  the  braggart,  cowardly  soldier.  
 
Take  Pantalone,  our  rich  old  miser.    Who  is  that  but  Mr.  Burns?    What  won’t  he  do  
for  the  money?    He’s  not  just  bad,  but  he’s  evil;  he’s  the  whiplash  moustached  
melodrama  villain  so  outlandish  he  tries  to  kill  his  parents.    Why?    “They  got  in  my  
way.”  
 
From  TheatreHistory.com:  
  The  title,  Commedia  dell’arte  (“Comedy  of  Art”  or  “Comedy  of  the  
profession”),  means  unwritten  or  improvised  drama,  and  implies  rather  to  the  
manner  of  performance  than  to  the  subject  matter  of  the  play.    This  peculiar  species  
had  a  long  life  in  Italy,  probably  of  about  four  hundred  years  (from  the  fourteenth  to  
the  eighteenth  century);  but  it  flourished  especially  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  
centuries.    Of  course  in  actual  practice  the  play  was  not,  in  any  sense,  the  result  of  
the  moment’s  inspiration.    The  subject  was  chosen,  the  characters  conceived  and  

  23  
named,  their  relations  to  one  another  determined,  and  situations  clearly  outlined,  all  
beforehand.    The  material  was  divided  into  acts  and  scenes,  with  a  prologue.    The  
situations  were  made  clear,  together  with  the  turn  of  action  and  the  outcome  of  each  
scene.    When  this  general  outline  (called  also  scenario  or  canvas)  was  satisfactorily  
filled  out  there  was  left  an  opportunity  for  actors  to  heighten,  vary,  and  embellish  
their  parts  as  their  genius  might  suggest.    The  necessity  for  smoothness,  constant  
surprise,  clearness,  and  wit  called  forth  histrionic  abilities,  which  had  been  
unknown  to  the  medieval  stage.    “The  actors  had  to  find  the  proper  words  to  make  
the  tears  flow  or  the  laughter  ring;  they  had  to  catch  the  sallies  of  their  fellow-­‐actors  
on  the  wing,  and  return  them  with  prompt  repartee.    The  dialogue  must  go  like  a  
merry  game  of  ball  or  spirited  sword-­‐play,  with  ease  and  without  a  pause.”    Such  
parts  required  actors  able  to  make  a  serious  study  of  their  parts;  actors  who  took  
pride  in  their  achievements,  and  were  willing  to  accept  the  discipline  which  all  
professional  art  demands.    These  comedians  changed  forever  the  standards  of  
acting.    The  best  of  them  stamped  their  parts  with  individuality,  freshness  and  
brilliance,  and  gave  value  to  pieces  which,  often  enough,  were  otherwise  worthless.    
The  Commedia  dell’arte  introduced  the  professional  actor  into  Europe.  
 
In  the  course  of  the  development  of  the  Commedia  dell'arte,  there  grew  up  
certain  traditions  which  held  fast  for  many  years.  The  rascally  servant,  the  old  man,  
the  lady's  maid,  and  the  like-­‐-­‐stock  characters  which  appeared  in  every  play-­‐-­‐always  
wore  a  conventional  dress,  with  masks.  In  general  these  masks  may  be  classed  
under  four  or  five  groups:  Pantalone  and  the  Doctor,  both  old  men;  the  Captain,  a  
young  man  of  adventure;  the  valet  or  jester,  usually  called  Zanni;  the  hunchback  
Punchinello;  and  another  old  man,  somewhat  different  from  the  first  two.  
Pantalone  was  usually  a  shop-­‐keeper  from  Vienna,  somewhat  stupid,  fond  of  food  
and  of  pretty  women,  talkative,  gullible,  full  of  temper,  the  butt  of  all  the  jokes-­‐-­‐some  
of  them  very  indecent-­‐-­‐yet  forgiving  in  the  end.  His  business  was  to  get  deceived  by  
his  young  wife,  or  his  son,  or  his  servant.  The  second  old  man,  the  Doctor,  filled  the  
part  of  a  lawyer,  an  astrologer,  or  perhaps  a  philosopher  from  Bologna.  Sometimes  
he  represented  an  absent-­‐minded  pedant,  quoting  latin  at  inappropriate  times,  and  
enormously  conceited.  The  bragging  Captain,  a  boasting,  swashbuckling  officer,  
often  Spanish,  dressed-­‐to-­‐kill  in  cape,  feathered  hat,  high  boots,  with  sword  in  belt,  
was  always  a  prime  favorite.  He  told  extraordinary  tales  about  how  he  beat  a  whole  
army  of  Turks  and  carried  off  the  beard  of  the  Sultain,  but  when  there  was  a  hint  of  
real  danger  he  was  the  first  to  run  away.  He  made  love  to  the  none-­‐too-­‐innocent  
servant  maid,  and  got  trashed  by  her  Harlequin  lover.  This  character,  of  course,  is  
none  other  than  the  Miles  Gloriosus  of  Plautus,  called  in  Italy  Il  Capitano  Spavento  
della  Valle  Inferno,  or  simply  Spavento.  In  time  he  gained  a  choice  variety  of  
bombastic  names  in  different  countries:  Capitano  Metamoros,  Capitaine  Fracasse,  
Captain  Horribilicribilifax,  Ralph  Roister  Doister,  and  Bobadil.  
Zanni,  the  scoundrelly  valet  or  jester,  resembled  the  Greek  slave  of  the  
Middle  and  New  Comedy.  Most  plays  contained  several  valets:  one  each  for  the  
Doctor,  Pantalone,  and  the  primo  amoroso.  All  were  variations  of  the  type  of  which  
Pierrot  and  Harlequin  are  the  most  celebrated.  They  were  generally  indolent  and  
knavish,  sometimes  cunning  and  cruel;  always  stupid  in  their  own  way,  first  

  24  
deceiving  others  and  then  being  duped  themselves.  Alll  made  love  to  the  servants,  
and  often  imitated  the  love  scenes  of  their  masters  in  ridiculous  parody.  Punchinello  
was  a  hunchback  with  a  long  crimson  nose,  dressed  in  a  dark  cloak  and  wearing  a  
three-­‐cornered  cap.  He  too  was  a  great  rascal,  but  dry  and  less  talkative  than  
Pantalone.  
All  these  characters  had  costumes,  stock  gestures  and  stage  business  which  
could  be  reckoned  upon  to  create  a  laugh  and  put  the  audience  in  tune  for  the  
knavery  that  was  to  follow.  In  course  of  time  there  crystallized  about  each  mask  an  
entire  code  or  repertory  of  phrases,  exclamations,  curses,  exits,  epigrammatic  
sayings  and  soliloquies  appropriate  to  the  rôle,  which  could  be  memorized  and  
made  to  fill  in  the  blank  when  the  actor's  wit  could  find  nothing  better.  The  primo  
amoroso,  the  female  lover,  and  the  maid  servant  were  not  masked,  though  they  were  
thoroughly  conventionalized.  The  male  lover  was  a  perfumed  scapegrace;  while  the  
girl,  rarely  will  individualized,  stood  simply  as  the  helpless  or  ignorant  foil  for  the  
intrigue.  The  hero  became  known  as  Flavio,  Leandro  or  Valerio;  the  woman  as  
Isabella,  Lucinda,  Leonora  or  Ardelia;  while  the  maid  servant  was  generally  
Columbine.  The  importance  of  these  typical  stage  characters,  which  enjoyed  at  least  
four  centuries  of  popularity  on  the  European  boards,  lies  in  the  influence  which  they  
exerted  upon  the  superior  dramatists  of  a  later  time.  Already  one  can  catch  a  breath  
of  the  Shakespearean  comedies  in  the  names  of  the  heroes;  and  one  can  see  that  
Molière,  both  as  actor  and  author,  learned  much  from  this  branch  of  Italian  art.  Its  
influence  passed  through  Holberg  into  Denmark,  where  it  became  a  powerful  factor  
in  shaping  the  romantic  drama  of  a  later  age.

  25  
  
 
 
Swordsmanship  and  Italy’s  Dueling  Rules  

  26  
  
 
From  “Dueling  and  Civility  in  Sixteenth  Century  Italy”  by  David  Quint:  
  Among  its  other  creations  the  Italian  Renaissance  invented  the  duel.    The  
fight  between  individuals  to  settle  private  scores  was  already  a  defining  ritual  of  
aristocratic  identity  in  the  Middle  Ages  and  the  duel  has  survived  to  the  present  day:  
it  is  part  of  the  longue  durée  of  the  Western  cultural  imagination.    But  the  duel’s  
modern  form  emerged  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  as  doctrines  
spelling  out  the  grievances  of  honor,  the  procedures  of  challenges  and  responses,  
and  the  rules  of  combat  were  codified,  largely  in  Italy,  and  spread  to  the  rest  of  
Europe.    The  duel  as  we  know  it,  as  it  has  entered  and  shaped  a  vision  of  aristocratic  
or  would-­‐be  aristocratic  culture,  is  largely  the  product  of  the  late  Renaissance.  
  A  series  of  factors  was  at  work  in  determining  the  way  noblemen  of  this  
period  understood  the  duel.    The  military  revolution  brought  about  by  artillery  and  
massed  infantry  encounters  rendered  increasingly  obsolete  the  heavily  armored  
knight  on  horseback  and  offered  fewer  occasions  for  the  gentleman  soldier  to  
distinguish  himself  in  single  combat.    Though  the  form  of  the  duel  followed  the  new  
military  technology  and  changed  in  the  course  of  the  sixteenth  century  form  combat  
on  horseback  in  full  armor  and  knightly  regalia  to  the  more  lethal,  if  not  necessarily  
less  formal  and  ceremonial  fencing  with  rapier  on  foot  and  everyday  clothing,  it  
nonetheless  remained  colored  by  chivalric  nostalgia,  and  allowed  noblemen,  even  

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those  whose  families  had  not  experience  warfare  for  several  generations,  to  assert  
their  membership  in  a  traditional  military  caste.    It  gave  young  and  sometimes  older  
nobles  the  chance  to  prove  themselves  and  experience  the  excitement  of  man-­‐to-­‐
man  fighting  with  their  own  peers;  the  dueling  ground  might  be  a  more  appealing  
and  exclusive  arena  than  the  battlefield,  where  one  risked  being  killed  by  a  pikeman  
or  a  stray  bullet.    The  greatest  literary  treatment  of  the  duel,  Corneille’s  Le  Cid,  
contrasts  the  way  in  which  the  hero  Rodrigue  is  able  to  manifest  his  personal  valor  
and  prowess  in  his  private  duel  to  his  conduct  in  actual  warfare,  where  he  plays  an  
executive  role  as  commander  of  his  followers  and  where  individual  acts  of  fighting  
are  lost  in  the  darkness  of  night  and  in  the  anonymity  of  battle.  
  The  ideology  of  the  duel  also  reflected  the  pressure  being  felt  by  an  
aristocracy  coming  to  terms  with  the  emerging  power  of  Early  Modern  tastes.    Kings  
and  princes  sought  to  curb  the  old  feudal  prerogatives  of  their  nobility  –  not  least  
the  prerogative  of  violence.    The  gradual  transformation  of  magnates  with  their  own  
private  armies  of  retainers  and  clients  into  pacified  courtiers  dependent  on  royal  
favor  has  become  a  familiar  story  in  the  historiography  dealing  with  the  sixteenth  
and  seventeenth  centuries,  whether  one  speaks  of  Lawrence  Stone’s  period  of  
aristocratic  “crisis,”  or  Norbert  Elias’s  longer-­‐term  “civilizing  process.”    State  and  
ecclesiastical  authorities  condemned  the  duel  and  punished  duelists.    But  for  that  
very  reason,  the  duel  could  be  attractive  to  the  aristocrat  who,  through  recourse  to  
private  violence  not  so  much  above  as  outside  the  law,  could  assert  a  sense  of  
independence  that  was  beginning  to  disappear  in  his  other  power  relations  with  the  
crown.    The  duel  represented  an  individual  right,  and  equally  a  psychological  
disposition,  that  noblemen  found  hard  to  give  up.  
  Furthermore,  the  modern  duel  was  the  product  of  the  printing  press.    A  flood  
of  treaties  on  honor  and  the  duel  –  and  treaties  on  honor  are  usually  much  devoted  
to  the  duel  –  flowed  from  sixteenth  century  presses,  mostly  in  Italy.    These  books,  
loaded  with  terms  and  methods  of  scholastic  argument  which  distinguished  
gradations  of  insult  that  are  famously  lampooned  by  Shakespeare’s  Touchstone  and  
which  dictated  punctilios  of  combat  and  fair  play  –  if  you  are  fighting  a  one-­‐eyed  
man,  should  you  wear  a  patch  over  one  eye  of  your  own?  –  seem  highly  unreadable  
now,  but  they  enjoyed  a  tremendous  vogue.    They  did  so  not  least  as  a  response  to  
the  literature  on  courtesy  and  civility,  Castiglione’s  Courtier  and  della  Casa’s  Galateo  
that  emerged  in  the  same  period  and  that  spelled  out  the  new  decorum  of  the  
nobleman  as  a  subject  and  servant  to  his  prince.    At  court  the  noble  might  behave  
one  way,  but  he  had  another  code,  now  spelled  out  for  him  as  elaborately  as  della  
Casa’s  table  manners,  that  told  him  how  to  affirm  his  honor  as  an  individual  and  
licensed  him  to  defend  it,  if  necessary  with  his  sword.  
  But  the  paradox  of  this  literature  and  the  paradox  of  the  duel  as  one  studies  
its  representations  in  Renaissance  literary  texts  and  in  contemporary  documents  of  
real  duels  and  challenges,  is  that  violence  itself  has  manners.    The  duel  was  as  much  
inside  as  outside  a  civilizing  process,  for  it  gave  a  kind  of  ceremonial  containment  to  
the  aristocratic  violence  it  simultaneously  sanctioned.    By  individualizing  conflict,  
the  duel  replaced  larger  scale  encounters  between  noblemen  and  their  respective  
retinues  of  friends  and  servants  –  and  it  is  for  this  reason,  Stone  has  suggested  in  the  
case  of  England,  that  the  crown  generally  tolerated  the  duel  and  pardoned  duelists.    

  28  
The  elaborate  and  public  exchanges  of  challenges  could,  moreover,  allow  the  King  
and  Privy  Council  to  step  in  and  mediate  quarrels  before  they  actually  came  to  
conflict.    The  duel  also,  and  this  may  be  much  the  same  thing,  replaced  the  vendetta,  
as  in  the  history  of  Savorgnan  and  Colloredo  families  and  Edward  Muir  has  studied;  
their  century-­‐old  feud  came  to  an  end  in  1568  when  representative  of  the  families  
met  –  and  killed  each  other  –  in  an  arranged  duel.    Even  the  swordsmanship  of  the  
duelist  was  formalized  as  the  new  balletic  fencing  positions  of  the  Italian  masters  
came  to  be  adapted  throughout  Europe.  
  Some  nobles  grumbled  that  these  ceremonial  features  robbed  fighting  of  its  
naked  aggression  and  mayhem  –  taking  the  fun  out  of  a  pastime  that  shared  features  
of  those  other  aristocratic  diversions,  gambling  and  the  blood  sport  of  hunting.    Such  
complaints  may  have  been  most  frequent  in  France,  where,  according  to  Francois  
Billacois,  combatants  were  wont  to  strip  down  the  duel’s  formulaic  procedures  to  
their  basics  and  to  fight  on  the  spot,  perhaps  to  avoid  interference  from  the  
authorities.    We  may  hear  a  similar  impatience  in  Mercutio’s  complaints  about  
Tybalt  in  Romeo  and  Juliet.    Tybalt  fights  by  the  book,  as  if  reading  music  from  the  
page:  he  knows  the  forms  of  a  quarrel  and  all  the  fancy  moves  of  swordsmanship.    
Mercutio  almost  appears  to  confuse  the  deadly  serious  Tybalt  with  an  imposter  like  
Ben  Jonson’s  Captain  Bobadill,  and  he  expresses,  as  he  subsequently  appeals  to  his  
“grandsire,”  a  horror  at  Italianate  newfangledness  (however  odd  it  may  sound  
coming  from  an  Italian)  that  would  seem  to  associate  the  duel  not  so  much  with  old  
noble  values  as  with  an  emergent  culture  of  courtly  civility.    It  is  significant,  perhaps  
surprising,  to  note  that  in  the  case  of  Shakespeare’s  Verona,  still  caught  in  the  world  
of  the  vendetta,  of  violent  encounters  between  whole  households,  lords  and  
servants  alike,  that  irate  Tybalt  may  be  the  representative  of  a  civilizing  process  still  
to  impose  itself,  while  loveable  Mercutio,  no  less  spoiling  for  a  fight  and  as  
committed  as  he  to  an  old-­‐fashioned  violence  untrammeled  by  the  due’s  formalities,  
is  the  greater  threat  to  civic  peace.  
  The  paradox  inherent  in  the  duel  –  a  kinder,  gentler  way  of  killing  –  was  
already  appreciated  by  Ariosto  in  a  pair  of  linked  episodes  of  the  Orlando  furioso  
(1516)  that  further  examine  the  relationship  between  the  duel  and  noble  identity.    
Even  as  he  depicts  the  duel  as  part  of  the  system  of  chivalry  –  and  it  would  be  to  the  
Furioso  and  other  chivalric  romances  that  later  theorists  thought  to  perpetuate  
chivalry  in  the  duel  –  Ariosto  subjects  both  to  his  famous  irony.  
  At  the  beginning  of  Canto  31,  Rinaldo  of  Montalbano  and  his  brothers  –  the  
famous  four  sons  of  Aymon  of  the  French  and  Italian  romances  of  chivalry  –  as  well  
as  their  cousings  are  all  riding  to  the  aid  of  Charlemagne,  besieged  in  Paris  by  the  
pagan  army  of  King  Agramante.    On  their  way  they  encounter  an  unknown  knight  
who  challenges  Ricciardetto,  riding  in  front  of  the  rest,  to  a  joust.    Ricciardetto  gladly  
and  confidently  accepts,  but  is  quickly  unhorsed,  and  he  is  followed  in  succession  by  
Alardo  and  Guicciardetto  who  similarly  end  up  on  the  ground.    Rinaldo  now  take  the  
field  himself,  anxious  to  get  the  fighting  over  so  that  he  and  his  men  can  get  to  Paris.    
In  their  encounter,  neither  knight  is  removed  in  the  least  from  his  saddle  and  their  
lances  shatter  into  pieces;  but  following  this  equal  exchange  of  blows,  Rinaldo’s  
superior  horse,  Baiardo,  collides  with  and  breaks  the  back  of  the  horse  of  the  
unknown  knight.    To  avenge  his  dying  steed,  he  challenges  Rinaldo  to  battle.    The  

  29  
stranger  knight  spells  out,  as  a  kind  of  literary  critic  glossing  a  text,  the  logic  of  
mimetic  desire  that  motivates  all  the  knights  of  the  Furioso  and  that  transforms  all  
the  objects  of  their  quests  –  horses,  ladies,  swords,  shields  –  into  so  many  pretexts  
for  competitive  rivalry.    It  is  not  the  horse  that  matters,  but  rather  the  question  of  
who  is  greatest  fighter  of  all,  and  that  question,  in  turn,  boils  down  to  being  “more  or  
less”  –  “più…o  manco”  –  than  another.    By  the  same  token,  the  act  of  measuring  his  
or  her  prowess  against  others  places  the  knight  inside  a  chivalric  code  whose  
adherents  may  mutually  recognize  one  another.  
  The  issue  of  recognition  is  central  to  Ariosto’s  episode,  where  Rinaldo,  a  full  
participant  of  the  code,  courteously  agrees  to  the  single  combat  requested  by  his  
adversary  –  both  of  them  unknown  to  one  another  –  and  sends  his  brother  and  
cousins  on  ahead  of  him  in  order  to  assure  a  fight  on  equal  terms.    The  two  then  
battle  to  a  draw,  each  marveling  at  the  other’s  valor  and  wondering  how  he  can  
extricate  himself  from  an  encounter  fought  only  for  “disio  d’onore”  with  his  honor  
intact.    Darkness  at  last  intervenes,  and  Rinaldo  invites  the  stranger  knight  to  put  off  
fighting  until  the  following  day  and  meanwhile  to  join  him  and  his  brothers  in  their  
pavilions;  it  is  here  that  the  latter  realizes  that  he  has  been  fighting  none  other  than  
Rinaldo  and  reveals  his  own  identity:  he  is  Guidon  Selvaggio,  the  bastard  brother  of  
Rinaldo,  and  thus  one  more  son  of  Aymon,  who  has  come  to  France  precisely  to  be  
reunited  with  his  kindred.    Rinaldo  repeatedly  embraces  this  new  addition  to  the  
family.    Guidon  has  not  only  show  that  he  belongs  as  a  knight,  but  as  a  member  of  
one  of  the  great  chivalric  lineages.    The  episode  conflates  the  idea  of  a  brotherhood  
of  arms  –  what  will  allow  Shakespeare’s  Henry  V  to  address  his  army  at  Agincourt  as  
“we  band  of  brothers;  /  For  he  to-­‐day  that  sheds  his  blood  with  me  /  Shall  be  my  
brother”  (4.3.60-­‐62)  –  with  literal  brotherhood  and  a  mystifying  notion  of  
aristocratic  pedigree.    If  the  first  case  suggests  a  kind  of  blood  brotherhood,  the  
second  argues  for  a  blue  blood  that  will  tell  in  martial  prowess  and  honor.    As  Mad  
magazine  once  commented  on  a  modern  incarnation  of  the  chivalric  clan  in  the  
television  western  –  the  Cartwright  family  in  Bonanza,  where  each  of  the  sons  of  Ben  
Cartwright  was  born  from  a  different  mother  –  “the  family  that  slays  together,  stays  
together.”  
  Aristo  pairs  this  episode  with  another  than  concludes  the  same  Canto  31.    
Rinaldo,  Guidone,  and  their  kindred  have  reached  Paris  and  their  intervention  is  
decisive  in  routing  the  pagan  army  of  Agramante  and  driving  it  in  retreat  from  Paris  
all  the  way  to  Arles.    In  the  midst  of  the  fighting,  Rinaldo  is  confronted  by  the  pagan  
king  Gradasso,  who  reproves  him  for  not  having  shown  up  to  fight  a  prearranged  
combat  in  an  episode  near  the  opening  of  Boiardo’  Orlando  inamorato  (1.5.7f),  the  
predecessor  poem  to  the  Furioso;  the  winner  was  to  have  obtained  possession  of  
Baiardo,  Rinaldo’s  wondrous  steed.    Now,  some  95  cantos  of  poetry  later,  Rinaldo  
seeks  to  explain  his  absence  and  asserts  that  he  will  give  Gradasso  the  lie  if  the  
pagan  champion  claims  that  he,  Rinaldo,  ever  shirked  his  chivalric  duty  –  “e  sempre  
che  tu  dica  mentirai,  /  ch’alla  cavalleria  mancass’io  mai”  (31.99.7-­‐8).    Here  the  poem  
specifically  invokes  the  terms  of  the  dueling  code,  according  to  which  the  man  who  
is  given  the  lie  is  required  to  fight  to  wipe  away  the  imputation  of  dishonor.    
Gradasso  is  content  to  accept  Rinaldo’s  explanation,  whatever  doubts  he  may  harbor  
about  it,  in  order  to  return  to  their  earlier  quarrel  of  Baiardo.    Rinaldo  has  promised  

  30  
to  fight  for  the  possession  of  the  horse  just  as  they  had  originally  agreed.    He  no  
invites  Gradasso  to  lodge  with  him  that  night,  much  as  he  had  earlier  offered  lodging  
to  Guidon  Selvaggio;  although  Gradasso  refuses,  the  two  knights  show  the  greatest  
signs  of  courtesy  to  each  other  when  they  meet  the  next  morning  alone  at  a  chosen  
field:  [they  embraced  and  indeed  each  showed  such  open  and  friendly  countenance  
as  if  Gradasso  were  joined  to  the  lord  of  Chiaramonte  by  blood  and  amity.]    Where  
Rinaldo  discovers  his  half-­‐brother  Guidon  Selvaggio  through  fighting  him,  here  he  
treats  the  pagan  enemy  Gradasso  whom  he  is  about  to  fight  like  family  or  at  least  
like  an  old  family-­‐friend.    The  juxtaposition  of  the  two  episodes,  linked  by  their  
positions  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  canto,  is  typical  of  Ariostos’s  procedure  in  
the  Furioso;  his  interlace  technique  allows  for  ironic  similarities  and  relationships  to  
emerge  among  apparently  independent  narrative  strands  within  the  poem.    In  both  
instances,  the  paladins  are  fighting  over  a  horse  –  Guidon  Selvaggio’s  horse  killed  by  
Baiardo  and  then  Baiardo  himself  –  but  the  horse  is  relatively  unimportant.    What  
interests  the  fighters  is  the  fight  itself  and  the  occasion  it  gives  them  to  enter  into  
the  system  of  emulation  and  competition  that  is  chivalry  –  where  even  enemies  of  
rival  faiths  can  recognize  their  underlying  kinship.    Ariosto’s  attitude  towards  the  
aristocratic  ideology  is,  as  usual,  distanced  and  potentially  satiric.    For  if  his  knights  
may  discover  that  their  prowess  and  allegiance  to  chivalric  norms  make  them  all  
brothers,  chivalry  and  its  duels  turn  into  fratricide.      
  Through  his  chivalry,  Ariosto’s  Guidon  Sevaggio  demonstrates  that  he  is,  
although  a  bastard,  a  true  son  of  Aymon:  the  willingness  to  fight  in  the  duel’s  
honorable  mode  of  single  combat  becomes  the  badge  of  noble  identity.    We  may  find  
a  real-­‐life  parallel  to  the  fiction  of  the  Furioso  from  the  poet’s  Duchy  of  Ferrara  in  a  
letter  written  by  Count  Galeotto  Pico,  lord  of  Mirandola,  to  his  lord,  Duke  Ercole  II  
d’Este,  in  1548,  some  sixteen  years  after  the  publication  of  Ariosto’s  poem.    
Beginning  with  the  legal  formula,  “Dico  e  per  li  presenti  faccio  fede,”  the  letter  is  an  
affidavit  describing  an  event  in  the  streets  of  Mirandola  involving  the  Count’s  cousin  
through  an  illegitimate  branch  of  the  family,  the  similarly  named  Galeotto  d’Ettor  
Pico.    It  is  preserved  in  the  collection  of  documents  concerned  with  affairs  of  honor  
under  the  heading  “Duelli  e  sfide,”  in  the  Este  archive  in  the  Archivio  di  Stato  in  
Modena.  
I  say  and  I  give  faith  to  those  present  that  the  case  was  of  this  sort  that  as  
Battista  Signoretto  was  walking  beneath  the  Palace  with  Leandro  dell’Usana,  
Messer  Galeotto  d’Hettor  Pico  who  had  come  there  began  angrily  to  say  to  him,  
“Are  that  wretched,  rascally  coward”  (triste  furfante  poltrone),  with  other  
similar  insulting  words,  “who  has  been  order  to  send  a  killer  to  my  house?”  To  
which  the  other  responded  that  he  was  aman  of  honor  (uomo  da  bene)  and  that  
it  was  not  true  that  he  had  sent  a  killer  to  his  house,  and  as  Messer  Galeotto  
continued  to  say  the  same  thing  to  him,  Battista  gave  him  the  lie  (gli  diede  una  
mentita),  whereupon  he  [Galeotto]  having  put  his  hand  to  his  sword  and  having  
advanced  upon  him  to  strike  him  Battista,  who  also  had  his  sword  in  hand,  went  
ever  backing  away  and  saying  that  he  did  not  want  to  have  it  out  with  him  
because  he  bore  him  respect  (per  avergli  rispetto);  at  which  time  Messer  
Galeotto,  seeing  that  he  could  not  strike  him  because  he  was  backing  away,  
hurled  his  sword  at  him,  which  was  repelled  by  Giovanni  Trinco  with  his  own  

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 that  he  removed  from  its  scabbard  in  order  to  separate  them,  and  there  was  a  
danger  that  he  would  have  hit  him  if  that  had  not  happened.    After  this  as  
Messer  Galeotto  continued  to  insult  him  and  to  say  to  him  “poltroon,  you  are  
running  away,”Battista  who  was  already  outside  the  portico  of  the  Palace  gave  
him  the  lie  (lo  mentì)  another  time.    Shortly  afterwards,  after  Messer  Galeotto  
had  withdrawn  inside  the  workshop  of  Francesco  Zalotto  while  Signoretto  went  
inot  the  house  of  Leandro,  Signoretto  returned  beneath  the  palace  while  Messer  
Galeotto  was  walking,  whereupon  Messer  Galeotto,  seeing  him  turning  to  go  
home  said  to  him  certain  words  that  indicated  that  he  was  superior  to  (era  di  
più  del)  Signoretto,  to  which  Signoretto,  to  which  Signoretto  replied,  “Yes,  in  
riches.”    To  which  Messer  Galeotto  answered  him  “In  riches  and  in  blood,  and  in  
every  way  other  thing,  you  coward,”  and  put  his  hand  to  his  swoard  and  ran  
towards  him,  but  he  turned  his  back  to  him  without  drawing  his  sword,  and  
fleeing,  bumped  into  a  bench  and  fell  with  his  hands  on  the  ground,  during  
which  time  Messer  Galeotto  was  grabbed,  kept  apart,  and  restrained  by  Messer  
Pagano.  
  Galeotto  Pico,  Count  of  Mirandola    
  May  11,  1548  
Whatever  the  truth  may  lie  behind  Galeotto  d’Ettor  Pico’s  suspicion  that  Battista  
Signoretto  is  involved  in  a  possibly  murderous  conspiracy  against  him,  their  public  
quarrel  turns  into  a  defense  of  personal  honor  –  of  Signoretto  who  claims  to  be  a  
“huomo  da  bene”  and  therefore  above  underhanded  means,  of  Pico,  who  twice  given  
the  lie,  demands  the  satisfaction  of  wiping  this  slur  against  his  honor  away  with  his  
sword.    Signoretto  backs  out  of  the  fight,  depending  on  the  intervention  of  
bystanders  and  friends,  because  he  claims  to  have  respect  for  Pico  –  and  because  we  
may  assume,  he  knows  better  than  to  fight  a  Pico,  even  an  illegitimate  one,  in  
Mirandola.    The  connected  issues  of  respect  and  illegitimacy  emerge  when  the  
quarrel  ignites  a  second  time  after  the  two  men  have  apparently  cooled  off  indoors.    
Like  Ariosto’s  Guidon  Selvaggio,  Pico  wants  to  measure  himself  against  his  
adversary  and  to  establish  that  he  is  worth  more:  “di  più;”  he  reaches  for  his  sword  
again  when  Signoretto  is  willing  to  concede  that  Pico  is  his  superior  only  in  a  wealth  
that  might  belong  to  a  merchant  or  tradesman:  “and  in  blood,”  cries  the  irate  Pico,  
asserting  the  nobility  of  his  lineage.    The  drawing  of  his  sword,  his  engaging  in  this  
public  display  of  his  fighting  disposition,  in  fact,  demonstrate  –  and  demand  
recognition  from  others  –  that  he  is  a  real  Pico.    The  letter  from  his  cousin  the  Count,  
his  namesake,  that  describes  the  events  for  their  mutual  superior,  the  Duke,  make  be  
a  token  of  just  such  recognition.    As  Rinaldo  welcomed  Guidon  Selvaggio  into  the  
family,  Count  Galeotto  testifies  to  the  noble  behavior  of  his  relation  –  at  the  comic  
expense  of  the  retreating,  stumbling  Signoretto.    These  stories  of  bastard  brothers  
revealing  their  innate  nobility  may  be  emblematic  of  the  legitimizing  role  the  duel  
played  for  the  aristocracy  at  large.  The  function  of  the  duel  as  a  form  of  conflict-­‐
resolution  was  at  least  balanced  in  importance  by  the  occasion  it  gave  for  the  
ritualized  display  of  those  qualities  –  fighting  skill,  courage,  reckless  exposure  to  
risk  –  that  were  supposed  to  define  membership  in  a  noble  class.  
 
Short  Sword  Fighting  Techniques  

  32  
   The  short  sword  has  less  effective  range  has  less  effective  range  than  a  full-­‐
length  blade.    However,  range  alone  doesn’t  determine  the  outcome  of  a  duel.    
Longer  swords  also  have  longer  blade  paths  and  take  longer  to  swing  and  return  to  a  
ready  stance.    Short  swords  and  knives  can  be  moved  and  more  quickly.    Step  back  
out  of  range  of  a  cut,  then  move  your  short  sword  to  intercept.    While  still  holding  
this  position,  step  in  with  an  attack  of  your  own.    Your  opponent  will  more  than  
likely  be  unable  to  bring  the  weapon  back  into  ready  position  in  time  to  parry  you.    
Also,  remember  that  with  most  swords,  more  than  just  the  blade  serves  as  a  useful  
attacking  tool.    You  can  strike  with  the  pommel  of  the  hilt  or  the  crossguard  if  one  
exists.  
  Most  swords  or  longer  weapons  require  two  hands  to  wield  them  effectively.    
A  short  sword  or  a  knife,  however,  only  requires  one  hand.    Your  other  hand  can  be  
free  to  block,  strike  or  otherwise  act.    For  example,  you  could  step  in,  deflect  an  
inward  cut  with  a  downward  block  to  the  opponent’s  forearm  and  punch  his  
midsection.    When  your  offhand  isn’t  in  use,  keep  it  near  the  middle  of  your  chest  
close  to  your  body  to  protect  against  oncoming  attacks.    Don’t  explose  the  inside  of  
the  wrist;  several  major  veins  run  through  it  and  a  knife  wound  could  lead  to  fatal  
blood  loss.  
  The  points  of  attack  on  a  weapon  consist  of  the  parts  of  it  that  can  be  used  in  
combat.    On  a  knife  or  short  sword,  you  can  use  the  point,  the  edge,  the  guard,  the  
pommel  or  your  own  arm.    Because  of  the  shortness  of  a  knife,  you  can  transition  
between  attacks  quickly.    A  thrust  can  lead  into  a  cut  when  you  draw  the  blade  back,  
or  you  can  follow  an  elbow  strike  with  a  blow  from  the  pommel  and  flow  into  a  cut.  
  Jim  Advincula  explains  that  almost  any  part  of  your  opponent’s  body  can  be  a  
target  for  attack.    Even  though  you  may  have  the  urge  to  attack  vital  areas  such  as  
the  throat  or  chest,  even  a  small  amount  of  drawn  blood  puts  the  enemy  at  an  
immense  psychological  disadvantage.  
 
Dance  
From:    
English  country  dances  are  “set  dances,”  meaning  that  rather  than  two  partners  
dancing  only  with  each  other  (as  in  ballroom  dance),  the  partners  from  “sets”  of  
various  numbers  and  configurations,  and  couples  in  set  interact  with  each  other.    
Some  dances  are  for  just  two  couples,  while  others  are  for  as  many  as  want  to  join.    
Some  are  configured  in  lines,  some  in  circles,  and  some  in  squares.  
Wherever  the  musicians  stand  is  considered  the  top  of  the  hall.    The  couple  
closest  to  them  is  the  “top  couple.”    In  a  square  configuration,  this  would  make  the  
couple  opposite  them  the  “bottom  couple,”  and  the  others  “side  couples.”  
A  caller  calls  out  which  moves  to  perform.    While  dances  often  have  moves  that  
are  unique  to  them,  there  is  a  standard  repertoire  of  moves  that  show  up  in  many  
dances.    Here  are  some  of  the  most  common:  
• Set  and  Turn:  Here’s  a  basic  move  that  shows  up  in  many,  many  English  
country  dances.    Take  one  step  to  the  right,  then  two  in  place,  then  one  
step  to  the  left,  then  two  in  place,  then  walk  four  steps  in  a  small  
clockwise  circle.    Sometimes  the  call  will  be  merely  to  “set,”  which  is  just  
the  first  half  of  this  move.    Sometimes  the  call  will  be  merely  to  “turn  

  33  
 single,”  which  is  the  second  half  of  this  move.    Usually,  the  two  happen  
together.  
• Siding:  Staring  on  your  right  foot,  change  places  with  your  partner,  then  
walk  back  on  the  same  path  to  return  home.    (When  coming  back  to  your  
home  position,  you  would  traditionally  begin  that  part  of  the  move  with  
your  left  foot,  but  some  modern  dancers  use  their  right.)    Note  that  you’re  
not  walking  a  circular  path.    Instead,  you  come  back  on  the  same  “track”  
you  took  to  swap  places.  
• Arming:  The  actual  call  for  this  move  will  be  “Arm  right”  or  “Arm  left,”  but  
you’ll  usually  do  them  both:  first  arm  right,  then  arm  left.    If  the  caller  
simply  says  “Arming,”  then  this  means  to  do  them  both.    The  move  itself  is  
very  simple:  Hook  elbows  with  your  partner  and  walk  once  around,  then  
return  home.  
 
• Morris  dance:  is  a  form  of  English  fold  dance  usually  accompanied  by  music.    
It  is  based  on  rhythmic  stepping  and  execution  of  choreographed  figures  by  a  
group  of  dancers,  usually  wearing  bell  pads  on  their  shins.    Implements  such  
as  swords,  sticks,  and  handkerchiefs  may  also  be  wielded  by  the  dancers.    In  
a  small  number  of  dances  for  one  or  two  people,  steps  are  near  and  across  a  
pair  of  clay  tobacco  pipes  laid  one  across  the  other  on  the  floor.  
 
• Orchésographie  by  the  priest  Thoinot  Arbeau  (1520-­‐1595)  is  written  in  the  
form  of  a  dialogue  between  the  author  and  student.    Such  dances  as  the  
pavane,  gavotte,  and  allemande  are  not  only  exactly  described  but  also  
usually  illustrated  and  directly  associated  with  their  musical  forms.    The  
book  also  outlines  principles  that,  more  than  a  century  later  formed  the  basis  

  34  
 of  the  five  fundamental  positions  of  ballet.

 
 
Music  
From  OxfordWesternMusic.com:  
The  fortunes  of  music  in  England,  and  of  theatrical  music  in  particular,  took  a  
decisive  turn  with  the  Stuart  Restoration,  the  reestablisment  of  the  British  
monarchy  less  than  a  dozen  years  after  its  abolition.    Charles  II,  the  30-­‐year-­‐old  son  
of  the  deposed  king,  was  summoned  back  from  France,  where  he  had  been  exiled  
(with  interludes  in  Germany  and  the  Netherlands)  since  1646,  and  crowned  in  1660.    
A  shrewd  diplomat  and  absolute  monarch  without  a  parliament,  but  –  in  marked  
contrast  with  his  father  –  a  very  popular  despot.    One  of  the  sources  of  his  popularity  
was  the  cosmopolitan,  libertine  character  of  his  court,  a  most  welcome  contrast  with  
the  times  that  had  gone  before.    It  was  a  court  where  (in  the  waggish  words  of  Keith  
Walker,  a  literary  historian),  “anything  went,  where  actresses  were  regularly  

  35  
rogered,  where  whores  were  ennobled  to  duchesses,  where  the  arts  flourished,  
where  if  greed  wasn’t  yet  good,  hypocrisy  certainly  was.”      
• Pelham  Humfrey  
• Henry  Purcell  “Ode  to  St.  Cecilia’s  Day”  
• John  Blow’s  “Venus  and  Adonis”  
• Jean  Baptiste  Lully  
 
Astrology  as  science  and  mathematics  
From  AncientOrigins.com:  
  Born  into  the  era  of  intellectual  and  artistic  reawakening,  John  Dee  quickly  
rose  through  Elizabethan  society  as  a  scholar,  philosopher,  navigator,  doctor,  and  
astrologer  of  the  Queen  of  England.    Intrigued  with  so  many  fields,  including  a  deep  
fascination  with  the  occult,  John  Dee’s  vast  interests  resulted  in  his  unintentional  
creation  of  the  largest  personal  library  in  Elizabethan  England  at  the  time,  visited  by  
renowned  scholars  from  all  over  the  world.    Luckily  for  modern  historians,  Dee  was  
prolific  enough  writer  that  his  life  is  well  documented,  however  the  question  why  he  
was  tasked  with  so  many  important  roles  in  the  British  court  is  still  an  incredible  
dilemma.  
  Though  Dee  wore  many  hats  during  his  lifetime,  he  made  astounding  waves  
in  each  field.    He  was  a  skilled  student  at  St.  John’s  College,  so  much  so  that  after  
obtaining  both  a  bachelor’s  degree  and  a  master’s  from  the  university,  Dee  set  his  
sights  on  working  directly  in  the  Royal  Court  under  Queen  Mary  I.  
  His  relationship  with  the  royal  court,  however,  turned  tumultuous  as  he  
became  more  interested  in  mathematics  and  astrology.    Queen  Mary  I  had  him  
arrested  in  1555  for  “calculating”,  as  mathematics  and  magic  were  considered  close  
cousins  in  this  time.    The  charges  were  of  treason  and  he  was  imprisoned  for  a  
period,  until  finally  exonerated  by  Bishop  Edmund  Bonner.  
  Dee  rose  once  again  in  the  favor  of  the  court  when  Elizabeth  I  became  queen  
in  1558  –  three  years  after  Dee’s  arrest.    She  took  him  on  as  her  astrological  advisor,  
allowing  him  the  prestigious  task  of  choosing  the  exact  date  of  her  coronation.    
After,  he  was  given  numerous  important  court  duties,  such  as  aiding  in  Elizabeth’s  
exploration  ambitions.  
  Rarely  discussed  in  references  of  the  New  World,  Dee  actually  helped  pioneer  
the  Voyages  of  Exploration  England  took  on  in  the  sixteenth  century,  aiding  the  
various  ship  captains  in  their  mathematical  techniques  of  navigation.    It  was  he  who  
provided  the  instruments  used  to  navigate  the  water,  himself  being  somewhat  of  a  
professional  in  the  art  of  navigation.    Driven  by  a  mutual  desire  to  reestablish  the  
great  British  Empire,  Dee  and  Queen  Elizabeth  I  worked  tirelessly  in  the  exploration  
of  North  American.    By  1583,  however,  he  had  given  up  his  work  as  a  navigation  
specialist,  and  chose  instead  to  focus  on  his  research  into  the  forces  of  nature  and  
the  supernatural  forces  of  the  universe.  
  What  John  Dee  was  most  known  for  was  his  work  in  attempting  to  commune  
with  the  spiritual  world,  particularly  heavenly  angels.    This  work  was  preceded  by  
endeavors  at  understanding  the  unifying  factor  of  nature,  which  he  believe  could  be  
discovered  through  a  combination  of  magical  and  mathematical  means.  

  36  
   Dee  wrote  his  first  astrological  book  called  Monas  Heiroglyphica  in  which  he  
discusses  the  various  facets  of  the  symbol  he  created  to  represent  the  cosmos.  

  Dee’s  glyph,  whose  meaning  he  explained  in  Monas  Hieroglyphica  as  
representing  (from  top  to  bottom):  the  moon;  the  sun;  the  elements;  and  fire.  
  This  text  drew  heavily  on  Christian  Cabbalism,  and  was  greatly  coveted  
during  his  lifetime.    However,  Dee’s  struggle  to  find  a  prestigious  patron  was  an  
uphill  battle,  and  eventually  he  tired  of  this  work  on  the  cosmos.    It  is  then  that  Dee  
began  to  focus  his  efforts  more  seriously  on  his  angelic  search,  eventually  joining  
forces  with  a  medium  called  Edward  Kelley,  a  man  twenty-­‐eight  years  younger  than  
him,  to  conduct  séances  to  interact  with  the  angels.    Through  their  continued  
meetings,  Dee  and  Kelley  claimed  to  have  been  given  the  gift  of  a  new  alphabet,  said  
to  have  been  revealed  to  them  by  angels.    They  called  the  language  ‘Angelic’  and  
later  it  became  known  as  ‘Enochian’.  
  Less  than  a  decade  after  meeting,  however,  Kelley  and  Dee’s  interests  began  
to  drift  once  more.    Kelley  himself  claimed  that  he  was  also  gifted  in  alchemy  and  
could  turn  ordinary  metals  into  gold.    As  such,  Kelley  continued  to  work  with  Dee  as  
his  scryer,  but  focused  much  more  of  his  time  on  an  attempt  to  transform  
substances  and  find  the  legendary  Philosopher’s  Stone.  
  The  seven  years  that  they  spent  together,  leading  nomadic  lives  and  working  
endlessly  on  their  newfound  alphabet,  came  to  an  abrupt  end  in  1589,  when  Kelley  
returned  to  the  court  of  the  Holy  Roman  Emperor  Rudolph  II  and  Dee  went  home  to  
England.    Dee  outlived  his  former  friend  by  many  years,  and  continued  their  work,  
immortalizing  them  both  with  his  Angelical/Enochian  literature.  
  Over  time,  Dee’s  work  in  the  occult  became  more  heavily  criticized  and,  after  
parting  ways  with  Kelley  in  1589,  he  became  a  Warden  of  Christ’s  College  in  

  37  
Manchester,  England.    He  died  a  poor  man’s  death  in  1608,  having  fallen  out  of  favor  
with  Elizabeth  I’s  successor  James  VI/I.  
  Despite  the  way  his  life  ended,  John  Dee  was  considered  somewhat  of  a  
wizard  in  Elizabethan  circles.    Even  with  so  few  followers  of  his  angelic  endeavors,  
his  work  evolved  into  a  modern  magical  and  religious  practice  that  continues  to  be  
utilized  by  occult  organizations  around  the  world.  
 
From  Wikipedia:  
  Astrological  beliefs  in  correspondences  between  celestial  observations  and  
terrestrial  events  have  influenced  various  aspects  of  human  history,  including  
world-­‐views,  language,  and  many  elements  of  social  culture.  
  Among  Indo-­‐European  peoples,  astrology  has  been  dated  to  the  3rd  
millennium  BC  with  roots  in  calendrical  systems  used  to  predict  seasonal  shifts  and  
to  interpret  celestial  cycles  as  signs  of  divine  communications.    Until  the  17th  
century,  astrology  was  considered  a  scholarly  tradition,  and  it  helped  drive  the  
development  of  astronomy.    It  was  commonly  accepted  in  political  and  cultural  
circles,  and  some  of  its  concepts  were  used  in  other  traditional  studies,  such  as  
alchemy,  meteorology  and  medicine.    By  the  end  of  the  17th  century,  emerging  
scientific  concepts  in  astronomy,  such  as  heliocentrism,  undermined  the  theoretical  
basis  of  astrology,  which  subsequently  lost  its  academic  standing  and  became  
regarded  as  pseudoscience.    Empirical  scientific  investigation  has  shown  that  
predictions  and  recommendations  based  on  these  systems  are  not  accurate.      
 
Military  Officers  
From  Wikipedia:  
  The  English  Army  was  first  established  as  a  standing  military  force  in  1660.    
In  1707  many  regiments  of  the  English  and  Scottish  armies  were  already  combined  
under  one  operational  command  and  stationed  in  the  Netherlands  fighting  in  the  
War  of  Spanish  Succession.    Consequently,  although  the  regiments  of  the  old  armies  
transferred  in  situ  to  the  new  army  so  too  was  the  institutional  ethos,  customs,  and  
traditions,  of  the  old  standing  armies  that  had  been  created  shortly  after  the  
restoration  of  the  monarchy  47  years  earlier.      Stuart  Asquith  argues  for  roots  before  
1660:  
 
Many  authorities  quote  the  Restoration  of  1660  as  the  birth  date  of  our  modern  
British  Army.    While  this  may  be  true  as  far  as  continuity  of  unit  identity  is  
concerned,  it  is  untrue  in  a  far  more  fundamental  sense.    The  evidence  of  history  
shows  that  the  creation  of  an  efficient  military  machine  [,The  New  Model  Army,]  
and  its  proving  on  the  battlefield,  predates  the  Restoration  by  15  years.  It  was  on  
the  fields  of  Naseby,  Dunbar  and  Dunes  that  the  foundations  of  the  British  
professional  army  were  laid.  
 
The  New  Model  Army  was  the  first  full-­‐time  professional  army  raised  within  the  
three  kingdoms  of  England,  Ireland  and  Scotland.    It  was  created  in  1645  by  the  
English  Long  Parliament  and  it  proved  supreme  in  the  field.    At  the  end  of  the  First  

  38  
Civil  War  the  New  Model  Army  survived  attempts  by  Parliament  to  disband  it.    
Winston  Churchill  described  its  prowess  thus.  
 
The  Story  of  the  Second  English  Civil  War  is  short  and  simple.    King,  Lords  and  
Commons,  landlords,  merchants,  the  City  and  the  countryside,  bishops  and  
prebysters,  the  Scottish  army,  the  Welsh  people,  and  the  English  Fleet,  all  now  
turned  against  the  New  Model  Army.    The  Army  beat  the  lot!  
 
At  his  restoration  Charles  II  sought  to  create  a  small  standing  army  made  up  of  
some  former  Royalist  and  New  Model  Army  regiments.    On  26  January  1661,  Charles  
II  issued  the  Royal  Warrant  that  created  the  first  regiments  of  what  would  become  
the  British  Army,  although  Scotland  and  England  maintained  separate  
establishments  until  the  Acts  of  Union  1707.  
King  Charles  put  into  these  regiments  those  cavaliers  who  had  attached  
themselves  to  him  during  his  exile  on  the  European  continent  and  had  fought  for  
him  at  the  Battle  of  the  Dunes  against  the  Roundheads  of  the  Protectorate  and  their  
French  allies.    For  political  expediency  he  also  included  some  elements  of  the  New  
Model  Army.    The  whole  force  consisted  of  two  corps  of  horse  and  five  or  six  of  
infantry.    It  is,  however,  on  this  narrow  and  solid  basis  that  the  structure  of  the  
English  army  was  gradually  erected.    The  horse  consisted  of  two  regiments  the  Life  
Guards  (formed  from  the  exiled  cavaliers);  the  Blues  (or  The  Oxford  Blues),  formed  
by  Lord  Oxford,  out  of  some  of  the  best  New  Model  Army  horse  regiments.    The  foot  
regiments  were  Grenadier  Guards  (initially  two  regiments  Lord  Wentworth’s  
Regiment  and  John  Russell’s  Regiment  of  Guards  which  amalgamated  in  1665),  the  
Coldstream  Guards  (the  New  Model  Army  regiment  of  General  Monck),  the  Royal  
Scots  (formed  from  the  Scotch  guard  in  France),  and  the  Second  Queen’s  Royals.  
Many  of  Charles’  subjects  were  uneasy  at  his  creation  of  this  small  army.    
Pamphleteers  wrote  tracts  voicing  the  fear  of  a  people  who  within  living  memory  
had  experienced  the  Rule  of  the  Major-­‐Generals  and  had  liked  neither  the  
imposition  of  military  rule,  or  the  costs  of  keeping  an  army  in  being  when  the  
country  was  not  at  war  with  itself  or  others.    People  also  remembered  the  “Eleven  
Years’  Tyranny”  of  Charles  I  and  feared  that  a  standing  army  under  royal  command  
would  allow  monarchs  in  the  future  to  ignore  the  wishes  of  Parliament.  
 
From  Britannica.com:  
  The  army  of  England  before  the  Norman  Conquest  consisted  of  the  king’s  
household  troops  (housecarls)  and  all  freeman  able  to  bear  arms,  who  served  under  
the  fyrd  system  for  two  months  a  year.    After  1066  the  Normans  introduced  
feudalism  and  mounted  troops  (knights)  and  their  auxiliaries,  infantry,  and  military  
artisans.    Mercenaries  were  employed  during  the  Hundred  Years’  War  (1337-­‐1453)  
and  the  Wars  of  the  Roses  (1455-­‐85)  in  combination  with  the  militia.    With  the  
Battle  of  Crécy  in  1346,  archers  became  important,  the  longbow  being  a  major  
innovation  of  warfare.  
  The  first  English  standing  army  was  formed  by  Oliver  Cromwell  in  1645  
during  the  Civil  War.    His  New  Model  Army  was  highly  disciplined  and  well  trained.    
Associated  with  the  excesses  of  Cromwell’s  Commonwealth,  however,  it  was  

  39  
disbanded  by  Charles  II  in  1660  except  for  a  household  brigade  (now  the  
Coldstream  Guards).    After  the  Glorious  Revolution  (1688-­‐89),  the  English  Bill  of  
Rights  (1689)  gave  Parliament  the  control  of  the  army  that  it  maintains  today.  
 
Cavaliers  

 
From  Wikipedia:  
  The  term  cavalier  was  first  used  by  Roundheads  as  a  term  of  abuse  for  the  
wealthier  Royalist  supporters  of  King  Charles  I  and  his  son  Charles  II  of  England  
during  the  English  Civil  War,  the  Interregnum,  and  the  Restoration  (1642-­‐c.1679).    
It  was  later  adopted  by  the  Royalists  themselves.    Although  it  referred  originally  to  
political  and  social  attitudes  and  behavior,  of  which  clothing  was  a  very  small  part,  it  
has  subsequently  become  strongly  identified  with  the  fashionable  clothing  of  the  
court  at  the  time.    Prince  Rupert,  commander  of  much  of  Charles  I’s  cavalry,  is  often  
considered  to  be  an  archetypal  Cavalier.    
  Cavalier  derives  from  the  same  Latin  root  as  the  French  word  chevalier  (as  
well  as  the  Spanish  word  caballero),  the  Vulgar  Latin  word  caballarius,  meaning  
“horseman”.    Shakespeare  used  the  word  cavaleros  to  describe  an  overbearing  
swashbuckler  or  swaggering  gallant  in  Henry  IV,  Part  2,  in  which  Shallow  says  “I’ll  
dring  to  Master  Bardolph,  and  to  all  the  cavaleros  about  London”.  
   
Prince  Rupert  of  the  Rhine  
 
From  Wikipedia:  

  40  
   Prince  Rupert  of  the  Rhine,  Duke  of  Cumberland,  was  a  noted  German  
soldier,  admiral,  scientist,  sportsman,  colonial  governor  and  amateur  artist  during  
the  17th  Century.    He  first  came  to  prominence  as  a  Cavalier  cavalry  commander  
during  the  English  Civil  War.  
  Rupert  was  a  younger  son  of  the  German  prince  Frederick  V,  Elector  Palatine  
and  his  wife  Elizabeth,  the  eldest  daughter  of  James  VI  of  Scotland  and  I  of  England.    
Thus  Rupert  was  the  nephew  of  King  Charles  I  of  England,  who  made  him  Duke  of  
Cumberland  and  Earl  of  Holderness,  and  the  first  cousin  of  King  Charles  II  of  
England.    His  sister  Electress  Sophia  was  the  mother  of  George  I  of  Great  Britain.  
  Prince  Rupert  had  a  varied  career.    He  was  a  soldier  from  a  young  age,  
fighting  against  Spain  in  the  Netherlands  during  the  Eighty  Years’  War  (1568-­‐1648),  
and  against  the  Holy  Roman  Emperor  in  Germany  during  the  Thirty  Years’  War  
(1618-­‐1648).    Aged  23,  he  was  appointed  commander  of  the  Royalist  cavalry  during  
the  English  Civil  War,  becoming  the  archetypal  Cavalier  of  the  war  and  ultimately  
the  senior  Royalist  general.  He  surrendered  after  the  fall  of  Bristol  and  was  banished  
from  England.    He  served  under  Louis  XIV  of  France  against  Spain,  and  then  as  a  
Royalist  privateer  in  the  Caribbean.    Following  the  Restoration,  Rupert  returned  to  
England,  becoming  a  senior  English  naval  commander  during  the  Second  and  Third  
Anglo-­‐Dutch  wars,  engaging  in  scientific  invention,  art,  and  serving  as  the  first  
governor  of  the  Hudson’  Bay  Company.      
 
Mass  
From  Wikipedia:  
  The  Mass,  know  more  fully  as  the  Most  Holy  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  is  the  
central  liturgical  ritual  of  the  Catholic  Church  where  the  Eucharist  (Holy  
Communion)  is  consecrated.    The  Church  describes  the  Holy  Mass  as  “the  source  and  
summit  of  the  Christian  life”.    It  teaches  that  through  consecration  by  an  ordained  
priest  the  bread  and  wine  become  the  sacrificial  body,  blood,  soul,  and  divinity  of  
Christ  as  the  sacrifice  on  Calvary  made  truly  present  once  again  on  the  altar.    The  
Catholic  Church  permits  only  baptized  members  in  the  state  of  grace  (Catholics  who  
have  recently  confessed  all  mortal  sins)  to  receive  Christ  in  the  Eucharist.  
o Matins  (during  the  night,  usually  said  at  dawn):  approximately  3AM  or  
6AM  or  9AM  (or  all  three  for  some  sects)  
o Vespers:  approximately  4PM  or  6PM  
o Sunday  Mass  –  9AM,  typically  
o Daily  Mass  –  most  people  fast  until  mass  has  occurred,  so  7AM  was  a    
common  time.  
 
Stereotypes:  
• Physicians  –  that  they  were  Jewish  and  they  might  poison  you.  
• Churchmen  -­  scheming  
• Poets  -­  malcontents  
 
 
 
 

  41  
Vocabulary  
 
1. Abbess  (pg.  478):    In  Christianity,  an  abbess  is  the  female  superior  of  a  
community  of  nuns,  which  is  often  an  abbey.  
 
2. Abominable  (pg.  494):    causing  moral  revulsion.    From  the  Middle  English  
and  Latin  for  abominablis:  ab  =  ‘away  from’  +  homine  =  human  being,  thus  
‘inhuman,  beastly’.  
 
3. Abominate  (pg.  501):    detest;  loathe.  From  the  Latin  abominate  –  
‘deprecated,’  from  the  verb  aboinari,  from  ab  –  ‘away,  from’  +  omen.  
 
4. Above  Ground  (pg.  464):    In  the  real  world  (i.e.,  outside  the  convent).      
 
5. Abyss  (pg.  493):    a  deep  or  seemingly  bottomless  chasm.    From  Greek  a  –  
without,  and  bussos  –  depth  and  the  Middle  English  (in  the  sense  ‘infernal  
pit’).  
 
6. ‘Adsheartlikins  (pg.  467):    Expostulation  equivalent  to  “As  God  loves  us.”    A  
term  of  endearment,  “God’s  little  heart”.  
 
7. Airy  (pg.  502):    spacious,  well  lit,  and  well  ventilated.    Giving  an  impression  
of  light  gracefulness  and  elegance.    From  the  14  century  “of  the  air,  
containing  air,  made  of  air):    Breezy,  exposed  to  air;  lofty,  high,  light  buoyant,  
flimsy,  flippant  jaunty,  affectedly  lofty;  vain;  unreal.      Visionary,  speculative.  
 
8. Ague  (pg.  491):    Malaria  or  some  other  illness  involving  fever  and  shivering.    
Old  French  cuta  (febris)  ‘acute  (fever)’.  
 
9. Allurements  (pg.  482):    The  power  to  entice  or  attract  through  personal  
charm;  the  act  of  enticing  a  person  to  do  something  wrong  (as  an  offer  of  sex  
in  return  for  money).    Means  of  alluring;  act  of  alluring;  action  of  attracting.  
 
10. A  Lost  English  boy  of  thirty  (pg.  470):    Probably  the  age  and  maturity  of  
Ned  Blunt.  
 
11. Am  I  put  into  the  number  of  lovers?  (pg.  478):    Do  you  include  me  among?  
 
12. Amorous  (pg.  498):    showing,  feeling,  or  relating  to  sexual  desire.    From  
Latin  amor  ‘love’.      
 
13. Anglese  (pg.  464):    English.    (Referring  in  this  instance  to  the  English  colonel  
Belvile).  
 
14. Annihilated  (pg.  483):    destroy  utterly;  obliterate.    Late  Middle  English  for  
‘destroyed,  annulled’.    From  late  Latin  annihilatus  ‘reduced  to  nothing.’  

  42  
  
15. Anon  (pg.  482):    Soon;  shortly.    Old  English  on  an  (into  one),  on  ane  (in  one).    
The  original  sense  was  ‘in  or  into  one  state,  course,  etc.,  which  developed  into  
the  temporal  sense  ‘at  once.’  
 
16. Antic  (pg.  477):    grotesque  or  bizarre.    From  the  early  16th  century:  from  
Italian  antico  ‘antique,’  used  to  mean  ‘grotesque.’  
 
17. Antipodies  (pg.  492):    Parts  of  the  earth  diametrically  opposite.    From  late  
Middle  English:  via  French  or  late  Latin  from  Greek  antipodes  ‘having  the  feet  
opposite,’  from  anti  ‘against,  opposite’  +  pous,  pod  –  ‘foot.’    The  term  
originally  denoted  the  inhabitants  of  opposite  sides  of  the  earth,  or  the  side  
opposite  to  oneself,  and  was  later  transferred  to  the  places  where  they  live.  
 
18. Apprehend  (pg.  495):    arrest  (someone)  for  a  crime;  understand  or  
perceive;  anticipate  (something)  with  uneasiness  or  fear.    Late  Middle  
English  (originally  in  the  sense  ‘grasp,  get  hold  of  (physically  or  mentally)’):  
from  French  apprehender  or  Latin  apprehendere,  from  ad  –  ‘toward’  +  
prehendere  ‘lay  hold  of’.  
 
19. À  propos  (pg.  502):    about.    (with  regard  to  this  purpose)  
 
20. Archer  (pg.  471):    a  person  who  shoots  with  a  bow  and  arrows,  especially  at  
a  target  for  sport.    The  zodiacal  sign  or  constellation  Sagittarius.    Middle  
English:  From  Old  French  archier,  based  on  Latin  arcus  ‘bow.’  
 
21. Ardor  (pg.  477):    enthusiasm  or  passion.    Late  Middle  English:  via  Old  
French  from  Latin  ardor,  from  ardere  ‘to  burn.’  
 
22. Augustine  nuns  (pg.  491):    From  Wikipedia:  The  most  ancient  and  
continuous  segment  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Augustinian  religious  order  under  
the  canons  of  contemporary  historical  method.    The  Augustinian  nuns,  
named  after  Saint  Augustine  of  Hippo  (died  AD  430),  are  several  Roman  
Catholic  enclosed  monastic  orders  of  women  living  according  to  a  guide  to  
religious  life  known  as  the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine.    They  live  a  mixed  religious  
life  of  contemplation  and  apostolic  ministry  and  follow  the  Rule  of  St.  
Augustine,  a  brief  document  providing  guidelines  for  living  in  a  religious  
community.    The  rule  governs  chastity,  poverty,  obedience,  detachment  from  
the  world,  the  apportionment  of  labour,  the  inferiors,  fraternal  charity,  
prayer  in  common,  fasting  and  abstinence  proportionate  to  the  strength  of  
the  individual,  care  of  the  sick,  silence  and  reading  during  meals.  
 
23. Baggage  (pg.  483):    Personal  belongings  packed  in  suitcases  for  traveling;  
luggage;  past  experiences  or  long-­‐held  ideas  regarded  as  burdents  and  
impediments.    Late  Middle  English:  from  Old  French  bagage  (from  baguer  ‘tie  
up’),  or  bagues  ‘bundles’;  perhaps  related  to  bag.    Can  be  used  in  name  

  43  
 calling,  in  regards  to  the  baggage  that  a  woman  carries  around  with  her  
(especially  if  she  has  slept  with  a  lot  of  people).  
 
24. Baggage  horse  (pg.  477):    A  horse  that  carries  the  baggage  of  officers  during  
military  campaigns.  
 
25. Bag  of  bays  (pg.  502):    Spices  wrapped  in  cloth  and  used  for  flavoring  in  
cooking.  
 
26. Balderdash  (pg.  478):    Senseless  talk  or  writing;  nonsense.    From  the  late  
16th  century  (denoting  a  frothy  liquid;  later,  an  unappetizing  mixture  of  
drinks).  
 
27. Bane  (pg.  500):    A  cause  of  great  distress  or  annoyance.    something,  typically  
poison,  that  cause  death.    Old  English  bana  ‘thing  causing  death,  poison,’  of  
Germanic  origin.  
 
28. Banged  (pg.  470):    strike  or  put  down  (something)  forcefully  and  noisily,  
typically  in  anger  or  in  order  to  attract  attention.    Vulgar  slang:  typically  used  
of  a  man)  have  sexual  intercourse  with.    Mid  16th  century:  imitative,  perhaps  
of  Scandinavian  origin,  compare  with  Old  Norse  bang  ‘hammering’.      
 
29. Bawdry  (pg.  472):    obscenity  in  speech  or  writing.    Unchastity.  Suggestive,  
coarse,  or  obscene  language.    Middle  English  bawderie,  from  bawde  for  “dirt,  
filth”.  
 
30. Begets  (pg.  480):    typically  of  a  man,  sometimes  of  a  man  and  a  woman)  
bring  (a  child)  into  existence  by  the  process  of  reproduction.    give  rise  to;  
bring  about.    Old  English  begietan  ‘get,  obtain  by  effort’  
 
31. Bellman  (pg.  470):    another  term  for  bellhop,  whom  helps  patrons  with  
their  luggage  while  checking  in  or  out.  Town  crier.,  an  officer  of  the  court  
who  makes  public  pronouncements  as  required  by  the  court,  and  can  also  be  
used  ot  make  public  announcements  in  the  streets.  
 
32. Bestride  (pg.  477):    stand  astride  over;  span  or  straddle.    Sit  astride  on.  
 
33. Billets  (pg.  478):    a  place,  usually  a  civilian’s  house  or  other  nonmilitary  
facility,  where  soldiers  are  lodged  temporarily.    Late  Middle  English:  
(originally  denoting  a  short  written  document):  from  the  Anglo-­‐Norman  
French  billette,  diminutive  of  bille.    The  verb  is  recorded  in  the  late  16th  
century,  and  noun  sense  ‘a  written  order  requiring  a  householder  to  lodge  
the  bearer,  usually  a  soldier,’  from  the  mid  17th  century;  hence  the  current  
meaning.  
 

  44  
 noun:  a  think  piece  of  wood,  each  of  a  series  of  short  cylindrical  pieces  
inserted  at  intervals  in  decorative  hollow  moldings.    a  rectangle  placed  
vertically  as  a  charge.    Late  Middle  English:  from  Old  French  billette  and  
billot,  diminutives  of  bille  ‘tree  trunk,’  from  medieval  Latin  billa,  billus  
‘branch,  trunk,’  probably  of  Celtic  origin.  

 
34. Blackfriars  (pg.  502):    Blackfriar’s  Theatre  (1576-­‐1655),  considered  old-­‐
fashioned  in  Behn’s  time.    The  name  given  to  two  separate  theatres  located  in  
the  former  Blackfriars  Dominican  priory  in  the  City  of  London  during  the  
Renaissance.    The  first  theatre  began  as  a  venue  for  the  Children  of  the  
Chapel  Royal,  child  actors  associated  with  the  Queen’s  chapel  choirs,  and  who  
from  1576  to  1584  staged  plays  in  the  vast  hall  of  the  former  monastery.    The  
second  theatre  dates  from  the  purchase  of  the  upper  part  of  the  priory  and  
another  building  by  James  Burbage  in  1596,  which  included  the  Parliament  
Chamber  on  the  upper  floor  that  was  converted  into  the  playhouse.    The  
Children  of  the  Chapel  played  in  the  theatre  beginning  in  the  autumn  of  1600  
until  the  King’s  Men  took  over  in  1608.    They  successfully  used  it  as  their  
winter  playhouse  until  all  the  theatres  were  closed  in  1642  when  the  English  
Civil  War  began.  

  45  
 35. Black  lead  (pg.  475):    Another  term  for  graphite.    Pencil.

 
 
36. Blind  ones  (pg.  501):    From  PhraseFinder.com:  This  expression  is  first  
found  in  Chaucer’s  Merchant’s  Tale,  circa  1405:  “For  loue  is  blynd  alday  and  
may  nat  see.”    It  didn’t  at  that  stage  become  a  commonly  used  phrase  and  
isn’t  seen  again  in  print  until  Shakespeare  took  it  up.    It  became  quite  a  
favourite  line  of  his  and  appears  in  several  of  his  plays,  including  Two  
Gentleman  of  Verona,  Henry  V,  and  this  example  from  The  Merchant  of  Venice,  
1596:  “Jessica:  Here,  catch  this  casket;  it  is  worth  the  pains.  /  I  am  glad  ‘tis  
night,  you  do  not  look  on  me,  /  But  love  is  blind  and  lovers  cannot  see  /  The  
pretty  follies  that  themselves  commit;  /  For  if  they  could,  Cupid  himself  
would  blush  /  To  see  me  thus  transformed  to  a  boy.”    Modern-­‐  day  research  
supports  the  view  that  the  blindness  of  love  is  not  just  a  figurative  matter.    A  
research  study  in  2004  by  University  College  London  found  that  feelings  of  
love  suppressed  the  activity  of  the  areas  of  the  brain  that  control  critical  
thought.  
 
37. Boarded  (pg.  492):    (of  a  floor,  or  other  structure)  built  with  pieces  of  wood.    
(of  a  window,  storefront,  or  other  structure)  covered  or  sealed  with  pieces  of  
wood.    get  on  or  into.    live  and  receive  regular  meals  in  a  house  in  return  for  
payment  or  services.    to  cover  with  wood.    Old  English  bord,  of  Germanic  
origin;  related  to  Dutch  boord  and  German  Bort  ;  reinforced  in  Middle  
English  by  Old  French  bort  ‘edge,  ship’s  side’  and  Old  Norse  borth  ‘board,  
table’.  
 
38. Bona  roba  (pg.  478):    a  courtesan,  prostitute.    Literally  means  “good  
material,  good  property”.      Of  Germanic  origin;  akin  to  Old  High  German  roub  
booty,  something  stolen.  
 
39. Booty  (pg.  482):    valuable  stolen  goods,  especially  those  seized  in  war;  
something  gained  or  won.    Late  Middle  English  (denoting  plunder  acquired  in  
common  and  destined  to  be  divide  among  the  plunderers):  form  Middle  Low  
German  bute,  buite  ‘exchange,  distribution,’  of  uncertain  ultimate  origin.    The  
slang  for  buttocks  did  not  come  into  play  until  the  1920s.  

  46  
  
40. Boughs  (pg.  483):    Main  branch  of  a  tree.    Old  English  bog,  boh  ‘bough  or  
shoulder,’  of  Germanic  origin;  related  to  Dutch  boeg  ‘shoulders  or  ship’s  
bow,’  German  Bug  ‘ship’s  bow’  and  ‘horse’s  hock  or  shoulder.’  
 
41. Bounties  (pg.  486):    a  sum  paid  for  killing  or  capturing  a  person  or  animal.    
a  sum  paid  to  encourage  trade.    something  given  or  occurring  in  generous  
amounts.    generosity,  liberality.    Middle  English  (denoting  goodness  or  
generosity):  from  Old  French  bonte  ‘goodness,’  from  Latin  bonitas,  from  
bonus  ‘good.’    The  sense  ‘monetary  reward’  dates  from  the  early  18th  century.  
 
42. Bowed  gold  (pg.  482):    

From  
www.vam.ac.uk.  “A  history  of  jewellery”:  By  the  mid-­‐17th  century,  changes  in  
fashion  had  introduced  new  styles  of  jewellery.    While  dark  fabrics  required  
elaborate  gold  jewellery,  the  new  softer  pastel  shades  became  graceful  
backdrops  for  gemstones  and  pearls.    Expanding  global  trade  made  
gemstones  ever  more  available.    Advances  in  cutting  techniques  increased  
the  sparkle  of  gemstones  in  candlelight.  The  most  impressive  jewels  were  

  47  
 often  large  bodice  or  breast  ornaments,  which  had  to  be  pinned  or  stitched  to  
stiff  dress  fabrics.    The  swirling  foliate  decoration  of  the  jewels  shows  new  
enthusiasm  for  bow  motifs  and  botanical  ornaments.    The  central  bow  in  this  
necklace  is  a  magnificent  example  of  a  mid-­‐17th  century  jewel.    The  painted  
opaque  enamel  was  a  recent  innovation,  said  to  have  been  developed  by  a  
Frenchman,  Jean  Toutin  of  Chåteaudun.    This  striking  colour  combination  
was  frequently  used  in  enamels  around  this  date.  
 
43. Brave  (pg.  476):    ready  to  face  and  endure  danger  or  pain;  showing  courage.    
people  who  are  ready  to  face  and  endure  danger  or  pain.    Late  15  century:  
from  French,  from  Italian  bravo  ‘bold’  or  Spanish  bravo  ‘courageous,  
untamed,  savage,’  based  on  the  Latin  barbarus,  meaning  foreign.  
 
44. Bravos  (pg.  464):    Villains,  adventurers.    Thug  or  hired  assassin.    From  
French  and  Italian  meaning  literally  ‘bold  (one)’.      
 
45. Brazen  (pg.  491):    bold  and  without  shame.    endure  an  embarrassing  or  
difficult  situation  by  behaving  with  apparent  confidence  and  lack  of  shame.    
Harsh  in  sound.  Old  English  baesen  ‘made  of  brass,”  from  bras  “brass,”  of  
unknown  ultimate  origin.  
 
46. Breeches  (pg.  501):    From  Wikipedia:  An  article  of  clothing  covering  the  
body  from  the  waist  down,  with  separate  coverings  for  each  leg,  usually  
stopping  just  below  the  knee,  though  in  some  cases  reaching  to  the  ankles.    
The  breeches  were  normally  closed  and  fastened  about  the  leg,  along  its  open  
seams  at  varied  lengths,  and  to  the  knee,  by  either  buttons  or  by  a  
drawstring,  or  by  one  or  more  straps  and  buckle  or  brooches.    Formerly  a  
standard  item  of  Western  men’s  clothing,  they  had  fallen  out  of  use  by  the  
mid-­‐19th  century  in  favour  of  trousers.  
 
47. Brisk  (pg.  502):    active,  fast,  energetic.    Late  16th  century:  probably  from  
French  brusque,  meaning  lively,  fierce,  from  Italian  for  sour.  
 
48. Broadsides  (pg.  500):    a  strongly  worded  critical  attack.    a  nearly  
simultaneous  firing  of  all  the  guns  from  one  side  of  a  warship.  
 
49. Buff  (pg.  471):    Military  coat  made  of  buff  (leather).    Buff  =  a  yellowish-­‐beige  
color.    a  stout,  dull  yellow  leather  with  a  velvety  surface.    Mid  16th  century:  
probably  from  French  buffle,  from  Italian  buffalo,  from  late  Latin  bufalus,  
meaning  antelope,  wild  ox.  The  original  sense  in  English  was  ‘buffalo,’  later  
‘oxhide’  or  ‘color  of  oxhide’.    

  48  
  

  49  
 50. Buffoonery  (pg.  503):    behavior  that  is  ridiculous  but  amusing.    From  1540s,  
“type  of  pantomime  dance;”  1580s,  “clown,”  from  Middle  French  bouffon  
(16c),  from  Italian  buffone  “jester,”  from  buffa  “joke,  jest,  pleasantry,”  from  
buffare  “to  puff  out  the  cheeks,”  a  comic  gesture  of  echoic  origin.  
 
51. Bug  Words  (pg.  500):    Words  that  inspire  fear.  
 
52. Butt  (pg.  478):    Large  wine  cask.    A  liquid  measure  equal  to  2  hogsheads  
(equivalent  to  126  US  gallons).    Late  Middle  English:  from  Old  French  bot,  
from  late  Latin  buttis,  meaning  “flask”.  
 
53. Cabinet  (pg.  483):    A  small  private  room.    Middle  French,  small  room,  
diminutive  of  Middle  French  dialect  (Picard)  cabine,  gambling  house.  
 
54. Caelia  (pg.  473):    From  Wikipedia:    A  Fairy  Queen,  the  ruler  of  an  island  
called  “Fairy  Land,”  populated  by  women  who  have  slain  their  warmongering  
men.    She  begs  Tom  and  his  companions  to  stay  on  the  island  so  that  it  might  
be  re-­‐peopled.    She  eventually  bears  Tom’s  son,  the  Faerie  Knight,  but  later  
commits  suicide  by  drowning  herself  when  she  thinks  Tom  has  abandoned  
her.    She  is  further  described  as  the  ruler  of  the  House  of  Holiness  where  with  
the  help  of  her  three  daughters  she  helps  the  Redcrosse  Knight  regain  his  
strength  and  holiness  to  complete  his  quest.    Her  name  refers  to  the  Heavenly  
Spirit.    She  resides  in  the  House  of  Holiness,  which  serves  as  the  direct  
opposite  of  the  House  of  Pride.    She  is  the  mother  of  Faith,  Hope,  and  Charity,  
otherwise  known  as  Fidelia,  Speranza,  and  Charissa.  
 
55. Cajoled  (pg.  494):    persuade  someone  to  do  something  by  sustained  coaxing  
or  flattering.    Mid  17th  century  form  French  cajoler  “to  cajole,  wheedle,  coax,  
to  chatter  like  a  jay”.  
 
56. Canary  (pg.  478):    A  light  sweet  wine  from  the  Canary  Islands,  similar  to  
Madeira.    Late  16th  century:  from  French  canari,  from  Spanish  canario  
‘canary’  or  ‘person  from  the  Canary  Islands’.      
 
57. Canting  (pg.  502):    talk  hypocritically  and  sanctimoniously  about  something.    
Early  16th  century:  probably  from  Latin  cantare  ‘to  sing’.    The  early  meaning  
was  ‘musical  sound,  singing’;  in  the  mid  17th  century  this  gave  rise  to  the  
senses  ‘whining  manner  of  speaking’  and  ‘form  of  words  repeated  
mechnically  in  such  a  manner’  (for  example  a  beggar’s  plea),  hence  ‘jargon’  
(of  beggars  and  other  such  groups).  
 
58. Canting’st  (pg.  490):    Same  definition  as  above,  but  stronger  in  meaning.  
 
59. Capuchin  (pg.  479):    An  order  of  friars  within  the  Catholic  Church,  among  
the  chief  offshoots  of

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   51  
  the  Franciscans.    The  Capuchins  are  unique  for  a  Catholic  religious  order  in  
that  the  growing  of  natural,  untrimmed  beards  by  members  features  as  part  
of  its  first  Constitution,  which  states  as  the  reason,  the  beard  is  “manly,  
austere,  natural,  an  imitation  of  Christ  and  the  saints  of  our  Order,  and  
despised.”    This  makes  the  Capuchin  friars  stand  out  in  particular  from  the  
secular  clergy  of  the  Latin  church  who  follow  the  Roman  practice  of  being  
clean  shaven.    Like  other  Franciscans,  the  friars  wear  a  plain  brown  tunic  
with  a  hood,  a  cord  fastened  around  the  waist  and  sandals.  
 
60. Cast  of  his  office  (pg.  502):    The  priest  waits  to  perform  his  office,  i.e.  to  
marry  them.  

 
61. Caudle  (pg.  501):    A  British  thickened  and  sweetened  alcoholic  hot  drink,  
somewhat  like  eggnog.    It  was  popular  in  the  Middle  Ages  for  its  supposed  
medical  properties.  
 
62. Cavaliering  (pg.  467):    haughty,  disdainful,  supercilious:  an  arrogant  and  
cavalier  attitude  toward  others.    offhand  or  unceremonious:  the  very  
dignified  officials  were  confused  by  his  cavalier  manner.    From  Cavalier:  a  
horseman,  especially  a  mounted  soldier;  knight.    one  having  the  spirit  or  
bearing  of  a  knight;  a  courtly  gentleman;  gallant.    a  man  escorting  a  woman  
or  acting  as  her  partner  in  dancing.    an  adherent  of  Charles  I  of  England  in  his  
contest  with  Parliament.    a  horseman,  especially  one  who  is  armed.    1590-­‐
1600;  Middle  French:  horseman,  knight.    Old  Italian  cavaliere.    Old  Provençal.    
Late  Latin  caballarius  man  on  horseback,  equivalent  to  Latin  caball  (us)  
horse.  

  52  
  
63. Champion  (pg.  479):    a  person  who  has  defeated  or  surpassed  all  rivals  in  a  
competition,  especially  in  sports.    a  person  who  fights  or  argues  for  a  cause  
or  on  behalf  of  someone  else.    support  the  cause  of;  defend.    Middle  English  
(denoting  a  fighting  man):  from  Old  French,  from  medieval  Latin  campio(n-­‐)  
‘fighter,’  from  Latin  campus.  
 
64. Chapmen  (pg.  467):    Merchants,  in  this  case  merchants  of  love.    A  peddler.    
Old  English  ceapman,  from  ceap  ‘bargaining,  trade’.  
 
65. Chase  gun  (pg.  485):    From  Wikipedia:    A  chase  gun  (or  chaser),  usually  
distinguished  as  a  bow  chaser  and  stern  chaser  was  a  canon  mounted  in  the  
bow  (aiming  forward)  or  stern  (aiming  backward)  of  a  sailing  ship.    They  
were  used  to  attempt  to  slow  down  an  enemy  ship  either  chasing  (pursuing)  
or  being  chased,  when  the  ship’s  broadside  could  not  be  brought  to  bear.    
Typically,  the  chasers  were  used  to  attempt  to  damage  the  rigging  and  
thereby  cause  the  target  to  lose  performance.    Bow  chasers  could  be  regular  
guns  brought  up  from  the  gundeck  and  aimed  through  specially  cut-­‐out  ports  
on  either  side  of  the  bowsprit,  or  dedicated  weapons  made  with  an  unusually  
long  bore  and  a  relatively  light  ball,  and  mounted  in  the  bow.    Stern  chasers  
could  also  be  improvised,  or  left  permanently  in  the  cabins  at  the  stern,  
covered  up  and  used  as  part  of  the  furniture.    In  the  Age  of  Sail,  shiphandling  
had  been  brought  to  a  high  art,  and  chases  frequently  lasted  for  hours  or  
sometimes  days,  as  each  crew  fine-­‐tuned  their  sails  to  take  advantage  of  
small  variations  in  the  wind.    Chase  guns  of  this  era  were  commonly  made  of  
brass  rather  than  iron,  as  this  improved  their  accuracy.    A  single  lucky  shot  
could  cut  through  a  critical  line,  or  cause  a  sail  to  split  if  the  wind  was  strong,  

  53  
 so  if  the  ships  were  within  range  the  best  gunners  on  each  would  use  their  
chasers  to  make  carefully  aimed  and  timed  shots  at  the  other.    Despite  this,  
most  chase  guns  were  of  limited  accuracy  even  when  aiming  at  the  sizable  
target  of  an  enemy  ship’s  rigging.    In  one  eighteenth-­‐century  example,  a  
British  crew  fired  seventy-­‐two  shots  from  their  vessels’  bow  chasers  before  
hitting  the  sails  of  a  fleeing  enemy  craft.    By  the  late  eighteenth  century,    

 
66. Chid  (pg.  468):    scold  or  rebuke.    Late  12c.,  “scold,  nag,  rail,”  originally  
intransitive,  from  Old  English  cidan  “to  contend,  quareel,  complain.”    Related  
to  OHG  kîdal  ‘wedge,’  “with  a  sense  evolution  from  “brandishing  sticks”  to  
“scold,  reprove”.  
 
67. Christian  patience  (pg.  483):    From  Wikipedia:  In  the  Christian  religion,  
patience  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  virtues  of  life.    Increasing  patience  is  
viewed  as  the  work  of  the  Holy  Ghost  in  the  Christian  who  has  accepted  the  
gift  of  salvation.    While  patience  is  not  one  of  the  traditional  biblical  three  
theological  virtues  nor  one  of  the  traditional  cardinal  virtues,  it  is  part  of  the  
fruit  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  according  to  the  Apostle  Paul  in  his  Epistle  to  the  
Galatians.    Patience  was  included  in  later  formulations  of  the  seven  virtues.    
In  the  Christian  Bible,  patience  is  referred  to  in  several  sections.    The  Book  of  
Proverbs  notes  that  “through  patience  a  ruler  can  be  persuaded,  and  a  gentle  
tongue  can  break  a  bone”  (Proverbs  25:14-­‐16,  NIV);  Ecclesiastes  points  out  
that  the  “end  of  a  matter  is  better  than  its  beginning,  and  patience  is  better  
than  pride”  (Ecclesiastes  7:7-­‐9,  NIV);  and  1  Thessalonians  states  that  we  
should  “be  patient  with  all.    See  that  no  one  returns  evil  for  evil;  rather,  

  54  
 always  seek  what  is  goo  for  each  other  and  for  all”  (1  Thessalonians  5:14-­‐15,  
NAB).    In  the  Epistle  of  James,  the  Bible  urges  Christians  to  be  patient,  and  
“see  how  the  farmer  waits  for  the  precious  fruit  of  the  earth,…until  it  receives  
the  early  and  late  rains.”    (James  5:7-­‐11,  NAB).    In  Galatians,  patience  is  listed  
as  part  of  the  “fruit  of  the  Spirit”:  “love,  joy,  peace,  patience,  kindness,  
goodness,  faithfulness,  gentleness  and  self-­‐control.    Against  such  things  there  
is  no  law”.    (Galatians  5:21-­‐23,  NIV).    In  Timothy,  the  Bible  states  that  “Jesus  
might  display  his  unlimited  patience  as  an  example  for  those  who  would  
believe  on  him  and  receive  eternal  life”.    (1  Timothy  1:15-­‐17,  NIV).  
 
68. Cits  (pg.  464):    Residents  of  cities.      
 
69. Clapped  (pg.  492):    given  gonorrhea.    Old  English  clappan  ‘throb,  beat’  of  
imitative  origin.    From  PlushCare.com:    Gonorrhea,  sometimes  called  the  clap  
or  the  drip  is  a  sexually  transmitted  disease  (STD)  that  affects  both  women  
and  men.    It  is  caused  by  a  bacterial  infection  that  is  transmitted  by  having  
oral,  anal,  or  vaginal  sex  with  a  person  who  already  has  gonorrhea.    The  
infection  is  spread  through  semen  and  vaginal  fluids,  but  it  can  infect  the  
eyes,  mouth,  and  throat  in  addition  to  the  vagina,  cervix,  uterus,  fallopian  
tubes,  urethra,  and  anus.    Gonorrhea  has  been  around  as  early  as  the  1500s  
and  there  are  many  theories  as  to  the  origin  of  the  slang  terms:  the  clap  and  
the  drip.    Gonorrhea  has  been  called  the  clap  for  potentially  hundreds  of  
years.    Slang  terms  for  STDs  are  often  common  due  to  the  social  stigma  
around  talking  about  them.    Many  other  slang  terms  exist  for  other  STDs  such  
as  Chlamydia  (the  clam),  AIDS  (Hi-­‐Five),  and  pubic  lice  (crabs),  etc.    Usually  
based  on  the  name  of  the  disease  itself  or  on  an  iconic  aspect  of  the  disease,  
these  slang  terms  are  persuasive  in  our  culture  and  language  around  STDs.    
Gonorrhea  is  unique  in  that  the  slang  term,  the  clap,  does  not  have  a  known  
origin.  The  truth  is  that  there  is  not  a  consensus  as  why  it  is  called  that,  but  
there  are  a  few  interesting  theories.    First,  the  origin  could  come  from  old  
English,  as  the  word  “clappan”  was  used  to  describe  a  beating  or  throbbing.    
This  could  refer  to  the  painful  burning  urination  or  swelling  in  the  penis  or  
vagina  caused  by  gonorrhea.    Second,  a  number  of  people  believe  that  the  
name  stems  from  a  proposed  treatment  during  medieval  times  of  “clapping”  
the  penis  or  slamming  the  penis  between  both  hands  (or  a  hard  surface)  to  
get  rid  of  the  discharge/pus  and  thus  the  infection.    This  theory  has  most  
likely  gained  popularity  due  to  its  disgusting  nature.    Finally,  in  the  1500s,  
“clapier”  was  an  old  French  word  for  brothel.    The  use  of  the  clap  then  would  
have  referred  to  the  location  where  the  disease  most  easily  spread,  a  brothel.    
In  French,  the  disease  then  became  known  as  “clapier  bubo”  meaning  an  
infection  of  the  penis  resulting  from  a  visit  to  a  brothel.  
 
70. Clap  you  on  board  for  prize  (pg.  500):    To  forcibly  push  someone  into  a  
particular  place,  often  jail.    In  this  case  it  would  be  jail  on  their  ship  (the  brig),  
and  they  would  hold  him  there  until  someone  paid  a  ransom  for  him.    Seeing  
as  how  this  group  of  cavaliers  are  in  need  of  money.    This  was  a  common  way  

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 for  the  English  Cavaliers  to  raise  money  for  Charles  II’s  exile  and  hopeful  bid  
for  the  throne.    From  the  KING’S  REVENGE:  CHARLES  II  AND  THE  GREATEST  
MANHUNT  IN  ENGLISH  HISTORY:    “Charles  was  desperate  for  both  men  and  
money  and  instructed  his  continental  agents  to  raise  cash  by  whatever  
means.    One  such  scheme  involving  [Colonel]  Cochrane  entailed  raising  
money  by  kidnapping  English  merchants  and  holding  them  to  ransom.    At  the  
town  of  Pinneberg,  eighteen  kilometers  from  Hamburg,  the  kidnappers  
succeeded  in  luring  three  merchants  on  board  a  ship  with  the  intention  of  
taking  them  off  and  demanding  30,000  pounds  for  their  safe  return.    After  
seizing  their  victims,  the  kidnappers  did  not  act  quickly  enough  and  the  
merchants  raised  a  troop  of  two  hundred  musketeers  in  a  successful  rescue  
bid.”  
 
71. Clawed  (pg.  500):    (of  an  animal  or  person)  scratch  or  tear  something  with  
the  claws  or  the  fingernails.    (of  a  sailing  ship)  beat  to  windward  (the  
direction  upwind  from  the  point  of  reference,  alternatively  the  direction  from  
which  the  wind  is  coming  –  this  will  get  the  boat  to  the  finish  line  as  quick  as  
possible  without  other  boats  in  the  way).    From  English  clawu  (noun)  ‘to  
scratch,  claw’,  clawian  (verb);  related  to  Dutch  klauw  and  German  Klaue  
 
72. Cloyed  (pg.  488):    Disgust  or  sicken  (someone)  with  an  excess  of  sweetness,  
richness,  or  sentiment.    Late  Middle  English:  shortening  of  obsolete  accloy  
‘stop  up,  choke,’  from  Old  French  encloyer  ‘drive  a  nail  into,’  from  medieval  
Latin  inclavare,  from  a  clavus  ‘a  nail.’  
 
73. Coaches  (pg.  464):    

 
 
Carriages  on  parade  during  a  May  Day  celebration.    Mid  16th  century:  from  
French  coche,  from  Hungarian  Kocsi  ‘(wagon)  from  Kocs,’  a  town  in  Hungary,  
that  was  a  post  town  int  eh  15  century  onwards,  which  gave  its  name  to  a  fast  
light  vehicle,  which  later  spread  across  Europe.    Therefore,  the  English  word  
coach,  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  coche,  the  German  Kutsche,  and  the  
Slovak  koC  all  probably  derive  from  the  Hungarian  workd  “kocsi”,  literally  

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 meaning  “of  Kocs”.    Coaches  were  not  introduced  into  England  until  Queen  
Elizabeth  I.    

 
74. Cobweb  (pg.  483):    a  spider’s  web,  especially  when  old  and  covered  with  
dust.    something  resembling  a  cobweb  in  delicacy  or  intricacy.    Middle  
English  coppeweb,  copweb,  from  obsolete  coppe  ‘spider’.  
 
75. Cogging  (pg.  490):    Fawning,  coaxing.    To  manipulate  or  load  (dice)  unfairly.    
To  cheat,  especially  at  dice.    Carpentry:  the  tongue  in  one  timber,  fitting  into  a  
corresponding  slot  in  another.      
 
76. Coil  (pg.  483):    Noisy  disturbance.    A  confusion  or  turmoil.      A  length  of  
something  wound  or  arranged  in  a  spiral  or  sequence  of  rings.    Move  or  twist  
into  a  coil.    A  slow-­‐burning  spiral  made  with  dried  paste  and  pyrethrum  
powder,  which  produces  a  smoke  that  inhibits  mosquitoes  from  biting.      
 
77. Collation  (pg.  479):    Snack.    A  light,  informal  meal.    Middle  English:  via  Old  
French  from  Latin  collation  -­‐,  from  conferre  ‘bring  together’  and  ‘bring’.    
Originally  (in  the  plural)  the  term  denoted  John  Cassian’s  Collationes  Patrum  
in  Scetica  Eremo  Commorantium  ‘Conferences  or  with,  the  Egyptian  Hermits’  
(Ad  415-­‐20),  from  which  a  reading  would  be  given  in  Benedictine  
communities  prior  to  a  light  meal.”  
 
78. Colonel  (pg.  465):    An  army  officer  of  high  rank,  in  particular  an  officer  
above  a  lieutenant  and  below  a  brigadier  general.    Mid  16th  century:  from  
obsolete  French  coronel  (earlier  form  of  colonel),  from  Italian  colonnello  
‘column  of  soldiers,’  from  colonna  ‘column,’  from  Latin  columna.    The  form  
coronel,  source  of  the  modern  pronunciation,  was  usual  until  the  mid  17th  
century.    From  Wikipedia:    The  rank  of  colonel  was  popularized  by  the  

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 tercios  that  were  employed    in  the  Spanish  Army  during  the  16th  and  17th  
centuries.    General  Gonzalo  Fernández  de  Córdoba  divided  his  troops  in  to  
coronelias  (meaning  “column  of  soldiers”  from  the  Latin,  columnella  or  
“small  column”).    These  units  led  by  a  coronel.    This  command  structure  and  
its  titles  were  soon  adopted  as  colonello  in  early  modern  Italian  and  in  
Middle  as  coronel.    The  rank  title  entered  the  English  language  from  French  
in  the  mid-­‐16th  century  and  so  the  modern  English  pronunciation  of  the  word  
is  derived  from  the  French  variant.    The  use  of  the  rank  of  colonel  pre-­‐dates  
the  establishment  of  the  United  Kingdom.    In  the  mid-­‐17th  century,  the  
regiments  of  the  New  Model  Army  were  commanded  by  colonels.    The  British  
Army  has  historically  been  organized  around  the  regiment,  with  each  
regiment  being  raised,  uniformed,  and  equipped  either  directly  by  the  crown  
or  by  a  nobleman.    The  colonels  nominally  commanding  these  regiments  
often  had  little  to  do  with  the  regiment’s  actual  activities,  either  because  they  
contemporaneously  served  as  general  officers  or  because  they  were  
essentially  mere  financiers.    By  the  end  of  the  17th  century  in  Great  Britain,  
the  “colonel  of  a  regiment”  was  often  a  titled  person  who  had  been  given  
Royal  Assent  to  raise  it  for  service  and  command  it  in  battle.    As  such,  he  was  
required  to  cover  all  costs  of  the  regiment’s  equipment,  uniforms  and  wages  
as  well  select  its  officers.    Until  the  late  18th  century  most  British  regiments  
were  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  the  colonelcy,  for  example  Lord  
Churchill’s  Dragoons  (1683-­‐1685)  or  Elliot’s  Light  Horse  (1759-­‐66).  
 
79. Common  shore  (pg.  482):    sewer.    From  FABLES  OF  MODERNITY:  
LITERATURE  AND  CULTURE  IN  THE  ENGLISH  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY:    
“The  shower,  like  Virgil’s  “imber”  for  his  own  audience  was  no  simple  
meteorological  term  to  an  eighteenth-­‐century  English  ear.    As  the  Oxford  
English  Dictionary  documents,  in  the  second  half  of  the  seventeenth  century  
“shower,”  “shore,”  and  “sewer”  were  the  dominant  but  not  unique  spellings  
of  three  nouns  designating,  respectively:  rainfall  or  an  observer;  a  strip  of  
land  bordering  on  a  body  of  water,  a  menace,  a  prop,  or  a  sewer;  and  a  
conduit  for  waste  disposal  or  a  steward.    In  the  seventeenth  century,  
“shower”  was  also  spelled  “shewre,”  “shewer,”  and  “shore”;  “sewer”  was  also  
spelled  “sure”  and  “shewer”;  and  “shore”  was  also  spelled  “showre”  tended  to  
equate  the  pronunciation  of  “shower”  and  “sewer.”    In  the  later  seventeenth  
century  an  “s”  (phonetic  [s])  followed  by,  roughly,  the  modern  consonantal  
sound  “y”  (phonetic  [j])  becomes  “sh”…Semantically,  the  Oxford  English  
Dictionary  tells  us  that  “shore,”  in  the  sense  of  a  piece  of  land  bordering  on  a  
body  of  water,  was  regularly  used  as  a  variant  of  “sewer,”  meaning  a  conduit  
for  waste  disposal.    The  editors  of  the  Oxford  English  Dictionary  suggest  that  
the  use  of  “shore”  as  “sewer”  was  probably  derived  not  from  common  
linguistic  source,  which  they  indicate  was  the  traditional  view,  but  from  the  
contemporary  use  of  the  phrase  “common  shore,”  which  denoted  a  piece  of  
land  bordering  on  a  body  of  water  that  was  used  for  refuse  disposal.    A  
“common  shore”  was  a  sort  of  natural  “sewer,”  whose  use  preceded  the  rise  
of  urban  planning  and  the  various  civil  regulations  that  gradually  

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 transformed  the  “common  shore”  into  the  underground  sewer  systems  of  the  
twentieth  century.    Thus  the  contemporary  phrase  “common  sewer”  seems  to  
have  been  derived  from  the  semantic  connection  with  the  “common  shore.”    
[…]    Indeed,  the  notion  of  a  “sewer”  as  we  understand  it,  as  a  separate  
planned,  covered  waterway  for  the  disposal  of  urban  or  suburban  refuse  and  
waster  water,  is  a  very  recent  one.    There  were  few  sewers  that  were  not  
“common  shores”  in  London  until  the  mid  nineteenth  century.    In  fact,  until  
the  major  project  to  enclose  London  sewers  was  initiated  in  1858  after  the  
crisis  of  the  Great  Stink  in  which  the  windows  of  the  Houses  of  Parliament  
had  to  be  draped  with  lime-­‐soaked  curtains  so  that  Members  could  meet,  the  
notion  of  the  “common  shore”  was  the  accurate  description  of  the  means  of  
discharging  refuse  and  waste  water  in  the  city.”

 
 
80. Commonwealth  (pg.  467):    An  independent  country  or  community,  
especially  a  democratic  republic.    An  international  association  consisting  of  
the  UK  together  with  states  that  were  previously  part  of  the  British  Empire,  
and  dependencies.    The  British  monarch  is  the  symbolic  head  of  the  
Commonwealth.    The  general  good.    Late  Middle  English  (originally  as  two  
words,  denoting  public  welfare;  compare  with  commonweal  –  welfare  of  the  
public).  
 
81. Compass  (pg.  481):    an  instrument  containing  a  magnetized  pointer  that  
shows  the  direction  of  magnetic  north  and  bearings  from  it.    Go  around  

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 (something)  in  a  circular  course.    Surround  or  enclose  on  all  sides.    Contrive  
to  accomplish  (something).    Middle  English:  from  Old  French  compas  
(nount),  compasser  (verb),  based  on  Latin  com-­‐  ‘together’  +  passus  ‘  a  step  or  
pace.’    Several  senses  (‘measure,’  ‘artifice,’  ‘circumscribed  area,’  and  ‘pair  of  
compasses’)  that  appeared  in  Middle  English  are  also  found  in  Old  French,  
but  their  development  and  origin  are  uncertain.    The  transference  of  sense  to  
the  magnetic  compass  is  held  to  have  occurred  in  the  related  Italian  word  
compasso,  from  the  circular  shape  of  the  compass  box.      
 
82. Conductor  (pg.  486):    a  person  who  directs  the  performance  of  an  orchestra  
or  choir.    Late  Middle  English  (denoting  a  military  leader):  via  Old  French  
from  Latin  conductor,  from  conducere  ‘bring  together’.      
 
83. Conjure  (pg.  483):    call  upon  (a  spirit  or  ghost)  to  appear,  by  means  of  a  
magic  ritual.    entreat  implore  (someone)  to  do  something.    Middle  English  
(also  in  the  sense  ‘oblige  by  oath’):  from  Old  French  conjurer  ‘to  plot  or  
exorcize,’  from  Latin  conjurare  ‘band  together  by  an  oath,  conspire’  (in  
medieval  Latin  ‘invoke’),  from  con-­‐  ‘together’  +  jurare  ‘swear’.  
 
84. Consort  (pg.  500):    a  wife,  husband,  or  companion,  in  particular  the  spouse  
of  a  reigning  monarch.    habitually  associate  with  (someone),  typically  with  
the  disapproval  of  others.    agree  or  be  in  harmony  with.    a  small  group  of  
musicians  performing  together,  typically  playing  instrumental  music  of  the  
Renaissance  world.    Late  Middle  English  (denoting  a  companion  or  
colleague):  via  French  from  Latin  consors  ‘sharing,  partner,’  from  con  –  
‘together  with’  +  sors,  sort-­‐  ‘lot,  destiny.’    The  verb  senses  are  probably  
influenced  by  similar  senses  (now  obsolete)  of  the  verb  sort.    Late  16th  
century:  earlier  form  of  concert.  
   
85. Constables  (pg.  472):    a  peace  officers  with  limited  policing  authority,  
typically  in  a  small  town.    the  governor  of  a  royal  castle.    the  highest-­‐ranking  
official  in  a  royal  household.    Middle  English:  from  Old  French  conestable,  
from  late  Latin  comes  stabuli  ‘count  (head  officer)  of  the  stable.’    From  
Wikipedia:    The  office  of  the  constable  was  introduced  in  England  following  
the  Norman  Conquest  of  1066  and  was  responsible  for  the  keeping  and  
maintenance  of  the  king’s  armaments  and  those  of  the  villages  as  a  measure  
of  protecting  individual  settlements  throughout  the  country.    Some  
authorities  place  the  origins  of  constables  in  England  earlier,  attributing  the  
creation  of  the  office  during  the  reign  of  King  Alfred  (841,  A.D.).    The  office  of  
Lord  High  Constable,  one  of  the  Great  Officer  of  State,  was  established  in  the  
kingdoms  of  England  and  Scotland  during  the  reigns  of  King  Stephen  (1135-­‐
1154)  and  King  David  (1124-­‐1154)  respectively,  and  was  responsible  for  the  
command  of  the  army.    The  term  was  also  used  as  the  local  level  within  the  
feudal  system,  however,  describing  an  officer  appointed  to  keep  order.    One  
of  the  firs  descriptions  of  one  of  the  legal  duties  of  a  constable,  that  of  the  
collation  of  evidence,  comes  from  Bracton,  a  jurist  writing  between  1220  and  

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 1250:    “In  whatever  way  they  come  and  on  whatever  day,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  
constable  to  enroll  everything  in  order,  for  he  has  record  as  to  the  things  he  
sees;  but  he  cannot  judge,  because  there  is  no  judgment  at  the  Tower,  since  
there  the  third  element  of  a  judicial  proceeding  is  lacking,  namely  a  judge  and  
jurisdiction.    He  has  record  as  to  matters  of  fact,  not  matters  of  judgment  and  
law.”    In  Bracton’s  time,  anyone  seeing  a  “misdeed”  was  empowered  to  make  
an  arrest.    The  role  of  the  constable  in  Bracton’s  description  was  the  “eyes  
and  ears”  of  the  court,  finding  evidence  and  recording  facts  on  which  judges  
could  make  a  ruling.    By  extension,  the  constable  was  also  the  “strong  arm”  of  
the  court  (i.e.,  of  the  common  law),  marking  the  basic  role  of  the  constable  
that  continues  into  the  present  day.  
 
86. Constitution  (pg.  491):    a  body  of  fundamental  principles  of  established  
precedents  according  to  which  a  state  or  other  organization  is  acknowledged  
to  be  governed.    the  composition  of  something.    a  person’s  physical  state  with  
regard  to  vitality,  health,  and  strength.    a  person’s  mental  or  psychological  
makeup.    Middle  English  (denoting  a  law,  or  a  body  of  laws  or  customs):  from  
Latine  constitutio  (n-­‐),  from  constituere  ‘establish,  appoint’.  
 
87. Consummate  (pg.  489):    make  (a  marriage  or  relationship)  complete  by  
having  sexual  intercourse.    showing  a  high  degree  of  skill  and  flair;  complete  
or  perfect.    Late  Middle  English  (as  an  adjective  in  the  sense  ‘completed,  
accomplished’):  from  Latine  consummat-­‐  ‘brought  to  completion,’  from  the  
verb  consummare,  from  con-­‐  ‘altogether’  +  summa  ‘sum  total,’  feminine  of  
summus  ‘highest,  supreme.’  
 
88. Continence  (pg.  491):    self-­‐restraint,  especially  a  refraining  from  sexual  
intercourse.    the  ability  to  retain  a  bodily  discharge  voluntarily.    From  
continent:  Middle  English,  from  Middle  French,  from  Lantin  continent-­‐,  
continens,  from  present  participle  of  continere  to  hold  in.  
 
89. Conventickling  (pg.  502):    a  pun  playing  on  Hellena’s  prospect  of  being  a  
nun  and  a  conventicle,  and,  of  course,  tickling.    A  conventicle  (a  secret  or  
unlawful  religious  meeting,  typically  of  people  with  nonconformist  views)  
was  a  secret  meeting  of  religious  dissenters  (those  who  were  not  members  of  
the  Church  of  England).    Conventicle,  late  Middle  Engllish  (in  the  general  
sense  ‘assembly,  meeting,’  particularly  a  clandestine  or  illegal  one):  from  
Latin  conventiculum  ‘(place  of)  assembly,’  diminutive  of  conventus  
‘assembly,  company,’  from  the  verb  conveniere.      
 
90. Convulsion  (pg.  502):    a  sudden,  violent,  irregular  movement  of  a  limb  or  of  
the  body,  caused  by  involuntary  contraction  of  muscles  and  associated  
especially  with  brain  disorders  such  as  epilepsy,  the  presence  of  certain  
toxins  or  other  agents  in  the  blood,  or  fever  in  children.    Mid  16th  century  
(originally  in  the  sense  ‘cramp,  spasm’):  from  Latin  convulsio  (n-­‐),  from  the  
verb  convellere  (‘together’  +  ‘to  pull’).  

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91. Cormorant  at  whore  and  bacon  (pg.  494):    

Glutton  for  sex.    In  the  

scene,  the  men  (the  cavaliers)  are  predators,  and  Florinda,  after  having  been  
repeatedly  raped,  would  be  a  half-­‐eaten  victim,  as  devoid  of  individual  
identity  as  a  mangled  deer  is  to  a  bird  of  prey.    A  cormorant  are  medium-­‐to-­‐
large  birds,  with  body  weight  in  the  range  of  .77-­‐11.02  lbs.  and  wing  wpan  of  
18-­‐39  in.    The  majority  of  species  have  dark  feathers.    The  bill  is  long,  thin  
and  hooked.    Their  feet  have  webbing  between  all  four  toes.    All  species  are  
fish-­‐eaters,  catching  the  prey  by  diving  from  the  surface.    They  are  excellent  
divers,  and  under  water  they  propel  themselves  with  their  feet  with  help  
from  their  wings;  some  cormorant  species  have  been  found  to  dive  as  deep  as  
45  metres.    In  mythology  cormorants  are  a  symbol  of  nobility  and  indulgence.      
 
92. Courtesan  (pg.  464):    a  prostitute,  especially  one  with  wealthy  or  upper-­‐
class  clients.    mid  16th  century:  form  French  courtisane,  from  obsolete  Italian  
cortigiana,  feminine  of  cortigiano  ‘courtier,’  from  corte  ‘yard,  retinue’.    They  
were  originally  courtiers:  a  person  who  attends  the  court  of  a  monarch  or  
other  powerful  person.    From  Wikipedia:  In  Renaissance  Europe,  courtiers  
played  an  extremely  important  role  in  upper-­‐class  society.    As  it  was  
customary  during  this  time  for  royal  couples  to  lead  separate  lives  –  
commonly  marrying  simply  to  preserve  bloodlines  and  to  secure  political  
alliances  –  men  and  women  would  often  seek  gratification  and  
companionship  from  people  living  at  court.    In  fact,  the  verb  ‘to  court’  
originally  meant  “to  be  or  reside  at  court”,  and  later  came  to  mean  “to  behave  
as  a  courtier”  and  then  ‘courtship’,  or  “to  pay  amorous  attention  to  
somebody”.    The  most  intimate  companion  of  a  ruler  was  called  the  
“favourite”.    In  Renaissance  usage,  the  Italian  word  cortigiana,  feminine  of  
cortigiano  (“courtier”)  came  to  refer  to  a  person  who  attends  the  court,  and  
then  to  a  well-­‐educated  independent  woman,  eventually  a  trained  artist  or  
artisan  of  dance  and  singing,  especially  one  associated  with  wealthy,  
powerful,  or  upper-­‐class  society  who  was  given  luxuries  and  status  in  
exchange  for  entertainment  and  companionship.    The  word  was  borrowed  by  
English  from  Italian  through  the  French  form  courtisane  during  the  16th  
century,  especially  associated  to  the  meaning  of  donna  di  palazzo.    There  

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 were  two  types  of  courtesan.    In  one  category  was  a  type  of  courtesan  known  
(in  Italy)  as  the  cortigiana  onesta,  or  the  honest  courtesan,  who  was  cast  as  
an  intellectual.    In  the  other  was  the  cortigiana  di  lume,  a  lower  class  
courtesan.    Although  the  latter  was  still  considered  better  than  an  average  
courtesan,  the  foremer  was  the  sort  most  often  romanticized  and  treated  
more-­‐or-­‐less  equal  to  women  of  the  nobility.    It  is  with  this  type  of  courtesan  
that  the  art  of  “courtisanerie”  is  best  associated.    The  cortigiane  oneste  were  
usually  well-­‐educated  and  worldly  (sometimes  even  more  so  than  the  
average  upper-­‐class  woman),  and  often  held  simultaneous  careers  as  
performers  or  artists.    They  were  typically  chosen  on  the  basis  of  their  
“breeding”  –  social  and  conversational  skills,  intelligence,  common-­‐sense,  
and  companionship  –  as  well  as  their  physical  attributes.    It  was  usually  their  
with  and  personality  that  set  them  apart  from  regular  women.    Sex  
constituted  only  a  facet  of  the  courtesan’s  array  of  services.    For  example,  
they  were  well-­‐dressed  and  ready  to  engage  and  participate  in  a  variety  of  
topics  ranging  from  art  to  music  to  politics.    In  some  cases,  courtesans  were  
from  well-­‐to-­‐do  backgrounds,  and  were  even  married  –  but  to  husbands  
lower  on  the  social  ladder  than  their  clients.    In  these  cases,  their  
relationships  with  those  of  high  social  status  had  the  potential  to  improve  
their  spouses’  status  –  and  so,  more  often  than  not,  the  husband  was  aware  of  
his  wife’s  profession  and  dealings.    Courtesans  from  non-­‐wealthy  
backgrounds  provided  charming  companionship  for  extended  periods,  no  
matter  what  their  own  feelings  or  commitments  might  have  been  at  the  time,  
and  sometimes  had  to  be  prepared  to  do  so  on  short  notice.    They  were  also  
subject  to  lower  social  status,  and  often  religious  disapproval,  because  of  the  
immoral  aspects  of  their  profession  and  their  reliance  upon  courtisanerie  as  
a  primary  source  of  income.    In  cases  like  this,  a  courtesan  was  solely  
dependent  on  her  benefactor  or  benefactors  financially,  making  her  
vulnerable.    Often,  courtesans  serving  in  this  capacity  began  their  career  as  a  
prostitute,  although  many  came  to  the  “profession”  by  other  means.    It  was  
not  uncommon  for  a  courtesan  to  enter  into  an  arranged  long-­‐term  liason  by  
contract  with  a  wealthy  benefactor.  These  contracts  were  written  up  and  
witnessed  by  lawyers,  and  were  binding.  Most  included  some  provision  for  
the  financial  welfare  of  the  courtesan  beyond  the  end  of  the  relationship  in  
the  form  of  an  annuity.    many  such  women  became  so  powerful  socially  and  
financially  that  they  could  be  particular  about  the  men  they  associated  with;  
in  other  words  they  chose  their  paramour  as  would  any  other  mistress,  not  
the  other  way  around.    Wealthy  benefactors  would  go  to  great  lengths  to  
court  a  courtesan  as  a  prize,  the  ultimate  goal  being  a  long-­‐term  contract  as  a  
mistress.    Occasionally  courtesans  were  passed  from  one  benefactor  to  
another,  thereby  resulting  in  them  being  viewed  in  society  circles  as  lower  
than  both  their  benefactor  and  those  of  wealth  and  power  with  whom  they  
would  socialize.    Often,  in  instances  of  this  sort,  if  the  courtesan  had  
satisfactorily  served  a  benefactor,  that  benefactor  would,  when  ending  the  
affair,  pass  them  on  to  another  benefactor  of  wealth  as  a  favor  to  the  
courtesan,  or  set  them  up  in  an  arranged  marriage  to  a  semi-­‐wealthy  

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 benefactor.    In  the  event  that  the  courtesan  had  angered  or  dissatisfied  a  
benefactor,  they  would  often  find  themselves  cast  out  of  wealthy  circles,  
returning  more  often  than  not  to  street  prostitution.    Those  from  wealthy  
backgrounds,  either  by  birth  or  marriage,  and  who  were  acting  as  courtesans  
only  for  the  social  or  political  advancement  of  themselves  and/or  their  
spouses  were  generally  treated  as  equals.    They  were  more  respected  by  
their  extramarital  companions,  both  placing  one  another’s  family  obligations  
ahead  of  the  relationship  and  planning  their  own  liaisons  or  social  
engagements  around  the  lovers’  marital  obligations.    Affairs  of  this  sort  
would  often  be  short-­‐lived,  ending  when  either  the  courtesan  or  the  
courtesan’s  spouse  received  the  status  or  political  position  desired,  or  when  
the  benefactor  chose  the  company  of  another  courtesan,  and  compensated  
the  former  companion  financially.    In  instances  like  this,  it  was  often  viewed  
simply  as  a  business  agreement  by  both  parties  involved.    The  benefactor  
was  aware  of  the  political  or  social  favors  expected  by  the  courtesan,  the  
courtesan  was  aware  of  the  price  expected  from  them  for  those  favors  being  
carried  out,  and  the  two  met  one  another’s  demands.      
 
Some  Courtesans  from  the  time  period  that  could  help  represent  Angellica  
are:  
• Nino  de  l’Enclos

  64  
 • Lucy  Walter  

  65  
 • Barbara  Palmer,  1st  Duchess  of  Cleveland

 
• Françoise-­‐Athénaïs,  marquise  de  Montespan

  66  
 • Louise  de  la  Vallière

  67  
 • Nell  Gwyn

 
 
93. Countenance  (pg.  479):    a  person’s  face  or  facial  expression.    admit  as  
acceptable  or  possible.    Middle  English:  from  Old  French  countenance  
‘bearing,  behavior,’  from  contenir.    The  early  sense  was  ‘bearing,  demeanor,’  
also  ‘facial  expression,’  hence  ‘the  face.’  

  68  
  
94. Coxcomb  (pg.  465):    a  vain  and  conceited  man;  a  dandy.    mid  16th  century  
(denoting  a  simpleton):  variant  of  cockscomb,  in  the  sense  ‘jester’s  cap’  
(resembling  a  cock’s  comb),  hence  ‘a  jester,  a  fool.’  
 
95. Coy  (pg.  482):    (especially  with  reference  to  a  woman)  making  a  pretense  of  
shyness  or  modesty  that  is  intended  to  be  alluring.    reluctant  to  give  details,  
especially  about  something  regarded  as  sensitive.    quiet  and  reserved;  shy.    
Middle  English:  from  Old  French  coi,  quei,  from  Latin  quietus  (see  quiet).    The  
original  sense  was  ‘quiet,  still’  (especially  in  behavior),  later  ‘modestly  
retiring,’  and  hence  (of  a  woman)  ‘affecting  to  be  unresponsive  to  advances.’  
 
96. Cozened  (pg.  472):    trick  or  deceive.    obtain  by  deception.    Late  16th  century:  
perhaps  from  obsolete  Italian  cozzonare  ‘to  cheat,’  from  cozzone  ‘middleman,  
broker,’  from  Latin  cocio  ‘dealer.’  
 
97. Cravats  (pg.  503):    a  short,  wide  strip  of  fabric  worn  by  men  around  the  
neck  and  tucked  inside  an  open-­‐necked  shirt.    a  necktie.    Mid  17th  century:  
form  French  cravate,  from  Cravate  ‘Croat’  (from  German  Kraba,  from  Serbian  
and  Croatian  Hrvat),  because  of  the  scarf  worn  by  Croatian  mercenaries  in  
France.  

 
98. Credulous  (pg.  494):    having  or  showing  too  great  a  readiness  to  believe  
things.    Late  16th  century  (in  the  general  sense  ‘inclined  to  believe’):  from  
Latin  credulous  (from  credere  ‘believe’)  +  -­‐ous.  

  69  
  
99. Cross  their  hands  (pg.  468):    

Cross  their  hands  with  silver:  pay  them  to  tell  his  fortune.    From  the  book  
JUVENILE  INSTRUCTOR:  “The  gypsies  are  a  race  of  vagabonds  who  live  by  
stealing,  robbing  and  fortune  telling.    The  men  make  money  any  way  they  
can;  the  women  make  fancy  baskets,  tell  fortunes,  beg,  and,  like  the  men,  do  
as  little  work  as  possible.    They  will  ask  you  to  cross  their  hands  with  a  silver  
coin,  and  will  then  pretend  to  tell  you  your  future  destiny,  generally  by  
palmistry.    They  succeed  well  among  ignorant  people,  who  are  silly  enough  to  
believe  them;  but  beware  of  them.  
 
 
100. Cullies  (pg.  483):    one  easily  tricked  or  imposed  on:  dupe.    (often  as  a  
form  of  address)  a  man;  a  friend.    Mid  17th  century  (denoting  a  person  who  is  
imposed  upon):  of  unknown  origin.    A  cully  is  one  easily  fooled;  a  simpleton.    
Possible  derived  from  Old  French  ‘coillon’  (“testicle”;  also,  a  vile  fellow,  
coward,  dupe),  from  Vulgar  Latin  (“a  leather  bag,  the  scrotum”).  
 

  70  
 101. Cupid’s  quiver  (pg.  478):    The  Roman  god  of  love,  represented  as  a  
winged  boy  with  a  bow  and  arrow.    Very  common  in  Baroque  art.

 
 
102. Curse  upon  the  star  that  ruled  my  birth  (pg.  484):    Before  the  
Enlightenment,  the  general  person  on  the  street  believe  in  Astronomy  and  
their  astrology  seemed  to  really  affect  how  they  would  act  in  their  day-­‐to-­‐day  
existence.    Belville  probably  believes  that  he  was  born  with  an  unfavorable  
horoscope.    Each  star  or  planet  in  astrology  has  a  favorable  and  unfavorable  
interpretation.    Refer  to  the  article  on  John  Dee  and  Science  at  the  beginning  
of  the  packet  for  further  information.      
 
103. Damon  (pg.  473):    a  legendary  Sicilian  who  pledges  his  life  for  his  
condemned  friend  Pythias.    From  Wikipedia:    In  Greek  historic  writings,  
Damon  and  Pythias  is  a  legend  illustrating  the  Pythagorean  ideal  of  
friendship.    Pythias  is  accused  of  and  charged  with  plotting  against  the  
tyrannical  Dionysius  I  of  Syracuse.    Pythias  requests  of  Dionysius  to  be  
allowed  to  settle  his  affairs  on  the  condition  that  his  friend,  Damon,  be  held  
hostage  and,  should  he,  Pythias,  not  return,  be  executed  in  his  stead.    
Eventually,  Pythias  does  return,  and  the  amazed  Dionysius,  impressed  by  the  
love  and  trust  in  their  friendship,  frees  him  and  Damon.

  71  
  
104. Daily  divertissements  (pg.  465):    amusements.    a  dance  sequence  or  
short  ballet  usually  used  as  an  interlude.    diversion,  entertainment.    
Diverstissement  can  men  “diversion”  in  both  English  and  French,  and  it  
probably  won’t  surprise  you  to  learn  that  “divertissement”  and  “diversion”  
can  be  traced  by  to  the  same  Latin  root:  divertere,  meaning  “to  turn  in  
opposite  directions.”    Early  uses  of  “divertissement”  in  English  often  occurred  
in  musical  contexts,  particularly  in  opera  and  ballet,  describing  light  
sequences  that  entertained  but  did  little  to  further  the  story.    (The  word’s  
Italian  cousin,  divertimento,  is  used  in  a  similar  way.)    Today  
“divertissement”  can  refer  to  any  kind  of  amusement  or  pastime,  specifically  
one  that  provides  a  welcome  distraction  from  what  is  burdensome  or  
distressing.  
 
105. Damny  (pg.  503):    Damn  me.    Expressing  anger  or  vehemence.      
 
106. Dart  for  dart  (pg.  498):    a  small  pointed  missile  that  can  be  thrown  
or  fired.    From  Old  French,  accusative  of  darz,  dars,  from  a  West  Germanic  
word  meaning  ‘spear,  lance’.    Willmore  might  be  indicating  that  he  is  just  as  
good  looking  as  Angellica  and  the  arrows/darts  that  people  are  hit  with  when  
they  see  her  are  the  same  for  him.  
 
107. Debauch  (pg.  479):    destroy  or  debase  the  moral  purity  of;  corrupt.    a  
bout  of  excessive  indulgences  in  sensual  pleasures,  especially  in  eating  and  
drinking.    seduce  (a  woman).    Late  16th  century:  from  French  debaucher  
(verb)  ‘turn  away  from  one’s  duty.’      
 
108. Defects  (pg.  498):    a  shortcoming,  imperfection,  or  lack.    Late  Middle  
English  (as  a  noun,  influenced  by  Old  French  defect  ‘deficiency’):  from  Latin  
defectus,  past  participle  of  deficere  ‘desert  or  fail.’  
 
109. Deity  (pg.  500):    a  god  or  goddess  (in  a  polytheistic  religion).    divine  
status,  quality,  or  nature.    the  creator  and  supreme  being  (in  a  monotheistic  
religion  such  as  Christianity).    Middle  English  (denoting  the  divine  nature  of  
God):  from  Old  French  deite,  from  ecclesiastical  Latin  deitas  (translating  
Greek  theotes),  from  deus  ‘god’.  
 
110. Demure  (pg.  500):    (of  a  woman  or  her  behavior)  reserved,  modest,  
and  shy.    (of  clothing)  lending  a  modest  appearance.    Late  Middle  English  (in  
the  sense  ‘sober,  serious,  reserved’):    perhaps  form  Old  French  demoure,  past  
participle  of  demourer  ‘remain’;  influenced  by  Old  French  mur  ‘grave’,  from  
Latin  maturus  ‘ripe  or  mature’.    The  sense  ‘reserved,  shy’  dates  form  the  late  
17th  century.  
 
111. Devote  (pg.  464):    Nun.    give  all  or  a  large  part  of  one’s  time  or  
resources  to  (a  person,  activity,  or  cause).    Late  16th  century  (in  the  sense  

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 ‘dedicate  formally,  consecrate’):  from  Latin  devot-­‐  ‘consecrated’,  from  the  
verb  devovere,  from  de-­‐  ‘formally’  +  vovere  ‘to  vow’.  
 
112. Dexterous  (pg.  494):    showing  or  having  skill,  especially  with  the  
hands.    early  17th  century  (in  the  sense  ‘mentally  adroit’):  form  Latin  dexter  
‘on  the  right’.  
 
113. Dire  (pg.  494):    (of  a  situation  or  event)  extremely  serious  or  urgent.    
presaging  disaster.    Mid  16th  century:  form  Latin  dirus  ‘fearful,  threatening’.  
 
114. Discourse  (pg.  481):    written  or  spoken  communication  or  debate.    a  
formal  discussion  of  a  topic  in  speech  or  writing.    speak  or  write  
authoritatively  about  a  topic.    engage  in  conversation.    Late  Middle  English  
(denoting  the  process  of  reasoning):  from  Old  French  discours,  from  Latin  
discursus  ‘running  to  and  fro’  (in  medieval  Latin  ‘argument’),  from  the  verb  
discurrere,  from  dis-­‐  ‘away’  +  currere  ‘to  run’.  
 
115. Disguised  (pg.  483):    having  changed  one’s  appearance  in  order  to  
conceal  one’s  identity.    concealed  or  obscured;  made  unrecognizable.    give  
(someone  or  oneself)  a  different  appearance  in  order  to  conceal  one’s  
identity.    make  something  unrecognizable  by  altering  its  appearance,  sound,  
taste,  or  smell.    conceal  the  nature  or  existence  of  (a  feeling  or  situation).    
Middle  English  (meaning  ‘change  one’s  usual  style  of  dress’,  with  no  
implication  of  concealing  one’s  identity).  
 
116. Dissembles  (pg.  479):    conceal  one’s  true  motives,  feelings,  or  beliefs.    
disguise  or  conceal  (a  feeling  or  intention).    Late  Middle  English:  alteration  
(suggested  by  semblance)  of  obsolete  dissimule,  via  Old  French  from  Latin  
dissimulare  ‘disguise,  conceal’.  
 
117. Dissimulation  (pg.  491):    concealment  of  one’s  thoughts,  feelings,  or  
character;  pretense.      
 
118. Diversion  (pg.  496):    an  instance  of  turning  something  aside  from  its  
course.    a  detour.    an  activity  that  diverts  the  mind  from  tedious  or  serious  
concerns;  a  recreation  or  pastime.    something  intended  to  distract  someone’s  
attention  from  something  important.    Late  Middle  English:  from  late  Latin  
diversio  (n-­‐),  from  Latin  divertere  ‘turn  aside’.  
 
119. Divertissements  (pg.  466):    a  minor  entertainment  or  diversion.    
ballet:  a  short  dance  within  a  ballet  that  displays  a  dancer’s  technical  skill  
without  advancing  the  plot  or  character  development.    From  Latin  divertere  
‘turn  in  separate  ways’.  
 
120. Divine  (pg.  467):    of,  from,  or  like  God  or  a  god.    excellent  delightful.    
cleric  or  theologian.    providence  or  God.    Discover  (something)  by  guesswork  

  73  
 or  intuition.    have  supernatural  or  magical  insight  into  (future  events).    Late  
Middle  English:  via  Old  French  form  Latin  divinus,  from  divus  ‘godlike’.    And  
Old  French  deviner  ‘predict’.  
 
121. Divinity  (pg.  477):    The  state  or  quality  of  being  divine.    a  divine  
being;  a  god  or  goddess.    the  study  of  religion;  theology.    Middle  English:  form  
Old  French  divinte,  from  Latin  divinitas,  from  divinus  ‘belonging  to  a  deity’.    
 
122. Dog  Days  (pg.  465):    The  hot  days  of  summer.    The  hottest  period  of  
the  year  (reckoned  in  antiquity  from  the  heliacal  rising  of  Sirius,  the  Dog  
Star).    

 
 
123. Domineer  (pg.  498):    assert  one’s  will  over  another  in  an  arrogant  
way.    Late  16th  century:  from  Dutch  dominieren,  from  French  domineer,  from  
Latin  dominari  ‘dominate’,  ‘ruled,  governed’,  ‘lord’,  ‘master’.  
 
124. Dominion  (pg.  477):    sovereignty  or  control.    the  territory  of  a  
sovereign  or  government.    each  of  the  self-­‐governing  territories  of  the  British  
Commonwealth.    Middle  English:  via  Old  French  from  medieval  Latin  
dominio  (n-­‐),  from  Latin  dominium,  from  dominus  ‘lord,  master’.  
 

  74  
 125. Donship  (pg.  500):    possession  of  the  title  or  rank  of  don.    Early  16th  
century:  from  Spanish,  from  Latin  dominus  ‘lord,  master’.    A  Spanish  title  
prefixed  to  a  male  forename,  a  Spanish  gentleman.  
 
126. Dotage  (pg.  498):    the  period  of  life  in  which  a  person  is  old  and  
weak.    Late  Middle  English:  from  dote  +  age.    Dote,  meaning  silly  or  
feebleminded,  especially  as  a  result  of  age  and  to  be  extremely  and  
uncritically  fond  of.    From  Middle  Dutch  doten  ‘be  silly,’  ‘act  or  talk  foolishly’.  
 
127. Doublet  (pg.  502):    a  man’s  short  close-­‐fitting  padded  jacket,  
commonly  worn  from  the  14th  to  the  17th  century.    Middle  English:  from  Old  
French,  ‘something  folded’,  also  denoting  a  fur-­‐lined  coat,  from  double  

  75  
 ‘double’.

 
 
128. Draw  cuts    (pg.  496):    draw  straws:  a  method  of  selection,  whomever  
has  the  shortest  straw  must  perform  the  task.    In  this  instance  they  see  who  
has  the  shortest  sword.  

  76  
  
129. Drudgery  (pg.  488):    hard  menial  or  dull  work.    Work  that  is  routine  
and  boring.  
 
130. Duels  (pg.  468):    A  contest  with  deadly  weapons  arranged  between  
two  people  in  order  to  settle  a  point  of  honor.    See  duels  and  dueling  and  
honor  in  articles  at  the  beginning  of  the  packet.      
 
131. Durst  (pg.  479):    Past  of  dare.    Have  the  courage  to  do  something.    
defy  or  challenge  (someone)  to  do  something.    take  the  risk  of;  brave.    a  
challenge,  especially  to  prove  courage.    From  Sanskrit  dhrs  –  ‘be  bold’.  
 
132. Dutchman  (pg.  468):    A  male  member  of  the  Dutch  people,  native  to  
the  Netherlands.    During  Charles  II’s  exile  he  lived  part-­‐time  in  the  
Netherlands  with  his  relatives  who  were  Protestant  and  protected  him  from  
Cromwell.      
 
133. Ebb  (pg.  498):    the  movement  of  the  tide  out  to  sea.    (of  tidewater)  
move  away  from  the  land;  recede.    (of  an  emotion  or  quality)  gradually  lessen  
or  reduce.    Old  English  ebba,  ebbian,  of  West  Germanic  origin;  related  to  
Dutch  ebbe,  ebben,  and  ultimately  to  of  which  had  the  primary  sense  ‘away  
from’.  
 
134. Edued  (pg.  484):    endowed.    give  or  bequeath  an  income  or  property  
to  (a  person  or  institution).    provide  with  a  quality,  ability,  or  asset.    Late  
Middle  English  (also  in  the  sense  ‘provide  a  dower  or  dowry’;  formerly  as  
indow):  from  legal  Anglo-­‐Norman  French  endouer,  from  en-­‐  ‘in,  towards’  +  
Old  French  douer  ‘give  as  a  gift’.    Dower:  a  widow’s  share  for  her  life  of  her  
husband’s  estate.    a  dowry.  
 
135. Egad  (pg.  479):    exclamation  expression  surprise,  anger,  or  
affirmation.    Late  17th  century:  representing  earlier  “a  god”.  
 
136. Endearment  (pg.  489):    1702:  a  word  or  phrase  expressing  love  or  
affection.    1620s:  meaning  ‘obligation  of  gratitude,’  ‘act  of  endearing’.  
 
137. English  Cavalier  (pg.  494):    This  is  explained  in  articles  at  the  
beginning  of  the  packet  on  cavaliers  and  Charles  II.  
 
138. English  Country  Gentleman  (pg.  464):    A  gentleman  was  a  man  of  
the  lowest  rank  of  English  gentry,  standing  below  and  esquire  and  above  a  
yeoman.  
 
139. English  humor  (pg.  468):    From  The  Guardian:    By  the  end  of  the  17th  
century  it  was  accepted  that  there  was  such  a  thing  as  a  unique  English  
temperament.    Its  eccentricities  involved  a  “sense  of  humour”  as  opposed  to  

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 the  continental  aristocratic  wit.    It  found  situations,  preferably  involving  
unmasking  of  pretensions,  far  funnier  than  the  wit  of  word-­‐play  (although  
punning  –  as  Shakespeare  makes  wearisomely  obvious  –  had  long  since  been  
chronically  English).    This  temperament  liked  to  tease  people  rather  than  to  
play  with  ideas.    And  it  was  markedly  anti-­‐heroic  in  both  substance  of  
behaviour  and  literary  style.    Falstaff’s  dismissal  of  honour  as  a  mere  word  
sets  the  trend  here.    English  literary  culture  (saving  only  Milton’s  lonely  
eminence)  has  been  anti-­‐epic  and  cynic-­‐friendly.    Although  good  at  Pope-­‐ian  
pastiche  and  the  subversive  mock-­‐epic,  it  has  been  suspicious  of  the  grand  
style  and  its  associated  magnanimities  of  gesture…  “We  have  more  humour,”  
wrote  the  diplomat  Sir  William  Temple  in  1690,  “because  every  man  follows  
his  own,  and  takes  a  pleasure,  perhaps  a  pride,  in  showing  it.”    The  
complacent  pattern  was  set,  and  it  associated  English  liberty  with  English  
difference.    To  be  able  to  laugh  as  the  rain  fell  on  the  verdant  demi-­‐Eden  was  
a  sign  of  freedom  –  something  the  uniformity  of  despotism  abominated.    
L’exception  anglaise  had  arrived.    Poetry  may  make  nothing  happen  but  the  
English  eccentric  humour  does  not  just  survive  in  the  valley  of  is  making.    It  
marches  on,  supposedly,  to  instruct  as  part  of  a  wider  story  of  liberty.    John  
Wilkes’s  lampooning  of  institutions  shows  the  political  power  of  eccentricity  
–  along  with  its  witty  barbs  and  ready  ripostes:  “How  far,”  asked  Mme  de  
Pompadour  of  him,  “does  the  liberty  of  the  press  extend  in  England?”    “That  
is  what  I  am  trying  to  find  out.”  
 
140. Enjoins  (pg.  500):    Instruct  or  urge  (someone)  to  do  something.    
prescribe  (an  action  or  attitude)  to  be  performed  or  adopted.    Middle  English  
(formerly  also  as  injoin):  from  Old  French  enjoinder,  from  Latin  injungere  
‘join,  attach,  impose’,  from  in-­‐  ‘in,  towards’  +  jungere  ‘to  join’.  
 
141. En  passant  (pg.  490):    French  for  in  passing.    This  is  a  move  in  chess.  
It  is  a  special  pawn  capture  that  can  only  occur  immediately  after  a  pawn  
moves  two  ranks  forward  from  its  starting  square  and  an  enemy  pawn  that  
could  have  captured  it  had  only  moved  forward  only  one  square.    The  
opponent  captures  the  just-­‐moved  pawn  “as  it  passes”  through  the  first  
square.    The  result  is  the  same  as  if  the  pawn  had  advanced  only  one  square  
and  the  enemy  pawn  had  captured  it  normally.    The  en  passant  capture  rule  
was  added  in  the  15th  century  when  the  rule  that  gave  pawns  an  initial  
double-­‐step  move  was  introduced.    It  prevents  a  pawn  from  using  the  two-­‐
square  advance  to  pass  an  adjacent  enemy  pawn  without  the  risk  of  being  
captured.      
 
142. Errant  (pg.  472):      unmitigated.    erring  or  straying  from  the  proper  
course  of  standards.    traveling  in  search  of  adventure.    Middle  English  from  
Latin  errant-­‐  ‘erring’,  from  the  verb  errare;  errant  from  Old  French  errant  
‘traveling’,  present  participle  of  errer,  from  late  Latin  iterare  ‘go  on  a  
journey’,  from  iter  ‘journey’.    ‘arrant’  Middle  English  variant  of  errant,  
originally  in  phrases  such  as  arrant  thief  (‘outlawed,  roving  thief’).  

  78  
  
143. Espousest  (pg.  487):    second-­‐person  singular  simple  present  form  of  
espouse:  adopt  or  support  (a  cause,  belief,  or  way  of  life).    marry.    Late  
Middle  English  (in  the  sense  ‘take  as  a  spouse’):  from  Old  French  espouser,  
from  Latin  sponsare,  from  sponsus  ‘betrothed’,  past  participle  of  spondere.  
   
144. Essex  (pg.  468):

   From  Wikipedia:    A  county  in  south-­‐east  England,  north-­‐east  of  London.    

  79  
 One  of  the  home  counties,  it  borders  Suffold  and  Cambridgeshire  to  the  
north,  Hertfordshire  to  the  west,  Kent  across  the  estuary  of  the  River  Thames  
to  the  south,  and  London  to  the  south-­‐west.    The  county  town  is  Chelmsford,  
the  only  city  in  the  county.    For  government  statistical  purposes  Essex  is  
placed  in  the  East  of  England  region.      
 
The  name  Essex  originates  in  the  Anglo-­‐Saxon  period  of  the  Early  Middle  
Ages  and  has  its  root  in  the  Anglo-­‐Saxon  (Old  English)  name  Eastseaxe  (“East  
Saxons”),  the  eastern  kingdom  of  the  Saxons  who  had  come  from  the  
continent  and  settled  in  Britain  (cf.  Middlesex,  Sussex,  and  Wessex)  during  
the  Heptarchy.      
 
Colchester  in  the  north-­‐east  of  the  county  is  Britain’s  oldest  recorded  town,  
dating  from  before  the  Roman  conquest,  when  it  was  known  as  Camulodnum  
and  was  sufficiently  well-­‐developed  to  have  its  own  mint.    In  AD  824,  
following  the  Battle  of  Ellandun,  the  kingdoms  of  the  East  Saxons,  the  South  
Saxons  and  Jutes  of  Kent  were  absorbed  into  the  kingdom  of  the  West  
Saxons,  uniting  Saxland  under  King  Alfred’s  grandfather  Ecgberht.    Before  the  
Norman  conquest  the  East  Saxons  were  subsumed  into  the  Kingdom  of  
England.    After  the  Norman  conquest,  Essext  became  a  county.      
 
During  the  medieval  period,  much  of  the  area  was  designated  a  Royal  forest,  
including  the  entire  county  in  a  period  to  1204,  when  the  area  “north  of  the  
Stanestreet”  was  disafforested.    Gradually,  the  areas  subject  to  forest  law  
diminished,  but  at  various  times  they  included  the  forests  of  Becontree,  

  80  
 Chelmsford,  Epping,  Hatfield,  Ongar,  and  Waltham.

 
 
Association  with  Charles  II:    The  Earl  in  charge  of  the  county  of  Essex  
opposed  Charles  I  and  and  Charles  II  and  supported  Cromwell.    If  Blunt’s  
family  were  low  gentry,  they  would  either  need  to  join  the  Earl  of  Essex,  or  
fight  for  Charles  I/II.    Blunt  probably  joined  Charles  I’s  Royal  Army  as  many  
did  in  the  Civil  War.    It’s  possible  this  is  where  Blunt  met  Charles  II  and  ended  
up  in  his  band  of  roving  cavaliers.    I  don’t  think  Blunt  was  a  good  soldier,  but  
it’s  possible  that  he  was  a  rich  landowner  because  it  is  hinted  that  he  has  
money,  unlike  the  others.  
 
145. Essex  calf  (pg.  472):    Derogatory  term  meaning  “fool”.      
Stereotypes  of  people  from  Essex,  that  have  sustained  to  modern  day:    A  
young,  industrious,  mildly  brutish,  and  culturally  barren  society  of  people.    
They  tend  to  be  self-­‐made.    This  stereotype  has  moved  to  a  term  attributed  to  
the  women  called  the  “Essex  Girl,”  which  usually  has  blonde  jokes  applied  to  
them  adapted  for  a  British  audience.    The  women  and  men  have  also  been  
known  to  be  overt  sexual  beings,  who  take  control  of  their  own  sexuality.    
Because  of  this  stereotype,  people  with  the  Essex  accent  are  often  asked  
when  in  performance  professions  to  go  topless  and  always  be  sexual.      The  
Oxford  English  Dictionary  refers  to  this  group  as  “unintelligent,  promiscuous,  
and  materialistic,”  and  the  Collins  dictionary  adds  “devoid  of  taste”  to  the  
mix.      
 
 

  81  
 146. Essex  family  arms  (pg.  482):    

From  House  of  Names.com:    

The  surname  Essex  was  first  found  in  Middlesex  where  they  held  a  family  
seat  as  Lords  of  the  Manor.    The  Saxon  influence  of  English  history  
diminished  after  the  Battle  of  Hastings  in  1066.    The  language  of  the  courts  
was  French  for  the  next  three  centuries  and  the  Norman  ambience  prevailed.    
But  Saxon  surnames  survived  and  the  family  name  was  first  referenced  in  the  
13th  century  when  they  held  estates  in  that  shrine.  
 
147. Esteemed  (pg.  501):    held  in  respect;  admired.    Middle  English  (as  a  
noun  in  the  sense  ‘worth,  reputation’):  from  Old  French  estime  (noun),  
estimer  (verb),  from  Latin  aestimare  ‘to  estimate’.    The  verb  was  originally  in  
the  Latin  sense,  also  ‘appraise’  (compare  with  estimate),  used  figuratively  to  
mean  ‘assess  the  merit  of’.    Current  senses  date  from  the  16th  century.  
 
148. Fain  (pg.  491):    pleased  or  willing  under  the  circumstances.    with  
pleasure;  gladly.    Old  English  fagen  ‘happy,  well  pleased’,  of  Germanic  origin,  
from  a  base  meaning  ‘rejoice’;  related  to  fawn:  give  a  servile  display  of  
exaggerated  flattery  or  affection,  typically  in  order  to  gain  favor  or  
advantage.    ‘make  or  be  glad’.  
 
149. Fall  to  (pg.  479):    (of  a  task)  becomes  the  duty  or  responsibility  of.    
(of  property)  revert  to  the  ownership  of.    ‘fall’  comes  from  the  Old  Norse  ‘fall’  
meaning  ‘downfall,  sin’.      
 

  82  
 150. False  glass  (pg.  469):    lying  mirror.    Mirror  comes  from  glass:  Old  
English  glaes  “glass;  a  glass  vessel,”  from  Proto-­‐Germanic  glasam  “glass”  
(source  also  of  Old  Saxon  glas,  Middle  Dutch  glas,  German  Glas,  Old  Norse  
gler  “glass,  looking  glass,”  Danish  glar),  from  PIE  root  ghel  “to  shine,”  with  
derivatives  denoting  bright  colors  or  materials.    The  PIE  root  also  is  the  
ancestor  of  widespread  words  for  gray,  blue,  green,  and  yellow,  such  as  Old  
English  glaer  “amber,”  Latin  glaesum  “amber”  (which  might  be  from  
Germanic),  Old  Irish  glass  “green,  blue,  gray,”  Welsh  glas  “blue”.    “A  glass  
mirror”  is  from  14c.    False  is  from  Old  English  fals  ‘fraud,  deceit’,  from  Latin  
falsum  ‘fraud’,  neuter  past  participle  of  fallere  ‘deceive’;  reinforced  or  re-­‐
formed  in  Middle  English  from  Old  French  fals,  faus  ‘false’.  
 
151. Fare  (pg.  491):    the  money  a  passenger  on  public  transportation  has  
to  pay.    a  range  of  food  of  a  particular  type.    performance  or  entertainment  of  
a  particular  style.    perform  in  a  specified  way  in  a  particular  situation  or  over  
a  particular  time.    happen;  turn  out.    travel.    Old  English  faer,  faru  ‘traveling,  a  
journey  or  expedition’,  faran  ‘to  travel’,  also  ‘get  on  (well  or  badly’),  of  
Germanic  origin;  related  to  Dutch  varen  and  German  fahren  ‘to  travel’,  Old  
Norse  ferja  ‘ferry  boat’,  also  to  ford.    Sense  1  of  the  noun  stems  from  an  
earlier  meaning  ‘a  journey  for  which  a  price  is  paid’.    Noun  sense  2  was  
originally  used  with  reference  to  the  quality  or  quantity  of  food  provided,  
probably  from  the  idea  of  faring  well  or  badly.  
 
152. Faulkner  (pg.  501):    Falconer,  a  person  who  keeps,  trains,  or  hunts  
with  falcons,  hawks,  or  other  birds  of  prey.    Middle  English  Faucon  (originally  
denoting  any  diurnal  bird  of  prey  used  in  falconry):  from  Old  French  from  
late  Latin  falco,  from  Latin  falx,  falc-­‐  ‘sickle’,  or  of  Germanic  origin  and  related  
to  Dutch  valk  and  German  Falke.      

  83  
  
From  www.bl.uk.com:    In  Shakespeare’s  day,  falconry  and  hawking  were  
elite,  expensive  sports  pursued  by  the  upper  classes.    This  beautifully  
illustrated  manual,  aimed  at  ‘Nobleman  and  Gentlemen’,  offers  advice  on  how  
to  train  hawks  and  conduct  oneself  in  exclusive  hunting  circles.  

  84  
  
Turberville  makes  fascinating  use  of  strongly  gendered  language  to  describe  
the  process  of  training  birds,  especially  female  hawks  or  ‘haggards’.    In  his  
instructions  on  how  to  ‘make  a  Falcon’  fly  and  how  to  ‘make  flight  for  a  
Haggard’,  the  relationship  between  man  and  hawk  seems  based  on  
subordination,  but  also  the  need  for  ‘care’  and  ‘cherishing’  to  make  her  do  his  
will.  
 
The  (male)  tames  the  wild  (female)  hawk  by  ‘hooding’  her  and  controlling  
her  food.    But  he  should  ‘use  hir  gently’  to  ensure  she  is  ‘better  manned’  –  a  
term  which  makes  taming  seem  masculine.    However,  Tuberville  also  warns  
of  the  haggard’s  rebellious  power.    Without  careful  treatment  ‘she  will  not  
long  be  at  your  commaundement,  but  make  you  follow  hir’.  
 
In  Shakespeare’s  play,  The  Taming  of  the  Shrew,  men  use  animal  terms  to  
dehumanize  women  by  comparing  them  to  shrews,  haggards  and  wild-­‐cats.    
Petruchio  employs  the  elite  language  of  falconry  to  describe  his  taming  
methods,  suggesting  his  dominant  status,  both  in  terms  of  social  class  and  
gender.    he  says  he  will  ‘man’  his  ‘haggard’  by  restricting  Kate’s  food  and  
sleep,  but  insists  ‘all  this  is  reverend  care  of  her’.    As  a  metaphor  for  
marriage,  falconry  conveys  the  tension  between  respect  and  ruthless  
mastery.  
 
Yet  the  falcon’s  –  and  the  woman’s  –  power  is  not  fully  suppressed  by  
Shakespeare.    Petruchio’s  success  is  contrasted  with  Hortensio’s  failure  to  
win  Bianca,  ‘this  proud  disdainful  haggard’.    Moreover,  in  John  Fletcher’s  play  
The  Woman’s  Prize,  or  The  Tamer  Tamed,  a  comic  sequel  to  Shakespeare’s,  
Petruchio’s  new  wife  Maria  proclaims  herself  a  ‘free  haggard’.      

  85  
  
 
153. Feigned  (pg.  476):    simulated  or  pretended;  insincere.    pretend  to  be  
affected  by  (a  feeling,  state,  or  injury).    invent  (a  story  or  excuse).    indulge  in  
pretense.    Middle  English:  from  Old  French  feign-­‐,  stem  of  feindre,  from  Latin  
fingere  ‘mold,  contrive’.    Senses  in  Middle  English  (taken  from  Latin)  
included  ‘make  something’,  ‘invent  a  story,  excuse,  or  allegation’,  hence  ‘make  
a  pretense  of  a  feeling  or  response’.    
 
154. Fencing  Master  (pg.  493):      

  86  
 An  expert  in,  an  teacher  of,  the  art  and  sport  of  fencing.  

 
From  AcademyOfFencingMasters.com:    Fencing  grew  out  of  the  long  tradition  
of  dueling,  which  has  been  going  on  for  as  long  as  history  has  been  recorded.    
It  wasn’t  until  the  15th  century  that  fencing  really  became  a  codified  thing,  the  
artform  that  we  think  of  with  fencing  masters  –  one  that  is  beautiful  and  
noble.    This  really  began  with  the  publication  of  the  Treatise  of  Arms  by  
Diego  de  Valera  in  1471.  
 
It’s  true  that  fencing  was  practiced  by  royalty  across  Europe  as  well  by  other  
members  of  the  upper  class,  although  it  was  also  practiced  by  many  
tradesmen  and  lower  class  men  who  sought  more  money,  fame  and  the  thrill  
of  the  fight.    Of  course  kings  are  famously  the  heads  of  armies,  so  it  was  
natural  extension  for  fencing  to  become  a  big  deal  for  royalty.    However  
fencing  has  proved  to  be  more  than  fighting,  as  the  technicality  and  finesse  
required  to  fence  effectively  is  far  different  than  the  requirements  of  the  
battlefield.    Fencing  separated  the  nobleman  from  the  soldier.  
 
But  how  did  this  all  come  about?    Fencing  as  the  sport  of  kings  evolved  over  a  
long  time  through  many  iterations  to  become  transformed  into  what  it  is  
today.  
 
France  has  perhaps  most  notably  been  enjoyed  by  the  French  monarchy.    
Fencing  was  first  recognized  all  the  way  back  in  1587  by  King  Charles  IX  of  
France,  after  his  mother  Queen  Catherine  de  Medicis  brought  Italian  fencing  

  87  
 masters  in  to  found  the  French  Fencing  Academy.    French  fencing  masters  
went  on  to  earn  honorary  titles  from  the  monarchy,  and  fencing  was  
developed  as  a  sport  that  it  is  today,  rather  than  the  deadly  duels  it  evolved  
from.      
 
In  the  17th  century  the  foil  was  developed  in  as  a  lighter  weight  training  
weapon  in  France,  much  easier  to  learn  with  and  so  much  safer  for  practice.    
Unless  there  was  an  actual  duel  in  progress,  fencers  were  of  course  not  
interested  in  hurting  their  opponents.    Of  course  this  is  really  the  heart  of  the  
change  that  happened  for  fencing.    In  addition,  the  French  developed  the  
right  of  way  rules,  which  allowed  the  monarchy  to  further  indulge  in  fencing  
as  the  sport  became  less  dangerous  and  marked  a  serious  change  in  fencing.  
 
Louis  XIV,  the  famous  “Sun  King”  of  France  who  ruled  just  before  the  French  
Revolution  and  who  made  Versailles  what  it  is,  was  a  master  fencer  himself.    
he  was  tutored  by  the  great  French  masters  as  a  child,  and  went  on  to  have  a  
tremendous  influence  on  Fencing,  which  was  a  passion  for  him.    The  shorter  
sword  was  developed  in  his  court,  as  it  was  deemed  to  be  more  fashionable  
and  to  match  the  brocade  jackets  and  silk  stockings.    As  it  turned  out,  the  
shorter  “court  sword”  turned  out  to  be  quick  and  effective.    It  was  soon  
adopted  as  the  standard  in  fencing.  
 
One  last  French  innovation  in  fencing  that  came  as  a  boon  to  the  monarchy  
was  the  invention  of  the  fencing  mask  by  French  master  La  Boessiere,  which  
made  fencing  safer.    It  sparked  the  development  of  even  more  non-­‐fatal  
techniques  and  strategies.  
 
Fencing  came  into  fashion  in  the  courts  of  Great  Britain  during  the  famous  
reign  of  King  Henry  VIII  in  the  16th  century,  when  his  passion  for  swordplay  
spilled  into  the  nobility  around  him.    Fighting  quickly  became  a  popular  sport  
among  people  of  all  classes  –  both  high  and  low.    There  was  even  a  point  at  
which  the  fencing  masters  shut  down  the  business  of  London  due  to  their  
fencing.    During  the  reign  of  his  daughter,  Elizabeth  I  and,  her  successor,  
James  I,  fighting  before  the  throne  continued  to  be  an  incredibly  popular  
form  of  entertainment  for  the  monarchy  during  court.    The  most  skilled  
fencers  in  London  performed  amazing  fencing  tasks  before  Christian  IV  of  
Denmark  on  his  numerous  visits  to  James  I.      
 
Surprisingly,  it  was  not  long  after  that  fencing  was  nearly  lost  for  a  time  in  
England  as  the  Masters  of  Defense  were  outlawed  through  the  Monopolies  
Act  of  1624.    Several  decades  later  when  fencing  returned  during  the  English  
Restoration  period,  it  had  unfortunately  lost  much  of  its  skill  and  perfection.      
 
155. Fire  already  (pg.  482):    Blunt  is  already  stimulated  or  excited.  
 

  88  
 156. Flea  (pg.  494):    Strip  off  the  skin  (flay:  peel  the  skin  off  a  corpse  or  
carcass.    whip  or  beat  someone  so  harshly  as  to  remove  their  skin.    from  
Proto-­‐Germanic  root  *pleik-­‐  “to  tear,  rend”  and  Lithuaninan  plesti  “to  tear”).    

 
 

  89  
 157. Fleece  (pg.  482):    the  textile  fiber  obtained  from  sheep  and  other  
animals,  including  cashmere  and  mohair  from  goats,  qiviut  from  muskoxen,  
from  hide  and  fur  clothing  from  bison,  angora  from  rabbits,  and  other  types  
of  wool  from  camelids;  additionally,  the  Highland  and  the  Mangalica  breeds  
of  cattle  and  swine,  respectively,  possess  wooly  coats.    obtain  a  great  deal  of  
money  from  (someone),  typically  by  overcharging  or  swindling  them.    
Literary:  cover  as  if  with  a  fleece.    “wool  coat  of  a  sheep,”  Old  English  fleos,  
flies  “fleece,  wool,  fur,  sealskin,”  from  West  Germanic  *flusaz,  which  is  of  
uncertain  origin;  probably  “to  pluck,”  also  “a  feather,  fleece”  (source  also  of  
Latin  pluma  “feather,  down.”    1530s  in  the  literal  sense  of  “to  strip  (a  sheep)  
of  fleece.”    From  1570s  in  the  figurative  meaning  “to  cheat,  swindle,  strip  of  
money.”      
 
From  Wikipedia:    In  Greek  mythology,  the  Golden  Fleece  is  the  fleece  of  the  
golden-­‐wooled,  winged  ram,  which  was  held  in  Colchis.    The  fleece  is  a  
symbol  of  authority  and  kingship.    It  figures  in  the  tale  of  the  hero  Jason  and  
his  crew  of  Argonauts,  who  set  out  on  a  quest  for  the  fleece  by  order  of  King  
Pelias,  in  order  to  place  Jason  rightfully  on  the  throne  of  Iolcus  in  Thessaly.    
Through  the  help  of  Medea,  they  acquire  the  Golden  Fleece.    The  story  is  of  
great  antiquity  and  was  current  in  the  time  of  Homer  (eighth  century  BC).      
 
158. Follow  the  ill  customs  of  our  country  and  make  a  slave  of  his  
sister  (pg.  465):    Florinda  is  from  Spain,  which  was  in  the  throes  of  the  
Spanish  Inquisition.    We  can  assume  that  her  family  needed  to  flee  for  good  
reasons,  but  they  are  still  upholding  the  cultural  traditions  that  their  country  
is  entrenched  with.    Arranged  Marriage  had  not  left  Spain  from  its  inception,  
the  following  quote  details  this  from  the  medieval  perspective.    From  
“Arranged  Marriage  in  Medieval  Times”:    In  the  Medieval  times,  marriage  was  
quite  different  than  today.    Women  didn’t  have  a  choice  as  to  who  they  would  
marry  and,  most  of  the  time,  women  didn’t  even  know  the  man  before  they  
wed.  /  However,  men  were  sometimes  able  to  choose  their  bride.    Marriage  
back  then  was  not  based  on  love;  most  marriages  were  political  
arrangements.    Husbands  and  wives  were  generally  strangers  until  they  first  
met.    If  love  was  involved  at  all,  it  came  after  the  couple  had  been  married.    
Even  if  love  did  not  develop  through  marriage,  the  couple  generally  
developed  a  friendship  of  some  sort.  /  After  the  marriage  was  arranged,  a  
wedding  notice  was  posted  on  the  door  of  the  church.    The  notice  was  put  up  
to  ensure  that  there  were  no  grounds  for  prohibiting  the  marriage.    The  
notice  stated  who  was  to  be  married,  and  if  anyone  knew  any  reasons  the  
two  could  not  marry  they  were  to  come  forward  with  the  reason.    If  the  
reason  was  a  valid  one,  the  wedding  would  be  prohibited.  /  There  were  
several  reasons  for  prohibiting  a  marriage.    One  reason  was  consanguinity,  
meaning  the  couple  was  too  closely  related.    If  the  boy  or  girl  had  taken  a  
monastic  or  religious  vow,  the  marriage  was  also  prohibited.    Other  reasons  
that  prohibited  marriage,  but  were  not  grounds  for  a  divorce,  were  rape,  
adultery  and  incest.    A  couple  could  also  not  be  married  during  a  time  of  

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 fasting,  such  as  lent  or  advent,  and  a  couple  could  not  be  married  by  someone  
who  had  killed  someone.  /  The  church  ceremony  in  the  middle  ages  took  
place  outside  the  church  door  before  entering  for  a  nuptial  mass.    During  the  
ceremony  in  front  of  the  church  doors  the  man  stood  on  the  right  side  and  
the  woman  stood  on  the  left  side,  facing  the  door  of  the  church.    The  priest  
would  begin  by  asking  if  anyone  present  knows  of  any  reason  why  that  
couple  should  not  be  married.    The  priest  would  then  ask  the  bride  and  
groom  so  they  would  be  able  to  confess  any  reasons  for  prohibiting  their  
marriage.  
 
From  “Marriage  in  Seventeenth-­‐Century  England:  The  Woman’s  Story”:    The  
seventeenth  century  represents  a  fascinating  period  of  English  history,  
drawing  the  attention  of  whole  generations  of  historians.    This  turbulent  age  
saw  three  major  events  that  had  a  deep  impact  on  England’s  political  as  well  
as  social  life  –  the  English  Revolution,  the  Restoration  of  the  Stuarts  in  1660  
and  the  Glorious  Revolution  in  1688.    Amidst  the  turmoil  of  the  events,  
people’s  everyday  lives  unfolded.    While  it  was  men’s  preoccupation  to  keep  
the  country’s  political  and  economic  affairs  going,  women  had  an  
indispensable,  though  far  less  public,  part  to  play.    
 
In  seventeenth-­‐century  England,  marriage  and  sexual  morals  played  a  far  
more  important  role  than  nowadays.    A  family  centered  around  a  married  
couple  represented  the  basic  social,  economic  and  political  unit.    In  the  Stuart  
period,  a  husband’s  “rule”  over  his  wife,  children,  and  servants  was  seen  as  
an  analogy  to  the  king’s  reign  over  his  people  –  a  manifestation  of  a  hierarchy  
constituted  by  God.    A  woman  was  regarded  as  the  ‘weaker  vessel’  (a  phrase  
taken  from  the  New  Testament)  –  a  creature  physically,  intellectually,  
morally  and  even  spiritually  inferior  to  a  man;  therefore,  the  man  had  a  right  
to  dominate  her.  
 
In  a  society  strongly  influenced  by  Puritan  values,  sexual  integrity  and  the  
status  of  a  married  person  gave  a  woman  respectability  and  social  prestige.    
This,  together  with  the  fact  that  it  was  very  difficult  for  women  to  find  ways  
of  making  an  independent  living,  meant  that  securing  a  husband  was  a  
matter  of  great  importance.  
 
Theoretically,  it  was  possible  for  two  people  to  marry  very  young.    The  
minimum  legal  age  was  12  years  for  women  and  14  years  for  men.    In  
addition,  it  was  possible  for  the  couple  to  get  engaged  at  the  age  of  7,  with  the  
right  to  break  off  the  engagement  on  reaching  the  minimum  age  of  consent.    
However,  early  marriages  were  rather  rare  –  the  average  age  of  the  
newlyweds  was  about  25  years.  
 
Interestingly,  the  basic  requirement  for  a  legally  valid  marriage  was  not  a  
formal  consecration  in  a  church,  but  the  completion  of  a  marriage  contract,  
commonly  called  ‘spousals’.    Spousals  were  an  act  in  which  the  bride  and  

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 groom  said  their  vows  in  the  present  tense  –  ‘per  verba  de  prasenti’.    In  a  
majority  of  cases,  this  procedure  was  accompanied  by  a  church  ceremony  
(banns).    Yet  if  the  marriage  was  concluded  without  witnesses  and  not  
consecrated  in  a  church,  it  had  the  same  legal  validity.    This  practice  had  
existed  in  England  since  the  twelfth  century  and  lasted  till  1753.    Not  having  
to  go  through  a  church  ceremony  made  it  possible  for  lovers  to  marry  
secretly,  without  the  knowledge  of  their  parents.    In  this  way,  they  could  
escape  the  dynastic  scheming  of  their  families.      
 
159. Foppery  (pg.  491):    affected  and  excessive  concern  with  one’s  clothes  
and  appearance.    1540s,  “a  foolish  action,”  meaning  “behavior  and  manner  of  
a  fop”  in  the  “dandy”  sense  is  from  1690s;  meaning  “foppish  attire.”  

 
160. Fops  (pg.  477):    From  Douglass  A  Russell’s  PERIOD  STYLE  FOR  THE  
THEATRE:  “We  know  that  men  of  fashion  had  to  manipulate  a  number  of  
accessories  such  as  a  walking  stick,  muff,  snuff  box,  and  handkerchief.    The  
fashion  extremists  or  “fops”  of  the  Restoration  period,  who  especially  
enjoyed  these  accessories,  exaggerated  their  movements,  overdid  their  
flourishes  and  hand  gestures,  and  minced,  rather  than  strode,  across  a  
reception  or  ballroom  floor.    They  would  turn  their  heads  with  an  abrupt  
twist  to  give  a  flounce  to  the  curls  of  their  wigs;  would  clutch  their  muffs  to  
their  chests  and  peep  over  them  at  friends;  would  toy  with  the  ribbons  on  
their  walking  sticks;  and  would  flourish  their  handkerchiefs  in  a  ludicrously  

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 ostentatious  manner.  These  dandies  must  have  been  very  much  like  their  
theatrical  portraits  –  figures  of  fun  and  amusement.”  
 
161. Fortunatest  dog  (pg.  482):      Essentially,  “lucky  dog”.    “The  dog”  used  
to  be  the  worst  throw  in  dice.    So  if  you  were  a  “lucky  dog”,  you  didn’t  throw  
“the  dog”.    Fortunatest  is  a  superlative  form  of  fortunate  –  someone  or  
something  that  is  lucky  or  favorable,  or  someone  who  is  materially  well-­‐off.    
having  good  luck;  lucky.    bringing,  or  coming  by,  good  luck;  favorable;  
auspicious.    ‘Dog’  in  an  informal  sense  means  a  person  regarded  as  
unpleasant,  contemptible,  or  wicked  (used  as  a  term  of  abuse).    it  can  also  
refer  to  a  person  of  a  specified  kind  in  a  tone  of  playful  reproof,  
commiseration,  or  congratulation.    “you  lucky  dog”.    In  the  verb  sense,  ‘dog’  
can  refer  to  someone  following  someone  and  their  movements  closely  and  
persistently.      
 
162. Fourscore  (pg.  488):    eighty.    four  times  twenty:  eighty.    According  to  
the  Oxford  English  Dictionary,  it’s  “presumably  from  the  practice,  in  county  
sheep  or  large  herds  of  cattle,  of  counting  orally  from  1  to  20,  and  making  a  
score  or  notch  on  a  stick,  before  proceeding  to  count  the  next  20.”    The  first  
citation  for  that  use  of  the  word  score  in  the  OED  is  in  the  year  1100.  
 
163. French  Horse  (pg.  465):    In  the  French  cavalry.    From  
SpanishSuccession.com:    Parts  of  the  French  cavalry  could  trace  its  origins  
back  to  companies  of  mounted  knights.    These  were  the  companies  that  
formed  the  Gendarmerie,  which  had  16  companies  that  fielded  8  squadrons.    
The  Royal  Carabiniers  were  a  semi-­‐separate  unit.    The  bulk  of  the  French  
cavalry  was  organized  into  regular  regiments  which  were  officially  light  
cavalry.    The  Gendarmes  were  divided  in  companies  that  could  mostly  trace  
back  their  ancestry  to  bands  of  heavy  armored  horsemen  raised  by  the  
French  aristocracy.    This  was  the  meaning  of  Gendarme:  a  fully  armored  
horseman,  which  was  something  that  differed  from  light  cavalry.    Even  in  the  
beginning  of  Louis  XIV’s  reign  the  princes  of  the  blood,  the  Maréchaux  de  
France  and  some  other  members  of  the  aristocracy  still  had  their  own  
companies  of  Gendarmes  and  Chevaux-­‐Legers,  but  this  was  changed  by  Louis  
XIV.  /  Louis  changed  this  in  1660  (just  after  peace  of  the  Pyrenees),  that  year  
he  disbanded  all  companies  of  the  Gendarmerie  except  those  of  the  royal  
family.      
 
It  is  not  clear,  but  it  can  be  assumed  that  Charles  II  and  his  cavaliers  were  
required  to  help  with  Louis  XIV’s  battles  with  the  Spanish  because  Louis  XIV  
protected  Charles  II  in  his  exile,  and,  therefore,  that  could  be  how  Florinda  
met  Belville.  
 
164. Fresco  (pg.  492):    a  painting  done  rapidly  in  watercolor  on  wet  
plaster  on  a  wall  or  ceiling,  so  that  the  colors  penetrate  and  become  fixed  as  
it  dries.    paint  in  fresco.    Late  16th  century:  Italian,  literally  ‘cool,  fresh’.    The  

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 word  was  first  recorded  in  English  in  the  phrase  ‘in  fresco’,  representing  
Italian  affresco,  al  fresco  ‘on  the  fresh  (plaster)’.    Al  Fresco  can  also  mean  in  
the  open  air.      
 
165. Frigate  (pg.  485):    a  warship  with  a  mixed  armament,  generally  
heavier  than  a  destroyer  and  of  a  kind  originally  introduced  for  convoy  
escort  work.    a  sailing  warship  of  a  size  and  armament  just  below  that  of  a  
ship  of  the  line.    late  16th  century  (denoting  a  light,  fast  boat  which  was  
rowed  or  sailed):  from  French  frégate,  from  Italian  fregata.      
 
166. Gad  (pg.  483):    exclamation.    late  15th  century:  euphemistic  alteration  
of  God.  
 
167. Gaffer  (pg.  500):    old  man;  a  person  in  charge  of  others.    probably  a  
contraction  of  godfather.    gammer,  contraction  of  godmother.  
 
168. Gallant  (pg.  464):    (of  a  person  or  their  behavior)  brave;  heroic.    (of  a  
man  or  his  behavior)  giving  special  attention  and  respect  to  women;  
chivalrous.    a  man  who  pays  special  attention  to  women.    a  dashing  man  of  
fashion;  a  fine  gentleman.    Middle  English  (in  the  sense  ‘finely  dressed’):  from  
Old  French  gallant,  from  galer  ‘have  fun,  make  a  show’,  from  gale  ‘pleasure,  
rejoicing’.  
 
169. Galley  slave  (pg.  493):    a  person  condemned  to  row  in  a  galley.    a  
person  who  works  very  hard,  typically  performing  menial  or  thankless  tasks.    
From  Wikipedia:    A  galley  slave  is  a  slave  rowing  in  a  galley,  either  a  
convicted  criminal  sentenced  to  work  at  the  oar,  or  a  kind  of  human  chattel,  
often  a  prisoner  of  war,  assigned  to  his  duty  of  rowing.  
 
170. Gambo  (pg.  466):    British  colony  in  West  Africa.    From  the  DVD  LOS  
VATWA:    The  Vatwa  are  a  small  minority  group  that  lives  in  Angola  and  
Namibia.    They  have  given  up  part  of  their  traditional  cultural  identity  to  
imitate  the  dress  and  language  of  another  tribe:  the  Himba.    To  locate  the  
tribe,  Dr.  Abati’s  team  explores  northern  Namibia  and  southern  Angola.    
There,  they  find  the  Gambwe,  another  minority  group  of  agriculturists  
belonging  to  the  Nyaneka-­‐Nkumbi  group.    Finally,  the  team  finds  the  
enigmatic  Vatwa,  who  have  a  difficult  time  finding  sources  of  nourishment.    
They  have  to  eat  trees  and  animals,  including  turtles,  rejected  by  other  tribes  
as  a  source  of  sustenance.    From  PATTERNS  OF  SETTLEMENT  AND  
SUBSISTENCE  IN  SOUTHWESTERN  ANGOLA:    The  Gambwe  (Gambos),  the  
second  major  tribe  that  speaks  the  Mwila  dialect,  live  to  the  south  of  the  
Kihita.    The  Mwila-­‐Gambwe  tribes  include  approximately  forty  thousand  
people.    People  speaking  the  Khumbi  dialect  live  along  the  middle  course  of  
the  Cunene  and  near  the  Rios  Chitanda,  Sendi,  and  Calonga.    The  Khumbi  
proper  are  concentrated  near  the  junction  of  the  Cunene  and  Caculovar  
Rivers.    We  will  focus  on  the  Gambo  in  the  colonial  part  of  Angola  because  

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 during  THE  ROVER,  Namibia  was  a  German  colony.    Angola  was  a  Portuguese  
colony,  but  Great  Britain  claimed  some  of  the  areas  near  Namibia,  specifically  
Ambriz,  a  village  and  municipality  in  Bengo  Province,  Angola.

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 171. Garters  (pg.  477):    Garters  are  articles  of  clothing:  narrow  bands  of  
fabric  fastened  about  the  leg,  used  to  keep  up  stockings,  and  sometimes  
socks.    In  the  eighteenth  to  twentieth  centuries,  they  were  tied  just  below  the  
knee,  where  the  leg  is  most  slender,  to  keep  the  stocking  from  slipping.    
Garters  could  be  elaborately  decorated  and  were  sometimes  embroidered  
with  names,  dates,  mottoes,  or  humorous  phrases.    Prior  to  the  invention  of  
elastic,  they  were  fastened  by  buckles,  or  threaded  with  spiral  springs  to  grip  
the  wearer’s  leg.  

 
172. Geld  (pg.  470):    castrate  (a  male  animal).    deprive  of  vitality  or  vigor.    
Middle  English:  from  Old  Norse  gelda,  from  geldr  ‘barren’.  
 
173. Genteel  (pg.  502):    polite,  refined,  or  respectable,  often  in  an  affected  
or  ostentatious  way.    late  16th  century  (in  the  sense  ‘fashionable,  stylish’):  
from  French  gentil  ‘well-­‐born’.    From  the  17th  century  to  the  19th  century  the  
word  was  used  in  such  senses  as  ‘of  good  social  position’,  ‘having  the  
manners  of  a  well-­‐born  person’,  ‘well  bred’.    The  ironic  or  derogatory  
implication  dates  from  the  19th  century.      

  96  
  
174. German  motion  (pg.  491):    German  puppet  show.    From  the  World  
Encyclopedia  of  Puppetry  Arts:    Puppet  theatre  was  a  phenomenon  spread  all  
over  Europe  by  itinerant  toupes  of  storytellers  and  performers.    The  shows  
might  be  given  in  fairgrounds  or  in  the  courts  of  the  nobility.    The  scenic  
space  might  be  a  simple  trestle  or  a  booth  often  decorated  as  an  armoured  
castle,  called  a  castelet  in  French,  and  in  German  a  Possenburg  (a  “clown  
castle”  because  of  the  buffoonery  in  the  shows).    The  Renaissance  brought  
the  tehatre  of  automata,  that  is  to  say  the  indirect  manipulation  of  figurines  
in  boxes  and  display  windows.    At  first  employed  by  the  church  to  propagate  
the  mystery  plays  of  the  Catholic  religion,  this  re-­‐discovery,  of  Greek  origin,  
was  adopted  by  some  of  the  itinerant  showmen.    At  this  time,  from  1519,  the  
name  of  Hanswurst  appeared  on  the  scene,  although  it  is  not  yet  possible  to  
ascertain  that  this  was  a  theatre  personality.  The  17th  century  brought  to  
Europe  the  puppet  theater  of  rod  marionettes  and  string  puppets  (string  
marionettes/marionettes).    An  early  description  is  found  in  Italy  in  about  
1650,  and  an  Italian  by  the  name  of  Pietro  Agismondi  was  performing  in  
Germany  with  these  types  of  puppets  from  1666.    Later,  three  generations  of  
a  Dutch  family  called  Hilverding  presented  a  particular  brand  of  performance  
,  calling  their  puppets  “miniature  actors”  and  presenting  the  repertory  of  the  
famous  “Travelling  Comedians”,  but  at  a  lower  price.    Theirs  was  a  European  
repertory  which  included  Doctor  Faust  (from  the  German  and  the  English),  
the  biblical  parable  of  the  Prodigal  Son,  and  also  the  Spanish  Don  Juan.    
 
From  Brittanica.com:    Kasperle,  most  prominent  puppet  character  in  
Germany  and  Austria,  where  Kasperltheater  became  synonymous  with  
puppet  theatre.    The  character  developed  in  late  17th-­‐century  Austria  from  
Hanswurst,  the  cunning  peasant  servant  of  the  Viennese  popular  theatre.    
Named  Kasperle  in  the  early  18th  century,  he  was  brought  to  Germany  by  
traveling  puppeteers  and  became  an  extraneous  but  popular  character  in  
marionette  productions  of  Faust.    Kasperle  was  established  as  a  hand  puppet  
in  the  mid-­‐19th  century,  when  he  was  given  his  workingman’s  identity  and  
traditional  yellow-­‐trimmed  red  jacket.    Like  the  English  Punch,  Kasperle  
adapts  jokes  to  local  audiences  and  beats  his  associates  with  a  slapstick,  but  
his  performance  is  much  refined  in  Germany  today.  
 
Essentially,  I  think  Willmore  is  indicating  to  Angellica  that  Hellena  is  not  
worth  his  time  because  she  has  no  mind  or  body  of  her  own.  

  97  
  
   
175. Glass  (pg.  475):    Mirror.    For  more  details  check  out  ‘false  glass’  in  
this  packet.  
 
176. Governess  (pg.  464):    a  woman  employed  to  teach  children  in  a  
private  household.    Middle  English  (originally  governeress,  denoting  female  
ruler):  from  Old  French  governeresse,  feminine  of  governeour  ‘governor’,  
from  Latin  gubernator,  from  gubernare.    From  Wikipedia:    Traditionally,  
governesses  taught  “the  three  Rs”  (reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic)  to  young  
children.    They  also  taught  the  “accomplishments”  expected  of  middle  class  
women  to  the  young  ladies  under  their  care,  such  as  French  or  another  
language,  the  piano  or  another  musical  instrument,  and  often  painting  
(usually  the  more  ladylike  watercolors  rather  than  oils)  or  poetry.    It  was  
also  possible  for  other  teachers  (usually  male)  with  specialist  knowledge  and  
skills  to  be  brought  in,  such  as,  a  drawing  master  or  dancing  master.    The  
governess  occupied  a  uniquely  awkward  position:  she  worked  in  the  upper-­‐
class  home  of  the  landed  gentry  or  aristocracy.    She  herself  had  a  middle-­‐
class  background  and  education,  yet  was  paid  for  her  services.    As  a  sign  of  
this  social  limbo  she  frequently  ate  on  her  own,  away  from  the  family  and  
servants.    By  definition,  a  governess  was  an  unmarried  woman  who  lived  in  
someone  else’s  home,  which  meant  that  she  was  subject  to  their  rules.    In  any  

  98  
 case,  she  had  to  maintain  an  impeccable  reputation  by  avoiding  anything  
which  could  embarrass  or  offend  her  employers.    If  a  particular  governess  
was  young  and  attractive,  the  lady  of  the  house  might  well  perceive  a  
potential  threat  to  her  marriage,  and  enforce  the  governess’  social  exclusion  
more  rigorously.    As  a  result  of  these  various  restrictions,  the  lifestyle  of  the  
typical  governess  was  often  one  of  social  isolation  and  solitude,  without  the  
opportunity  to  make  friends.    However,  being  a  governess  was  one  of  the  few  
legitimate  ways  by  which  an  unmarried  middle  class  woman  could  support  
herself.    Not  surprisingly,  her  position  was  often  depicted  as  one  to  be  pitied,  
and  the  only  way  out  of  it  was  to  get  married.    Unfortunately,  it  was  difficult  
for  a  governess  to  find  a  suitable  husband  because  most  of  the  eligible  men  
she  encountered  were  her  social  superiors,  who  preferred  a  bride  from  
within  her  own  social  class,  particularly  since  such  women  generally  had  
better  financial  resources.    Once  a  governess’s  charges  grew  up,  she  had  to  
seek  a  new  position,  or,  exceptionally,  might  be  retained  by  the  grown-­‐up  
daughter  as  a  paid  companion.      
 
From    tandfonline.com:    One  of  the  early  forms  of  intercultural  education  was  
the  upbringing  of  children  by  foreign  governesses,  who  appeared  on  the  
European  labour  market  during  the  seventeenth  century.    In  German  families  
of  the  gentry  and  the  wealthy  middle-­‐classes  began,  since  the  eighteenth  
century,  to  copy  the  upbringing  of  princely  children.    They  too  wanted  their  
sons  and  daughters  to  learn  French  at  home  from  native  speakers.    Due  to  
this  high  demand,  French  governesses  could  hold  a  monopoly  in  German  
home  education  of  girls,  until  they  were  replaced  in  the  second  half  of  the  
nineteenth  century  by  German  resident  women  teachers.      
 
Callis  is,  typically,  a  French  name,  introduced  to  English  by  the  Normans,  
therefore,  if  the  common  foreign  governess  was  French,  the  actor  playing  
Callis  could  conceivably  be  French.  
 
177. Grace  (pg.  467):    simple  elegance  or  refinement  of  movement.    
courteous  goodwill.    an  attractively  polite  manner  of  behaving.    (in  Christian  
belief)  the  free  and  unmerited  favor  of  God,  as  manifested  in  the  salvation  of  
sinners  and  the  bestowal  of  blessings.    divinely  given  talent  or  blessing.    the  
condition  or  fact  of  being  favored  by  someone.    a  period  officially  allowed  for  
payment  of  a  sum  due  or  for  compliance  with  a  law  or  condition,  especially  
an  extended  period  granted  as  a  special  favor.    a  short  prayer  of  thanks  said  
before  or  after  a  meal.    used  as  forms  of  description  or  address  for  a  duke,  
duchess,  or  archbishop.    Middle  English:  via  Old  French  from  Latin  gratia,  
from  gratus  ‘pleasing,  thankful’;  related  to  grateful.  
 
178. Graces  (pg.  500):    third  person  present:  do  honor  or  credit  to  
(someone  or  something)  by  one’s  presence.  
 

  99  
 179. Grate  (pg.  466):    The  grille  covering  the  windows  of  a  convent  (i.e.,  
the  convent.    An  obsolete  definition:  cage,  prison.    “iron  bars  or  cagework  
across  a  door  or  window.”    From  Old  French  grate  or  directly  from  Medieval  
Latin  grata  “  grating,  lattice,”  from  Latin  cratis  “wickerwork,  hurdle”.    As  verb  
meaning  “to  fit  with  a  grate”.    

  100  
  
180. Gratis  (pg.478):    without  charge;  free.    given  or  done  for  nothing;  
free.    Late  Middle  English:  from  Latin,  contraction  of  gratis  ‘as  a  kindness’,  
from  gratia  ‘grace,  kindness’.      
 
181. Grimaces  (pg.  503):    an  ugly,  twisted  expression  on  a  person’s  face,  
typically  expressing  disgust,  pain,  or  wry  amusement.    mid  17th  century:  form  
French,  from  Spanish  grimazo  ‘caricature’,  from  grima  ‘fright’.  
 
182. Gypsies  (pg.  468):    The  Romani  (also  spelled  Romany),  colloquially  
known  as  Gypsies  or  Roma,  are  an  Indo-­‐Aryan,  traditionally  itinerant  ethic  
group  living  mostly  in  Europe  and  the  Americas  and  originating  from  the  
northern  Indian  subcontinent,  from  Rajasthan,  Haryana,  Punjab  regions  of  
modern-­‐day  India.      
 
From  ourmigrationstory.com:    The  Egyptians  Act  1530  was  a  response  to  the  
arrival  of  Romani  Gypsies,  known  as  ‘Egyptians’  at  the  time,  in  Britain  in  the  
sixteenth  century.    The  first  definite  record  of  these  peoples  in  Scotland  was  
in  1505,  and  in  England  in  1513  or  1514.      
 
The  movement  of  Romani  Gypsies  to  Britain  in  the  sixteenth  century  must  be  
understood  in  the  context  of  the  general  migration  of  these  peoples  to  
western  Europe  from  the  fifteenth  century  onwards.      
 

  101  
 ‘Egyptians’  were  thought  to  have  come  from  ‘little  Egypt’,  which  was  the  
name  given  to  a  part  of  the  Peloponnese  peninsula  in  what  is  now  Greece.    
However,  research  from  the  late  eighteenth  century  has  shown  that  Gypsies  
with  Roma  heritage  actually  originated  in  northwest  India.    These  people  
migrated  from  India  through  Persia  and  by  the  twelfth  century  had  reached  
the  Balkans  in  south-­‐eastern  Europe.    The  movement  of  early  Gypsy  groups  
was  tied  to  expansions  of  the  Persian,  Seljuk  and  then  Byzantine  empires.    
The  fall  of  Constantinople  to  the  Ottomans  in  1453  was  central  to  the  
establishment  of  Roma  communities  in  what  was  to  become  one  of  their  
heartlands  in  Europe,  the  Balkans.    In  the  Medieval  period,  ‘Egyptians’  
became  part  of  local  life  and  culture  right  across  the  Balkans,  and  by  the  
fifteenth  century  they  started  arriving  in  western  Europe.      
 
Right  across  Europe,  when  groups  of  Gypsies  arrived  in  a  new  city,  they  were  
initially  welcomed  by  the  local  gentry  and  royalty.    They  were  paid  for  
playing  music  or  telling  fortunes  and  were  given  permission  to  camp,  often  
on  the  outskirts  of  towns  or  just  outside  city  walls.    In  the  Scottish  court  in  
April  1505  there  is  a  record  of  Gypsies  being  paid  £7  at  the  request  of  the  
King,  possibly  either  for  providing  entertainment  to  the  court,  or  because  
they  were  thought  to  be  pilgrims.    Reports  suggest  that  these  early  groups  of  
Romani  Gypsies  carried  papers  with  them  certifying  that  they  were  pilgrims  
carrying  out  penance  and  asking  for  a  guarantee  of  safe  passage  across  the  
realm.      
 
Romani  Gypsies  were  just  one  of  many  groups  of  ‘strangers’  who  the  
inhabitants  of  Early  Modern  European  cities  would  have  encountered.    In  the  
rapidly  growing  towns  of  Europe,  movement  and  migration  were  a  normal  
part  of  everyday  life.    By  the  fifteenth  century,  the  transportation  of  goods  
had  become  quicker  and  easier  and  generally  safer.    Trains  of  pack  animals  
were  replaced  by  two-­‐wheeled  and  then  four-­‐wheeled  wagons,  which  were  
run  by  professional  carriers  and  organized  from  a  network  of  inns  that  
provided  warehousing  and  parking  facilities.  These  changes  in  
transportation  were  driven  by  expanding  trade,  which  led  to  improvements  
in  the  widths  and  surfaces  of  roads  and  the  building  of  countless  bridges.    
Improved  travel  networks  benefitted  travelers  other  than  merchants  and  
traders.    There  was  a  medley  of  moving  people,  including  wandering  
scholars,  minstrels,  and  travelling  entertainers,  knife-­‐grinders,  travelling  
healers,  hawkers,  and  tinkers.    Of  course  travelling  alongside,  and  sometimes  
with,  these  groups,  were  pilgrims  following  well-­‐trodden  national  and  
international  routes  to  sites  of  religious  importance.    So,  Romani  Gypsies  
were,  on  the  one  hand,  an  exotic  novelty  in  western  Europe,  able  to  find  work  
as  entertainers,  and  drawing  crowds  and  audiences  at  courts  because  they  
were  different.    On  the  other  hand,  they  were  also  a  part  of  a  much  larger  
population  of  travelling  peoples  in  western  Europe  at  this  time.      
 

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 The  arrival  of  Romani  Gypsies  in  western  Europe  in  the  fifteenth  and  
sixteenth  centuries  took  place  in  the  context  of  a  rise  in  vagrancy  across  
Britain  and  Europe.    This  was  caused  by  a  combination  of  declining  real  
incomes,  population  growth  (during  the  reign  Elizabeth  I,  the  population  rose  
from  three  to  four  million  people)  and  bad  harvests.    Together,  these  
problems  caused  food  shortages,  acute  poverty  and  unusual  amounts  of  
migration.    People  in  western  Europe  began  moving  to  towns  or  other  areas  
in  search  of  work,  and  family  groups  and  individuals  took  to  living  on  the  
road,  picking  up  work  as  they  went.    This  movement  led  to  the  expansion  of  
cities,  social  disruption  in  the  countryside  and  in  towns,  and  fears  among  the  
wealthy  classes  that  chaos  and  violent  unrest  were  a  very  real  threat.  
 
At  the  same  time  as  this  economic  disruption  and  increased  migration  within  
western  Europe,  attitudes  to  poverty  and  the  poor  began  to  change.    Unlike  
today,  there  was  no  definite  support  for  people  who  were  living  in  poverty.    
Traditionally  people  had  turned  their  church  for  charity  in  times  of  need  an  
begging  was  seen  as  an  acceptable  way  of  life.    However,  the  increasing  
number  of  paupers  in  the  early  sixteenth  century  put  the  church  charity  
system  under  strain.    Distinctions  between  the  ‘true’  or  deserving  poor  and  
the  undeserving  poor  began  to  emerge.    Among  those  who  were  formally  
identified  as  the  undeserving  poor  in  these  laws  were  rogues,  beggars,  
vagabonds  and,  a  new  category,  ‘counterfeit  Egyptian’,  which  included  people  
who  were  thought  to  be  pretending  to  be  Gypsies.    In  fact,  historians  now  
understand  this  latter  category  to  be  a  combination  of  those,  who  had  newly  
taken  to  a  nomadic  lifestyle  as  a  result  of  the  economic  developments  of  the  

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 sixteenth  century,  and  of  Romani  Gypsies.    

 
 
183. Habit  (pg.  486):    dress;  clothe;  attire.    Middle  English:  from  Old  
French  abit,  habit,  from  Latin  habitus  ‘condition,  appearance’,  from  habere  
‘have,  consist  of’.    The  term  originally  meant  ‘dress,  attire’,  later  coming  to  

  104  
 denote  physical  or  mental  constitution.

 
 
184. Hard  (pg.  483):    Old  English  heard  “solid  and  firm,  not  soft,”  also,  
“difficult  to  endure,  carried  on  with  great  exertion,”  also,  of  person,  “severe,  
rigorous,  harsh,  cruel,”  form  Proto-­‐Germanic  *hardu-­‐  (source  of  Old  Saxon  
hard,  Old  Frisian  herd,  Dutch  hard,  Old  Norse  harthr  “hard,”  Old  High  German  
harto  “extremely,  very,”  German  hart,  Gothic  hardus  “hard”).    Adv.:  English  
heard  “firmly,  severely,”  form  hard  (adj.).  Meaning  “with  effort  or  energy,  
with  difficulty”  is  late  14c.  
 
Meaning  “difficult  to  do”  is  from  c.  1200.    Of  water,  in  reference  to  the  
presence  of  mineral  salts,  1650s.      
 
185. Hark’ee  (pg.  481):    to  listen  attentively;  hearken;  to  listen  to;  hear.    
Middle  English  herken,  earlier  herkien,  Old  English  *heorcian;  cognate  with  
Old  Frisian  herkia,  harkia;  akin  to  Middle  Dutch  harken,  Middle  High  German.    
The  occurrence  of  2nd  person  enclitics  with  a  new  class  of  verbs,  namely,  
verbs  of  attention  (hark,  look,  mind)  in  the  imperative.    Hark’ee  (hark’ye,  
harkee)  is  quite  common  and  used  parenthetically,  often  before  a  vocative,  as  
a  discourse  marker,  a  kind  of  attention-­‐getter  (without  its  original  meaning).  

  105  
  
186. Hast  (pg.  498):    second  person  singular  present  of  have:  to  possess,  
hold.    Old  English  habban  “to  own,  possess;  be  subject  to,  experience.”    Sense  
of  “possess,  have  at  one’s  disposal”  is  a  shift  from  older  languages,  where  the  
thing  possessed  was  made  the  subject  and  the  possessor  took  the  dative  case  
(as  in  Latin  est  mihi  liber  “I  have  a  book,”  literally  “there  is  to  me  a  book”).    
Used  as  an  auxiliary  in  Old  English,  too  (especially  to  form  present  perfect  
tense);  the  word  has  taken  on  more  functions  over  time.    To  have  to  for  “must  
(1570s)  is  from  sense  of  “possess  as  a  duty  or  thing  to  be  done”.  
 
187. Haven  (pg.  494):    harbor,  port.    a  place  of  safety.    refuge.    a  place  
offering  favorable  opportunities  or  conditions.    Middle  English,  from  Old  
English  haefen;  akin  to  Middle  High  German  habene  harbor.  
 
188. Hawk  and  Hunt  (pg.  493):    Hawks  were  the  most  popular  choice  for  
hunting  birds.    Medieval  Hawking  or  Falconry  was  the  ancient  sport  of  
hunting  small  wild  game  or  birds  with  trained  birds  of  prey.    The  trained  
birds  of  prey  were  not  restricted  to  falcons  –  hawks  and  occasionally  eagles  
were  also  used.    (More  is  discussed  under  the  topic  Faulkner).  
 
189. Hazard  in  one  bottom  (pg.  472):    Keep  in  one  place,  as  in  the  hold  
(bottom)  of  a  ship.    ‘hazard’  in  literary  terms  means  to  chance;  probability.    
venture  to  say  something.    put  (something)  at  risk  of  being  lost.    This  comes  
from  the  Spanish  azar,  from  Arabic  az-­‐zahr  ‘chance,  luck’  from  Persian  or  
Turkish  zar  ‘dice’.    The  hold  or  ‘bottom’  of  the  ship  is  a  space  for  carrying  
cargo.      
 
From  Britannica.com:    With  the  emergence  of  the  eastern  trade  about  1600  
the  merchant  ship  had  grown  impressively.    The  Venetian  buss  was  rapidly  
supplanted  by  another  Venetian  ship,  the  cog.  A  buss  of  240  tons  with  lateen  
sails  was  required  by  maritime  statutes  of  Venice  to  be  manned  by  a  crew  of  
50  sailors.  The  crew  of  a  square-­‐sailed  cog  of  the  same  size  was  only  20  
sailors.    Thus  began  an  effort  that  has  characterized  merchant  shipping  for  
centuries  –  to  reduce  crews  to  the  minimum.    This  was  particularly  true  of  
oceanic  navigation,  because  larger  crews  were  expensive  to  pay  and  to  
provision  –  and  the  large  amounts  of  provisions  necessary  were  sometimes  
critical  on  long  voyages.      
 
In  the  north,  vessels  were  commonly  three-­‐masted  by  the  16th  century.    
These  were  the  ships  that  Cabot  used  to  reach  Newfoundland  and  Drake  
Frobisher,  and  Raleigh  sailed  over  the  world’s  oceans.    Raleigh  wrote  that  the  
Dutch  ships  of  the  period  were  so  easy  to  sail  that  a  crew  one-­‐third  the  size  
used  in  English  craft  could  operate  them.  Efforts  were  made  to  accomplish  
technical  improvements  on  English  copies  of  Venetian  and  Genoese  traders.    
These  ultimately  resulted  in  the  East  Indiaman  of  the  17th  century.    This  large  

  106  
 and  costly  ship  was  intended  to  be  England’s  entry  in  a  fierce  competition  
with  the  Dutch  for  the  trade  of  India  and  the  Spice  Islands.  
 
An  interesting  research  project  could  be  embarked  here:  Charles  II  was  
protected  in  his  exile  by  his  family  members  in  France  and  the  Netherlands.    
The  Dutch  had  some  of  the  most  profitable  ships  that  were  cheaper  to  build  
and  were  Cromwell’s  competition.    I’m  not  sure  where  Charles  would  have  
received  a  ship,  but  it  is  possible  that  it  was  from  the  Dutch.    These  long,  
relatively  narrow  ships  were  designed  to  carry  as  much  cargo  as  possible,  the  
fluyt  featured  three  masts  and  a  large  hold  beneath  a  single  deck.    The  man  
and  fore  masts  carried  two  or  more  square  sails  and  the  third  mast  a  lateen  
sail.      

 
190. Heed  (pg.  498):    pay  attention  to;  take  notice  of.    careful  attention.    
Old  English  hedan:  to  observe;  to  take  care,  attend,  care  for,  protect,  take  
charge  of.    Old  High  German  “to  guard,  watch”.    “to  shelter,  cover”.      
 
191. He  may  perhaps  increase  her  bags,  but  not  her  family  (pg.  465):    
Give  her  material  goods  but  not  enhance  her  family’s  standing.      
 
From  Wikipedia:    In  Spain  there  were  a  large  number  of  nobles.    Some  of  
them  were  rich  while  others  were  poor  workers.    In  Santander  an  economic  
survey  known  as  the  Catastro  of  Ensenada  showed  that  almost  all  the  
registered  residents  were  nobles,  despite  being  peasants  or  working  as  
masons,  blacksmiths  and  other  trades.    In  Spain  the  distinction  between  the  
social  classes  diminished  in  the  18th  century.    The  military  justification  of  the  
nobles  diminished  with  the  appearance  of  a  national  army.    The  Bourbons  
opposed  the  political  pretensions  of  the  nobility,  decreased  its  number,  
restricted  its  fiscal  exemptions  by  indirect  taxes,  and  decreed  that  work  was  
compatible  with  noble  status.    The  nobility  was  not  an  exclusive  social  class:  

  107  
 those  possessing  sufficient  money  could  enter  it,  irrespective  of  lineage.    For  
the  most  part,  however,  possession  of  lands  was  what  conferred  social  status  
and  facilitated  access  to  the  local  elite.    Spain  was  divided  between  those  who  
owned  the  land  and  those  who  worked  on  it,  between  those  who  lived  on  
rents  and  those  who  performed  social  functions.    Some  nobles  and  
monasteries  wielded  considerable  power  in  their  locality,  administering  
justice,  levying  fees,  collecting  taxes,  and  imposing  feudal  rights  and  services,  
from  which  they  obtained  rents  and  products  from  the  land  and,  in  general,  
dominated  the  lives  of  their  vassals.    A  minority  of  lords  were  enlightened  
leaders  of  their  communities  and  invested  in  agriculture,  industry  and  
popular  education,  but  in  general  there  was  insufficient  productive  
investment,  causing  stagnation  in  both  agriculture  and  industry.    The  lavish  
expenditure  of  the  nobles  surprised  foreign  visitors.    In  their  travels  around  
the  peninsula,  the  nobles  with  the  highest  position  travelled  with  a  retinue  of  
five  or  six  carriages:  one  for  their  personal  use,  others  with  many  cooks  and  
servants.    Many  nobles  had  thousands  of  servants.    Although  the  nobility  had  
lost  a  lot  of  power  and  importance  as  a  social  class,  they  retained  their  rental  
income,  social  position,  and  influence  as  a  class.  
 
In  essence,  the  marriage  of  Florinda  to  Don  Vincentio  would  involve  her  
family  receiving  more  land  and  money,  but  he  probably  did  not  have  the  
lineage;  he  probably  received  his  nobility  because  he  had  money  and  land.      
 
192. Hogoes  (pg.  467):    Relishes.    a  notably  strong  flavor  or  smell.    From  
FOLK-­‐ETYMOLOGY:  A  DICTIONARY  OF  CORRUPTIONS  OF  WORDS  
PERVERTED  IN  FORM  OR  MEANING,  BY  FALSE  DERIVATION  OR  MISTAKEN  
ANALOGY:  Formerly  “hogoo,”  a  high  savour  or  relish;  a  popular  corruption  of  
french  haut  gout.    Compare  fogo,  an  old  slang  word  for  a  stench.    It  was  hogo,  
I  surmise,  that  suggested  the  vulgar  fogo.    At  first,  probably,  fogo  was  added  
to  hogo,  for  the  sake  of  jingle;  and  then,  as  the  word,  from  resemblance  to  
faugh,  foh,  intrinsically  conveyed  the  idea  of  disgust,  hogo  fogo  was  
shortened  to  fog.    Again,  in  holy  fogo  the  holy  may  be  a  corruption  of  hogo.    
To  the  sawce  a  hogoe,  let  the  dish  (into  which  you  let  the  Pike  fall)  be  rubed  
with  it  [garlick].      
 
193. Honest  (pg.  471):    Sexually  inactive.    From  incharacter.org:    One  
would  do  well,  writing  a  history  of  the  word  “honesty,”  simply  to  refer  others  
to  the  three  chapters  devoted  to  “honest”  in  William  Empson’s  marvelous  
book  The  Structure  of  Complex  Words  (1951).    In  the  middle  chapter,  entitled  
“Honest  Numbers,”  Empson  gives  his  own  dictionary-­‐style  entry  for  “honest,”  
meant  to  remedy  the  deficiencies  of  the  entry  found  in  the  New  English  
Dictionary,  the  ancestor  of  the  Oxford  English  Dictionary.    Aiming  to  capture  
senses,  “feeling,”  and  the  interactions  between  the  two,  includes  not  only  the  
familiar  numbers  and  letters  of  NED  (and  of  the  current  OED)  but  also  
exclamation  points,  forward  slashes,  plus  and  minus  signs,  and  –  most  eye-­‐
catchingly  –  British  pound  signs,  which  refer  to  what  he  call  “Moods.”    

  108  
 Empson  identifies  two  primary,  or  “head,”  senses  of  “honest”:  “not  lying,  not  
stealing,  keeping  promises”  and  “deserving  and  receiving  social  honour,”  and  
“1”  and  “2,”  respectively.    His  “3”  and  “4”  are  the  “patronizing  Mood,”  as  in  
“£3  +  he  deserves  praise  for  these  minor  virtues,”  and  the  “hearty  Mood,”  as  
in  “4/+  [He  is}  a  reliable  member  of  our  set.”    The  symbols,  which  Empson  
refers  to  somewhat  archly  as  his  “little  bits  of  machinery,”  create  a  rather  
Brogesian  effect,  but  the  lexical  work  is  wonderfully  subtle  and  precise.    
Empson  shows  us  the  word  in  the  world  where  speech  and  class  are  closely  
bound  up.    
 
My  brief  history  of  “honesty,”  modest  by  comparison,  will  confine  itself  to  the  
noun  form.    What  interests  me  in  particular  is  the  relationship  between  
“honesty”  and  “honor,”  the  older  of  the  two  and  the  one  closer  to  the  root.    
“Honesty”  derives  from  the  Old  French  (h)oneste,  which  in  turn  derives  from  
the  Latin  honestas.    The  Latin  noun  was  formed  from  the  adjective  honestus,  
likely  deriving  from  honos,  “honor,”  which  is  of  uncertain  etymology.    The  
Roman  linguist  Varro  suggested  onus,  “burden,”  as  the  root  of  honos,  as  if  
honor  weighs  us  down  morally.    In  his  encyclopedic  work  Etymologiae,  likely  
composed  in  the  seventh  century  of  the  Common  Era,  Isidore  of  Seville  
defined  honestas  as  honor  perpetuus,  literally  “perpetual  honor,”  and  then  
more  straightforwardly  as  nonoris  status,  “the  condition  or  state  of  honor.”    
Around  1930,  the  classical  philogist  T.G.  Tucker  suggested  that  the  root  of  
honos  was  *ghen-­‐  to  “make  big,  full,”  but  a  definitive  derivation  remains  
elusive.    The  first  definition  of  honestas  given  by  the  Oxford  Latin  Dictionary  
is  “Title  to  respect,  honourableness,  honor,”  followed  by  “Moral  rectitude,  
integrity,”  in  which  sense  it  was  frequently  opposed  to  utilitas,  “expediency.”    
Cicero  refers  to  a  dissnsio,  or  conflict,  between  the  two,  and  Horace  praises  
Lollius  for  preferring  the  honestum  to  the  utile.    Less  frequently  honestas  
was  used  in  the  sense  of  “Decency,  seemliness,”  one  of  the  early  secondary  
senses  of  “honesty”  in  English.      
 
“Honeste”  was  also  current  in  the  fourteenth  century,  according  to  the  OED,  
in  the  sense  of  “Honourable  character,”  both  “in  a  wide  general  sense,  
including  all  kinds  of  moral  excellence  worth  of  honour,”  and  in  the  specific  
sense  of  “Chastity;  the  honour  or  virtue  of  a  woman,”  which  appears  to  
originate  with  Chaucer.    Slightly  later  “honeste”  assumed  the  sense  of  
another  virtue,  “Generosity,  liberality,  hospitality.”    In  Shakespeare’s  Timon  
of  Athens,  the  title  character  freely  shares  all  that  he  has  with  his  friends,  only  
to  be  refused  by  them  in  his  time  of  need.    “Every  man  has  his  fault,”  Lucullus  
says  of  Timon,  “and  honesty  is  his.”  
 
In  the  third  and  final  of  “honest”  chapters,  devoted  to  Othello,  Empson  
paraphrases  these  lines:  “I  have  lost  my  civilian  reputation,  because  the  
killing  of  my  wife  has  turned  out  unjust;  why  then  should  I  care  about  my  
military  reputation,  which  depends  on  keeping  my  sword?”    Empson  I  think  
rightly  suggests  that  Othello  personifies  honor  in  the  play  and  Iago  honesty.    

  109  
 Or,  rather,  Iago  “persona-­‐fies”  honesty;  this  is,  he  wears  it  like  a  mask  –  the  
etymological  sense  of  the  Latin  persona  –  deceiving  Othello  and  others.  Yet  
what  makes  the  matter  of  Iago’s  honesty  so  complex  is  that  in  his  soliloquies  
Iago  removes  the  mask  for  us;  he  becomes  honest  about  his  dishonesty.    At  
the  end  of  the  play  Othello  must  come  to  terms  with  the  maddening  fact  that  
Desdemona  was  honest,  not  “honest  Iago.”    It  becomes  clear,  in  other  words,  
that  she  personifies  honesty  –  both  chastity  and  truthfulness.    Having  
destroyed  Desdemona,  he  has  destroyed  what  she  represents.    Othello  leaves  
it  finally  to  others  to  resurrect  a  dead  virtue:    “speak  of  me  as  I  am.    Nothing  
extenuate,  /  Nor  set  down  aught  in  malice.    Then  must  you  speak  /  Of  one  
that  loves  not  wisely,  but  too  well.”    Those  who  remain  must  speak  the  
honest  truth.  
 
194. Horns  (pg.  468):    Emblem  of  the  cuckold,  a  man  whose  wife  is  
unfaithful.    From  StrangeHistory.com:    The  cuckold’s  horns  is  a  sign,  usually  
indicated  by  two  fingers  placed  over  the  head,  of  a  man  whose  wife  has  been  
unfaithful.    In  many  countries  –  not  least  the  UK,  the  actual  symbolism  has  
been  forgotten  and  only  the  offense  remains.    How  old  is  the  symbol  and  
more  importantly  what  have  horns  go  to  do  with  fooled  spouses?    As  to  age  it  
would  be  nice  to  report  that  it  stretches  back  into  antiquity,  but  there  are  no  
convincing  Greek  or  Roman  references.    While  there  is  enough  Greek  and  
Roman  material  surviving  for  us  to  put  together  a  fairly  impressive  list  of  
classical  hand  signs:  for  example,  a  Roman  scratching  his  ear  at  a  man,  
implies  the  man  is  gay.    However,  the  cuckold’s  horns  are  definitely  there  in  
the  Middle  Ages.    That  great  medievalist  Peter  Dronke  noted  a  reference  in  
the  late  1100s  in  the  work  of  Bernart  de  Vetadour.    The  earliest  image  of  the  
cuckolded  husband  apparently  dates,  meanwhile,  to  a  fourteenth-­‐century  
French  manuscript  (of  Gratian’s  Decretals),  where  a  husband  is  shown  with  
antlers  on:  frustratingly  I’ve  not  been  able  to  examine  the  image,  I’ve  just  
read  about  it.    The  most  difficult  question  is,  of  course,  where  does  the  idea  of  
a  cuckold’s  horns  originate?    There  are  many  theories  but  the  best  notion  has  
to  be  that  pushed  a  generation  ago  by  Graber  and  Ricter  (1987).    They  
referred  to  a  curious  agricultural  custom  whereby  castrated  roosters  
(capons)  had  their  spurs  transplanted  onto  their  combs:  where  they  grew  
into  the  comb  as  horns.    (Talk  about  adding  insult  to  injury.)    The  cuckolded  
husband  is  neutered,  hence  the  capon’s  horns.    If  all  this  sounds  interesting  
but  hardly  cuckoldish,  consider  the  German  word  for  cuckold  is  Hahnrei  
(rooster-­‐deer):  etymological  proof  always  sounds  so  convincing.    The  
problem  is  that  most  studies  suggest  that  the  practice  originated  in  the  Latin  
Mediterranean  (i.e.  that’s  where  we  get  most  early  evidence)  but  the  
connection  there  was  with  goats  not  roosters…Awkward.      
 
From  BBC.com:    The  word  derives  from  old  French  for  cuckoo  (“cucu”).    The  
females  of  some  species  of  cuckoo  lay  their  eggs  in  other  birds’  nests  and  
leave  them  to  bring  up  the  offspring.    So,  with  that  whiff  of  unfaithfulness,  the  
carefree  bird  gave  us  the  word  “cuckold”,  which  came  in  the  Middle  Ages  to  

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 mean  a  husband  with  an  errant  wife.    But  there  are  more  subtleties  in  that  
rude  gesture.    The  word  “cuckold”  also  implies  that  the  husband  is  unaware  
of  his  wife’s  infidelities.    And  he  might  only  find  out  on  the  arrival  of  a  baby  –  
palpably  not  his.    Which  takes  us  back  to  the  cuckoo.    References  to  cuckolds  
abound  in  English  literature.    In  centuries  past,  marital  infidelity  was  good  
for  laughs.    Such  as  in  Chaucer’s  ‘The  Miller’s  Tale,”  in  which  a  young  suitor  
comes  up  with  the  most  convoluted  scheme  to  entice  his  young  lover  away  
from  her  suspicious,  elderly  husband.    “For  she  was  wild  and  young,  and  he  
was  old,  And  deemed  himself  as  like  to  be  a  cuckold.”    Shakespeare  loved  
cuckolds  –  many  of  his  characters  suspected  they  had  become  one.    Cue  
anger,  jealousy,  murder  and,  of  course,  comedy.    The  word  was  also  an  
excellent  insult…    “crooked-­‐pated  old  cuckoldy  ram”  is  one  of  the  more  
colourful.  
 
From  theconversation.com:    As  well  as  plays  and  prints,  ballads  also  mocked  
the  cuckold  as  a  hen-­‐pecked  husband  who  was  overly  submissive  to  his  wife.    
This  17th  century  ballad  summoned  all  cuckolds  to  meet  at  Cuckolds-­‐Point,  
an  area  on  the  Thames  in  East  London,  to  repair  the  footpath  that  their  wives  
would  take  with  their  lovers  to  Horn-­‐Fair,  a  carnival-­‐like  parade  took  place  
every  October:    Here  is  a  Summons  for  all  honest  Men,  /  belonging  to  the  
Hen-­‐peck’d  Frigate;  /  And  I  will  tell  you  the  place  where  and  when,  /  both  
Gravel  and  Sand  for  to  dig  it;  /  To  mend  the  ways,  ‘tis  no  idle  Tale,  /  
remember  your  Foreheads  adorning,  /  At  Cuckolds-­‐Point  you  must  meet  
without  fail,  /  by  seven  a  Clock  in  the  morning.      
 
From  “The  Horn  Fair  of  South  London:  London’s  first  Carnival?”:    According  
to  some  local  tradition,  the  fair  was  started  after  King  John  seduced  the  wife  
of  a  local  miller  and,  in  recompense,  gave  her  wronged  husband  all  the  land  
visible  from  Charlton  to  Rotherhithe.    The  miller’s  neighbors  named  the  
riverside  boundary  of  his  new  land  Cuckold’s  Point  and  established  the  
annual  Horn  Fair:    “The  Men  would  be  dressed  as  women…all  would  wear  
horns,  blow  horns,  carry  horns,  and  at  the  fair,  would  buy  trinkets  carved  
from  iron.”      

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   112  
  
195. Hostel  de  Dieu  (pg.  466):    Hospital  operated  by  a  group  of  nuns.    
From  Wikipedia:    In  French-­‐speaking,  a  hotel-­‐Dieu  (“hostel  of  God”)  was  
originally  a  hospital  for  the  poor  and  needy,  run  by  the  Catholic  Church.    
Nowadays  these  buildings  or  institutions  have  either  kept  their  function  as  a  
hospital,  the  one  in  Paris  being  the  oldest  and  most  renowned,  or  have  been  
converted  into  hotels,  museums,  or  general  purpose  buildings  (for  instance  
house  a  prefecture,  the  administrative  head  office  of  a  French  department).      

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196. House  of  Commons  (pg.  502):    From  Wikipedia:    The  House  of  
Commons  is  the  lower  house  of  the  Parliament  of  the  United  Kingdom.    Like  
the  upper  house,  the  House  of  Lords,  it  meets  in  the  Palace  of  Westminster.    
Officially,  the  full  name  of  the  house  is  the  Honourable  the  Commons  of  the  
United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Northern  Ireland  in  Parliament  
assembled.    Owing  to  shortage  of  space,  its  office  accommodation  extends  
into  Portcullis  House.    The  Commons  is  an  elected  body  consisting  of  650  
members  known  as  Members  of  Parliament  (MPs).    Members  are  elected  to  
represent  constituencies  by  first-­‐past-­‐the-­‐post  and  hold  their  seats  until  
Parliament  is  dissolved.    The  House  of  Commons  evolved  in  the  13th  and  14th  
centuries.    It  eventually  became  the  House  of  Commons  of  Great  Britain  after  
the  political  union  with  Scotland  in  1707,  and  assumed  the  title  of  “House  of  
Commons  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland”  after  the  political  union  with  Ireland  
at  the  start  of  the  19th  century.    The  “United  Kingdom”  referred  to  was  the  
United  Kingdome  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  from  1800,  and  became  the  
United  Kingdome  and  Northern  Ireland  after  the  independence  of  the  Irish  
Free  State  in  1922.    From  History.com:    For  much  of  the  17th  century,  the  
United  Kingdom  experienced  a  great  deal  of  change  and  political  turmoil.    
Arguably,  the  one  constant  was  Parliament.    From  1603  to  1660,  the  country  
was  mired  in  a  drawn-­‐out  Civil  War  and,  for  a  time,  military  leader,  Oliver  
Cromwell  assumed  power  under  the  title  Lord  Protector.    The  ruling  

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 monarch  at  the  time,  Charles  I,  was  executed  in  1649.    Cromwell  is  best  
known  for  conquering  Scotland  (1649)  and  Ireland  (1651)  and  bringing  
them,  unwillingly,  under  the  dominions  of  the  United  Kingdom.    Still,  those  
nations  had  their  own  Parliaments  made  up  of  Cromwell  supporters.    
Parliament  continued  to  retain  some  power  during  the  period  of  change.    
However,  M.P.s  who  were  thought  to  be  loyal  to  Charles  I  were  excluded  from  
the  legislature  in  1648,  creating  the  so-­‐called  “Rump  Parliament.”    In  1649,  
the  House  of  Commons  took  the  unprecedented  stop  of  abolishing  the  
monarch  and  declaring  England  a  commonwealth.    Four  years  later,  though,  
Cromwell  disbanded  the  Rump  Parliament  and  created  the  Nominated  
Assembly,  a  de  facto  legislature.    Cromwell  died  in  1658  and  was  replaced  by  
his  son  Richard.    The  son  was  deposed  a  year  later,  and  Britain’s  government  
effectively  collapsed.    Charles’s  son,  Charles  II,  was  restored  to  the  throne  in  
1660  reaffirming  the  monarchy’s  place  in  British  history.    New  Parliamentary  
elections  were  held.    And  the  M.P.s  elected  effectively  held  their  seats  for  the  
next  18  years,  during  which  no  general  election  was  called.    The  so-­‐called  
“Stuart  Kings”  –  Charles  II  and  his  brother  James  II,  who  succeeded  him  in  
1685  –  maintained  a  similar  relationship  with  the  legislature  as  their  father  
had  in  the  1640s.    However,  religion  was  a  major  issue  dividing  English  
government  and  society.    When  Parliament  passed  the  “Test  Act,”  which  
prevented  Catholics  from  holding  elected  office,  the  legislature  was  at  odds  
with  King  James  II,  himself  a  Catholic.    After  a  few  years  of  political  in-­‐fighting  
Parliament  deposed  James  II  in  1689,  an    d  his  eldest  daughter  Mary  and  her  
husband  William  Prince  of  Orange  ascended  to  the  throne.  
 
197. Huff  (pg.  503):    blow  out  loudly;  puff.    express  one’s  annoyance  or  
offence.    A  fit  of  petty  annoyance.    Late  16th  century:  imitative  of  the  sound  of  
blowing.      
 
198. Humor  (pg.  467):    the  quality  of  being  amusing  or  comic,  especially  
as  expressed  in  literature  or  speech.    a  mood  or  state  of  mind.    each  of  the  
four  chief  fluids  of  the  body  (blood,  phlegm,  yellow  bile  (choler),  and  black  
bile  (melancholy))  that  were  thought  to  determine  a  person’s  physical  and  
mental  qualities  by  the  relative  proportions  in  which  they  were  present.    an  
inclination  or  whim.    Middle  English:  via  Old  French  from  Latin  humor  
‘moisture’,  from  humere  (see  humid).    The  original  sense  was  ‘bodily  fluid’  
(surviving  in  aqueous  humour  and  vitreous  humour);  it  was  used  specifically  
for  any  of  the  cardinal  humors  (humor  (sense  3  of  the  noun)),  whence  
‘mental  disposition’  (thought  to  be  caused  by  the  relative  proportions  of  the  
humors).    This  led,  in  the  16th  century,  to  the  senses  ‘mood’  humor  (sense  1  of  
the  noun)  dates  from  the  16th  century.  
 
199. Hymen  (pg.  500):    God  of  marriage.    From  Wikipedia:    Hymen  in  
Hellenistic  religion,  is  a  god  of  marriage  ceremonies,  inspiring  feasts  and  
song.    Related  to  the  god’s  name,  a  hymenaios  is  a  genre  of  Greek  lyric  poetry  
sung  during  the  procession  of  the  bride  to  the  groom’s  house  in  which  the  

  115  
 god  is  addressed,  in  contrast  to  the  Epithalamium,  which  is  sung  at  the  
nuptial  threshold.    He  is  one  of  the  winged  love  gods,  Erotes.    Hymen  is  the  
son  of  Apollo  and  one  of  the  muses,  Clio  or  Calliope  or  Urania  or  Terpsichore.    
Hymen  is  supposed  to  attend  every  wedding.    If  he  did  not,  then  the  marriage  
would  supposedly  prove  disastrous,  so  the  Greeks  would  run  about  calling  
his  name  aloud.    He  presided  over  many  of  the  weddings  in  Greek  mythology,  
for  all  the  deities  and  their  children.    Hymen  is  celebrated  in  the  ancient  
marriage  son  of  unknown  origin  (called  a  Hymenaios).    At  least  since  the  
Italian  Renaissance,  Hymen  was  generally  represented  in  art  as  a  young  man  
wearing  a  garland  of  flowers  and  holding  a  burning  torch  in  one  hand.      

 
200. Idle  (pg.  483):    (of  a  person)  avoiding  work;  lazy.    without  purpose  or  
effect;  pointless.    Old  English  ‘empty,  useless’,  of  West  Germanic  origin;  

  116  
 related  to  Dutch  ijdel  ‘vain,  frivolous,  useless’  and  German  eitel  ‘bare,  
worthless’.  
 
201. Impertinently  (pg.  491):    not  showing  proper  respect;  rude.    not  
pertinent  to  a  particular  matter;  irrelevant.    late  Middle  English:  from  Old  
French,  or  from  late  Latin  impertinent  –  ‘not  having  reference  to’,  from  Latin  
in-­‐  ‘not’  +  pertinere  ‘pertain’.  
 
202. Implicit  (pg.  469):    implied  though  not  plainly  expressed.    essentially  
or  very  closely  connected  with;  always  to  found  in.    with  no  qualification  or  
question;  absolute.    late  16th  century:  from  French  implicite  or  Latin  
implicitus,  later  form  of  implicates  ‘entwined’,  past  participle  of  implicare:  
from  in-­‐  ‘not’  +  plicare  ‘to  fold’.    The  original  sense  was  ‘entwine’;  in  the  16th  
and  17th  centuries  the  word  also  meant  ‘employ’.  
 
203. Impotent  (pg.  494):    unable  to  take  effective  action;  helpless  or  
powerless.    (of  a  man)  abnormally  unable  to  achieve  sexual  erection.    late  
Middle  English:  via  Old  French  from  Latin  Impotent-­‐  ‘powerless’,  from  in-­‐  
‘not’  +  potent  ‘crutch’,  ‘power’.  
 
204. Impudence  (pg.  493):    the  quality  of  being  impudent  (not  showing  
due  respect  for  another  person);  impertinence.    late  Middle  English  (in  the  
sense  ‘immodest,  indelicate’):  from  Latin  impudent-­‐,  from  in-­‐  ‘not’  +  pudent-­‐  
‘ashamed,  modest’  (from  pudere  ‘be  ashamed’).  
 
205. Incle  (pg.  500):    Linen  yarn  or  tape.    a  colored  linen  tape  or  braid  
woven  on  a  very  narrow  loom  and  used  for  trimming.    From  Middle  English,  
from  *inklen,  inclean  (“to  give  an  inkling  of,  hint  at,  mention,  utter  in  an  
undertone”),  from  inke  (“apprehension,  misgiving”),  from  Old  English  inca  
(“doubt,  suspicion”),  from  Proto-­‐Germanic  *inko  (“ache,  regret”),  from  Proto-­‐
Indo-­‐European  *yeng-­‐  (“illness”).    Cognate  with  Old  Frisian  jinc  (“angered”),  

  117  
 Old  Norse  ekki  (“pain,  grief”),  Norwegian  ekkje  (“lack,  pity”).

 
206. Inconstant  (pg.  477):    frequently  changing;  variable  or  irregular.    (of  
a  person  or  their  behavior)  not  faithful  and  dependable.    late  Middle  English:  
via  Old  French  from  Latin  inconstant-­‐,  from  in-­‐  ‘not’  +  constant-­‐  ‘standing  
firm’.  

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207. Indies  (pg.  501):    East  and  West  Indies.    The  East  Indies  or  the  Indies  
are  the  lands  of  South  and  Southeast  Asia.    The  West  Indies  included  the  
islands  of  the  Caribbean.    Exploration  of  the  East  Indies  began  in  the  late  15th  
and  early  16th  century  by  Portuguese  explorers.    From  Wikipedia:    The  
Portuguese  described  the  entire  region  they  discovered  as  the  Indies.    
Eventually,  the  region  would  be  broken  up  into  a  series  of  Indies:  The  East  
Indies,  which  was  also  called  “Old  Indies”  or  “Great  Indies”,  consisting  of  
India,  and  the  West  Indies,  also  called  “New  Indies”  or  “Little  Indies”,  
consisting  of  the  Americas.    These  regions  were  important  sources  of  trading  
goods,  particularly  cotton,  indigo,  and  spices,  after  the  establishment  of  
European  trading  companies:  the  British  East  India  Company  and  Dutch  East  
India  Company,  among  others,  in  the  17th  century.    

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208. Infamy  (pg.  491):    the  state  of  being  well  known  for  some  bad  quality  
or  deed.    an  evil  or  wicked  act.    Borrowed  from  Old  French  infamie,  from  
Latin  infamia  (“infamy”),  from  infamis  (“infamous”),  from  in-­‐  (“not”)  +  fama  
(“fame,  renown”).  
 
209. Infanta  (pg.  472):    Spanish  princess.    Literally  meaning  “daughter  of  a  
king  of  Spain  or  Portugal,”  c.  1600,  from  Spanish  and  Portuguese  infanta,  fem.  
of  infante  “a  youth;  a  prince  of  royal  blood,”  from  Latin  infantem,  infant:  “a  
child”.  
 
210. Infirmity  (pg.  488):    physical  or  mental  weakness.    late  14c.,  “disease,  
sickness;  lack  of  capability,  weakness,”  form  Latin  infirmitatem  (nominative  
infirmitas)  “want  of  strength,  weakness,  feebleness,”  noun  of  quality  from  
infirmus:  infirm.      
 
211. In  fresco  (pg.  480):    From  Wikipedia:    Fresco  is  a  technique  of  mural  
painting  executed  upon  freshly  laid,  or  wet  lime  plaster.    Water  is  used  as  the  
vehicle  for  the  dry-­‐powder  pigment  to  merge  with  the  plaster,  and  with  the  
setting  of  the  plaster,  and  with  the  setting  of  the  plaster,  the  painting  
becomes  an  integral  part  of  the  wall.    The  word  fresco  (Italian:  affresco)  is  
derived  from  the  Italian  adjective  fresco  meaning  “fresh”,  and  my  thus  be  
contrasted  with  fresco-­‐secco  or  secco  mural  painting  in  fresco.    The  fresco  

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 technique  has  been  employed  since  antiquity  and  is  closely  associated  with  
Italian  Renaissance.    Put  together  with  in,  ‘in  fresco’  can  translate  to  “in  the  
fresh  air,”  “the  open  air”  and  “the  border-­‐painting”.      
 
212. Ingrateful  (pg.  498):    ungrateful;  not  grateful.    not  pleasant  or  
acceptable.    ‘in’  ‘not’  +  ‘grateful’  “pleasing  to  the  mind”  “full  of  gratitude,  
disposed  to  repay  favors  bestowed,”  “agreeable,  pleasant.”  
 
213. Inquisition  (pg.  472):  a  period  of  prolonged  and  intensive  
questioning  or  investigation.    an  ecclesiastical  tribunal  established  by  Pope  
Gregory  IX  c.  1232  for  the  suppression  of  heresy.    It  was  active  chiefly  in  
northern  Italy  and  southern  France,  becoming  notorious  for  the  use  of  
torture.    In  1542  the  papal  Inquisition  was  re-­‐established  to  combat  
Protestantism,  eventually  becoming  an  organ  of  papal  government.    late  
Middle  English  (denoting  a  searching  examination):  via  Old  French  from  
Latin  inquisitio  (n-­‐)  ‘examination’,  from  the  verb  inquirere/inquire:  ‘seek’.  
 
214. Insensible  heathen  (pg.  482):    ‘insensible’:  without  one’s  mental  
faculties,  typically  a  result  of  violence  or  intoxication;  unconscious;  unaware  
of  indifferent  to:  from  late  Middle  English  ‘unable  to  be  perceived’  and  
‘incapable  of  physical  sensation’.    ‘heathen’:      a  person  who  does  not  belong  to  
a  widely  held  religion  (especially  one  who  is  not  a  Christian,  Jew,  or  Muslim)  
as  regarded  by  those  who  do.    Old  English  heathen,  of  Germanic  origin;  
related  to  Dutch  heiden  and  German  Heide;  generally  regarded  as  a  
specifically  Christian  use  of  a  Germanic  adjective  meaning  “inhabiting  open  
country’,  from  the  base  of  heath:  an  area  of  open  uncultivated  land,  especially  
in  Britain  with  characteristic  vegetation  of  heather,  gorse,  and  course  
grasses.    From  Britannica.com:    The  end  of  the  Middle  Ages  brought  little  
change  in  Jews’  position  in  Europe,  and  the  Catholic  Reformation  renewed  
anti-­‐Jewish  legislation  and  reinforced  the  system  of  ghettoized  segregation  in  
Roman  Catholic  countries.    Jews  remained  subject  to  occasional  massacres,  
such  as  those  that  occurred  during  wars  between  Eastern  Orthodox  
Ukrainians  and  Roman  Catholic  Poles  in  the  mid-­‐17th  century,  which  rivaled  
the  worst  massacres  of  Jews  in  the  Middle  Ages.    Periodic  persecutions  of  
Jews  in  Western  Europe  continued  until  the  late  18th  century.      
 
215. Insolence  (pg.  502):    rude  and  disrespectful  behavior.    late  Middle  
English  (also  in  the  sense  ‘extravagant,  going  beyond  acceptable  limits’):  
form  Latin  insolent-­‐  ‘immoderate,  unaccustomed,  arrogant’,  in-­‐  ‘not’  +  solent-­‐  
‘being  accustomed’  (from  the  verb  solere).  
 
216. Intrigue  (pg.  491):  arouse  the  curiosity  or  interest  of;  fascinate.    
make  secret  plans  to  do  something  illicit  or  detrimental  to  someone.    a  secret  
love  affair.    early  17th  century  (in  the  sense  of  ‘deceive,  cheat’):  from  French  
intrigue  ‘plot’,  intriguer  ‘to  tangle,  to  plot’,  via  Italian  from  Latin  intricare  (see  

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 intricate).    intrigue  (sense  1  of  the  verb),  which  was  influenced  by  a  later  
French  sense  ‘to  puzzle,  make  curious’,  arose  in  the  late  19th  century.  
 
217. Jack  Pudding  (pg.  495):    Clown.    A  buffoon  character  appearing  in  
stage  and  street  performances.    A  zani  (Hanswurst/Pulchinella);  a  merry  
Andrew.    A  buffoon  is  called  by  every  nation  by  the  name  of  the  dish  they  like  
best.    Jack  pudding  in  his  party-­‐colour’d  jacket.  

 
218. Jasmine  (pg.  483):    an  Old  World  shrub  or  climbing  plant  that  bears  
fragrant  flowers  used  in  perfumery  or  tea.    It  is  popular  as  an  ornamental.      
mid  16th  century:  from  French  jasmin  and  obsolete  French  jessemin,  from  
Arabic  yasamin,  from  Persian  yasamin.  

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219. Jeptha’s  daughter  (pg.  469):    To  fulfill  a  vow  from  winning  a  battle  
over  the  Ammonites,  Jeptha  vowed  that  he  would  offer  the  first  thing  that  
came  out  of  his  house  as  a  burnt  offering  to  Yahweh.    However,  his  only  child,  
an  unnamed  daughter,  came  out  to  meet  him  dancing  and  playing  a  
tambourine.    She  encourages  Jeptha  to  fulfill  his  vow.  Jeptha  sacrificed  his  

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 only  child,  a  virgin  daughter,  whom  he  allowed  to  go  off  to  the  mountains  for  
two  months  to  “bewail”  her  virginity  before  he  killed  her.    “And  it  became  a  
custom  in  Israel  that  the  daughters  of  Israel  went  year  by  year  to  lament  the  
daughter  of  Jeptha…four  days  in  the  year”  (Judges  11:39).      

 
220. Jew,  and  contrive  like  a  Jesuit  (pg.  470):    Anti-­‐Semitic  and  anti-­‐
Catholic  attitudes  of  the  time  portrayed  Jews  and  Jesuits  as  cunning  and  
distrustful.    Jews  were  could  not  be  citizens  in  most  countries  in  Western  
Europe  during  the  17th  century,  and  were  heavily  marginalized  in  ghettos  
and  massacred  as  scapegoats.    The  society  of  the  Jesuits  was  founded  in  an  

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 answer  to  the  Reformation  by  a  Spanish  knight,  Ignatius  Loyola,  in  1539.    The  
anti-­‐Catholic  attitudes  towards  them  come  from  the  fact  that  they  were  a  
very  influential  order,  that  was  implicated  in  the  overthrow  of  Elizabeth  I  and  
associated  with  the  Gunpowder  plot  to  destroy  Parliament.  
 
221. Jointure  (pg.  465):    an  estate  given  by  a  husband  to  a  wife  in  lieu  of  
her  dowry.    Middle  English  (in  the  sense  ‘junction,  joint’):  from  Old  French,  
from  Latin  junctura/juncture  =  ‘joint’,  ‘to  join’..    In  late  Middle  English  the  
term  denoted  the  joint  holding  of  a  property  by  a  husband  and  wife  for  life,  
whence  the  current  sense.      
 
222. Juggling  (pg.  497):    Based  on  trickery  or  deception.    late  Middle  
English  (in  the  sense  ‘entertain  with  jesting,  tricks,  etc.’):  back-­‐formation  
from  juggler,  or  from  Old  French  jogler,  from  Latin  joculari  ‘to  jest,’  from  
joculus,  diminutive  of  jocus  ‘jest’.      
 
223. King  Sancho  the  First  (pg.  465):    King  of  Spain,  probably  Sancho  I  of  
Castile  (970-­‐1035).    From  Wikipedia:    Sancho  III  of  Pamplona,  also  known  as  
Sancho  the  Great,  was  the  King  of  Pamplona  from  1004  until  his  death  in  
1035.    He  also  ruled  the  County  of  Aragon  and  by  marriage  the  counties  of  
Castile,  Álava  and  Monzón.    He  later  added  the  counties  of  Sobrarbe  (1015),  
Ribagoza  (1018)  and  Cea  (1030),  and  would  intervene  in  the  Kingdom  of  
León,  taking  its  eponymous  capital  city  in  1034.      

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 224. Kiss  the  bed  the  bush  grew  in  (pg.  468):    Literally  meaning  he  
would  kiss  the  ground  she  walks  on,  but  the  double-­‐entendre  is  that  he  
would  kiss  the  bed  (labia)  the  bush  (pubic  hair)  grew  in.  
 
225. Laden  (pg.  494):    heavily  loaded  or  weighed  down.    load  (a  ship  or  
other  vessel).    ship  (goods)  as  cargo.    (of  a  ship)  take  on  cargo.    late  16th  
century:  past  participle  of  lade.  
 
226. Laid  the  soft  winged  god  in  your  hearts,  or  broke  the  bird’s  nest  
(pg.  478):    Ruined  your  chances.    The  winged  god  would  be  Eros/Cupid.    
Bird’s  nest  is  a  metaphor  used  in  ROMEO  AND  JULIET  which  compares  a  
bird’s  nest  to  Juliet’s  room.      
 
227. Languished  (pg.  473):    (of  a  person  or  other  living  thing)  lose  or  lack  
vitality;  grow  weak  or  feeble.    suffer  from  being  forced  to  remain  in  an  
unpleasant  place  or  situation.    pine  with  love  or  grief.    assume  or  display  a  
sentimentally  tender  or  melancholy  expression  or  tone.    suffer  from  being  
forced  to  remain  in  an  unpleasant  place  or  situation.    Middle  English  (in  the  
sense  ‘become  faint,  feeble,  or  ill’):  from  Old  French  languiss-­‐,  lengthened  
stem  of  languir  ‘languish’,  from  a  variant  of  Latin  languere,  related  to  laxus  
‘loose,  lax’.  
 
228. Lazars  (pg.  466):    lepers  (a  person  affected  with  leprosy:    a  long-­‐term  
infection  that  can  not  be  symptomatic  for  5-­‐20  years;  symptoms  that  develop  
include  granulomas  of  the  nerves,  respiratory  tract,  skin,  and  eyes;  this  may  
result  in  a  lack  of  ability  to  feel  pain,  which  can  lead  to  the  loss  of  parts  of  
extremities  due  to  repeated  injuries  or  infection  due  to  unnoticed  wounds;  
weakness  and  poor  eyesight  may  also  be  present).    a  person  afflicted  with  a  
repulsive  disease.    English,  from  Medieval  Latin  lazarus,  from  Late  Latin  
Lazarus.      
 
From  Wikipedia:    As  late  as  the  17th  century  in  Europe,  persons  with  severe  
favus  and  similar  fungal  diseases  (and  potentially  also  with  severe  psoriasis  
and  other  diseases  not  caused  by  microorganisms)  tended  to  be  classified  as  
having  leprosy.    The  painting  The  Regents  of  the  Leper  Hospital  in  Haarlem  
1667  by  Jan  de  Bray  shows  a  Dutchman  with  a  vivid  scalp  infection.    It  may  
have  been  caused  by  a  fungus,  but  he  is  being  cared  for  by  three  officials  of  a  
charitable  home  intended  for  leprosy  sufferers.    The  use  of  the  word  
“leprosy”  before  the  mid-­‐19th  century,  when  microscopic  examination  of  skin  
for  medical  diagnosis  was  first  developed,  can  seldom  be  correlated  reliably  
with  leprosy  as  it  is  understood  today.  

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229. League  (pg.  500):    a  former  measure  of  distance  by  land,  usually  
about  three  miles.    late  Middle  English:  form  late  Latin  leuga,  leuca,  late  Greek  
leuge,  or  from  Provençal  lega  (modern  French  lieue):  a  vague  measure  
(perhaps  originally  an  hour’s  hike).  
 
230. Lent  (pg.  466):    From  Wikipedia:    A  solemn  religious  observance  in  
the  Christian  liturgical  calendar  that  begins  on  Ash  Wednesday  and  ends  
approximately  six  weeks  later,  before  Easter  Sunday.    The  purpose  of  Lent  is  
the  preparation  of  the  believer  for  Easter  through  prayer,  doing  penance,  
mortifying  the  flesh,  repentance  of  sins,  almsgiving,  and  self-­‐denial.    This  
event  is  observed  in  the  Anglican,  Eastern  Orthodox,  Lutheran,  Methodist,  
and  Catholic  Churches.    Some  Anabaptist  and  evangelical  churches  also  
observe  the  Lenten  season.    Its  institutional  purpose  is  heightened  in  the  
annual  commemoration  of  Holy  Week,  marking  the  death,  burial,  and  
resurrection  of  Jesus,  which  recalls  the  tradition  and  events  of  the  New  
Testament  beginning  on  Palm  Sunday,  further  climaxing  on  Jesus’  crucifixion  
on  Good  Friday,  which  ultimately  culminates  in  the  joyful  celebration  on  
Easter  Sunday  of  the  Resurrection  of  Jesus  Christ.      
 
In  Lent,  many  Christians  commit  to  fasting,  as  well  as  giving  up  certain  
luxuries  in  order  to  replicate  the  sacrifice  of  Jesus  Christ’s  journey  into  the  
desert  for  40  days.    Many  Christians  also  add  a  Lenten  spiritual  discipline,  
such  as  reading  a  daily  devotional  or  praying  through  a  Lenten  calendar,  to  
draw  themselves  near  to  God.    The  Stations  of  the  Cross,  a  devotional  

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 commemoration  of  Christ’s  carrying  of  the  Cross  and  his  execution,  are  often  
observed.    Many  Roman  Catholic  and  some  Protestant  churches  remove  
flowers  from  their  altars,  while  crucifixes,  religious  statures,  and  other  
elaborate  religious  symbols  are  often  veiled  in  violet  fabrics  in  solemn  
observance  of  the  event.    Throughout  Christendom,  some  adherents  mark  the  
season  with  the  traditional  abstention  from  the  consumption  of  meat,  most  
notably  among  Lutherans,  Roman  Catholics  and  Anglicans.      
 
Lent  is  traditionally  described  as  lasting  for  40  days,  in  commemoration  of  
the  40  days  Jesus  spent  fasting  in  the  desert,  according  to  the  Gospels  of  
Matthew,  Mark,  and  Luke,  before  beginning  his  public  ministry,  during  which  
he  endured  temptation  by  Satan.    Depending  on  the  Christian  denomination  
and  local  custom,  Lent  ends  on  the  evening  of  Holy  Thursday  with  Easter  
Vigil  at  sundown  on  Holy  Saturday,  on  the  morning  of  Easter  Sunday,  or  at  
the  midnight  between  them.      
 
The  English  word  Lent  is  a  shortened  form  of  the  Old  English  word  len(c)ten,  
meaning  “spring  season”,  as  its  Dutch  language  cognate  lente  (Old  Dutch  
lentin)  still  does  today.      
 
231. Lewd  (pg.  501):    crude  and  offensive  in  a  sexual  way.    Old  English  
lawede,  of  unknown  origin.    The  original  sense  was  ‘belonging  to  the  laity’;  in  
Middle  English,  ‘belonging  to  the  common  people,  vulgar’,  and  later  
‘worthless,  vile,  evil’,  leading  to  the  current  sense.      
 
232. Liveries  (pg.  471):    a  special  uniform  worn  by  a  servant  or  official.    a  
provision  of  food  or  clothing  for  servants.    Middle  English:  form  Old  French  
livree  ‘delivered’,  feminine  past  participle  of  livrer,  from  Latin  liberare  
‘liberate’  (in  medieval  Latin  ‘hand  over’).    The  original  sense  was  ‘the  
dispensing  of  food,  provisions,  or  clothing  to  servants’;  hence  livery  (sense  4)  
also  ‘allowance  of  provender  for  horses’,  surviving  in  the  phrase  livery  and  in  
livery  stable.    livery  (sense  1)  arose  because  medieval  nobles  provided  
matching  clothes  to  distinguish  their  servants  from  others.  
 
233. Loath  (pg.  497):    reluctant;  unwilling.    feel  intense  dislike  or  disgust  
for.    Old  English  lath  ‘hostile,  spiteful’,  of  Germanic  origin;  related  to  Dutch  
leed,  German  Leid  ‘sorrow’.  
 
234. Loretto  (pg.  477):    Loretto  is  an  Italian  town  on  the  Adriatic  coast,  a  
destination  for  pilgrims  visiting  the  cottage  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  the  Basilica  
della  Santa  Casa.    From  Wikipedia:    Pious  devotees  believe  that  the  same  
house  was  flown  by  Angelic  beings  from  Jerusalem  to  Tersatto  (Trsat  in  
Croatia)  then  to  Recanati  before  arriving  at  the  current  site.      

  128  
  
235. Lure  (pg.  500):    tempt  (a  person  or  animal)  to  do  something  or  to  go  
somewhere,  especially  by  offering  some  form  of  reward.    something  that  
tempts  or  is  used  to  tempt  a  person  or  animal  to  do  something.    Falconry:    a  
bunch  of  feathers  with  a  weighted  object  attached  to  a  long  string,  swung  
around  the  head  of  the  falconer  to  recall  a  hawk.    Middle  English:  form  Old  
French  luere,  of  German  origin;  probably  related  to  German  Luder  ‘bait’.  
 
236. Maggot  (pg.  502):    a  whimsical  fancy.    Figurative  use  “whim,  fancy,  
crotchet”  is  1620s,  from  the  notion  of  a  maggot  in  the  brain.    hence  maggotry  
“folly,  absurdity”.      
 
237. Masking  Habit  (pg.  465):    Costume  for  carnival  with  a  mask.      
 
238. Masqueraders  (pg.  464):    a  party,  dance,  or  other  festive  gathering  
of  persons  wearing  masks  and  other  disguises,  and  often  elegant,  historical,  
or  fantastic  costumes.    a  costume  or  disguise  worn  at  such  a  gathering.    false  
outward  show;  façade;  pretense:  a  hypocrite’s  masquerade  of  virtue.    late  
16th  century:  from  French  mascarade,  from  Italian  mascherata,  from  
maschera  ‘mask’.  
 
239. Materials  (pg.  491):    the  matter  from  which  a  thing  is  or  can  be  
made.    facts,  information,  or  ideas  for  use  in  creating  a  book  or  other  work.    
facts,  information,  or  ideas  for  use  in  creating  a  book  or  other  work.    items,  

  129  
 especially  songs  or  jokes,  comprising  a  performer’s  act,  cloth  or  fabric.    late  
Middle  English  (in  the  sense  ‘relating  to  matter’):  from  late  Latin  materialis,  
adjective  from  Latin  material  ‘matter’.  
 
240. May-­Day  (pg.  464):    May  1,  celebrated  in  many  countries  as  a  
traditional  springtime  festival  or  as  an  international  day  honoring  workers.  
 
From  projectbritain.com:    The  Romans  celebrated  the  festival  of  Flora,  
goddess  of  fruit  and  flowers,  which  marked  the  beginning  of  summer.    It  was  
held  annually  from  April  28  to  May  3.      
 
A  traditional  May  Day  dance  is  Maypole  Dancing.    On  May  Day,  people  used  to  
cut  down  young  trees  and  stick  them  in  the  ground  in  the  village  to  mark  the  
arrival  of  summer.      
 
People  danced  around  the  tree  poles  in  celebration  of  the  end  of  winter  and  
the  start  of  the  fine  weather  that  would  allow  planting  to  begin.  
 
Maypoles  were  once  common  all  over  England  and  were  kept  from  one  year  
to  the  next.    Schools  would  practice  skipping  round  the  pole  for  weeks  before  
the  final  show  on  the  village  greens.  
 
The  end  results  would  be  either  a  beautiful  plaited  pattern  of  ribbons  round  
the  pole  or  a  tangled  cat’s  cradle,  depending  on  how  much  rehearsing  had  
been  done.  
 
It  was  custom  for  every  one  to  go  a-­‐Maying  early  on  May  Day.    Herrick,  a  17th  
century  English  poet  wrote:    “There’s  not  a  budding  boy,  or  girl,  this  day,  /  
But  is  got  up,  and  gone  to  bring  in  May.”    May  Day  began  early  in  the  morning.    
People  would  go  out  before  sunrise  in  order  to  gather  flowers  and  greenery  
to  decorate  their  houses  and  villages  with  in  the  belief  that  the  vegetation  
spirits  would  bring  good  fortune.  
 
Girls  would  make  a  special  point  of  washing  their  faces  in  the  dew  of  the  
early  morning.    They  believed  this  made  them  very  beautiful  for  the  following  
year.      
 
The  rest  of  the  day  was  given  over  to  various  festivities.    There  was  dancing  
on  the  village  green,  archery  contest  and  exhibitions  of  strength.    The  
highlight  of  the  day  was  the  crowning  of  the  May  Queen,  the  human  replica  of  
Flora.    By  tradition  she  took  no  part  in  the  games  of  dancing,  but  sat  like  a  
queen  in  a  flower-­‐decked  chair  to  watch  her  ‘subjects’.  
 
Young  girls  would  make  May  Garlands.    They  covered  two  hoops,  one  at  right  
angles  inside  the  other,  with  leaves  and  flowers,  and  sometimes  they  put  a  
doll  inside  to  represent  the  goddess  of  Spring.  

  130  
  
There  was  once  a  tradition  in  England  of  ‘lifting’  where  a  gang  of  young  men  
would  lift  a  pretty  girl  in  a  flower  bedecked  chair  on  May  day.    Then  the  girl  
would  choose  a  boy  on  May  2nd.      
 
In  the  North  of  England,  the  first  of  May  was  a  kind  of  late  ‘April  Fooling’  
when  all  sorts  of  pranks  would  take  place  and  ‘May  Gosling’  was  the  shout  if  
you  managed  to  trick  someone.      
 

 
241. Medal  of  Charles  II  (pg.  482):    From  royalsociety.org:    The  King  
Charles  II  Medal  may  be  awarded  by  Council  to  any  foreign  Head  of  State,  any  
foreign  Head  of  Government,  or  any  holder  of  another  position  of  similar  
eminence  for  their  contribution  to  the  promotion,  advancement,  or  use  of  
science  for  the  benefit  of  society,  normally  at  the  Society  on  the  occasion  of  a  
visit  by  the  recipient.  

  131  
  
242. Mercenary  (pg.  476):    (of  a  person  or  their  behavior)  primarily  
concerned  with  making  money  at  the  expense  of  ethics.    a  professional  
soldier  hired  to  serve  in  a  foreign  army.    a  person  primarily  concerned  with  
material  reward  at  the  expense  of  ethics.    late  Middle  English  from  Latine  
mercenarius  ‘hireling’,  from  merces,  merced-­‐  ‘reward’.  
 
243. Mewed  up  (pg.  477):    to  shut  up  in  or  as  in  a  mew;  confine;  conceal.    
“cage  for  birds;  place  where  hawks  are  put  to  molt,”  late  14c.,  from  Old  
French  mue  “cage  for  hawks,”  especially  when  molting,  from  muer  “to  molt,”  
from  Latin  mutare  “to  change”  (from  PIE  root  *mei-­‐  “to  change”).    In  
extended  use,  “a  place  of  retirement  of  confinement”  (early  15c.).    “to  shut  up,  
confine”  (mid-­‐15c.).  
 
244. Mien  (pg  485):    a  person’s  look  or  manner,  especially  one  of  a  
particular  kind  indicating  their  character  or  mood.    early  16th  century:  
probably  from  French  mine  ‘expression’,  influenced  by  obsolete  demean  
‘bearing,  demeanor’.      
 
245. Mirth  (pg.  492):    amusement,  especially  as  expressed  in  laughter.    
Old  English  myrgth,  of  Germanic  origin;  related  to  merry,  ‘pleasing,  
delightful’.  
 
246. Mitigate  (pg.  494):    make  less  severe,  serious,  or  painful.    lessen  the  
gravity  of  (an  offense  or  mistake).    late  Middle  English:  from  Latin  mitigat-­‐  
‘softened,  alleviated’,  from  the  verb  mitigare,  from  mitis  ‘mild’.      
 
247. Mollifying  (pg.  494):    appease  the  anger  or  anxiety  of  (someone).    
reduce  the  severity  of  (something);  soften.    late  Middle  English  (also  in  the  
sense  ‘make  soft  or  supple’):  from  French  mollifier  or  Latin  mollificare,  from  
mollis  ‘soft’.  

  132  
  
248. Molo  (pg.  474):    From  Napoli.com:    Beverello,  molo  (port  of  Naples).    
Directly  across  from  Maschio  Angioino  –  the  gloomy  fortress  at  the  port  –  is  
the  pier  for  ferries  and  [ships].    It  is  named  Molo  [pier]  Beverello.      

 
 
249. Money:  
 
• a  thousand  crowns  (pg.  472):    About  $77,000.00  
• Patacoon  (pg.  475):    Portuguese  or  Spanish  silver  coin  of  nominal  
value.  

  133  
 • Pistole  (pg.  475):    Spanish  gold  coin  worth  about  sixteen  shillings:    
Which  would  be  about  $246.00  
• Two  hundred  pistols  (pg.  482):    about  $49,280.00  
• five  hundred  crowns  (pg.  488):    About  $38,500.00  
• Two  hundred  thousand  crowns  (pg.  489  ):    About  $15,400,000.00  
• Half-­crown  (pg.  503):    $192.50  
 
250. Monsieurs  (pg.  468):    1512,  from  Middle  French  mon  sieur,  literally  
“my  lord”.    An  honorific  title  that  used  to  refer  to  or  address  the  eldest  living  
brother  of  the  king  in  the  French  royal  court.  
 
251. Movables  (pg.  495):    property  or  possessions  not  including  land  or  
buildings.    an  article  of  furniture  that  may  be  removed  from  a  house,  as  
distinct  from  a  fixture.    late  Middle  English:  form  Old  French,  from  moveir  ‘to  
move’.  
 
252. Mumping  (pg.  489):    (Scottish).    The  action  of  mump  (a  block  of  peat;  
a  spade’s  depth  in  digging  turf.    to  assume  a  demure,  melancholy,  or  
sanctimonious  expression;  to  be  silent  and  sullen;  to  sulk,  mope.    To  grumble,  
complain  peevishly.);  grimacing;  grumbling;  hinting  by  means  of  facial  
expression;  an  instance  of  this.    The  action  of  mump;  begging.    Later  also:  the  
acceptance  of  small  bribes.    That  grimaces  or  assumes  a  demure,  
sanctimonious,  or  melancholy  expression;  querulous,  complaining.    That  
begs;  given  to  begging.    Early  17th  century;  earliest  use  found  in  Randle  
Cotgrave  (fl.  1587-­‐?1630),  lexicographer.    From  mump  +  ing  late  17th  
century;  earliest  use  found  in  Samuel  Wesley  (bap.  1662,  d.  1735),  Church  of  
England  clergyman  and  poet.      
 
253. Nation  without  mercy  (pg.  485):    Dueling  rules  are  addressed  
earlier  in  this  packet,  but,  essentially,  most  European  nations  did  not  allow  
mercy  for  a  person  who  killed  someone  during  a  duel  because  duels  were  
illegal.    Naples  was  a  “nation”  that  had  no  mercy  for  duels.    This  rarely  
stopped  anyone  from  having  duels,  so  Belville  is  lamenting  the  fact  that  he  
could  die  even  if  he  wins  a  duel.  
 
254. Naught  (pg.  500):    nothing.    Old  English  nawiht,  ‘wuht,  for  na  ‘no’  +  
wiht  ‘thing’,  ‘creature’,  of  Germanic  origin;  related  to  Dutch  wicht  ‘little  child’  
and  German  Wicht  ‘creature’.      
 
255. New  Bridge  (pg.  468):    This  is  an  odd  entry.    It  could  reference  the  
fact  that  the  1/3  of  the  London  Bridge  burned  in  1666  during  the  Great  Fire  
and  new  parts  of  the  bridge  were  being  built,  or  it  could  be  a  reference  to  a  
bridge  in  Naples  that  is  near  the  Piazza  and  on  the  water,  a  great  place  to  
meet  for  a  duel.    The  Dutchman  most  likely  refers  to  the  Flying  Dutchman,  the  
infamous  Ghost  Ship  that  started  its  lore  in  the  17th  century,  so…the  
Dutchman  on  the  bridge  could  be  a  ghost  waiting  for  the  death  of  one  of  the  

  134  
 duelers,  or  It  could  be  that  the  death  of  a  dueler  on  a  bridge  could  result  in  
falling  in  the  water  below  and  they  would  be  picked  up  by  the  Flying  
Dutchman,  thus  becoming  a  ghost.  

 
256. New  furbrushed  (pg.  465):    refurbished:  renovate  and  redecorate  
(something,  especially  a  building).    1605,  from  re  +  furbish,  from  Middle  
English  furbishen,  from  Old  French  furbir  (stem  furbiss  -­‐,  “to  clean,  polish”),  

  135  
 from  Frankish  *furbjan  (“to  clean,  polish”),  from  Proto-­‐Germanic  *furbijana  
(“to  clean”),  from  Proto-­‐Indo-­‐European  *prep-­‐  (“to  appear”).  
 
257. Next  tide  (pg.  500):    Naples’s  tide  tables  are  often  around  
9:15AM/10AM,  1:35PM,  AND  9:15PM/10PM.  
 
258. Nokes,  or  Tony  Lee  (pg.  503):    From  Wikipedia:    Anthony  Leigh  
(died  1692)  was  a  celebrated  English  Comic  Actor.    He  was  from  a  
Northamptonshire  family,  and  was  not  closely  related  to  the  actor  John  Leigh  
(c.1689-­‐1726?).    He  joined  the  Duke  of  York’s  company  about  1672,  and  
appeared  in  that  year  at  the  recently  opened  theatre  in  Dorset  Garden,  as  the  
original  Pacheco  in  the  The  Reformation  (1673),  a  comedy  ascribed  by  Gerard  
Langbaine  to  one  Arrowsmith,  a  Cambridge  M.A.  graduate.    At  Dorset  Garden,  
Leigh  played  many  original  parts.    After  the  merger  of  the  duke’s  company  
with  the  king’s  in  1682,  Leigh  did  not  immediately  go  to  the  Theatre  Royal.    
He  was  in  1683,  however,  at  that  theatre  the  original  Bartoline  in  John  
Crowne’s  City  Politics,  and  played  Bessus  in  a  revival  of  A  King  and  No  King.    
Here  he  remained  until  his  death,  creating  many  characters.    Leigh  died  of  
fever  in  December  1692,  in  the  same  season  as  James  Nokes,  and  these  
deaths  combined  with  the  murder  of  William  Mountfort,  greatly  weakened  
the  company.    Richard  Estcourt  used  to  imitate  Leigh’s  “Spanish  Fryar”  in  the  
play  by  Dryden.    Coligni  in  The  Villain  by  Thomas  Porter,  Ralph  in  Sir  Solomon  
by  John  Caryll,  Sir  Jolly  Jumble  in  Otway’s  Soldier’s  Fortune  and  Belfond  in  
Thomas  Shadwell’s  Squire  of  Alsatia  were  thought  his  best  parts.    In  his  Sir  
William  Belfond  said  Colley  Cibber,  Leigh  “seemed  not  court,  but  to  attack,  
your  applause,  and  always  came  off  victorious”.      

  136  
  
James  Nokes,  From  Wikipedia:    (died  c.1692),  an  English  actor,  whose  
laughter-­‐arousing  genius  is  attested  by  Cibber  and  other  contemporaries.    Sir  
Martin  Mar-­‐all,  Sir  Davy  Dunce  and  Sir  Credulous  Easy  were  among  his  
favourite  parts.    His  success  as  the  Nurse  in  Nevil  Payne’s  Fatal  Jealousy  was  
so  great  that  he  was  thereafter  nicknamed  “Nurse  Nokes”.    Nokes  was  one  of  
the  male  actors  who  played  female  roles  in  the  newly  reopened  playhouses  
shortly  after  the  Restoration  of  Charles  II.    This  practice  didn’t  last  long,  as  
Thomas  Killigre’s  King’s  Company  put  the  first  English  actress  on  the  stage  
on  December  1660,  and  from  then  on  they  appeared  more  and  more  
frequently,  until  in  1662  Charles  II  ordered  that  only  women  should  play  
female  roles.    There  was  a  brief  period  in  late  1660  and  early  1661  when  
both  men  and  women  were  playing  female  roles.    On  29  January  1661,  the  
diarist  Samuel  Pepys  went  to  the  Duke’s  playhouse,  where  “after  great  
patience  and  little  expectation,  from  so  poor  beginning,  I  saw  three  acts  of  
‘The  Mayd  in  ye  Mill’  acted  to  my  great  content.”    It  was  Nokes  who  was  
playing  the  title  female  role  of  the  Mayd.  

  137  
  
259. Noodle  o’er  bamboo  (pg.  502):    Over  a  cane,  implying  old  age.      
 
260. Nosegay  (pg.  483):    a  small  bunch  of  flowers,  typically  one  that  is  
sweet-­‐scented.    late  Middle  English:  form  nose  +  gay  in  the  obsolete  sense  
‘ornament’.      

  138  
  
261. Obliged  by  (pg.  486):    favored  by,  bind  (someone)  by  an  oath,  
promise,  or  contract.    Middle  English  (in  the  sense  ‘bind  by  oath’):  from  Old  
French  obliger,  from  Latin  obligare,  from  ob-­‐  ‘towards’  +  ligare  ‘to  bind’.  
 
262. old  queen  Bess’s  (pg.  482):    Queen  Elizabeth  I  (reigned  1558-­‐1603).    
During  the  17th  century,  nostalgia  for  Elizabeth  I  grew  around  the  1720s,  as  
the  Catholic  Kings  made  England  miss  their  Protestant  Queen,  who  kept  their  

  139  
 country  safe  and  ushered  in  a  Renaissance.    The  Spanish  still  held  a  grudge  
against  her  from  her  success  in  1588  over  the  Spanish  Armada.  
 
263. One  at  once  (pg.  496):    One  after  the  other.    One  +  ‘at  once’  (all  at  one  
time,;  simultaneously.      
 
264. On’t  (pg.  468):    On  it.  
 
265. Paduana  (pg.  471):    A  native  of  Padua  (which  translates  to  grave  and  
solemn).    Padua  during  this  time  period  was  a  part  of  the  Republic  of  Venice,  
which  had  the  largest  collection  of  books  in  Europe,  at  the  time.    Many  
women,  who  wanted  to  be  writers  or  academics,  chose  to  become  
courtesans,  in  order  to  have  access  to  the  libraries,  which  were  only  
accessible  to  nuns  and  courtesans.      

  140  
  
266. Pamplona  (pg.  473):    From  Wikipedia:    The  capital  city  of  the  
Autonomous  Community  of  Navarre,  in  Spain,  and  historically  also  of  the  
former  Kingdom  of  Navarre.    Pamplona  is  also  the  second  largest  city  in  the  
greater  Basque  cultural  region.    The  city  is  famous  worldwide  for  the  running  

  141  
 of  the  bulls  during  the  San  Fermín  festival,  which  is  held  annually  form  July  6  
to  14.    After  the  1512  conquest  and  annexation  of  Navarre  to  Spain,  
Pamplona  remained  as  capital  of  the  semi-­‐autonomous  kingdom  of  Navarre,  
which  preserved  its  own  (reformed)  institutions  and  laws.    Pamplona  
became  a  Castillian-­‐Spanish  outpost  at  the  foot  of  the  western  Pyrenees.    
After  the  Castillian  conquest  king  Ferdinand  V  ordered  in  1513  the  
demolition  
 
267. Papers  pinned  on  their  backs  (pg.  468):    a  sign  of  their  profession.  
 
268. Papers  pinned  on  their  breasts  (pg.  467):    another  place  to  
advertise  their  profession  (prostitution).  
 
269. Parley  (pg.  501):    turn  an  initial  stake  or  winnings  from  a  previous  
bet  into  (a  greater  amount)  by  gambling.    transform  into  something  of  
greater  or  more  valuable.    a  cumulative  series  of  bets  in  which  winnings  
accruing  are  used  as  a  stake  for  a  further  bet.    late  19th  century:  from  French  
paroli,  from  Italian,  from  paro-­‐  ‘like’,  from  Latin  par  ‘equal’.  
 
270. Parlous  (pg.  468):    full  of  danger  or  uncertainty;  precarious.    greatly  
or  excessively.    late  Middle  English:  contraction  of  perilous.  
 
271. Pass  over  (pg.  487):    Often  crowds  of  people  in  party  environments  
or  religious  celebrations  will  just  trample  over  anyone  that  is  not  in  the  
crowd  mentality.    Literally,  they  are  passing  over  Belville  and  Pedro.  
 
272. Penitence  (pg.  487):    The  action  of  feeling  or  showing  sorrow  and  
regret  for  having  done  wrong;  repentance.    c.  1200,  from  Old  French  
penitence  (11c.)  and  directly  from  Latin  paenitentia  “repentance,”  noun  of  
condition  from  paenitentum  (nominative  paenitens)  “penitent,”  present  
participle  of  paenitere  “cause  or  feel  regret,”  probably  originally  “is  not  
enough,  is  unsatisfactory,”  from  paene  “nearly,  almost,  practically,”  which  is  
of  uncertain  origin.    The  basic  meaning  seems  to  be  “missing,  lacking.”  
 
273. Penitents  (pg.  467):    a  person  who  repents  their  sins  or  wrongdoings  
and  (in  the  Christian  Church)  seeks  forgiveness  from  God.    In  the  Roman  
Catholic  Church  a  person  who  confesses  their  sins  to  a  priest  and  submits  to  
the  penance  that  he  imposes.    Middle  English:  from  Old  French  ,  from  Latin  
paenitent-­‐  ‘repenting’,  from  the  verb  paenitere.      

  142  
  
274. Perfidious  (pg.  501):    deceitful  and  untrustworthy.    late  16th  century:  
form  Latin  perfidiosus,  from  perfidia  ‘treachery’.  
 
275. Perjured  (pg.  480):    (of  evidence)  involving  willfully  told  untruths.    
(of  a  person)  guilty  of  perjury.    willfully  tell  an  untruth  when  giving  evidence  
to  a  court;  commit  perjury.    late  Middle  English  (as  perjured  in  the  sense  
‘guilty  of  perjury’):  from  Old  French  parjurer,  from  Latin  perjurare  ‘swear  
falsely’,  from  per-­‐  ‘to  ill  effect’  +  jurare  ‘swear’.  
 
276. Peru  (pg.  470):    From  Wikipedia:    The  Viceroyalty  of  Peru  was  a  
Spanish  imerial  provincial  administrative  district,  created  in  1542,  that  
originally  contained  modern-­‐day  Peru  and  some  parts  of  Spanish-­‐ruled  South  
America,  governed  from  the  capital  of  Lima.    The  Viceroyalty  of  Peru  was  one  
of  the  two  Spanish  Viceroyalties  in  the  Americas  from  the  sixteenth  to  the  
eighteenth  centuries.      
 

  143  
 The  Spanish  did  not  resist  the  Portuguese  expansion  of  Brazil  across  the  
meridian  established  by  the  Treaty  of  Tordesillas.    The  treaty  was  rendered  
meaningless  between  1580  and  1640  while  Spain  controlled  Portugal.      
 
After  the  Spanish  conquest  of  Peru  (1532-­‐37),  the  first  Audiencia  was  
constituted  by  Lope  García  de  Castro  (1516  –  8  January  1576),  a  Spanish  
colonial  administrator  that  served  as  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Indies  and  
of  the  Audiencias  of  Panama  and  Lima.    From  September  2,  1564  to  
November  26,  1569  he  was  interim  viceroy  of  Peru.    In  1542,  the  Spanish  
created  the  Viceroyalty  of  New  Castile,  that  shortly  afterwards  would  be  
called  the  Viceroyalty  of  Peru.    In  1544,  Holy  Roman  Emperor  Charles  V  (King  
Charles  I  of  Spain)  named  Blasco  Núñez  Vela  Peru’s  first  viceroy,  but  the  
viceroyalty  was  not  organized  until  the  arrival  of  Viceroy  Francisco  Álvarez  
de  Toledo.    Toledo  made  an  extensive  tour  of  inspection  of  the  colony.  
 
Francisco  de  Toledo,  “one  of  the  great  administrators  of  human  times”,  
established  the  Inquisition  and  promulgated  laws  that  applied  to  both  
Indians  and  Spanish  alike,  breaking  the  power  of  the  encomenderos  and  
reducing  the  old  system  mita,  or  forced  native  labor.    He  improved  the  safety  
in  the  viceroyalty  with  fortifications,  bridges,  and  la  Armada  del  Mar  del  Sur  
(the  Southern  Fleet)  against  the  pirates.    Francisco  de  Toledo  also  ended  the  
indigenous  Neo-­‐Inca  State  in  Vilcabamba,  executing  the  Inca  Túpac  Amaru,  
and  promoted  economic  development  from  the  commercial  monopoly  and  
the  mineral  extraction,  mainly,  from  silver  mines  of  Potosí.  
 
The  Amazon  Basin  and  some  large  adjoining  regions  had  been  considered  
Spanish  territory  since  the  Treaty  of  Tordesillas  and  explorations  such  as  
that  by  Francisco  de  Orellana,  but  Portugal  fell  under  Spanish  control  
between  1580  and  1640.    During  this  time,  Portuguese  territories  in  Brazil  
were  controlled  by  the  Spanish  crown,  which  did  object  to  the  spread  of  
Portuguese  settlement  into  parts  of  the  Amazon  Basin  that  the  treaty  had  
awarded  to  Spain.    Still,  Luis  Jerónimo  de  Cabrera,  4th  Count  of  Chinchón  sent  
out  the  third  expedition  to  explore  the  Amazon  River,  under  Cristóbal  de  
Acuña.    (This  was  part  of  the  return  leg  of  the  expedition  of  Pedro  Teixeira.)  
 
Aphra  Behn’s  OROONOKO:  OR,  THE  ROYAL  SLAVE  is  a  short  work  of  prose  
fiction,  published  in  1688  by  William  Canning  and  reissued  with  two  other  
fictions  later  that  year.    The  eponymous  hero  is  an  African  prince  from  
Coramantien  who  is  tricked  into  slavery  and  sold  to  British  colonists  in  
Surinam  where  he  meets  the  narrator.    Behn’s  text  is  a  first  person  account  of  
his  life,  love,  rebellion,  and  execution.  
 
Behn,  often  cited  as  the  first  known  professional  female  writer,  was  a  
successful  playwright,  poet,  translator,  and  essayist.    She  began  wrting  prose  
fiction  in  the  1680s,  probably  in  response  to  the  consolidation  of  theatres  
that  led  to  a  reduced  need  for  new  plays.    Published  less  than  a  year  before  

  144  
 she  died,  OROONOKO  is  sometimes  described  as  one  of  the  earliest  English  
novels.    Interest  increased  since  the  1970s,  with  critics  arguing  that  Behn  is  
the  foremother  of  British  women  writers,  and  that  OROONOKO  is  a  crucial  
text  in  the  history  of  the  novel.      
 
The  novel’s  success  was  jumpstarted  by  a  popular  1695  theatrical  adaptation  
which  ran  regularly  on  the  British  stage  throughout  the  first  half  of  the  
1700s,  and  in  America  later  in  the  century.      
 
Researchers  today  cannot  say  whether  or  not  the  narrator  of  OROONOKO  
represents  Aphra  Behn  and,  if  so,  tells  the  truth.    Scholars  have  argued  for  
over  a  century  about  whether  or  not  Behn  even  visited  Surinam  and,  if  so,  
when.    On  the  one  hand,  the  narrator  reports  that  she  “saw”  sheep  in  the  
colony,  when  the  settlement  had  to  import  meat  from  Virginia,  as  sheep,  in  
particular,  could  not  survive  there.    Also,  as  Ernest  Bernbaum  argues  in  “Mrs.  
Behn’s  ‘Oroonoko”,  everything  substantive  in  OROONOKO  could  have  come  
from  accounts  by  William  Byam  and  George  Warren  that  were  circulating  in  
London  in  the  1660s.    However,  as  J.A.  Ramsaran  and  Bernard  Dhuiq  
catalogue,  Behn  provides  a  great  deal  of  precise  local  color  and  physical  
description  of  the  colony.    Topographical  and  cultural  verisimilitude  were  
not  a  criterion  for  readers  of  novels  and  plays  in  Behn’s  day  any  more  than  in  
Thomas  Kyd’s,  and  Behn  generally  did  not  bother  with  attempting  to  be  
accurate  in  her  locations  in  other  stories.    Her  plays  have  quite  indistinct  
settings,  and  she  rarely  spends  time  with  topographical  description  in  her  
stories.    Secondly,  all  the  Europeans  mentioned  in  OROONOKO  were  really  
present  in  Surinam  in  the  1660s.    It  is  interesting,  if  the  entire  account  is  
fictional  and  based  on  reportage,  that  Behn  takes  no  liberties  of  invention  to  
create  European  settlers  she  might  need.    Finally,  the  characterization  of  the  
real-­‐life  people  in  the  novel  does  follow  Behn’s  own  politics.    Behn  was  a  
lifelong  and  militant  royalist,  and  her  fictions  are  quite  consistent  in  
portraying  royalists  and  put-­‐upon  nobles  who  are  opposed  by  petty  and  evil  
republicans/Parliamentarians.      
 
On  balance,  it  appears  that  Behn  truly  did  travel  to  Surinam.    The  fictional  
narrator,  however,  cannot  be  the  real  Aphra  Behn.    For  one  thing,  the  
narrator  says  that  her  father  was  set  to  become  the  deputy  governor  of  the  
colony  and  died  at  sea  en  route.    This  did  not  happen  to  Bartholomew  
Johnson  (Behn’s  father),  although  he  did  die  between  1660  and  1664.    There  
is  no  indication  at  all  of  anyone  except  William  Byam  being  Deputy  Governor  
of  the  settlement,  and  the  only  major  figure  to  die  en  route  at  sea  was  
Francis,  Lord  Willoughby,  the  colonial  patent  holder  for  Barbados  and  
“Surinam.”    Further,  the  narrator’s  father’s  death  explains  her  antipathy  
toward  Byam,  for  he  is  her  father’s  usurper  as  Deputy  Governor  of  Surinam.      
 
It  is  also  unlikely  that  Behn  went  to  Surinam  with  her  husband,  although  she  
may  have  met  and  married  in  Surinam  or  on  the  journey  back  to  England.    A  

  145  
 socially  creditable  single  woman  in  good  standing  would  not  have  gone  
unaccompanied  to  Surinam.    Therefore,  it  is  most  likely  that  Behn  and  her  
family  went  to  the  colony  in  the  company  of  a  lady.    As  for  her  purpose  in  
going,  Janet  Todd  presents  a  strong  case  for  its  being  spying.    At  the  time  of  
the  events  of  the  novel,  the  deputy  governor  Byam  had  taken  absolute  
control  of  the  settlement  and  was  being  opposed  not  only  by  the  formerly  
republican  Colonel  George  Marten,  but  also  by  royalists  within  the  
settlement.    Byam’s  abilities  were  suspect,  and  it  is  possible  that  either  Lord  
Willoughby  or  Charles  II  would  be  interested  in  an  investigation  of  the  
administration  there.      
 
Therefore,  we  can  assume  that  this  little  “sell  him  for  Peru”  phrase  comes  
from  first-­‐hand  knowledge  of  the  slave  trade  in  South  America,  and  that  
because  Behn  was  a  spy  she  would  know  the  ins  and  outs  of  other  
Viceroyalties,  in  addition  to  her  knowledge  of  

Surinam.      

  146  
  
277. Petticoats  (pg.  493):    a  petticoat  or  underskirt  is  an  article  of  
clothing,  a  type  of  undergarment  worn  under  a  skirt  or  a  dress.    Its  precise  
meaning  varies  over  centuries  and  between  countries.    According  to  the  
Oxford  English  Dictionary,  in  current  British  English,  a  petticoat  is  a  light  
looseundergarment…hanging  from  the  shoulders  or  waist”.  

  147  
  

  148  
  
278. Piazza  (pg.  468):    a  public  square  or  marketplace,  especially  in  an  
Italian  town.  
 
Piazza  del  Plebiscito  is  a  large  public  square  in  central  Naples,  Italy.    It  is  
named  after  the  plebiscite  taken  on  October  2,  1860,  that  brought  Naples  into  
the  unified  Kingdom  of  Italy  under  the  House  of  Savoy.    It  is  located  very  
closely  to  the  gulf  of  Naples,  and  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Royal  Palace  and  
on  the  west  by  the  church  of  San  Francesco  di  Paola  with  colonnades  
extending  to  both  sides.    Other  surrounding  buildings  include  Palazzo  
Salerno  and,  its  mirror,  the  Prefecture  Palace  (on  the  left  arm  of  the  church).  

 
279. Piazzo  (pg.  489):    a  mispronunciation  of  piazza,  the  above  definition  
will  suffice.  
 
280. Picaroon  (pg.  477):    Wandering  rogue.    Rogue  or  scoundrel.    early  
17th  century:  from  Spanish  picarón,  augmentative  of  picaro  ‘rogue’.      
 
281. Picture  is  not  out  (pg.  471):    Hanging  her  picture  outside  the  house  
is  a  sign  that  a  courtesan  is  open  for  business.      

  149  
  
282. Piece  of  eight  (pg.  470):    Spanish  money.    The  Spaish  dollar,  
originally  called  the  Spanish  peso,  also  known  as  the  piece  of  eight  (Spanish:  
peso  de  ocho  or  real  de  a  ocho),  is  a  silver  coin,  of  approximately  38  mm  
diameter,  worth  eight  Spanish  reales,  that  was  minted  in  the  Spanish  Empire  
following  a  monetary  reform  in  1497.    The  gold  doubloon  (8  escudos,  equal  
in  worth  to  $16  dollars  in  U.S.  Money)  was  the  standard  monetary  
transaction.    In  the  American  Colonies  dollar  was  a  common  term  for  silver  

  150  
 coins  worth  approximately  one  ounce.    Spanish  Dollars  were  pieces  of  eight.    

 
283. Pillory  (pg.  502):    a  wooden  framework  with  holes  for  the  head  and  
hands,  in  which  an  offender  was  imprisoned  and  exposed  to  public  abuse.    
put  (someone)  in  a  pillory.    attack  or  ridicule  publicly.    Middle  English:    from  
Old  French  pilori,  probably  from  Provençal  espilori  (associated  by  some  with  
a  Catalan  word  meaning  ‘peephole’,  of  uncertain  origin).  

  151  
    
284. Pimp  (pg.  464):    a  man  who  controls  prostitutes  and  arranges  clients  
for  them,  taking  part  of  their  earnings  in  return.    act  as  a  pimp.    make  
(something)  more  showy  or  impressive.    c.  1600,  of  unknown  origin,  perhaps  
from  Middle  French  pimpant  “alluring  in  dress,  seductive,”  present  participle  
of  pimper  “to  dress  elegantly”  (16c.),  from  Old  French  pimpelorer,  pipelorer  
“decorate,  color,  beautify.”    Weekley  suggests  Middle  French  pimpreneau,  
defined  in  Cotgrave  [French-­‐English  Dictionary,  1611]  as  “a  knave,  rascall,  
varlet,  scoundrel,”  but  Liberman  is  against  this.    Judging  by  such  recorded  
meanings  of  pimp  as  ‘helper  in  mines;  servant  in  lodging  camps,’  this  word  
was  originally  applied  to  boys  and  servants.  [Liberman].    The  word  also  
means  “informer,  stool  pigeon”  in  Australia  and  New  Zealand  and  in  South  
Africa,  where  by  early  1960s  it  existed  in  Swahili  form  impimpsi.      
 
285. Pip  (pg.  477):    A  disease  of  poultry  and  birds  causing  thick  mucus  in  
the  throat  and  white  scale  on  the  tongue,  applied  vaguely,  usually  
humorously,  to  various  ailments  in  humans.    late  Middle  English:  from  
Middle  Dutch  pipe,  probably  from  an  alteration  of  Latin  pituita  ‘slime’.    In  the  
late  15th  century  the  word  came  to  applied  humoursly  to  unspecified  human  
diseases,  and  later  to  ill  humor.      
 
286. Plate  (pg.  472):    silverware.    dishes,  bowls,  cups,  and  other  utensils  
made  of  gold,  silver,  and  other  metal.    Middle  English  (denoting  a  flat,  thin  
sheet,  usually  of  metal):  from  Old  French,  from  medieval  Latin  plata  ‘plate  
armor’,  based  on  Greek  platus  ‘flat’.      

  152  
  
287. Popish  (pg.  502):    A  derogatory  term  of  or  relating  to  the  Roman  
Catholic  Church.  
 
288. Pox  (pg.  468):    any  of  several  viral  diseases  producing  a  rash  of  
pimples  that  become  pus-­‐filled  and  leave  pockmarks  on  healing.    ‘a  pox  on’  is  
used  to  express  anger  or  intense  irritation  with  someone  or  something.    late  
Middle  English:  alteration  of  pocks,  plural  of  pock  (pockmark/postule)  
 
289. Prado  (pg.  483):    A  fashionable  promenade  in  Madrid.    It  is  one  of  the  
main  boulevards  in  Madrid,  Spain.    The  Paseo  del  Prado  is  the  oldest  
historical  urban  in  Madrid.    The  densely  tree-­‐lined,  wide  and  centric  avenue  
is  a  landmark  for  the  city  residents  and  the  location  of  important  cultural  and  
tourist  spots  in  the  city.  

  153  
 290. Prater  (pg.  490):    a  person  who  talks  foolishly  or  at  tedious  length.    
early  15c.,  from  or  related  to  Middle  Dutch  praten  “to  chatter”  (c.  1400),  from  
a  West  Germanic  imitative  root  (cf.  East  Frisian  proten,  Middle  Low  German  
praten,  Middle  High  German  braten,  Swedish  prata  “to  talk,  chatter”).    
English:  status  name  for  a  reeve,  the  chief  magistrate  or  bailiff  of  a  district,  
from  Latin  praetor.    Dutch:  occupational  name  for  a  warden  of  meadows  or  a  
gamekeeper,  from  Middle  Dutch  prater,  preter  (Latin  pratarius,  a  derivative  
of  partum  ‘meadow’).  
 
291. Prating  (pg.  483):    talk  foolishly  or  at  tedious  length  something.    
Same  derivation  as  above.  
 
292. Prattle  (pg.  468):    talk  at  length  in  a  foolish  or  inconsequential  way.    
foolish  or  inconsequential  talk.    mid  16th  century:  from  Middle  Low  German  
pratelen,  from  praten  (or  see  derivation  in  prater).  
 
293. Prithee  (pg.  480):    please  (used  to  convey  a  polite  request).    late  16th  
century:  abbreviation  of  ‘I  pray  thee’.  
 
294. Proclaimed  clap  (pg.  471):    apparent  signs  of  gonorrhoea.    
colloquiall  known  as  the  clap,  is  a  sexually  transmitted  infection,  caused  by  
bacteria.    Men  may  have  burning  with  urination,  discharge  from  the  penis,  or  
testicular  pain.    Women  may  have  burning  with  urination,  vaginal  discharge,  
vaginal  bleeding  between  periods,  or  pelvic  pain.    The  exact  onset  of  
gonorrhea  as  a  prevalent  disease  or  epidemic  cannot  be  accurately  
determined  from  the  historical  record.    One  of  the  first  reliable  notations  
occurs  in  the  Acts  of  the  (English)  Parliament.    In  1161,  this  body  passed  a  
law  to  reduce  the  spread  of  “…the  perilous  infirmity  of  burning”.    The  
symptoms  described  are  consistent  with,  but  not  diagnostic  of,  gonorrhea.    A  
similar  decree  was  passed  by  Louis  IX  in  France  in  1256,  replacing  regulation  
with  banishment.    Similar  symptoms  were  noted  at  the  siege  of  Acre  by  
Crusaders.      
 
295. Propitious  (pg.  468):    giving  or  indicating  a  good  chance  of  success;  
favorable.    favorably  disposed  toward  someone.    late  Middle  English:  from  
Old  French  propicieus  or  Latin  propitious  ‘favorable,  gracious’.  
 
296. Propriety  (pg.  496):    the  state  or  quality  of  conforming  to  
conventionally  accepted  standards  of  behavior  or  morals.    the  details  or  rules  
of  behavior  conventionally  considered  to  be  correct.    the  condition  of  being  
right,  appropriate,  or  fitting.    late  Middle  English  (in  the  sense  ‘peculiarity,  
essential  quality’):  from  Old  French  propriete,  from  Latin  proprietas:  
property.      
 

  154  
 297. Provocation  (pg.  483):    action  or  speech  that  makes  someone  
annoyed  or  angry,  especially  deliberately.    late  Middle  English:  form  Old  
French,  form  Latin  provocatio(n-­‐  ),  from  the  verb  provocare:  provoke.  
 
298. Pullet  (pg.  494):    a  young  hen,  especially  one  less  than  one  year  old.    
late  Middle  English:  from  Old  French  poulet,  diminutive  of  poule,  from  the  
feminine  of  Latin  pullus  ‘chicken,  young  animal’.  
 
299. Puppy  (pg.  482):    a  young  dog.    a  conceited  arrogant  young  man.    late  
15  century  (denoting  lapdog):  perhaps  from  Old  French  poupee  ‘doll,  
th

plaything’;  compare  with  puppet,  synonymous  with  dialect  puppy  (as  in  
puppy-­‐show  ‘puppet  show’).  
 
300. Quarrel  to  her  ever  since  eighty-­eight  (pg.  482):    The  Spanish  
Armada  was  defeated  by  the  English  (1588).    With  the  Restoration  of  the  
throne,  the  Renaissance  that  occurred  during  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  I  became  
nostalgic  and  was  often  commented  upon.  

 
301. Quean  (pg.  482):    Harlot,  tramp.    an  impudent  or  ill-­‐behaved  girl  or  
woman.    a  prostitute.    Old  English  cwene  ‘woman’,  of  Germanic  origin;  
related  to  Dutch  kween  ‘barren  cow’,  from  an  Indo-­‐European  root  shared  by  
Greek  gune.  
 
302. Railing  (pg.  485):    complain  or  protest  strongly  and  persistently  
about.    late  Middle  English  from  French  railer,  from  Provençal  ralhar  ‘to  jest’,  
based  on  an  alteration  of  Latin  rugire  ‘to  bellow’.  
 
303. Rallying  (pg.  473):    subject  (someone)  to  good-­‐humored  ridicule;  
tease.    mid-­‐17th  century:  from  French  railer  ‘to  rib,  tease’.  
 

  155  
 304. Ransacked  (pg.  465):    go  hurriedly  through  (a  place)  stealing  things  
ad  causing  damage.    Middle  English:  from  Old  Norse  rannsaka,  from  rann  
‘house’  +  second  element  related  to  soekja  ‘seek’.  
 
305. Rape  (pg.  494):    an  unlawful  sexual  activity  and  usually  sexual  
intercourse  carried  out  forcibly  or  under  threat  of  injury  against  a  person’s  
will  or  with  a  person  who  is  beneath  a  certain  age  or  incapable  of  valid  
consent  because  of  mental  illness,  mental  deficiency,  intoxication,  
unconsciousness,  or  deception.    an  outrageous  violation.    an  act  or  instance  of  
robbing  or  despoiling  or  carrying  away  a  person  by  force.    Middle  English,  
“turnip,  Brassica  napus,”  borrowed  from  Latin  rapa,  rapum,  “tunip”;  akin  to  
Germanic  *robujon-­‐  “turnip”  (whence  Middle  Dutch  &  Middle  Low  German  
rove,  Old  High  German  ruoba  ruoppa)    
 
306. Redeemed  (pg.  487)    compensate  for  the  faults  or  bad  aspects  of  
(something).    gain  or  regain  possession  of  (something)  in  exchange  for  
payment.    (of  a  person)  atone  or  make  amends  for  (error  or  evil).    save  
(someone)  from  sin,  error,  or  evil.    buy  the  freedom  of.    pay  the  necessary  
money  to  clear  a  debt.    late  Middle  English  (in  the  sense  ‘buy  back’):  from  Old  
French  redimer  or  Latin  redimere,  from  re-­‐  ‘back’  +  emere  ‘buy’.  
 
307. Reels  (pg.  485):    walk  in  a  staggering  or  lurching  manner,  especially  
while  drunk.    Old  English  hreol,  denoting  a  rotatory  device  on  which  spun  
thread  is  wound.  
 
308. Reformation  (pg.  502):    The  action  or  process  of  reforming  an  
institution  or  practice.    a  16th  century  movement  for  the  reform  of  abuses  in  
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  ending  in  the  establishment  of  the  Reformed  and  
Protestant  Churches.    late  Middle  English:  from  Latin  reformatio(n-­‐),  from  
reformare  ‘shape  again’.      
 
309. Repentance  (pg.  500):    the  action  of  repenting  (feel  or  express  
sincere  regret  or  remorse  about  one’s  wrongdoing  or  sin;  feel  regret  or  
penitence  about);  sincere  regret  or  remorse.      
 
310. Resolved  (pg.  480):    firmly  determined  to  do  something.    late  Middle  
English  (in  the  senses  ‘dissolve,  disintegrate’    and  ‘solve  (a  problem)’):  from  
Latin  resolvere  from  re-­‐  (expressing  intensive  force)  +  solvere  ‘loosen’.      
 
311. Reverence  (pg.  484):    deep  respect  for  someone  or  something.    
regard  or  treat  with  deep  respect.    Middle  English:  from  Old  French,  from  
Latin  reverential,  from  revereri  ‘stand  in  awe  of’.      
 
312. Rhetoric  (pg.  494):    The  art  of  effective  or  persuasive  speaking  or  
writing,  especially  the  use  of  figures  of  speech  and  other  compositional  
techniques.    language  designed  to  have  a  persuasive  or  impressive  effect  on  

  156  
 its  audience,  but  often  regarded  as  lacking  in  sincerity  or  meaningful  content.    
Middle  English:  from  Old  French  rethorique,  via  Latin  from  Greek  rhetorike  
(techne)  ‘(art)  of  rhetoric’.  
 
313. Rifle  (pg.  477):    search  through  something  in  a  hurried  way  in  order  
to  find  or  steal  something.    steal.    Middle  English  from  Old  French  rifler  
‘graze,  plunder’,  of  Germanic  origin.  
 
314. Right  (pg.  472):    Real.    Middle  English,  from  Old  English  riht;  akin  to  
Old  High  German  reht  right,  Latin  rectus  straight,  right,  regere  to  lead  
straight,  direct,  rule,  rogare  to  ask,  Greek  oregein  to  stretch  out.  
 
315. Rogueries  (pg.  491):    conduct  characteristic  of  a  rogue  (thieves  slang  
for  a  begging  vagabond  who  pretends  to  be  a  poor  scholar  from  Oxford  or  
Cambridge,  which  is  perhaps  an  agent  noun  in  English  from  Latin  rogare  “to  
ask”),  especially  acts  of  dishonesty  or  playful  mischief.      
 
316. Rogues  (pg.  468):    a  dishonest  or  unprincipled  man.    mid  16th  
century  (denoting  an  idle  vagrant):  probably  from  Latin  rogare  ‘beg,  ask’,  and  
related  to  obsolete  slang  roger  ‘vagrant  beggar’  (many  such  cant  terms  were  
introduced  towards  the  middle  of  the  16th  century).  
 
317. Rope  Dancer  (pg.  493):    tight  rope  walker;  this  was  a  skill  that  circus  
performers  did  along  with  animals  in  17th  century  England.    From  the  the  
Wikipedia  article  on  Jacob  Hall:    An  English  rope-­‐dancer,  who  distinguished  
himself  as  a  performer  on  the  tight-­‐rope.    The  memoirs  of  Philibert  de  
Gramont  indicate  that  Hall  was  a  popular  performer  by  1662.    In  1668  Hall  
attained  his  greatest  popularity.    The  London  court  encouraged  him,  and  he  
described  himself  as  “sworn  servant  to  his  Majestie”.    Lady  Castlemain,  later  
the  Duchess  of  Cleveland,  to  avenge  herself  on  Charles  II  for  neglecting  her,  
fell,  according  to  Samuel  Pepys  and  Gramont,  in  love  with  him.    In  April  1668  
he  was  a  regular  visitor  at  her  house,  and  received  a  salary  from  her.  

  157  
  
318. Rover  (pg.  467):    A  pirate  or  pirate  ship.    From  Middle  Dutch,  roven  
to  rob.    Cognate  with  Danish  and  Norwegian  rover  (“robber,  thief,  
highwayman,  brigand”).  
 
319. Rover’s  trick  (pg.  500):    a  sort  of  arrow.    (croquet)  a  ball  which  has  
passed  through  all  the  hoops  and  would  go  out  if  it  hit  the  stake  but  is  
continued  in  play;  also  the  player  of  such  a  ball.      
 
320. Ruffle  (pg  494):    disorder  or  disarrange  (someone’s  hair),  typically  
by  running  one’s  hands  through  it.    (of  a  bird)  erect  (its  feathers)  in  anger  or  
display.    disturb  the  smoothness  or  tranquility  of.    disconcert  or  upset  the  
composure  of  (someone).    ornament  with  or  gather  into  a  frill.    an  
ornamental  gathered  or  goffered  frill  of  lace  or  other  cloth  on  a  garment,  
especially  around  the  wrist  or  neck.    a  vibrating  drumbeat.      
 
321. Sack  (pg.  478):    a  large  bag  made  of  strong  material  such  as  burlap,  
thick  paper,  or  plastic,  used  for  storing  and  carrying  goods.    A  dry  white  wine  

  158  
 formerly  imported  into  Britain  from  Spain  and  the  Canary  Islands.    There  
were  sack  of  different  origins  such  as  Malaga  sack,  Palm  Sack  from  Palma  de  
Mallorca,  and  Sherris  sack  from  Jerez  de  la  Frontera.    Most  sack  was  probably  
sweet,  and  matured  in  wooden  barrels  for  a  limited  time.    The  Duke  of  
Medina  Sidonia  abolished  taxes  on  export  of  wine  from  Sanlúcar  de  
Barrameda  in  1491,  allowing  both  Spanish  and  foreign  ships.    English  
merchants  were  given  preferential  treatment  in  1517,  and  distinction  was  
upheld  between  second-­‐rate  wines,  so-­‐called  “Bastards”,  and  first-­‐rate  wines  
which  were  known  as  “Rumneys”  and  “Sacks”.    This  period  in  time  coincides  
with  the  planinting  of  vines  in  the  Canaries  after  the  Spanish  all  but  
exterminated  the  indigenous  Guanches  in  the  1490s.    Málaga,  formerly  in  the  
Kingdom  of  Granada,  also  took  to  using  the  name  sack  for  its  wines,  which  
were  previously  sold  as  “Garnacha”.    This  wine  was  similar  to  another  wine  
known  as  ‘malmsey’,  made  from  Malvasia  grapes.    The  word  derives  from  
French  ‘sec’,  “dry”.    The  Oxford  English  Dictionary  has  the  term  ‘sacar’,  
meaning  “to  draw  out”  as  in  drawing  out  wine  from  a  solera.  

  159  
  
322. Savory  (pg.  500):    (of  food)  belonging  to  the  category  that  is  salty  or  
spicy  rather  than  sweet.    morally  wholesome  or  acceptable.    a  savory  dish,  
especially  a  snack  or  appetizer.    Middle  English  (in  the  sense  ‘pleasing  to  the  
sense  of  taste  or  smell’):  from  Old  French  savoure  ‘tasty,  fragrant’,  based  on  
Latin  sapor  ‘taste’.  

  160  
  
323. Scarlet  (pg.  490):    a  brilliant  red  color.    Middle  English  (originally  
denoting  any  brightly  colored  cloth):  shortening  of  Old  French  escarlate,  
from  medieval  Latin  scarlata,  via  Arabic  and  medieval  Greek  form  late  Latin  
sigillatus  ‘decorated  with  small  images’,  from  sigillum  ‘small  image’.  
 
324. Scurvy  (pg.  493):      Worthless,  contemptible.    From  Wikipedia:    A  
disease  from  a  lack  of  vitamin  C.    It  particularly  affected  poorly  nourished  
sailors  until  the  end  of  the  18th  century.    late  Middle  English  (as  an  adjective  
meaning  ‘scurfy’):  form  scurf  +  y.    The  noun  use  (mid  16th  century)  is  by  
association  with  French  scorbut.    “covered  with  scabs,  diseased,  scorbutic”.    
It  took  on  the  narrower  meaning  of  Dutch  scheurbuik,  French  scorbut  
“scurvy,”  in  reference  to  the  disease  characterized  by  swollen  and  bleeding  
gums,  prostration,  etc.,  perhaps  from  Old  Norse  skyrbjugr,  which  is  perhaps  
literally  “a  swelling  (bjugr)  from  drinking  sour  milk  (skyr)  on  long  sea  
voyages;”  but  the  Oxford  English  Dictionary  has  an  alternative  etymology  of  
Middle  Dutch  or  Middle  Low  German  origin,  as  “disease  that  lacerates  the  
belly,”  from  schoren  “to  lacerate”  +  Middle  Low  German  buk,  Dutch  buik  
“belly.”  
 
325. ‘Sdeath  (pg.  484):    interjection  that  is  a  euphemism  for  God’s  Death.  
 
326. Shameroon  (pg.  477):    shameful  person.      
 
327. Shear  (pg.  482):    cut  the  wool  off  (a  sheep  or  other  animal).    break  off  
or  cause  to  break  off,  owing  to  a  structural  strain.    Old  English  sceran  
(originally  in  the  sense  ‘cut  through  with  a  weapon’),  of  Germanic  origin;  
related  to  Dutch  and  German  scheren,  from  a  base  meaning  ‘divide,  shear,  
shave’.  
 
328. Sheriff’s  charge  (pg.  501):    From  highsheriffs.com:    The  Office  of  
High  Sheriff  is  the  oldest  secular  Office  in  the  United  Kingdom  after  the  
Crown  and  dates  from  Saxon  times.    The  exact  date  of  origin  is  unknown  but  
the  Office  has  certainly  existed  for  over  1,000  years  since  the  Shires  were  
formed.    The  word  ‘Sheriff’  derives  from  ‘Shire  Reeve’  or  the  Anglo  Saxon  
‘Scir-­‐gerefa’.    The  King’s  Reeve  was  also  known  as  the  ‘High’  Reeve.    Some  
Sheriffs  led  contingents  at  the  Battle  of  Hastings.    The  Normans  continued  the  
Office  and  added  to  its  powers.    During  the  11th  and  12th  centuries  a  High  
Sheriff’s  powers  were  very  extensive.    For  example,  they  judged  cases  in  the  
monthly  court  of  the  hundred  (a  sub-­‐unit  of  the  Shire);  they  had  law  
enforcement  powers  and  could  raise  the  ‘hue  and  cry’  in  pursuit  of  felons  
within  their  Shire;  they  could  summon  and  command  the  ‘posse  comitatus’  –  
the  full  power  of  the  Shire  in  the  service  of  the  Sovereign;  they  collected  taxes  
and  levies  and  all  dues  on  Crown  lands  on  behalf  of  the  Crown  and  were  in  
charge  of  Crown  property  in  the  Shire.    In  short,  High  Sheriffs  were  the  

  161  
 principal  representatives  and  agents  for  the  Crown  and  were  thus  very  
powerful  within  the  Shire.      
 
Of  the  63  clauses  in  the  Magna  Carta  of  1215,  no  less  than  27  relate  to  the  
role  of  the  Sheriff  and  from  1254  the  High  Sheriff  supervised  the  election  to  
Parliament  of  two  Knights  of  the  Shire.      
 
The  Sheriffs’  powers  were  gradually  restricted  over  succeeding  centuries.    
Under  Henry  I  their  tax  collection  powers  went  to  the  Exchequer,  which  also  
took  on  the  function  of  auditing  the  Sheriffs’  accounts.    Henry  II  introduced  
the  system  of  itinerant  Justices  from  which  evolved  the  Assizes  and  the  
present  day  system  of  High  Court  Judges  going  out  on  Circuit.    The  Sheriff  
remained  responsible  for  issuing  Writs,  for  having  ready  the  Court,  prisoners  
and  juries,  and  then  executing  the  sentences  once  they  were  pronounced.    It  
was  also  the  Sheriff’s  responsibility  to  ensure  the  safety  and  comfort  of  the  
Judges.    This  is  the  origin  of  the  High  Sheriff’s  modern  day  duty  of  care  for  the  
well-­‐being  of  High  Court  judges.  
 
In  the  middle  of  the  13th  century,  more  powers  went  to  the  newly  created  
offices  of  Coroners  and  Justices  of  the  Peace.    Under  the  Tudors,  Lord-­‐
Lieutenants  were  created  as  personal  representatives  of  the  Sovereign.    
Queen  Elizabeth  I  is  generally  believed  to  have  originated  the  practice  that  
continues  to  this  day  of  the  Sovereign  choosing  the  High  Sheriff  by  pricking  a  
name  on  the  Sheriffs’  Roll  with  a  bodkin.    It  is  said  that  she  did  this  whilst  
engaged  in  embroidery  in  the  garden.    Sadly,  this  is  a  myth  since  there  is  a  
Sheriffs’  Roll  dating  from  the  reign  of  her  grandfather  Henry  VII  (1485-­‐1508)  
on  which  the  names  were  pricked  through  vellum.  
 
The  real  reason  for  pricking  through  vellum  was  that  the  choice  was  not  
always  a  welcome  honour  due  to  the  costs  the  incumbent  was  likely  to  have  
to  shoulder  and  also  the  challenges  faced  in  assessing  and  collecting  taxes,  
particularly  unpopular  taxes  such  as  Charles  I’s  demands  for  ship  money  in  
1635.    A  mark  with  a  pen  on  vellum  could  easily  be  erased  with  a  knife,  but  a  
hole  in  the  velum  (which  is  made  from  calf  skin)  could  not  be  removed  or  
repaired  invisibly.    The  potential  expense  to  the  incumbent  of  becoming  High  
Sheriff  was  one  of  the  reasons  the  role  was  for  a  single  year  only.  

  162  
  
329. Shoestring  (pg.  483):    a  small  or  inadequate  budget.    a  shoelace.    I  
have  a  feeling  that  Willmore  is  indicating  the  string  that  holds  together  
Florinda’s  underwear,  as  he  finds  her  in  undress  (with  underclothes  on),  
which  would  mean  that  the  string  to  her  underwear  would  not  be  visual,  but  

  163  
 if  he  had  access  to  it  (if  she  let  him),  he  could  salute  it  by  serving  her  sexually  
in  that  area.      

 
330. Sibyl  (pg.  469):    a  woman  in  ancient  times  supposed  to  utter  the  
oracles  and  prophecies  of  a  god.    a  woman  able  to  foretell  the  future.    From  
Wikipedia:    The  sibyls  were  oracles  in  Ancient  Greece.    The  earliest  sibyls,  
according  to  legend,  prophesied  at  holy  sites.    Their  prophecies  were  
influenced  by  divine  inspiration  from  a  deity;  originally  at  Delphi  and  
Pessinos,  the  deities  were  chthonic  deities.    In  Late  Antiquity,  various  writers  
attested  to  the  existence  of  sibyls  in  Greece,  Italy,  the  Levant,  and  Asia  Minor.      

 
331. Siege  of  Pamplona  (pg.  464):    I’m  not  sure  what  battle  Florinda  is  
really  discussing  here  to  make  it  fit  in  the  time  period  that  Charles  II’s  
cavaliers  would  have  battled  in  Spain.    The  closest  battle  that  Aphra  Behn  
might  have  known  about  was  the  Battle  of  Pampeluna  (also  spelled  
Pamplona)  that  occurred  on  May  20,  1521,  between  French-­‐backed  
Navarrese  and  Spanish  troops,  during  the  Spanish  conquest  of  Iberian  

  164  
 Navarre  and  in  the  context  of  the  Italian  War  of  1521-­‐26.    Most  Navarrese  
town  rose  at  once  against  the  Spanish,  who  had  invaded  Navarre  in  1512.    
The  Spanish  resisted  the  siege  sheltered  inside  the  city  castle,  but  they  
eventually  surrendered  and  the  Navarrese  took  control  of  the  town  and  the  
castle  of  Pamplona.    It  was  at  this  battle  that  Inigo  Lopez  de  Loyola,  better  
known  as  St.  Ignatius  of  Loyola,  suffered  severe  injuries,  a  Navarrese  
connonball  shattering  his  leg.    It  is  said  that  after  the  battle  the  Navarrese  so  
admired  his  bravery  that  they  carried  him  all  the  way  back  to  his  home  in  
Loyola.    His  meditations  during  his  long  recovery  set  him  on  the  road  of  a  
conversion  of  life  from  soldier  to  priest.    he  would  eventually  found  the  
Society  of  Jesus  (the  Jesuits),  and  create  the  Spiritual  Exercises,  which  is  the  
basis  for  the  idea  of  “retreats”  as  an  experience  of  prayer  as  practiced  in  the  
Roman  Catholic  Church.    

  165  
  
332. Simile  (pg.  467):      a  figure  of  speech  involving  the  comparison  of  one  
thing  with  another  thing  of  a  different  kind,  used  to  make  a  description  more  
emphatic  or  vivid.    late  Middle  English:  from  Latin,  neuter  of  similis  ‘like’.  
 
333. Solicitations  (pg.  488):    the  act  of  asking  for  or  trying  to  obtain  
something  from  someone.    the  act  of  accosting  someone  and  offering  one’s  or  
someone  else’s  services  as  a  prostitute.    late  Middle  English:  form  Old  French  
solliciter,  from  Latin  sollicitare  ‘agitate’,  from  sollicitus  ‘anxious’,  from  sollus  
‘entire’  +  citus  (past  participle  of  ciere  ‘set  in  motion’).      

  166  
  
334. Soothed  (pg.  491):    Advised.    Old  English  sothian  ‘verify,  show  to  be  
true’,  from  soth  ‘true’.    In  the  16th  century  the  verb  passed  through  the  senses  
‘corroborate  (a  statement’),  ‘humor  (a  person)  by  expressing  assent’  and  
‘flatter  by  one’s  assent’,  whence  ‘mollify,  appease’  (late  17th  century).  
 
335. Spanish  swords  from  Toledo  (pg.  496):    From  swordsoftoledo.com:    
The  only  “true”  usage  of  the  word  “broadsword”  is  when  it  applies  
specifically  to  the  Scottish  basket-­‐hilt  weapon  of  the  17th  and  18th  centuries,  
when  that  specific  term  was  in  usage  to  that  specific  weapon.    Early  
incarnations  of  the  basket-­‐hilt  was  in  many  respects  more  effective  than  later  
models.    The  basket  of  steel  bars  does  an  excellent  job  of  protecting  the  hand,  
yet  does  not  add  a  great  amount  of  weight.    Well  balanced,  this  is  an  excellent  
cut  and  thrust  weapon.      

  167  
  

  168  
 336. Spanish  whore  (pg.  493):    From  Wikipedia:    Prostitution  was  
tolerated  in  Spain  throughout  the  mediaeval  period,  until  the  17th  century  
and  the  reign  of  Phillip  IV  (1621-­‐65)  whose  1623  decree  closed  the  
mancebías  (brothels)  forcing  the  women  out  into  the  street,  a  very  unpopular  
decision,  but  one  that  remained  in  place  till  the  19th  century.    I  believe  that  
Blunt  likens  being  a  whore  in  Spain  (which  is  relegated  to  the  street)  as  bad  
as  being  a  galley  slave  (someone  forced  to  do  the  hardest  work  on  the  ship  as  
punishment).      
 
337. Spigot  (pg.  478):    a  small  peg  or  plug,  especially  for  insertion  into  the  
vent  of  a  cask.    a  faucet.    the  plain  end  of  a  section  of  a  pipe  fitting  into  the  
socket  of  the  next  one.    Middle  English:  perhaps  an  alteration  of  Provençal  
espigou(n),  form  Latin  piculum,  diminutive  of  spicum,  variant  of  spica:  a  
bandage  folded  into  a  spiral  arrangement  resembling  an  ear  of  wheat  or  
barley.  
 
338. St.  Jago  (pg.  485):    Jago  is  James  in  a  Portuguese  accent.    The  officer  
in  this  scene  may  not  be  from  Italy.    From  Wikipedia:    James  was  one  of  the  
Twelve  Apostles  of  Jesus,  traditionally  considered  the  first  apostle  to  be  
martyred.      
 
339. St.  Peter’s  church  (pg.  487):    From  Wikipedia:  San  Pietro  Martire  “St.  
Peter,  the  Martyr”)  is  a  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  Naples,  Italy.    It  is  located  
directly  across  from  the  principal  building  of  the  University  of  Naples  on  the  
main  street,  Corso  Umberto  corner  with  Via  Porta  di  Massa,  near  the  port  
area.    The  church  belongs  to  the  first  wave  of  construction  under  the  Angevin  
dynasty  in  Naples,  which  includes  better-­‐known  structure  such  as  the  
Maschio  Angioino.    Construction  on  San  Pietro  Martire,  dedicated  to  Saint  
Peter  of  Verona,  was  started  in  1294  under  Charles  II  of  Anjou  to  provide  a  
facility  of  the  Dominican  Order;  the  church  and  adjacent  monastery  premises  
were  finished  by  1343.    That  year  the  low-­‐lying  area  suffered  extensively  
from  floods.    Between  1400  and  1500  the  premises  were  expanded  
considerably  to  allow  for  a  larger  contingent  of  monks  than  the  original  
dozen.    In  the  17th  century,  the  church  underwent  major  reconstruction  
based  on  a  design  of  Giuseppe  Astarita.    

  169  
  

  170  
 340. Submissive  (pg.  498):    ready  to  conform  to  the  authority  or  will  of  
others;  meekly  obedient  or  passive.    late  16th  century:  from  submission,  on  
the  pattern  of  pairs  such  as  remission,  remissive.    From  submit:  ‘under’  +  
‘send,  put’,  ‘present  for  judgement’.  
 
341. Subtlety  (pg.  476):    the  quality  or  state  of  being  subtle.    a  subtle  
distinction,  feature,  or  argument.    Latin  subtilis  ‘fine,  delicate’.      
 
342. Sullenly  (pg.  480):    Defined  as  something  done  in  a  grumpy  or  sulky  
manner.    When  you  are  asked  to  cook  dinner  and  you  don’t  want  to  do  it  
anyway,  sulking  the  entire  time,  this  is  an  example  of  a  time.    Middle  English  
(in  the  senses  ‘solitary,  averse  to  company’,  and  ‘unusual’).  
 
343. Surly  (pg.  500):    bad-­‐tempered  and  unfriendly.    mid  16th  century  (in  
the  sense  ‘lordly,  haughty,  arrogant’):  alteration  of  obsolete  sirly.      
 
344. Surmounts  (pg.  476):    overcome  (a  difficulty  or  obstacle).    stand  or  
be  placed  on  top  of.    late  Middle  English  (also  in  the  sense  ‘surpass,  be  
superior  to’).  
 
345. Swaggerer  (pg.  479):    to  walk  or  conduct  oneself  with  an  insolent  or  
arrogant  air.    to  brag;  boast.    earliest  recorded  usages  are  in  Shakespeare’s  
MIDSUMMER  NIGHT’S  DREAM,  2  HENRY  IV,  KING  LEAR,  probably  a  
frequentative  form  of  swag,  “to  sway”.      
 
346. Swinging  stomach  (pg.  479):    a  sexual  innuendo  that  indicates  that  
the  person  has  a  need  for  variety  in  what  they  feed  on.      
 
347. Sword  (pg.  499):    a  weapon  with  a  long  metal  blade  and  a  hilt  with  a  
hand  guard,  used  for  thrusting  or  striking  and  now  typically  worn  as  part  of  
ceremonial  dress.    military  power,  violence,  or  destruction.    one  of  the  suits  
in  a  tarot  pack.    something  that  resembles  a  sword.      
 
348. Tatterdemalion  (pg.  477):    Ragamuffin.    A  person  dressed  in  ragged  
clothing.    Ragged  or  disreputable  in  appearance.    being  in  a  decayed  state  or  
condition:  dilapidated.    The  exact  origin  of  tatterdemalion  is  uncertain,  but  
it’s  probably  connected  to  either  the  noun  tatter  (“a  torn  scrap  or  shred”)  or  
the  adjective  tattered  (“ragged”  or  “wearing  ragged  clothes”).    We  do  know  
that  tatterdemalion  has  been  used  in  print  since  the  1600s.    In  its  first  
documented  use  in  1608,  it  was  used  as  a  noun  (as  it  still  can  be)  to  refer  to  a  
person  in  ragged  clothing  –  the  type  of  person  we  might  also  call  a  
ragamuffin.    (Ragamuffin,  incidentally,  predates  tatterdemalion  in  this  sense.    
Like  tatterdemalion,  it  may  have  been  formed  by  combining  a  known  word,  
rag,  with  a  fanciful  ending.)    Within  half  a  dozen  years  of  the  first  appearance  
of  tatterdemalion,  it  came  to  be  used  as  an  adjective  to  describe  anything  or  
anyone  ragged  or  disreputable.  

  171  
  
349. Thine  (pg.  500):    archaic  form  of  yours;  the  thing  or  things  belonging  
to  or  associated  with  thee.    form  of  thy  used  before  a  vowel.    Informal  form  of  
“you”.    Old  English  thu,  of  Germanic  origin;  related  to  German  du,  from  an  
Indo-­‐European  root  shared  by  Latin  tu.  
 
350. Thin  skull  (pg.  484):    The  thin  skull  or  eggshell  plaintiff  rule  is  a  
creature  of  tort  law  (a  civil  wrong  that  causes  a  claimant  to  suffer  loss  or  
harm  resulting  in  legal  liability  for  the  person  who  commits  the  tortuous  act),  
which  states  that,  a  defendant  who  negligently  inflicts  injury  on  another  
takes  the  injured  party  as  he  finds  her.    An  additional  exposure  in  tort  
liability  towards  persons  who  are  particularly  vulnerable  or  more  fragile  
than  the  norm,  who  may  have  inherent  weaknesses  or  a  pre-­‐existing  
vulnerability  or  condition;  the  tort-­‐feasor  takes  his  victim  as  he  finds  them;  
he  compensates  for  all  damages  he  caused,  even  if  the  damages  are  elevated  
compared  to  a  nor  because  the  plaintiff  was  thin  skulled.      
 
From  “The  Thin  Skull  Plaintiff  Concept”:    This  analogy  to  criminal  law  is  
interesting  in  that  it  not  only  supplies  a  convenient  body  of  law  for  
precedent,  but  also  unifies  jurisprudential  philosophy  with  the  common  
theme  of  moral  culpability  and  innocence.    This  approach  is  buttressed  by  
abundant  authority  that  could  enable  one  to  trace  the  thin  skull  principle  
through  criminal  cases  well  back  into  the  seventeenth  century.    Sir  Matthew  
Hale’s  Historia  Placitorum  Coronae,  one  of  the  earliest  treatises  on  criminal  
law,  contains  the  following  passage:    If  a  man  be  sick  of  some  such  disease,  
which  possibly  by  course  of  nature  would  end  his  life  in  half  a  year,  and  
another  give  him  a  wound  or  a  hurt,  which  hastens  his  end  by  irritating  and  
provoking  the  disease  to  operate  more  violently  or  speedily,  this  hastening  of  
his  death  sooner  than  it  would  have  been  is  homicide  or  murder,  as  the  case  
happens,  in  him,  that  gives  the  wound  or  hurt  that  he  receives  hastens  it,  and  
an  offender  of  such  a  nature  shall  not  apportion  his  own  wrong,  and  thus  I  
have  often  heard  that  learned  and  wise  judge  justice  Rolle  frequently  direct.”  
 
351. Thither  (pg.  499):    to  or  toward  that  place.    Old  English  thider,  
alteration  (by  association  with  hither)  of  thaeder,  of  Germanic  origin;  related  
to  that  and  the.      
 
352. Thou’st  (pg.  498):    Contraction  of  thou  has.    Thou:  the  one  addressed  
–  used  especially  in  ecclesiastical  or  literary  language  and  by  Friends  as  the  
universal  form  of  address  to  one  person.    It  is  the  informal  use.      
 
353. Took  orders  (pg.  469):    Entered  the  convent.    From  Wikipedia:    
Convents  in  early  modern  Europe  absorbed  many  unmarried  and  disabled  
women  as  nuns.    France  deemed  convents  as  an  alternative  to  prisons  for  
unmarried  or  rebellious  women  and  children.  It  was  also  where  young  girls  
were  educated  as  they  waited  to  married.    During  the  17th  century,  over  

  172  
 80,000  women  lived  and  were  educated  in  convents.    Nuns  never  received  
monetary  compensation.    They  served  without  salary,  surviving  on  charity.    
Although  many  young  girls  lived  in  the  convents,  they  were  not  nuns.    Every  
European  city  had  at  least  one  convent  and  some  had  dozens  or  more.    
Women  joined  convents  for  a  variety  of  reasons.    Although  a  dowry  was  paid  
to  the  church  it  was  not  as  expensive  as  a  wedding  dowry,  so  many  families  
sent  their  daughters  to  convents  in  order  to  escape  dowry  expenses.    Women  
had  fewer  choices  than  in  the  twenty-­‐first  century  –  marriage  and  convent  
life.    Thus,  the  structure  of  convents  kept  young  women  occupied  and  
preserved  their  chastity  until  they  reached  marrying  age.    Nuns  dedicated  
their  lives  to  the  convent,  the  institution  of  marriage  to  God,  and  took  three  
solemn  vows:  a  life  of  chastity,  poverty  and  obedience.    According  to  the  
church,  the  life  of  a  cloistered  nun  was  deemed  to  be  the  most  honorable  
existence  for  women.    During  the  Catholic  Reformation,  nuns  recruited  and  
cloistered  new  members  of  the  church.    The  Catholic  Church  targeted  
prostitutes  for  convent  life  or  helped  them  marry,  in  the  hope  that  the  
women  would  leave  their  sinful  lives.    By  serving  Christ,  they  would  purify  
themselves  and  gain  salvation.      
 
‘Religious  order’:    In  Christianity,  a  group  of  men  or  women  who  live  under  
religious  vows.    The  three  vows  commonly  taken  are  to  relinquish  all  
possessions  and  personal  authority  (vows  of  poverty  and  obedience)  and  not  
to  engage  in  sexual  relations  (a  vow  of  chastity).    A  religious  order  is  a  
lineage  of  communities  and  organizations  of  people  who  live  in  some  way  set  
apart  from  society  in  accordance  with  their  specific  religious  devotion,  
usually  characterized  by  the  principles  of  its  founder’s  religious  practice.    The  
order  is  composed  of  laypeople  and,  in  some  orders,  clergy.    Religious  orders  
exist  in  many  of  the  world’s  religions.  
 
354. Tramontana  (pg.  500):    Region  of  Italy  north  of  the  Alps.      From  
Wikipedia:    Tramontane  is  a  classical  name  for  a  northern  wind.    The  exact  
form  of  the  name  and  precise  direction  varies  from  country  to  country.    The  
word  came  to  English  from  Italian  tramontana,  which  developed  from  Latin  
transmontanus  (trans-­‐  +  montanus),  “beyond/across  the  mountains”,  
referring  to  the  Alps  in  the  North  of  Italy.    The  word  has  other  non-­‐wind-­‐
related  senses:  it  can  refer  to  anything  that  comes  from,  or  anyone  who  lives  
on,  the  other  side  of  the  mountains,  or  even  more  generally,  anything  seen  as  
foreign,  strange,  or  even  barbarous.      
 
355. Transgress  (pg.  491):    infringe  or  go  beyond  the  bounds  of  (a  moral  
principle  or  other  established  standard  of  behavior).    late  15th  century  
(earlier  (late  Middle  English)  as  transgression):  from  Old  French  
transgressor  or  Latin  transgress-­‐  ‘stepped  across’,  from  the  verb  transgredi,  
from  trans  –  ‘across’  +  gradi  ‘go’.  
 

  173  
 356. Tributary  (pg.  499):    a  river  or  stream  flowing  into  a  larger  river  or  
lake.    a  person  or  state  that  pays  tribute  to  another  state  or  ruler.    Late  
Middle  English:  from  Latin  tributarius,  from  tributum  “paying  tribute,”  “liable  
to  tax  or  tribute,”  “person,  country,  etc.  owing  obedience  or  paying  tribute  or  
a  tax  to  a  sovereign  or  another  people.”  
 
357. Trifle  (pg.  495):    a  thing  of  little  value  or  importance.    a  cold  dessert  
of  sponge  cake  and  fruit  covered  with  layers  of  custard,  jelly,  and  cream.    
treat  (someone  or  something)  without  seriousness  or  respect.    talk  or  act  
frivolously.    Middle  English  (also  denoting  an  idle  story  told  to  deceive  or  
amuse):  from  Old  French  trufle,  by-­‐form  of  trufe  ‘deceit’,  of  unknown  origin.    
The  verb  derives  from  Old  French  truffler  ‘mock,  deceive’.  
 
358. True  love’s  knot  (pg.  501):    From  Wikipedia:    The  term  true  lover’s  
knot,  also  called  true  love  knot  is  used  for  many  distict  knots.    The  
association  of  knots  with  the  symbolism  of  love,  friendship,  and  affection  
dates  back  to  antiquity.    Because  of  this,  no  single  knot  can  be  determined  to  
be  the  true  “true  love  knot”.    From  HISTORY  AND  SCIENCE  OF  KNOTS:    
…farmers,  who  tilled  their  own  grounds,  and  were  equal  strangers  to  
opulence  and  poverty  …  wrought  with  cheerfulness  on  days  of  labour;  but  
observed  festivals  as  intervals  of  idleness  and  pleasure.    They  kept  up  
Christmas  carols,  sent  true-­‐love-­‐knots  on  Valentine  morning,  ate  pancakes  on  
Shrove-­‐tide,  showed  their  wit  on  the  first  of  April,  and  religiously  cracked  
nuts  on  Michaelmas  eve.    Valentine’s  Day  (February  14th)  is  the  celebration  
day  for  the  martyr-­‐priest  St.  Valentine,  the  patron  saint  for  lovers.    The  date  
was  chosen  to  be  the  one  when  people  believed  birds  started  mating.    This  
custom  was  recorded  in  English  literature  by  Geoffrey  Chaucer  (ca.  1340-­‐
1400)  for  the  first  time  as  the  Parliament  for  Bryddes.    The  original  intention  
of  the  day  was  to  give  (expensive)  presents  to  beloved  ones.    Halfway  
through  the  17th  century  the  presents  became  less  expensive,  and  elaborate  
handpainted  knots  came  to  be  used  as  decorations  on  the  gifts.    These  knots  
were  usually  single-­‐stranded,  and  had  endless  lines  of  words  written  long  
their  lenghths  –  words  expressing  sentiments  of  love.    These  knots  were  
predecessors  of  the  knots  to  be  printed  on  later  Valentine  gifts,  such  as  
letters,  vases,  jugs,  and  cups.    The  hand-­‐made  Valentine  objects  came  to  
display  labyrinths,  which  were  combined  with  knots  to  amplify  the  symbolic  
power  of  the  Love  Knot,  and  enhanced  with  pairs  of  doves  and  angels.    The  
Valentine  objects  spread  from  Britain,  and  found  fertile  commercial  breeding  
ground  in  America.    In  other  countries  the  custom  lapsed  on  religious  
grounds.  

  174  
  
359. Trussed  (pg.  494):    tie  up  the  wings  and  legs  of  (a  chicken  or  other  
bird)  before  cooking.    tie  up  someone  with  their  arms  at  their  sides.    dress  
someone  in  elaborate  or  uncomfortable  clothing.    support  (a  roof,  bridge,  or  
other  structure)  with  a  truss  or  trusses.    Middle  English  (in  the  sense  
‘bundle’):  from  Old  French  trusse  (noun),  trusser  ‘pack  up,  bind  in’,  based  on  
late  Latin  tors-­‐  ‘twisted’,  from  the  verb  torquere.    In  our  play  they  are  talking  
about  being  hung  up  by  their  legs  from  a  tree  if  they  are  caught  and  convicted  
for  raping  Florinda  (and  they  don't  think  this  is  merited  because  they  think  

  175  
 she  is  a  prostitute).

 
 
360. Trust  (pg.  472):    Extend  credit  for  payment.    allow  credit  to  (a  
customer).    Middle  English:  from  Old  Norse  traust,  from  traustr  ‘strong’;  the  
verb  from  Old  Norse  treysta.    “reliance  on  the  veracity,  integrity,  or  other  
virtues  of  someone  or  something;  religious  faith,”  from  Old  Norse  traust  
“help,  confidence,  protection,  support,”  from  Proto-­‐Germanic  abstract  noun  
*traustam  (source  also  of  Old  Frisian  trast,  Dutch  troost  “comfort,  
consolation,”  Old  High  German  trost  “trust,  fidelity,”  German  Trost  “comfort,  
consolation,”  Gothic  trausti  “agreement,  alliance”),  from  Proto-­‐Germanic  
*treuwaz,  source  of  Old  English  treowian  “to  believe,  trust,”  and  treowe  
“faithful,  trusty,”  “be  firm,  solid,  steadfast.”    From  early  15c.  in  legal  sense  of  
“confidence  placed  in  a  one  who  holds  or  enjoys  the  use  of  property  
entrusted  to  him  by  its  legal  owner.”  
 
361. ‘Twas  (pg.  481):    It  was.  

  176  
  
362. ‘Twill  (pg.  481):    It  will.  
 
363. ‘Twould  (pg.  494):    It  would.  
 
364. Uncase  (pg.  465):    Disrobe.    Remove  from  a  cover  or  case.    “to  
undress  (oneself);”  also,  transitive,  “divest  of  a  robe  or  garments,  denude.”  
 
365. Unconscionable  (pg.  494):    not  right  or  reasonable.    unreasonably  
excessive.    mid  16th  century:  from  un-­‐  ‘not’  +  obsolete  conscionable:  guided  
by  conscience:  characterized  by  fairness  and  justice.  
 
366. Undress  (pg.  483):    undergarment.    A  petticoat  or  caraco  were  
considered  day  wear  at  home  or  for  informal  activities  was  considered  
“undress”.    Undress  referred  to  everyday,  utilitarian  working  clothes.    
Fashionable  undress  referred  to  the  less  formal  clothing  for  everyone,  but  
still  in  the  best  of  fashion.    

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  178  
 367. Unhinge  (pg.  495):    make  (someone)  mentally  unbalanced.    take  (a  
door)  off  its  hinges.      
 
368. Unlade  (pg.  472):    unload  (a  ship  or  cargo).    Old  English  onhladen  
‘un-­‐‘  “reverse,  opposite  of”  +  lade:  “to  load,  heap  up,  burden”,  “to  draw  or  take  
up  water”,  “to  pile  up,  load,  especially  a  ship”.  
 
369. Unseasonable  (pg.  487):    (of  weather)  unusual  for  the  time  of  year.    
untimely;  inopportune.    “not  appropriate  to  the  time  of  year”.  
 
370. Upbraiding  (pg.  498):    find  fault  with  (someone);  scold.    late  Old  
English  upbredan  ‘allege  (something)  as  a  basis  for  censure’,  based  on  braid  
in  the  obsolete  sense  ‘brandish’.    The  current  sense  dates  from  Middle  
English.      
 
371. Upon  the  ramble  (pg.  494):    Rambling,  wandering.      
 
372. Upse  gypsy  (pg.  500):    gypsy  fashion.    Upse  is  Dutch  for  “in  the  
fashion  or  manner.”    One  interesting  tidbit,  here,  is  that  Aphra  Behn  was  
supposedly  a  spy  for  Charles  II  in  the  Netherlands,  so  her  Dutch  is  showing,  
here.    A  common  phrase:  upse-­‐freeze  means  that  someone  is  half  way  to  total  
inebriety.  
 
373. Usage  (pg.  500):    the  action  of  using  something  or  the  fact  of  being  
used.    the  way  in  which  a  word  or  phrase  is  normally  and  correctly  used.    
habitual  or  customary  practice,  especially  as  creating  a  right,  obligation,  or  
standard.    Middle  English  (in  the  sense  ‘customary  practice’):  from  Old  
French,  from  us  ‘a  use’.  
 
374. Vast  (pg.  498):    of  very  great  extent  or  quantity;  immense.    an  
immense  space.    late  Middle  English:  from  Latin  vastus  ‘void,  immense’.  
 
375. Vessel  (pg.  494):    a  ship  or  large  boat.    a  hollow  container,  especially  
one  used  to  hold  liquid,  such  as  a  bowl  or  cask.    (chiefly  in  or  alluding  to  
biblical  use)  a  person,  especially  regarded  as  holding  or  embodying  a  
particular  quality.    Middle  English:  from  Anglo-­‐Norman  French  vessel(e),  
from  late  Latin  vascellum,  diminutive  of  vas  ‘vessel’.      
 
376. Vex  (pg.  468):    make  (someone)  feel  annoyed,  frustrated,  or  worried,  
especially  with  trivial  matters.    cause  distress  to.    late  Middle  English:  from  
Old  French  vexer,  from  Latin  vexare  ‘shake,  disturb’.  
 
377. Venture  a  cast  (pg.  478):    throw  the  dice.    
 

  179  
 378. Viceroy  (pg.  464):    a  ruler  exercising  authority  in  a  colony  on  behalf  
of  a  sovereign.    early  16th  century:  from  archaic  French,  fro  vice-­‐  ‘in  place  of’  
+  roi  ‘king’.  
 
379. Vigorous  (pg.  483):    strong,  healthy,  and  full  of  energy.    characterized  
by  or  involving  physical  strength,  effort,  or  energy.    forceful.    Middle  English:  
via  Old  French  from  medieval  Latin  vigorosus,  from  vigor:  ‘be  lively’.  
 
380. Vilely  (pg.  494):    highly  offensive,  unpleasant,  or  objectionable:  vile  
slander.  repulsive  or  disgusting,  as  to  the  senses  or  feelings:  a  vile  odor.    
Early  13c.,  from  Anglo-­‐French  and  Old  French  ‘vile’,  from  Latin  vilis  “cheap,  
worthless,  base,  common.”  
 
381. Virago  (pg.  498):    a  woman  of  great  stature,  strength,  and  courage.    a  
domineering,  violent,  or  bad-­‐tempered  woman.    a  woman  of  masculine  
strength  or  spirit;  a  female  warrior.    Old  English  (used  only  as  the  name  given  
by  Adam  to  Eve,  following  the  Vulgate),  from  Latin  ‘heroic  woman,  female  
warrior’,  from  vir  ‘man’.      
 
382. Virtue  (pg.  488):    behavior  showing  high  moral  standards.    a  quality  
considered  morally  good  or  desirable  in  a  person.    a  good  or  useful  quality  of  
a  thing.    virginity  or  chastity,  especially  of  a  woman.    (in  traditional  Christian  
angelology)  the  seventh  highest  order  of  the  ninefold  celestial  hierarchy.    
Middle  English:  from  Old  French  vertu,  from  Latin  virtus  ‘valor,  merit,  moral  
perfection,’  from  vir  ‘man’.    There  is  more  to  this  in  an  article  at  the  beginning  
of  the  packet,  discussing  the  fact  that  it  is  the  male  members  of  a  family’s  
responsibility  to  maintain  their  female  members’  virtue.  
 
383. Vizard  (pg.  471):    Mask  or  disguise.    mid  16th  century:  alteration  of  
visor:  a  mask  from  Anglo-­‐Norman  French  viser,  from  Old  French  vis  ‘face’.  
 
384. Wanton  (pg.  478):    (of  cruel  or  violent  action)  deliberate  and  
unprovoked.    sexually  unrestrained  or  having  many  casual  sexual  
relationships  (typically  used  of  a  woman).    A  sexually  unrestrained  woman.    
play;  frolic.    behave  in  a  sexually  unrestrained  way.    Middle  English  
wantowen  ‘rebellious,  lacking  discipline’,  from  wan-­‐  ‘badly’  +  Old  English  
togen  ‘trained’.  
 
385. Warrant  her  prize  (pg.  492):    Consider  her  worthy  of  pursuing.    If  
something  warrants  a  particular  action,  it  makes  the  action  seem  necessary  
or  appropriate  for  the  circumstances.    to  give  (someone)  authorization  or  
sanction  to  do  something.    to  guarantee  the  quality,  quantity,  condition,  etc.  
of  (goods)  to  the  purchaser.    to  guarantee  to  (the  purchaser)  that  the  goods  
are  as  represented.    to  guarantee  to  (the  purchaser)  the  title  of  goods  
purchased;  assure  of  indemnification  against  loss.    to  state  with  confidence;  

  180  
 affirm  emphatically.    Middle  English  ‘protector’  and  ‘safeguard’  and  ‘keep  safe  
from  danger’/  ‘guarantee’.  
 
386. Wench  (pg.  464):    a  girl  or  young  woman.    a  prostitute.    to  consort  
with  prostitutes.    Middle  English:  abbreviation  of  obsolete  wenchel  ‘child,  
servant,  prostitute’;  perhaps  to  Old  English  wancol  ‘unsteady,  inconstant’.  
 
387. What  the  deuce  (pg.  477):    What  has  happened?    Who  are  you?    
Deuce  is  an  old  word  for  devil.    The  Devil  is  uppermost  in  people’s  thought,  
and  his  names  are  many.    One  of  them  is  Old  Nick.    Its  origin  is  obscure.    The  
word  nicker  “water  sprite,”  explained  as  an  old  participle  “(a)  washed  one,”  is  
unrelated  to  it.    Then  there  is  nickel.    The  term  was  easy  to  coin,  but  copper  
could  not  be  obtained  from  the  nickel  ore,  and  Axel  F.  von  Cronstedt,  a  
Swedish  mineralogist  despite  von  before  Cronstedt,  called  the  copper-­‐
colored  metal  copper  nickel  (German  Kupfernickel),  later  shortened  to  
nickel,  after  the  name  of  a  perfidious  mountain  demon  (wolfram  and  
especially  cobalt  have  a  similar  history).    Nickel  was  a  bogyman  or  a  dwarf,  
so  that  von  Cronstedt  hit  on  a  term  of  abuse  while  thinking  what  to  call  the  
deceptive-­‐looking  ore.    It  is  less  clear  why  the  creature  was  called  Nickel.    
Later,  figures  resembling  Nickel,  disguised  and  frightening,  were  used  on  the  
eve  of  St.  Nicholas’s  day,  which  led  to  the  confusion  of  Nickel  and  Nicholas;  
hence  probably  Old  Nick.  
 
The  connection  of  the  Devil  with  the  name  Robert,  which  has  left  a  trace  in  
the  human  imagination  and  art  (Meyerbeer’s  opera  Robert  le  Diable  enjoyed  
great  popularity  in  his  day),  is  even  more  puzzling.    Robert  is,  naturally  Rob,  
and  since  initial  r-­‐  often  alternates  with  h-­‐,  we  have  hob  “sprite,”  as  an  
independent  word  and  as  the  first  element  in  hobgoblin  and,  by  devious  
ways,  if  my  etymology  is  correct,  in  hobbledehoy.    Robin  Goodfellow  is  
another  fiend.    Good  in  his  name  owes  its  existence  to  taboo:  propitiate  an  
enemy,  appease  him,  call  him  good,  and  he  may  leave  you  in  peace.    All  kinds  
of  flibbertigibbets  and  Rumpelstilzchens  are  evil  but  gullible.    It  is  not  
fortuitous  that  Robin  Hood,  a  folklore  figure  without  a  historical  prototype,  
though  not  exactly  a  forest  demon,  and  Robin  Goodfellow  are  namesakes.    We  
again  have  the  big  question  unanswered:  Why  Robin/Robert?    Proper  names  
have  given  rise  to  hundreds  of  familiar  words,  and  we  can  seldom  explain  the  
motivation  behind  the  choice.    Why  john  “lavatory,”  jenny  “skeleton  key,”  
sloppy  joe,  and  sippery  jack  (the  latter  is  a  tasty  mushroom)?    What  did  
Richard  do  that  dick  has  acquired  an  opprobrious  meaning?    By  the  way,  Dick  
did  not  escape  the  snares  of  the  Devil  either.    Along  with  Robert,  Richard  was  
among  his  names.    The  pet  forms  of  Richard  are,  among  others,  Rick  and  Dick.    
From  Dick  we  have  Dickon,  Dicken,  and  Dickens  (-­‐s  is  a  typical  suffix  lending  
words  a  familiar  flavor).    Dickens  is  “devil,”  but  in  this  case  we  witness  an  
ultimate  triumph  of  human  genius  over  the  forces  of  evil.    Charles  Dickens  
has  made  the  wiles  of  his  “prototype”  perfectly  harmless.    (The  existence  of  
such  family  names,  though  disturbing,  is  commonplace:  compare  German  

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 Teufel  “devil”  and  Waldteufel  “forest  devil”;  Emil  Waldteufel,  1837-­‐1915,  was  
a  popular  composer  of  waltzes).    Thus,  we  have  a  family  consisting  of  Nick,  
Dick,  and  Hob.    Old  Harry,  or  Lord  Harry,  is  also  worth  of  mention.  
 
The  supernatural  creatures  inhabiting  mountains,  forests,  rivers  and  so  forth  
could  strike  awe  in  people  when  they  made  a  lot  of  noise.    The  names  of  most  
giants  known  from  Scandinavian  oral  tradition  mean  “screamer”  and  
“howler.”    Drolen,  one  of  the  Norwegian  names  of  the  Devil,  is  probably  akin  
to  troll,  a  sound-­‐imitative  word,  like  so  many  others  beginning  with  dr-­‐  and  
tr-­‐.    The  first  part  of  Rumpelstilzchen  is  related  to  Engl.  rumble,  even  though  
that  mischievous  imp  neither  rumbled  nor  thundered.    But  this  should  not  
cause  surprise:  people  tend  to  forget  the  original  meaning  of  words,  and  this  
is  why  we  need  etymological  dictionaries.    The  –stilzchen  element  is  a  
cognate  of  Engl.  stilt  (-­‐chen  is  a  diminutive  suffix,  as  in  Gretchen),  so  that  the  
whole  name  means  something  like  “little  rumble-­‐wooden-­‐leg.”    Later,  the  
name,  in  disregard  of  its  inner  form,  was  applied  to  a  demon  who  hunted  
human  babies.  
 
The  spirits  of  nature  give  mighty  blows  to  human  beings.    Their  pugnacity  
may  supply  a  clue  to  the  word  deuce.    What  the  deuce  is  a  synonym  of  what  
the  dickens.    A  homonym  of  deuce  “devil”  is  deuce  “two  at  dice  or  cards.”    
Deuce  “two”  goes  back  to  Old  French  dues  (Modern  French  deux),  from  Latin  
duos,  the  accusative  of  duo.    Deuce  “devil”  is  of  Northern  German  origin,  in  
which  wat  de  duus…!  has  been  recorded  (in  High  German  the  phrase  is  was  
der  Daus…!).    English  dictionaries  suggest  that  deuce  “devil”  and  deuce  “two”  
are  the  same  word.    Allegedly,  wat  de  duus  was  the  exclamation  by  dicers  on  
making  the  lowest  throw  (two),  hardly  a  convincing  etymology.    There  must  
have  been  a  word  duus  “devil.”    In  the  August  gleanings,  I  discussed  a  
possible  origin  of  bulldoze(r)  and  traced,  however  tentatively,  -­‐doze  to  a  verb  
meaning  “strike”  (Norther  German  dusen  ~  dowse  “strike  (sail);  immerse  in  
water.”    There  may  be  a  tie  between  duus  and  those  verbs.    Or  perhaps  duus  
is  related  to  the  words  denoting  stultification  and  weakness,  such  as  Engl.  
dizzy  and  doze  and  Dutch  dwaas  “foolish.”    This  conjecture  presupposes  an  
earlier  form  *dwuus  (there  is  a  convention  of  putting  an  asterisk  before  
hypothetical  forms).    Sometimes  we  discover  only  the  root  of  the  name  we  
investigate.    Such  is  rag(g)-­‐,  known  in  Swedish,  Lithuanian,  English  (the  first  
element  of  ragamuffin;  its  second  element,  -­‐muff-­‐in,  also  means  “devil,”  from  
the  French  word  for  “ugly”),  and  possibly  Italian,  if  ragazzo  “boy”  formerly  
meant  “imp”  (this  ragg-­‐  is  not  related  to  rag  “a  piece  of  cloth”).    It  would  
strange  if  devils  revealed  their  secrets  without  a  good  fight.    They  guard  their  
names  (remember  Rumpelstilzchen?),  lead  people  astray  (remember  Puck?)  
and  parade  as  bogymen,  boggarts  and  bugs.    They  also  hide  behind  
homonyms,  but,  although  sometimes  invisible,  they  are  not  invincible.  
 
388. Wheedling  (pg.  484):    using  flattery  or  coaxing  in  order  to  persuade  
someone  to  do  something  or  give  one  something.    the  action  of  flattering  or  

  182  
 coaxing  someone  in  order  to  persuade  them  to  do  something  or  give  one  
something.    mid  17th  century:  perhaps  from  German  wedeln  ‘cringe,  fawn’,  
from  Wedel  ‘tail,  fan’.  
 
389. Whence  (pg.  483):    from  what  place  or  source.    from  which;  from  
where.    to  the  place  from  which.    as  a  consequence  of  which.    Middle  English  
whennes,  from  earlier  whenne  (from  Old  English  hwanon,  of  Germanic  
origin).      
 
390. Will  ne’er  mind  settlements,  and  so  there’s  that  saved  (pg.  481):    
Won’t  require  the  gifts  of  property  settled  on  a  wife  after  marriage.    Blunt  
thinks  Lucetta  is  so  in  love  with  him  that  she’ll  marry  him  without  needing  
any  promises  of  having  any  property  or  monies  attached  to  the  marriage  
contract.    The  sense  of  “payment  of  an  account”,  in  regards  to  the  word  
‘settlements’  and  legal  sense  of  “a  settling  of  arrangements”  (of  divorce,  
property  transfer,  etc.)  is  from  the  1670s.    THE  ROVER  was  written  in  1677.  
 
391. Witch  (pg.  468):    a  woman  thought  to  have  magic  powers,  especially  
evil  ones,  popularly  depicted  as  wearing  a  black  cloak  and  pointed  hat  and  
flying  on  a  broomstick.    Old  English  wicca,  wicce,  wiccian;  cast  a  spell  over  
(someone);  enchant  and  delight.    One  popular  belief  is  that  it  is  “related  to  
the  English  words  wit,  wise,  wisdome  [Germanic  root  weit-­‐,  wait-­‐,  wit-­‐;  Indo-­‐
European  root  weid-­‐,  woid,  wid-­‐],”  so  “craft  of  the  wise.”      
 
From  Wikipedia:    Historically,  the  predominant  concept  of  witchcraft  in  the  
Western  world  derives  from  Old  Testament  laws  against  witchcraft,  and  
entered  the  mainstream  when  belief  in  witchcraft  gained  Church  approval  in  
the  Early  Modern  Period.    It  posits  a  theosophical  conflict  between  good  and  
evil,  where  witchcraft  was  generally  evil  often  associated  with  the  Devil  and  
Devil  worship.    This  culminated  in  deaths,  torture,  and  scapegoating  (casting  
blame  for  human  misfortune),  and  many  years  of  large  scale  witch-­‐trials  and  
witch  hunts,  especially  in  Protestant  Europe,  before  largely  ceasing  during  
the  European  Age  of  Enlightenment.      
 
From  THE  PHYSICIAN  AND  WITCHCRAFT  IN  RESTORATION  ENGLAND:    The  
year  of  1660  witnessed  important  political  and  scientific  development  in  
England.    The  restoration  of  the  monarchy  and  the  Church  of  England  
occurred  with  the  return  of  Charles  II  after  the  dissolution  of  the  
Commonwealth  and  the  Puritan  influence.    The  Royal  Society,  after  informal  
meetings  for  nearly  fifteen  years,  was  established  as  a  scientific  organization  
in  1660  and  received  its  Royal  Charter  in  1662.    During  the  English  
revolution,  and  for  a  short  time  during  the  Commonwealth,  interest  in  
witchcraft  mounted.    Between  1645  and  1646  Matthew  Hopkins  acquired  the  
reputation  as  the  most  notorious  witch-­‐finder  in  the  history  of  England.    His  
activities  in  Essex  and  the  other  eastern  counties  led  to  the  execution  of  as  
many  as  200  witches.    In  Suffolk  it  is  estimated  that  he  was  responsible  for  

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 arresting  at  least  124  persons  for  witchcraft,  of  whom  68  were  hanged.    The  
excesses  soon  led  to  a  reaction  and  Hopkins  lost  his  influence,  and  died  
shortly  thereafter  in  1646.      
 
There  then  was  a  continuing  decline  in  witchcraft  persecutions,  and  an  
increasing  skepticism  toward  the  phenomena  of  witchcraft  was  expressed.      
 
392. With  my  hands  in  my  sleeves  (pg.  479):    Look  at  the  definition  for  
Capuchin  for  more  details.    But,  generally,  the  sleeves  could  be  worn  two  
ways  in  the  monastic  habit:  rolled  up  for  work,  and  down  for  ceremonial  
occasions.    The  more  the  skin  is  covered,  the  more  respectful.      
 
393. Wits  (pg.  472):    Mental  sharpness  and  inventiveness;  keen  
intelligence.    a  natural  aptitude  for  using  words  and  ideas  in  a  quick  and  
inventive  way  to  create  humor.    a  person  who  has  an  aptitude  for  using  
words  and  ideas  in  a  quick  and  inventive  way.    Old  English  wit(t),  gewit(t),  
denoting  the  mind  as  the  seat  of  consciousness.    From  Encyclopedia  
Brittanica:    Any  of  a  group  of  English  gentlemen  poets  called  Cavaliers  
because  of  their  loyalty  to  Charles  I  (1625-­‐49)  during  the  English  Civil  Wars,  
as  opposed  to  Roundheads,  who  supported  Parliament.    They  were  also  
cavaliers  in  their  style  of  life  and  counted  the  writing  of  polished  and  elegant  
lyrics  as  only  one  of  their  many  accomplishments  as  soldiers,  courtiers,  
gallants,  and  wits.    The  term  embraces  Richard  Lovelace,  Thomas  Carew,  Sir  
John  Suckling,  Edmund  Waller,  and  Robert  Herrick.    Although,  Herrick,  a  
clergyman,  was  detached  from  the  court,  his  short,  fluent  graceful  lyrics  on  
love  and  dalliance,  and  his  carpe  diem  (“seize  the  day”)  philosophy  (“Gather  
ye  rose-­‐buds  while  ye  may”)  are  typical  of  the  Cavalier  style.    Besides  writing  
love  lyrics  addressed  to  mistresses  with  fanciful  names  like  Anthea,  Althea,  
Lucasta,  or  Amarantha,  the  Cavaliers  sometimes  wrote  of  war,  honour,  and  
their  duty  to  their  king.    Sometimes  they  deftly  combined  all  these  themes  as  
in  Richard  Lovelace’s  well-­‐known  poem,  “To  Lucasta,  Going  to  the  Wars,”  

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 which  ends,  “I  could  not  love  thee,  dear,  so  much  /  Loved  I  not  honour  more.”

 
 
394. Work  (pg.  484):    Old  English  weorc,  worc  “something  done,  discreet  
act  performed  by  someone,  action  (whether  voluntary  or  required),  
proceeding,  business;  that  which  is  made  or  manufactured,  products  of  
labor,”  also  “physical  labor,  toil;  skilled  trade,  craft,  or  occupation;  
opportunity  of  expending  labor  in  some  useful  or  remunerative  way;”  also  
“military  fortification,”  from  Proto-­‐Germanic  *werka-­‐  “work”  (source  of  Old  
Saxon,  Old  Frisian,  Dutch  werk,  Old  Norse  verk,  Middle  Dutch  warc,  Old  High  
German  werah,  German  Werk,  Gothic  gawaurki),  from  PIE  *werg-­‐o-­‐,  suffixed  
form  of  root  *werg-­‐  “to  do”.    From  c.  1200  meaning  “artistic  labor”  or  its  
productions,  meaning  “labor  as  a  measurable  commodity”,  “embroidery,  
stitchery,  needlepoint”.    Sense  of  “perform  physical  labor”  was  in  Old  English,  
as  was  sense  “ply  one’s  trade”  and  “exert  creative  power,  be  a  creator.”    
Transitive  sense  “manipulate  (physical  substances)  into  a  desired  state  or  
form”  was  in  Old  English.    Meaning  “have  the  expected  or  desired  effect”  is  
from  late  14c.    In  Middle  English  also  “perform  sexually”  (mid-­‐13c.).    To  work  
up  “excite”  is  from  c.  1600.  
 
395. Ycleped  (pg.  472):    Past  participle  of  clepe:  called.    Middle  English  
icleped,  from  Old  English  geclepod,  past  participle  of  geocleopian,  to  call:  ge-­‐,  
verb  pref.;  cleopian:  to  call.      
 
396. Yonder  (pg.  483):    at  some  distance  in  the  direction  indicated;  over  
there.    that  or  those  (used  to  refer  to  something  situated  at  a  distance).    the  
far  distance.    Middle  English:  of  Germanic  origin;  related  to  Dutch  ginder  

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 ‘over  ther’,  also  to  yon:  that  one.    Associated  with  the  phrase  hither  and  yon,  
literally  meaning  ‘in  various  directions,  especially  in  a  disorganized  way.’  
 
397. Zeal  (pg.  477):    great  energy  or  enthusiasm  in  pursuit  of  a  cause  or  an  
objective.    late  Middle  English:  via  ecclesiastical  Latin  from  Greek  zelos:  
passionate  ardor  in  pursuit  of  an  objective  or  course  of  action;  emulation;  
eager  rivalry;  a  noble  passion;  jealousy;  “to  seek,  request,  desire”;  devotion.    
 
 
 

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