What Are Carbohydrates?

Foods high in carbohydrates include breads, fruits and vegetables, as well as milk products.
(Image: © Elena Schweitzer | Shutterstock )

Carbohydrates are the sugars, starches and fibers found in fruits, grains, vegetables and milk products. Though
often maligned in trendy diets, carbohydrates — one of the basic food groups — are important to a healthy diet.

"Carbohydrates are macronutrients, meaning they are one of the three main ways the body obtains energy, or
calories," said Paige Smathers, a Utah-based registered dietitian. The American Diabetes Association notes that
carbohydrates are the body's main source of energy. They are called carbohydrates because, at the chemical
level, they contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
There are three macronutrients: carbohydrates, protein and fats, Smathers said. Macronutrients are essential for
proper body functioning, and the body requires large amounts of them. All macronutrients must be obtained
through diet; the body cannot produce macronutrients on its own.PLAY SOUND

The recommended daily amount (RDA) of carbs for adults is 135 grams, according to the National Institutes of
Health (NIH); however, the NIH also recommends that everyone should have his or her own carbohydrate goal.
Carb intake for most people should be between 45% and 65% of total calories. One gram of carbohydrates
equals about 4 calories, so a diet of 1,800 calories per day would equal about 202 grams on the low end and 292
grams of carbs on the high end. However, people with diabetes should not eat more than 200 grams of carbs per
day, while pregnant women need at least 175 grams.
Function of carbohydrates
Carbohydrates provide fuel for the central nervous system and energy for working muscles. They also prevent
protein from being used as an energy source and enable fat metabolism, according to Iowa State University.

Also, "carbohydrates are important for brain function," Smathers said. They are an influence on "mood,
memory, etc., as well as a quick energy source." In fact, the RDA of carbohydrates is based on the amount of
carbs the brain needs to function.

Two recent studies published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences have also linked
carbs to decision-making. In the studies, people who ate a high-carbohydrate breakfast were less willing to
share when playing the "ultimatum game" than those who ate high-protein breakfasts. Scientists speculate this
may be caused by baseline dopamine levels, which are higher after eating carbohydrates. This doesn't mean
carbs make you mean, but underscores how different types of food intake can affect cognition and behavior.
Simple vs. complex carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are classified as simple or complex, Smathers said. The difference between the two forms is the
chemical structure and how quickly the sugar is absorbed and digested. Generally speaking, simple carbs are
digested and absorbed more quickly and easily than complex carbs, according to the NIH.
Simple carbohydrates contain just one or two sugars, such as fructose (found in fruits) and galactose (found in
milk products). These single sugars are called monosaccharides. Carbs with two sugars — such as sucrose
(table sugar), lactose (from dairy) and maltose (found in beer and some vegetables) — are called disaccharides,
according to the NIH.

Simple carbs are also in candy, soda and syrups. However, these foods are made with processed and refined
sugars and do not have vitamins, minerals or fiber. They are called "empty calories" and can lead to weight
gain, according to the NIH.

Complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides) have three or more sugars. They are often referred to as starchy foods
and include beans, peas, lentils, peanuts, potatoes, corn, parsnips, whole-grain breads and cereals.

Smathers pointed out that, while all carbohydrates function as relatively quick energy sources, simple carbs
cause bursts of energy much more quickly than complex carbs because of the quicker rate at which they are
digested and absorbed. Simple carbs can lead to spikes in blood sugar levels and sugar highs, while complex
carbs provide more sustained energy.

Studies have shown that replacing saturated fats with simple carbs, such as those in many processed foods, is
associated with an increased risk of heart disease and type 2 diabetes.
Smathers offered the following advice: "It's best to focus on getting primarily complex carbs in your diet,
including whole grains and vegetables."

Sugars, starches and fibers

In the body, carbs break down into smaller units of sugar, such as glucose and fructose, according to Iowa State
University. The small intestine absorbs these smaller units, which then enter the bloodstream and travel to the
liver. The liver converts all of these sugars into glucose, which is carried through the bloodstream —
accompanied by insulin — and converted into energy for basic body functioning and physical activity.

If the glucose is not immediately needed for energy, the body can store up to 2,000 calories of it in the liver and
skeletal muscles in the form of glycogen, according to Iowa State University. Once glycogen stores are full,
carbs are stored as fat. If you have insufficient carbohydrate intake or stores, the body will consume protein for
fuel. This is problematic because the body needs protein to make muscles. Using protein instead of
carbohydrates for fuel also puts stress on the kidneys, leading to the passage of painful byproducts in the urine.

Fiber is essential to digestion. Fibers promote healthy bowel movements and decrease the risk of chronic
diseases such as coronary heart disease and diabetes, according to the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
However, unlike sugars and starches, fibers are not absorbed in the small intestine and are not converted to
glucose. Instead, they pass into the large intestine relatively intact, where they are converted to hydrogen and
carbon dioxide and fatty acids. The Institute of Medicine recommends that people consume 14 grams of fiber
for every 1,000 calories. Sources of fiber include fruits, grains and vegetables, especially legumes.

Smathers pointed out that carbs are also found naturally in some forms of dairy and both starchy and nonstarchy
vegetables. For example, nonstarchy vegetables like lettuces, kale, green beans, celery, carrots and broccoli all
contain carbs. Starchy vegetables like potatoes and corn also contain carbohydrates, but in larger amounts.
According to the American Diabetes Association, nonstarchy vegetables generally contain only about 5 grams
of carbohydrates per cup of raw vegetables, and most of those carbs come from fiber.
 Good carbs vs. bad carbs
Carbohydrates are found in foods you know are good for you (vegetables) and ones you know are not
(doughnuts). This has led to the idea that some carbs are "good" and some are "bad." According to Healthy
Geezer Fred Cicetti, carbs commonly considered bad include pastries, sodas, highly processed foods, white rice,
white bread and other white-flour foods. These are foods with simple carbs. Bad carbs rarely have any
nutritional value.
Carbs usually considered good are complex carbs, such as whole grains, fruits, vegetables, beans and legumes.
These are not only processed more slowly, but they also contain a bounty of other nutrients.

The Pritikin Longevity Center offers this checklist for determining if a carbohydrate is "good" or "bad."
Good carbs are:

 Low or moderate in calories

 High in nutrients
 Devoid of refined sugars and refined grains
 High in naturally occurring fiber
 Low in sodium
 Low in saturated fat
 Very low in, or devoid of, cholesterol and trans fats
Bad carbs are:

 High in calories
 Full of refined sugars, like corn syrup, white sugar, honey and fruit juices
 High in refined grains like white flour
 Low in many nutrients
 Low in fiber
 High in sodium
 Sometimes high in saturated fat
 Sometimes high in cholesterol and trans fatsAY SOUND
Glycemic index
Recently, nutritionists have said that it's not the type of carbohydrate, but rather the carb's glycemic index, that's
important. The glycemic index measures how quickly and how much a carbohydrate raises blood sugar.

High-glycemic foods like pastries raise blood sugar highly and rapidly; low-glycemic foods raise it gently and
to a lesser degree. Some research has linked high-glycemic foods with diabetes, obesity, heart disease and
certain cancers, according to Harvard Medical School.
On the other hand, recent research suggests that following a low-glycemic diet may not actually be helpful. A
2014 study published in JAMA found that overweight adults eating a balanced diet did not see much additional
improvement on a low-calorie, low-glycemic index diet. Scientists measured insulin sensitivity, systolic blood
pressure, LDL cholesterol and HDL cholesterol and saw that the low-glycemic diet did not improve them. It did
lower triglycerides.
Carbohydrate benefits
The right kind of carbs can be incredibly good for you. Not only are they necessary for your health, but they
carry a variety of added benefits.

Mental health
Carbohydrates may be important to mental health. A study published in 2009 in the journal JAMA Internal
Medicine found that people on a high-fat, low-carb diet for a year had more anxiety, depression and anger than
people on a low-fat, high-carb diet. Scientists suspect that carbohydrates help with the production of serotonin
in the brain.
Carbs may help memory, too. A 2008 study at Tufts University had overweight women cut carbs entirely from
their diets for one week. Then, they tested the women's cognitive skills, visual attention and spatial memory.
The women on no-carb diets did worse than overweight women on low-calorie diets that contained a healthy
amount of carbohydrates.
Weight loss
Though carbs are often blamed for weight gain, the right kind of carbs can actually help you lose and maintain a
healthy weight. This happens because many good carbohydrates, especially whole grains and vegetables with
skin, contain fiber. It is difficult to get sufficient fiber on a low-carb diet. Dietary fiber helps you to feel full,
and generally comes in relatively low-calorie foods.

A study published in the Journal of Nutrition in 2009 followed middle-age women for 20 months and found that
participants who ate more fiber lost weight, while those who decreased their fiber intake gained weight. Another
recent study linked fat loss with low-fat diets, not low-carb ones.
While some studies have found that low-carb diets do help people lose weight, a meta analysis conducted in
2015 and published in The Lancet found that when viewed long term, low-fat and low-carb diets had similar
success rates. People lost more weight early on while on low-carb diets but after a year they were all in similar
places.OUND
Good source of nutrients
Whole, unprocessed fruits and vegetables are well known for their nutrient content. Some are even
considered superfoods because of it — and all of these leafy greens, bright sweet potatoes, juicy berries,
tangy citruses and crunchy apples contain carbs.
One important, plentiful source of good carbs is whole grains. A large study published in 2010 in the Journal of
the American Dietetic Association found that those eating the most whole grains had significantly higher
amounts of fiber, energy and polyunsaturated fats, as well as all micronutrients (except vitamin B12 and
sodium). An additional study, published in 2014 in the journal Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition,
found that whole grains contain antioxidants, which were previously thought to exist almost exclusively in fruits
and vegetables.
Heart health
Fiber also helps to lower cholesterol, said Kelly Toups, a registered dietitian with the Whole Grains Council.
The digestive process requires bile acids, which are made partly with cholesterol. As your digestion improves,
the liver pulls cholesterol from the blood to create more bile acid, thereby reducing the amount of LDL, the
"bad" cholesterol.
Toups referenced a study in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition that looked at the effect of whole grains
on patients taking cholesterol-lowering medications called statins. Those who ate more than 16 grams of whole
grains daily had lower bad-cholesterol levels than those who took the statins without eating the whole grains.
Carbohydrate deficiency
Not getting enough carbs can cause problems. Without sufficient fuel, the body gets no energy. Additionally,
without sufficient glucose, the central nervous system suffers, which may cause dizziness or mental and
physical weakness, according to Iowa State University. A deficiency of glucose, or low blood sugar, is called
hypoglycemia.

If the body has insufficient carbohydrate intake or stores, it will consume protein for fuel. This is problematic
because the body needs protein to make muscles. Using protein for fuel instead of carbohydrates also puts stress
on the kidneys, leading to the passage of painful byproducts in the urine, according to the University of
Cincinnati.
People who don't consume enough carbohydrates may also suffer from insufficient fiber, which can cause
digestive problems and constipation.
https://www.livescience.com/51976-carbohydrates.html

There are three main types of carbohydrates in food: Starches, sugars, and fiber.
Starches—or complex carbohydrates—include starchy vegetables, dried beans, and
grains. Sugars include those naturally occurring (like in fruit) and added (like in a cookie).
And fiber comes from plant foods vs. animal products like eggs, meat, or fish.
https://www.diabetes.org/nutrition/understanding-carbs

What are carbohydrates?

Carbohydrates are found in a wide array of both healthy and unhealthy foods—bread, beans, milk,
popcorn, potatoes, cookies, spaghetti, soft drinks, corn, and cherry pie. They also come in a variety of
forms. The most common and abundant forms are sugars, fibers, and starches.

Foods high in carbohydrates are an important part of a healthy diet. Carbohydrates provide the body with
glucose, which is converted to energy used to support bodily functions and physical activity. But
carbohydrate quality is important; some types of carbohydrate-rich foods are better than others:

 The healthiest sources of carbohydrates—unprocessed or minimally processed whole grains, vegetables,

fruits and beans—promote good health by delivering vitamins, minerals, fiber, and a host of important
phytonutrients.

 Unhealthier sources of carbohydrates include white bread, pastries, sodas, and other highly processed
or refined foods. These items contain easily digested carbohydrates that may contribute to weight gain,
interfere with weight loss, and promote diabetes and heart disease.

The Healthy Eating Plate recommends filling most of your plate with healthy carbohydrates – with
vegetables (except potatoes) and fruits taking up about half of your plate, and whole grains filling up about
one fourth of your plate.

https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/carbohydrates/
Monosaccharide
Monosaccharide Definition
A monosaccharide is the most basic form of carbohydrates. Monosaccharides can by
combined through glycosidic bonds to form larger carbohydrates, known
as oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. An oligosaccharide with only two monosaccharides is
known as a disaccharide. When more than 20 monosaccharides are combined with glycosidic
bonds, a oligosaccharide becomes a polysaccharide. Some polysaccharides, like cellulose,
contain thousands of monosaccharides. A monosaccharide is a type of monomer,
or molecule that can combine with like molecules to create a larger polymer.

Function of Monosaccharide
Monosaccharides have many functions within cells. First and foremost, monosaccharides are
used to produce and store energy. Most organisms create energy by breaking down the
monosaccharide glucose, and harvesting the energy released from the bonds. Other
monosaccharides are used to form long fibers, which can be used as a form of cellular
structure. Plants create cellulose to serve this function, while some bacteria can produce a
similar cell wall from slightly different polysaccharides. Even animal cells surround themselves
with a complex matrix of polysaccharides, all made from smaller monosaccharides.

Monosaccharide Structure
All monosaccharides have the same general formula of (CH2O)n, which designates a central
carbon molecule bonded to two hydrogens and one oxygen. The oxygen will also bond to a
hydrogen, creating a hydroxyl group. Because carbon can form 4 bonds, several of these
carbon molecules can bond together. One of the carbons in the chain will form a double bond
with an oxygen, which is called a carbonyl group. If this carbonyl occurs at the end of the
chain, the monosaccharide is in the aldose family. If the carboxyl group is in the middle of
the chain, the monosaccharide is in the ketose family.
Above is a picture of glucose. Glucose is one of the most common monosaccharides in
nature, used by nearly every form of life. This simple monosaccharide is composed of 6
carbons, each labeled in the image. The first carbon is the carbonyl group. Because it is at
the end of the molecule, glucose is in the aldose family. Typically, monosaccharides with
more than 5 carbons exist as rings in solutions of water. The hydroxyl group on the fifth
carbon will react with the first carbon. The hydroxyl group gives up its hydrogen atom when
it forms a bond with the first carbon. The double bonded oxygen on the first carbon bonds
with a new hydrogen when the second bond with the carbon is broken. This forms a fully
connected and stable ring of carbons.

Examples of Monosaccharide
Glucose

Glucose is an important monosaccharide in that it provides both energy and structure to

many organism. Glucose molecules can be broken down in glycolysis, providing energy and
precursors for cellular respiration. If a cell does not need any more energy at the moment,
glucose can be stored by combining it with other monosaccharides. Plants store these long
chains as starch, which can be disassembled and used as energy later. Animals store chains
of glucose in the polysaccharide glyocogen, which can store a lot of energy.
Glucose can also be connected in long strings of monosaccharides to form polysaccharides
that resemble fibers. Plants typically produce this as cellulose. Cellulose is one of the most
abundant molecules on the planet, and if we could weigh all of it at once it would weigh
millions of tons. Each plant uses cellulose to surround each cell, creating rigid cell walls that
help the plants stand tall and remain turgid. Without the ability of monosaccharides to
combine into these long chains, plants would be flat and squishy.

Fructose

Although almost identical to glucose, fructose is a slightly different molecule. The formula
((CH2O)6) is the same, but the structure is much different. Below is an image of fructose:

Notice that instead of the carbonyl group being at the end of the molecule, as in glucose, it is
the second carbon down. This makes fructose a ketose, instead of an aldose. Like glucose,
fructose still has 6 carbons, each with a hydroxyl group attached. However, because the
double bonded oxygen in fructose exists in a different place, a slightly different shaped ring is
formed. In nature, this makes a big difference in how the sugar is processed. Most reactions
in cells are catalyzed by specific enzymes. Different shaped monosaccharides each need a
specific enzyme to be broken down.
Fructose, because it is a monosaccharide, can be combined with other monosaccharides to
form oligosaccharides. A very common disaccharide made by plants is sucrose. Sucrose is one
fructose molecule connected to a glucose molecule through a glycosidic bond.

Galactose

Galactose is a monosaccharide produced in many organisms, especially mammals. Mammals

use galactose in milk, to give energy to their offspring. Galactose is combined with glucose to
form the disaccharide lactose. The bonds in lactose hold a lot of energy, and special enzymes
are created by newborn mammals to break these bonds apart. Once being weaned of their
mother’s milk, the enzymes that break lactose down into glucose and galactose
monosaccharides are lost.

Humans, being the only mammal species that consumes milk in adulthood, has developed
some interesting enzyme functions. In populations that drink a lot of milk, most adults are
able to digest lactose most of their lives. In populations that do not drink milk after being
weaned, lactose-intolerance afflicts nearly the whole population. Although the
monosaccharides could be broken down individually, the molecule lactose can no longer be
digested. The symptoms of lactose-intolerance (abdominal cramps and diarrhea) are caused
by toxins produced by bacteria in the gut digesting the excess lactose. The toxins and excess
nutrients they create raised the total amount of solutes in the intestines, making them retain
more water to keep a stable pH.

Related Biology Terms

 Disaccharide – Two monosaccharides connected by a glycosidic bond.
 Oligosaccharide – 3-20 monosaccharides connected by glycosidic bonds, typically
used to move monosaccharides and store them for short times.
 Polysaccharide – Many (20+) monosaccharides, usually connected in long chains,
used for storage or structural support.
 Carbohydrate – Sugars and starches, all made from monosaccharides.

https://biologydictionary.net/monosaccharide/
Classes Of Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides
Sources

The most common naturally occurring monosaccharides are D-glucose, D-mannose, D-

fructose, and D-galactose among the hexoses and D-xylose and L-arabinose among the
pentoses. In a special sense, D-ribose and 2-deoxy-D-ribose are ubiquitous because they
form the carbohydrate component of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA), respectively; these sugars are present in all cells as components of nucleic acids.
Some naturally occurring monosaccharides

sugar sources

L-arabinose mesquite gum, wheat bran

D-ribose all living cells; as component of ribonucleic acid

D-xylose corncobs, seed hulls, straw

D-ribulose as an intermediate in photosynthesis

2-deoxy-D-ribose as constituent of deoxyribonucleic acid

D-galactose lactose, agar, gum arabic, brain glycolipids

D-glucose sucrose, cellulose, starch, glycogen

D-mannose seeds, ivory nut

D-fructose sucrose, artichokes, honey

L-fucose marine algae, seaweed

L-rhamnose poison-ivy blossom, oak bark

 Some naturally occurring monosaccharides

D-mannoheptulose avocado

D-altroheptulose numerous plants

D-Xylose, found in most plants in the form of a polysaccharide called xylan, is prepared
from corncobs, cottonseed hulls, or straw by chemical breakdown of xylan. D-Galactose, a
common constituent of both oligosaccharides and polysaccharides, also occurs in
carbohydrate-containing lipids, called glycolipids, which are found in the brain and other
nervous tissues of most animals. Galactose is generally prepared by acid hydrolysis
(breakdown involving water) of lactose, which is composed of galactose and glucose.
Since the biosynthesis of galactose in animals occurs through
intermediate compounds derived directly from glucose, animals do not require galactose
in the diet. In fact, in most human populations the majority of people do not retain the
ability to manufacture the enzyme necessary to metabolize galactose after they reach the
age of four, and many individuals possess a hereditary defect known as galactosemia and
never have the ability to metabolize galactose.
D-Glucose (from the Greek word glykys, meaning “sweet”), the naturally occurring form, is
found in fruits, honey, blood, and, under abnormal conditions, in urine. It is also a
constituent of the two most common naturally found disaccharides, sucrose and lactose,
as well as the exclusive structural unit of the polysaccharides cellulose, starch,
and glycogen. Generally, D-glucose is prepared from either potato starch or cornstarch.
D-Fructose, a ketohexose, is one of the constituents of the disaccharide sucrose and is
also found in uncombined form in honey, apples, and tomatoes. Fructose, generally
considered the sweetest monosaccharide, is prepared by sucrose hydrolysis and is
metabolized by humans.

Chemical reactions

The reactions of the monosaccharides can be conveniently subdivided into those

associated with the aldehyde or keto group and those associated with the hydroxyl
groups.
The relative ease with which sugars containing a free or potentially free aldehyde or keto
group can be oxidized to form products has been known for a considerable time and once
was the basis for the detection of these so-called reducing sugars in a variety of sources.
For many years, analyses of blood glucose and urinary glucose were carried out by a
procedure involving the use of an alkaline copper compound. Because the reaction has
undesirable features—extensive destruction of carbohydrate structure occurs, and the
reaction is not very specific (i.e., sugars other than glucose give similar results) and does
not result in the formation of readily identifiable products—blood and urinary glucose now
are analyzed by using the enzyme glucose oxidase, which catalyzes the oxidation of
glucose to products that include hydrogen peroxide. The hydrogen peroxide then is used
to oxidize a dye present in the reaction mixture; the intensity of the colour is directly
proportional to the amount of glucose initially present. The enzyme, glucose oxidase, is
highly specific for β-D-glucose.

In another reaction, the aldehyde group of glucose reacts with alkaline iodine to
form a class of compounds called aldonic acids. One important aldonic acid is ascorbic
acid (vitamin C), an essential dietary component for humans and guinea pigs. The
formation of similar acid derivatives does not occur with the keto sugars.

Either the aldehyde or the keto group of a sugar may be reduced (i.e., hydrogen added) to
form an alcohol; compounds formed in this way are called alditols, or sugar alcohols. The
product formed as a result of the reduction of the aldehyde carbon of D-glucose is
called sorbitol (D-glucitol). D-Glucitol also is formed when L-sorbose is reduced. The
reduction of mannose results in mannitol, that of galactose in dulcitol.
Sugar alcohols that are of commercial importance include sorbitol (D-glucitol), which is
commonly used as a sweetening agent, and D-mannitol, which is also used as a
sweetener, particularly in chewing gums, because it has a limited water solubility and
remains powdery and granular on long storage.
Formation of glycosides

The hydroxyl group that is attached to the anomeric carbon atom (i.e., the carbon
containing the aldehyde or keto group) of carbohydrates in solution has unusual reactivity,
and derivatives, called glycosides, can be formed; glycosides formed from glucose are
called glucosides. It is not possible for equilibration between the α- and β-anomers of
a glycoside in solution (i.e., mutarotation) to occur. The reaction by which a glycoside is
formed involves the hydroxyl group (―OH) of the anomeric carbon atom (numbered 1) of
both α and β forms of D-glucose—α and β forms of D-glucose are shown in equilibrium in
the reaction sequence—and the hydroxyl group of an alcohol (methyl alcohol in the
reaction sequence); methyl α-D-glucosides and β-D-glucosides are formed as products, as
is water.

Among the wide variety of naturally occurring glycosides are a number of plant pigments,
particularly those red, violet, and blue in colour; these pigments are found in flowers and
consist of a pigment molecule attached to a sugar molecule, frequently glucose. Plant
indican (from Indigofera species), composed of glucose and the pigment indoxyl, was
important in the preparation of indigo dye before synthetic dyes became prevalent. Of a
number of heart muscle stimulants that occur as glycosides, digitalis is still used. Other
naturally occurring glycosides include vanillin, which is found in the vanilla bean, and
amygdalin (oil of bitter almonds); a variety of glycosides found in mustard have
a sulfur atom at position 1 rather than oxygen.
A number of important antibiotics are glycosides; among the best known
are streptomycin and erythromycin. Glucosides—i.e., glycosides formed from glucose—in
which the anomeric carbon atom (at position 1) has phosphoric acid linked to it, are
extremely important biological compounds. For example, α-D-glucose-1-phosphate is an
intermediate product in the biosynthesis of cellulose, starch, and glycogen; similar
glycosidic phosphate derivatives of other monosaccharides participate in the formation of
naturally occurring glycosides and polysaccharides.
The hydroxyl groups other than the one at the anomeric carbon atom can undergo a
variety of reactions. Esterification, which consists of reacting the hydroxyl groups with an
appropriate acidic compound, results in the formation of a class of compounds called
sugar esters. Among the common ones are the sugar acetates, in which the acid is acetic
acid. Esters of phosphoric acid and sulfuric acid are important biological compounds;
glucose-6-phosphate, for example, plays a central role in the energy metabolism of most
living cells, and D-ribulose 1,5-diphosphate is important in photosynthesis.

Formation of methyl ethers

Treatment of a carbohydrate with methyl iodide or similar agents under appropriate
conditions results in the formation of compounds in which the hydroxyl groups are
converted to methyl groups (―CH3). Called methyl ethers, these compounds are
employed in structural studies of oligosaccharides and polysaccharides because their
formation does not break the bonds, called glycosidic bonds, that
link adjacent monosaccharide units. An example is the etherification of
a starch molecule carried out using methyl iodide, in which methyl groups become
attached to the glucose molecules, forming a methylated segment in the starch molecule;
note that the glycosidic bonds are not broken by the reaction with methyl iodide. When the
methylated starch molecule then is broken down (hydrolyzed), hydroxyl groups are
located at the positions in the molecule previously involved in linking one sugar molecule
to another, and a methylated glucose, in this case named 2,3,6 tri-O-methyl-D-glucose,
forms. The linkage positions (which are not methylated) in a complex carbohydrate can be
established by analyzing the locations of the methyl groups in the monosaccharides. This
technique is useful in determining the structural details of polysaccharides, particularly
since the various methylated sugars are easily separated by techniques involving gas
chromatography, in which a moving gas stream carries a mixture through a column of a
stationary liquid or solid, the components thus being resolved.
When the terminal group (CH2OH) of a monosaccharide is oxidized chemically or
biologically, a product called a uronic acid is formed. Glycosides that are derived from D-
glucuronic acid (the uronic acid formed from D-glucose) and fatty substances
called steroids appear in the urine of animals as normal metabolic products; in addition,
foreign toxic substances are frequently converted in the liver to glucuronides before
excretion in the urine. D-Glucuronic acid also is a major component of connective
tissue polysaccharides, and D-galacturonic acid and D-mannuronic acid, formed from D-
galactose and D-mannose, respectively, are found in several plant sources.
Other compounds formed from monosaccharides include those in which one hydroxyl
group, usually at the carbon at position 2, is replaced by an amino group (―NH2); these
compounds, called amino sugars, are widely distributed in nature. The two most important
ones are glucosamine (2-amino-2-deoxy-D-glucose) and galactosamine (2-amino-2-
deoxy-D-galactose).
Neither amino sugar is found in the uncombined form. Both occur in animals as
components of glycolipids or polysaccharides; e.g., the primary
structural polysaccharide (chitin) of insect outer skeletons and various blood
group substances.
In a number of naturally occurring sugars, known as deoxy sugars, the hydroxyl group at a
particular position is replaced by a hydrogen atom. By far the most important
representative is 2-deoxy-D-ribose, the pentose sugar found in deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA); the hydroxyl group at the carbon atom at position 2 has been replaced by a
hydrogen atom.

Other naturally occurring deoxy sugars are hexoses, of which L-rhamnose (6-deoxy-L-
mannose) and L-fucose (6-deoxy-L-galactose) are the most common; the latter, for
example, is present in the carbohydrate portion of blood group substances and on the
outer surface of red blood cells.
Disaccharides and oligosaccharides
Disaccharides are a specialized type of glycoside in which the anomeric hydroxyl group of
one sugar has combined with the hydroxyl group of a second sugar with the elimination of
the elements of water. Although an enormous number of disaccharide structures are
possible, only a limited number are of commercial or biological significance.

Sucrose and trehalose

Sucrose, or common table sugar, is a major commodity worldwide. By the second decade
of the 21st century, its world production had amounted to more than 170 million tons
annually. The unusual type of linkage between the two anomeric hydroxyl groups
of glucose and fructose means that neither a free aldehyde group (on the glucose moiety)
nor a free keto group (on the fructose moiety) is available to react unless the linkage
between the monosaccharides is destroyed; for this reason, sucrose is known as a
nonreducing sugar. Sucrose solutions do not exhibit mutarotation, which involves
formation of an asymmetrical centre at the aldehyde or keto group. If the linkage between
the monosaccharides composing sucrose is broken, the optical rotation value of sucrose
changes from positive to negative; the new value reflects the composite rotation values
for D-glucose, which is dextrorotatory (+52°), and D-fructose, which is levorotatory (−92°).
The change in the sign of optical rotation from positive to negative is the reason sucrose is
sometimes called invert sugar.

The commercial preparation of sucrose takes advantage of the alkaline stability of the
sugar, and a variety of impurities are removed from crude sugarcane extracts by treatment
with alkali. After this step, syrup preparations are crystallized to form table sugar.
Successive “crops” of sucrose crystals are “harvested,” and the later ones are known as
brown sugar. The residual syrupy material is called either cane final molasses or
blackstrap molasses; both are used in the preparation of antibiotics, as sweetening
agents, and in the production of alcohol by yeast fermentation. Sucrose is formed
following photosynthesis in plants by a reaction in which sucrose phosphate first is
formed.
The disaccharide trehalose is similar in many respects to sucrose but is much less widely
distributed. It is composed of two molecules of α-D-glucose and is also a nonreducing
sugar. Trehalose is present in young mushrooms and in the resurrection
plant (Selaginella); it is of considerable biological interest because it is also found in the
circulating fluid (hemolymph) of many insects. Since trehalose can be converted to a
glucose phosphate compound by an enzyme-catalyzed reaction that does not
require energy, its function in hemolymph may be to provide an immediate energy source,
a role similar to that of the carbohydrate storage forms (i.e., glycogen) found in higher
animals.
Lactose and maltose
Lactose is one of the sugars (sucrose is another) found most commonly in human diets
throughout the world; it constitutes about 7 percent of human milk and about 4–5 percent
of the milk of mammals such as cows, goats, and sheep. Lactose consists of two
aldohexoses—β-D-galactose and glucose—linked so that the aldehyde group at the
anomeric carbon of glucose is free to react; i.e., lactose is a reducing sugar.
A variety of metabolic disorders related to lactose may occur in infants; in some cases,
they are the result of a failure to metabolize properly the galactose portion of the molecule.
Although not found in uncombined form in nature, the disaccharide maltose is biologically
important because it is a product of the enzymatic breakdown of starches during digestion.
Maltose consists of α-D-glucose linked to a second glucose unit in such a way that
maltose is a reducing sugar. Maltose, which is readily hydrolyzed to glucose and can be
metabolized by animals, is employed as a sweetening agent and as a food for infants
whose tolerance for lactose is limited.
Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides, or glycans, may be classified in a number of ways; the following scheme
is frequently used. Homopolysaccharides are defined as polysaccharides formed from
only one type of monosaccharide. Homopolysaccharides may be further subdivided into
straight-chain and branched-chain representatives, depending upon the arrangement of
the monosaccharide units. Heteropolysaccharides are defined as polysaccharides
containing two or more different types of monosaccharides; they may also occur in both
straight-chain and branched-chain forms. In general, extensive variation of linkage types
does not occur within a polysaccharide structure, nor are there many polysaccharides
composed of more than three or four different monosaccharides; most contain one or two.
Representative homopolysaccharides

*May contain sulfate groups.

homopolysaccharide sugar component linkage function sources

cellulose glucose β, 1 → 4 structural throughout plant kingdom

amylose glucose α, 1 → 4 food storage starches, especially corn, potatoes, rice

chitin N-acetylglucosamine β, 1 → 4 structural insect and crustacean skeleton

inulin fructose β, 2 → 1 food storage artichokes, chicory

xylan xylose β, 1 → 4 structural all land plants

α, 1 → 4,
glucose food storage liver and muscle cells of all animals
glycogen 6 ← 1, α

α, 1 → 4,
glucose food storage starches, especially corn, potatoes, rice
amylopectin 6 ← 1, α
 Representative homopolysaccharides

α, 1 → 6,
glucose unknown primarily bacterial
dextran 4 ← 1, α

agar* galactose α, 1 → 3 structural seaweeds

https://www.britannica.com/science/carbohydrate/Sucrose-and-trehalose

REACTIONS OF MONOSACCHARIDES

23. B.1 Introduction

The reactions of monosaccharides are mentioned below
1. Osazone formation

 With calculated amount of phenylhydrazine reducing sugars form phenylhydrazones. With

excess of phenyldrazine – a more complex reaction takes place- forming osazone Time
required for osazone formation- vary with sugar and typical for a given sugar.
 Osazones- yellow solid- each sugar has its own characteristic crystalline osazone- therefore
useful in identification of sugars-which are difficult to crystallize.
2. Oxidation

 Product- depends on type of oxidizing agent (mild or strong)

 Mild oxidizing agent- only aldehydic group is oxidized to –COOH group.
 Strong agent- terminal hydroxyl group oxidized- dicarboxylic acid (terminal).
 Very strong agent- both aldehyde and terminal hydroxyl group oxidized- saccharic acid
(mucic acid - very old name)
3. Reduction

 Carbonyl group (-CHO or >C=O) of sugar- reduced to an alcohol group- product known as
alditol
 By variety of agent = H2, Pt,Sodium amalgam
 Sorbitol- obtained by reduction of glucose- has commercial importance- used in manufacture
of emulsifying agents and ascorbic acid.
4. Action of alkali (Alkaline interconversion)

 Lobry de Bruyn and Alberda Van Ekensiein rearrangement – reversible isomerization of

monosaccharides- bring about the dilute alkalies Ketoenol transformation- tautomerization
of carbonyl compounds- therefore any one of these sugar is treated with alkali- leads to
equilibrium mixture of the three- via enediol intermediate= from which arrangement to any
of the sugar can occur- because asymmetry at carbon 1 & 2 is destroyed in the enediol
intermediate
  Because of this isomerism ketose (fructose) gives positive test with Fehling, Benedict and
Tollen’s reagent
 Simple ketones do not respond to these reagents
 This interconversion also occurs in biological systems- therefore animals have ability to
utilize mannose and fructose for energy – converted first into glucose and then utilized.
5. Dehydrocyclization (Action of acid and heat)

 Monosaccharides- relatively stable in dilute acid

 Treatment with hot strong acid- complex reaction – dehydrocyclization- loss of water and
formation of furfural or furfural derivative
 Aldo pentose yields furfural

Fig. 23.10 Dehydrocyclization

 Aldohexose yields hydroxymethyl furfural (HMF)

Fig. 23.11 HMF formation

 Furfurals- very reactive- give characteristic color with polyhydric phenols (resorcinol,
orcinol etc) = used in qualitative and quantitative analysis of sugars
 Appearance of color – identify the sugar- pentose or hexose, aldose or ketose etc
 Intensity of color- used to determine concentration
 HMF- an treatment of hot acid= transferred into levulinic acid and large amount of dark,
insoluble condensation products (humins)- leads to browning – caramalization
 HMF determination- serves as an index of caramalization

http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/page/view.php?id=4211
Polysaccharide
Polysaccharide Definition
A polysaccharide is a large molecule made of many smaller monosaccharides.
Monosaccharides are simple sugars, like glucose. Special enzymes bind these small
monomers together creating large sugar polymers, or polysaccharides. A polysaccharide is
also called a glycan. A polysaccharide can be a homopolysaccharide, in which all the
monosaccharides are the same, or a heteropolysaccharide in which the monosaccharides
vary. Depending on which monosaccharides are connected, and which carbons in the
monosaccharides connects, polysaccharides take on a variety of forms. A molecule with a
straight chain of monosaccharides is called a linear polysaccharide, while a chain that has
arms and turns is known as a branched polysaccharide.

Functions of a Polysaccharide
Depending on their structure, polysaccharides can have a wide variety of functions in nature.
Some polysaccharides are used for storing energy, some for sending cellular messages, and
others for providing support to cells and tissues.

Storage of Energy

Many polysaccharides are used to store energy in organisms. While the enzymes that produce
energy only work on the monosaccharides stored in a polysaccharide, polysaccharides
typically fold together and can contain many monosaccharides in a dense area. Further, as
the side chains of the monosaccharides form as many hydrogen bonds as possible with
themselves, water cannot intrude the molecules, making them hydrophobic. This property
allows the molecules to stay together and not dissolve into the cytosol. This lowers the sugar
concentration in a cell, and more sugar can then be taken in. Not only do polysaccharides
store the energy, but they allow for changes in the concentration gradient, which can
influence cellular uptake of nutrients and water.
Cellular Communication

Many polysaccharides become glycoconjugates when they become covalently bonded to

proteins or lipids. Glycolipids and glycoproteins can be used to send signals between and
within cells. Proteins headed for a specific organelle may be “tagged” by certain
polysaccharides that help the cell move it to a specific organelle. The polysaccharides can be
identified by special proteins, which then help bind the protein, vesicle, or other substance to
a microtubule. The system of microtubules and associated proteins within cells can take any
substance to its destined location once tagged by specific polysaccharides. Further, multi-
cellular organisms have immune systems driven by the recognition of glycoproteins on the
surface of cells. The cells of a single organisms will produce specific polysaccharides to adorn
its cells with. When the immune system recognizes other polysaccharides and different
glycoproteins, it is set into action, and destroys the invading cells.

Cellular Support

By far one of the largest roles of polysaccharides is that of support. All plants on Earth are
supported, in part, by the polysaccharide cellulose. Other organisms, like insects and fungi,
use chitin to support the extracellular matrix around their cells. A polysaccharide can be
mixed with any number of other components to create tissues that are more rigid, less rigid,
or even materials with special properties. Between chitin and cellulose, both polysaccharides
made of glucose monosaccharides, hundreds of billions of tons are created by living
organisms every year. Everything from the wood in trees, to the shells of sea creatures is
produced by some form of polysaccharide. Simply by rearranging the structure,
polysaccharides can go from storage molecules to much stronger fibrous molecules. The ring
structure of most monosaccharides aids this process, as seen below.

Structure of a Polysaccharide
All polysaccharides are formed by the same basic process: monosaccharides are connected
via glycosidic bonds. When in a polysaccharide, individual monosaccharides are known
as residues. Seen below are just some of the many monosaccharides created in nature.
Depending on the polysaccharide, any combination of them can be combined in series.

The structure of the molecules being combined determines the structures and properties of
the resulting polysaccharide. The complex interaction between their hydroxyl groups (OH),
other side groups, the configurations of the molecules, and the enzymes involved all affect
the resulting polysaccharide produced. A polysaccharide used for energy storage will give
easy access to the monosaccharides, while maintaining a compact structure. A polysaccharide
used for support is usually assembled as a long chain of monosaccharides, which acts as a
fiber. Many fibers together produce hydrogen bonds between fibers that strengthen the
overall structure of the material, as seen in the image below.

The glycosidic bonds between monosaccharides consist of an oxygen molecule bridging two
carbon rings. The bond is formed when a Hydroxyl group is lost from the carbon of one
molecule, while the hydrogen is lost by the hydroxyl group of another monosaccharide. The
carbon on the first molecule will substitute the oxygen from the second molecule as its own,
and glycosidic bond is formed. Because two molecules of hydrogen and one oxygen is
expelled, the reaction produced a water molecule as well. This type of reaction is called
a dehydration reaction as water is removed from the reactants.

Examples of a Polysaccharide
Cellulose and Chitin

Cellulose and chitin are both structural polysaccharides that consist of many thousand
glucose monomers combined in long fibers. The only difference between the two
polysaccharides are the side-chains attached to the carbon rings of the monosaccharides. In
chitin, the glucose monosaccharides have been modified with a group containing more
carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen. The side chain creates a dipole, which increases hydrogen
bonding. While cellulose can produce hard structures like wood, chitin can produce even
harder structures, like shell, limestone and even marble when compressed.

Both polysaccharides form as long, linear chains. These chains form long fibers, which are
deposited outside the cell membrane. Certain proteins and other factors help the fibers
weave into a complex shape, which is held in place by hydrogen bonds between side chains.
Thus, simple molecules of glucose that were once used for energy storage can be converted
into molecules with structural rigidity. The only difference between the structural
polysaccharides and storage polysaccharides are the monosaccharides used. By changing the
configuration of glucose molecules, instead of a structural polysaccharide, the molecule will
branch and store many more bonds in a smaller space. The only difference between cellulose
and starch is the configuration of the glucose used.

Glycogen and Starch

Probably the most important storage polysaccharides on the planet, glycogen and starch are
produced by animals and plants, respectively. These polysaccharides are formed from a
central starting point, and spiral outward, due to their complex branching patterns. With the
help of various proteins that attach to individual polysaccharides, the large branched
molecules form granules, or clusters. This can be seen in the image below of glycogen
molecules and the associated proteins, seen in the middle.

When a glycogen or starch molecule is broken down, the enzymes responsible start at the
ends furthest from the center. This is important, as you will notice that because of the
extensive branching there are only 2 starting points, but many ends. This means the
monosaccharides can be quickly extracted from the polysaccharide and be utilized for energy.
The only difference between starch and glycogen is the number of branches that occur per
molecule. This is caused by different parts of the monosaccharides forming bonds, and
different enzymes acting on the molecules. In glycogen a branch occurs every 12 or so
residues, while in starch a branch occurs only every 30 residues.

Related Biology Terms

 Monosaccharide – The smallest unit of sugar molecules, or a sugar monomer.
 Monomer – A single entity that can be combined to form a larger entity, or
polymer.
 Polymer – Includes proteins, polysaccharides, and many other molecules existing of
smaller units combined together.
 Polypeptide – A polymer of amino acid monomers, also called a protein.

https://biologydictionary.net/polysaccharide/
The Functions of Carbohydrates
in the Body
Last Updated : 31 July 2012

1. Introduction
Carbohydrates are one of the three macronutrients in our diet (fat
and protein being the others). They exist in many forms and are mainly
found in starchy foods such as bread, pasta, and rice, as well as in some
beverages, e.g. fruit juices and sugar-sweetened drinks. Carbohydrates
represent the most important source of energy for the body, and are vital
for a varied and balanced diet.

Progress in scientific research has highlighted the diverse functions of

carbohydrates in the body and their importance in the promotion of good
health. The following review will expand on this research to give an
insight into this macronutrient, without forgetting that a fair amount of our
knowledge has been around for some time.

2. What are carbohydrates?

The building blocks of all carbohydrates are sugars and they can be
classified according to how many sugar units are combined in one
molecule. Glucose, fructose and galactose are prominent examples among
the single unit sugars, also known as monosaccharides. Double units are
called disaccharides, with sucrose (table sugar) and lactose (milk sugar)
being the most widely known. The table below shows the major types of
dietary carbohydrates.
CLASSIFICATION OF DIETARY CARBOHYDRATES and
corresponding examples
CLASS EXAMPLES

Monosaccharides Glucose, fructose, galactose

Disaccharides Sucrose, lactose, maltose

Polyols Isomalt, maltitol, sorbitol, xylitol, erythritol

Oligosaccharides Fructo-oligosaccharides, malto-oligosaccharides

Starch polysaccharides Amylose, amylopectin, maltodextrins

Non-starch polysaccharides
Cellulose, pectins, hemicelluloses, gums, inulin
(dietary fibre)

2.1. Sugars
Glucose and fructose are monosaccharides and can be found in fruits,
berries, vegetables, honey and glucose-fructose syrups. Table sugar or
sucrose is a disaccharide of glucose and fructose and occurs naturally in
sugar beet, sugar cane and fruits. Lactose, a disaccharide consisting of
glucose and galactose, is the main sugar in milk and dairy products, and
maltose, a glucose disaccharide occurs in malt and starch derived syrups.
Both table sugar (sucrose) and glucose-fructose syrup contain glucose and
fructose, either in free form (glucose-fructose syrup) or linked together
(sucrose).
Polyols are sugar alcohols. They do occur naturally but most are made
commercially by the transformation of sugars. Sorbitol is the most
commonly used polyol; xylitol is frequently used in chewing gums and
mints. Isomalt is another polyol used in confectionery and is produced
from sucrose. Polyols are sweet and can be used in foods in a similar way
to sugars although they can have a laxative effect when eaten in too large
quantities.

2.2. Oligosaccharides
The World Health Organization (WHO) defines oligosaccharides as
carbohydrates formed of 3-9 sugar units (monosaccharides), although
other definitions allow for slightly longer chain lengths. Fructo-
oligosaccharides contain up to 9 fructose units and are produced
commercially by the partial hydrolysis (or enzyme breakdown) of inulin.
Raffinose and stachyose are found in small amounts in certain pulses,
grains, vegetables, and honey.

2.3. Polysaccharides
Ten or more – and sometimes even up to several thousand – sugar units
are needed to form polysaccharides. Starch is the main energy reserve in
root vegetables and cereals. It comprises long chains of glucose and occurs
as granules whose size and shape vary according to the plant in which they
are contained. The corresponding equivalent in animals and humans is
called glycogen (see section 3.1).

Non-starch polysaccharides are the main components of dietary fibre.

They include; cellulose, hemicelluloses, inulin, pectins and gums.
Cellulose is the major component of plant cell walls and consists of
several thousand glucose units. The separate components of dietary fibre
have different physical structures and properties. A hallmark feature of
dietary fibre is that humans cannot digest it. Some types of fibre can,
however, be metabolised by gut bacteria to give rise to compounds the
human gut cells can utilise for energy production. Hence their lower
average energy content compared to most other carbohydrates (see section
3.1)

3. Carbohydrates in the body

The main function of carbohydrates is to provide energy, but they also
play an important role in the structure and function of cells, tissues and
organs, as well in the formation of carbohydrate structures on the surface
of cells. The different molecular classes are the proteoglycans, the
glycoproteins and the glycolipids.

3.1. Energy source and storage

Starches and sugars are the main energy-providing carbohydrate sources
and supply 4 kilocalories (17 kilojoules) per gram. Polyols provide 2.4
kilocalories (10 kilojoules) and dietary fibre 2 kilocalories (8 kilojoules)
per gram, respectively. NB: The polyol erythritol is not metabolised at all
and thus has 0 calories.

Monosaccharides are absorbed by the small intestine into the bloodstream,

where they are then transported to their place of use. Disaccharides are
broken down by digestive enzymes into monosaccharides. The body also
needs the help of digestive enzymes to break down the long chains of
starches into their constituent sugars which are then absorbed into the
bloodstream.

The human body uses carbohydrates in the form of glucose. Glucose can
be converted to glycogen, a polysaccharide similar to starch, which is
stored in the liver and the muscles and is a readily available source of
energy for the body. The brain and the red blood cells need glucose as an
energy source, since they cannot directly use fat, protein, or other forms of
energy for this purpose. It is for this reason that glucose in the blood must
be constantly maintained at an optimum level. Approximately 130g of
glucose are needed per day to cover the energy needs of the brain. Glucose
may come directly from dietary carbohydrates, from glycogen stores, or
 from the conversion of certain amino acids resulting from protein
breakdown. Several hormones, including insulin, work rapidly to regulate
the flow of glucose to and from the blood to keep it at a steady level.

3.2. The glycaemic response and glycaemic index

When a carbohydrate-containing food is eaten there is a corresponding rise
and subsequent decrease in blood glucose level known as the glycaemic
response. This reflects the rate of digestion and absorption of glucose as
well as the effects of the insulin action to normalise the blood glucose
level. A number of factors influence the rate and duration of the glycaemic
response:

The specific food:

 The type of the sugar that forms the carbohydrate, e.g. fructose, sucrose
and polyols have a reduced glycaemic response compared to glucose and
maltose
 The form of the starch as some are more readily digestible than others
 The cooking and processing methods used
 Other nutrients in the food (or meal) such as fat (most important), protein,
and fibre

The individual person:

 The extent of chewing (mechanical breakdown)

 The rate of gastric emptying and small bowel transit time (partly
influenced by the food)
 Their metabolism
 The time of day the carbohydrate is ingested
The impact of different carbohydrate-containing foods on the glycaemic
response of the body is classified relative to a standard food, usually white
bread or glucose, within two hours after consumption. This measurement
is called the glycaemic index (GI). A GI of 70 means that the
carbohydrate-containing food or drink causes 70% of the blood glucose
response observed with the same amount of carbohydrate from pure
glucose or white bread.

High GI foods cause a greater blood glucose response than low GI foods.
Foods with a low GI are digested and absorbed more slowly than foods
which have a high GI. Evidence suggests that a diet based on low GI foods
is associated with a reduced risk of developing metabolic diseases such
as obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus.

THE GLYCAEMIC INDEX OF SOME COMMON FOODS (using glucose as

standard)
Foods with a very low GI (≤ 40)

Raw apple
Lentils
Soy beans
Kidney beans
Cow’s milk
Carrots (boiled)
Barley
Fructose

Foods with a low GI (41 – 55)

Noodles and pasta

Apple juice
Raw oranges/orange juice
Dates
Raw banana
Yoghurt (fruit)
Specialty grain bread
Strawberry jam
Sweet corn
Chocolate
Lactose

Foods with an intermediate GI (56 – 70)

Brown rice
Rolled oats
 Soft drinks
Pineapple
Sucrose (table sugar)
Honey

Foods with a high GI (> 70)

Bread (white or wholemeal)

Boiled potato
Cornflakes
French Fries
Mashed potatoes
White rice (low amylose or "sticky rice")
Rice crackers
Glucose
Maltose

3.3. Gut function and dietary fibre

The body is unable to digest dietary fibre and some oligosaccharides in the
small intestine. Fibre helps to ensure good gut function by increasing the
physical bulk in the bowel and stimulating the intestinal transit.

Once the indigestible carbohydrate passes into the large intestine, some
types of fibre such as gums, pectins and oligosaccharides are fermented by
the gut microflora. This increases the overall mass in the bowel and has a
beneficial effect on the make-up of this microflora.

4. Body weight regulation

People who eat a diet high in carbohydrates are less likely to accumulate
body fat compared with those who follow a low-carbohydrate/high-fat
diet. The reasons for this observation are threefold:

 Carbohydrates have less calories weight for weight than fat (and alcohol),
and thus, high-carbohydrate diets are comparatively lower in energy
density. Fibre-rich foods also tend to be bulky and physically filling.
 The inclusion of plenty of carbohydrate-rich foods appears to help regulate
appetite. Studies have found that carbohydrates, both in the form of starch
 and sugars, work quickly to aid satiety. As a result, individuals consuming
high carbohydrate diets may be less likely to overeat. In addition, many
foods with a lower GI may be particularly satisfying as they are slowly
digested.
 Dietary carbohydrate is preferentially burned for fuel, or stored as
glycogen for future use. Very little dietary carbohydrate is converted to
body fat due to the inefficiency of this process in the body.
Evidence now indicates that, in comparison to high-fat diets, diets high in
carbohydrates reduce the likelihood of developing obesity.

5. Diabetes
Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disorder whereby the body cannot
regulate blood glucose levels properly. Based on the reasons why this
control fails, two types of diabetes are distinguished. In type 1 diabetes,
the body becomes unable to produce the hormone insulin, which is the
major regulator of blood glucose levels. Between 5-15% of all diabetics
are affected, commonly from under the age of 40. In type 2 diabetes, the
body either does not produce enough insulin or the target cells become
unresponsive to the hormone (a phenomenon called insulin resistance).
This form affects the vast majority of diabetics, 85-95%. While it tends to
occur after the age of 40, an increasing number of adolescents and
younger children are being diagnosed with type 2 diabetes. Treatment for
both diabetes types involves a healthy, balanced diet and physical activity.
Type 1 diabetics also require daily insulin injections.

There is no evidence that sugar consumption is linked to the development

of any type of diabetes in healthy individuals. However there is now good
evidence that obesity and physical inactivity increase the likelihood of
developing type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Weight reduction is usually necessary and is the primary dietary aim for
people with type 2 diabetes mellitus, and for those at high risk of
developing this type of diabetes. Consuming a wide range of carbohydrate
foods is an acceptable part of the diet for diabetes management, and the
inclusion of low GI foods is beneficial as they help regulate blood glucose
levels. Recommendations for the dietary management of diabetes
emphasise increasing dietary fibre intake and allow the inclusion of
modest amounts of table sugar in the diet. The inclusion of a small amount
of sugar with a meal has little impact on either blood glucose or insulin
concentrations in people with diabetes.

6. Dental health
Foods containing fermentable carbohydrates (e.g. sugars or starch) can be
broken down by the enzymes and bacteria in the mouth to produce acid
which attacks the enamel of the teeth. After an acid challenge, saliva
provides a natural repair process which dilutes and neutralises the acid and
rebuilds the enamel. When fermentable carbohydrate-containing foods are
consumed too frequently, or nibbled over time, this natural repair process
is overwhelmed and the risk of tooth decay is increased.

Recent research indicates that a more rational approach to the role of sugar
and other carbohydrates in dental caries should be applied. It is now
recommended that programmes to prevent dental caries focus on
fluoridation, adequate oral hygiene, frequency of eating and drinking, and
a varied diet, as opposed to sugar intake alone.

The availability of fluoride and the widespread use of good oral hygiene
practices have resulted in a low rate of tooth decay in today's children and
adolescents. This improvement has occurred independent of any change in
the intake of sugar or fermentable carbohydrates. Keeping plaque bacteria
at bay and strengthening the teeth with fluoride reduces the risk of decay.

7. Getting active
 There is now substantial evidence that carbohydrates can improve the
performance of athletes. During high-intensity exercise, carbohydrates are
the main fuel for the muscles. By consuming high levels of carbohydrate
before, during and after exercise, glycogen stores are maintained.
Glycogen is a reservoir of glucose that can help an athlete perform for
longer and help their bodies sustain the effort.

The vital role of physical activity in maintaining health and fitness in the
general population is now recognised. For those who want to keep fit and
active, a well-balanced high-carbohydrate diet is recommended.

To find out more about physical activity, see www.eufic.org.

8. Approved Health Claims

The following are examples of health claims related to carbohydrates that
have undergone an assessment of their scientific validity by the European
Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and are approved for use in the European
Union (EU):

 Barley grain fibre contributes to an increase in faecal bulk.

 Beta-glucans contribute to the maintenance of normal blood cholesterol
levels.
 Consumption of pectins with a meal contributes to the reduction of the
blood glucose rise after that meal.
 Lactulose contributes to an acceleration of intestinal transit.
 Chewing gum sweetened with 100% xylitol has been shown to reduce
dental plaque. High content/level of dental plaque is a risk factor in the
development of caries in children.
A full list of all carbohydrate-related health claims currently approved in
the EU can be found by clicking on “EFSA-approved health claims related
to carbohydrates”.
 9. Carbohydrate recommendations
Carbohydrates are a vital component of a healthy and balanced diet. They
can help to control body weight, especially when combined with exercise,
are vital for proper gut function and are an important fuel for the brain and
active muscles. Neither starch nor sugar has been found to have any
special role in the development of serious diseases such as type 2 diabetes,
and the role of sugar in the development of tooth decay is less important in
today's fluoride and oral hygiene aware populations. The WHO/FAO
report on carbohydrates in human nutrition and the scientific opinion on
dietary reference values for carbohydrates and dietary fibre from EFSA
hold key information for health professionals and research scientists.

The most important messages for the public are:

 The many health benefits of dietary carbohydrates should be recognised

and promoted. Carbohydrates provide more than energy alone.
 An optimum diet contains 45 to 60% of energy from carbohydrates per
day for all those over two years of age.
 A wide range of carbohydrate-containing foods should be consumed so
that the diet is sufficient in essential nutrients and dietary fibre.
 Adults should aim to consume 25 g dietary fibre per day. A fibre intake of
2 grams per megajoule of dietary intake (1 megajoule equals 239
kilocalories) is considered adequate for children from the age of one year.
https://www.eufic.org/en/whats-in-food/article/the-basics-carbohydrates