3819 Fabrication 6/22/01 2:57 PM Page 3

S
DESIGNER

HANDBOOK TAINLESS

STEEL

FABRICATION

Stainless
Steel

The
Value
Option
®
TABLE OF CONTENTS
General..................................................1
Characteristics of Stainless Steel ........2
Fabrication Properties ........................2
Drilling ...................................................2
Cutting...................................................2
Mechanical ........................................3
Shearing.........................................3
Circle Shearing...............................4
Sawing ...........................................4
Blanking, Punching,
and Nibbling...............................5
Abrasive Cutting.............................6
Thermal..............................................6
Flux Cutting ....................................6
Arc Cutting .....................................7
Plasma Arc Cutting.........................7
Bending.................................................8
Springback ........................................8
Types .................................................9
Press Brakes ..................................9
Roll Bending...................................9
Roll Forming...................................9
Stretch Forming............................10
Descaling ............................................10
Removal of Oxide Scale...................10
Pickling Solutions .........................10
Blasting ........................................10
Removal of Weld Discoloration ........10
Passivation ..........................................10
Finishing ..............................................11
Grinding, Polishing & Buffing ...........11
Care in the Shop..................................11
Handling ..........................................11
Contamination..................................12
Cleaning ..............................................12
Rust Contamination..........................12
Cleaning Methods............................12

The Specialty Steel Industry of North

America (SSINA) and the individual
companies it represents have made
every effort to ensure that the information
presented in this handbook is technically
correct. However, neither the SSINA nor
its member companies warrants the
accuracy of the information contained
in this handbook or its suitability for any
general and specific use. The SSINA
assumes no liability or responsibility of
any kind in connection with the use of
this information. The reader is advised
that the material contained herein should
not be used or relied on for any specific
or general applications without first
securing competent advice.

4-99-5
3819 Fabrication 6/22/01 2:57 PM Page 5

GENERAL
Stainless steel is not a single alloy, but rather the name applies to a group of iron
based alloys containing a minimum of 10.5% chromium. Other elements are added and
the chromium content increased to improve the corrosion resistance, improve heat resist-
ing properties, enhance mechanical properties, and/or to improve fabricating characteris-
tics. There are over 50 stainless steel grades that were originally recognized by the
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) and are detailed in a designer handbook, Design
Guidelines for the Selection and Use of Stainless Steel, available from the Specialty Steel
Industry of North America (SSINA).
This booklet on the fabrication of stainless steel will only deal with 30 of the more com-
mon grades in three metallurgical groups: austenitic, ferritic, and martensitic.

AUSTENITIC GROUP
This group contains chromium and nickel and is identified by the Type 300 series.
Grades containing chromium, nickel, and manganese are Type 200. These two types
have different compositions and properties, but many common characteristics. They
can be hardened by cold working, but not by heat treatment. In the annealed condition,
all are essentially nonmagnetic. They have excellent corrosion resistance and unusually
good formability. Type 304 (18% chromium - 8% nickel) and Type 316 (16% chromium -
10% nickel - 2% molybdenum) are the most widely used grades in this group.

FERRITIC GROUP
The ferritic stainless steels are identified by the Type 400 series. They cannot be
hardened by heat treatment. They are straight chromium alloys and only moderately
hardened by cold working. This group is magnetic and has good ductility and resist-
ance to corrosion. Type 430 (16% chromium) is the general purpose stainless steel of
the ferritic group.

MARTENSITIC GROUP
This group is also identified by the Type 400 series and are hardenable by heat
treatment. They are magnetic and resist corrosion in mild environments. The ductility of
this group is fair to good. Type 410 (11.5% chromium) is the most widely used alloy of
this group.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The Specialty Steel Industry of North America wishes to acknowledge information
obtained from the International Nickel Company, the Southern Africa Stainless Steel
Development Association, the Steel Service Center Institute and the Nickel Development
Institute (NiDI) as having contributed to this publication.

1
 Exhibit 1
RELATIVE FABRICATION CHARACTERISTICS OF STAINLESS STEELS

Group Austenitic Ferritic Martensitic

201, 202, 316

301, 302, 316L 405
304, 304L 309S 317 321 430 442 403 440A
Type Number 305 303* 310S 317LMN 347 439 446 410 420 440C

Air Hardening No No No No No No No Yes Yes Yes

Blanking F F F F F E E E E G
Brazing, Silver G – G G G G G G G G
Buffing G – G G G G G G G G
Drawing, Deep E – G E G E F E NR NR
Forming, Hot G F G G G G G G G G
Forming, Cold G F G G G G F G F NR
Grinding, Ease of F G F F F F F G E E
Grinding (magnetic) No No No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Hardenable by
Heat Treatment No No No No No No No Yes Yes Yes
Punching (perforating) F – F F F G G G G G
Polishing G G G G F G G G G G
Riveting, Hot G F G G G G G G NR NR
Riveting, Cold G F G G G G G G NR NR
Shearing, Cold F F F F F G G G G F
Soldering G G G G G G G G G G
Brazing G G G G G G G G G G
Spinning G – G G G G F F NR NR
Welding E NR E E E F F F F F
Machining F E F F F G F G F NR
Code: E = Excellent G = Good F = Fair NR = Not generally recommended (Poor)
*Chemistry designed for improved machining (as are other grades, i.e., 416, 420F, 430F, 440F)

CHARACTERISTICS OF DRILLING CUTTING

STAINLESS STEEL
Stainless steels can be fabricated by All stainless steels have “work” (or Important Note: In all cutting opera-
methods similar to those used for carbon strain) hardening characteristics. It is tions on stainless steels the following
steels and other common metals. How- particularly notable in the 300 series. guidelines are helpful in maintaining
ever, changes may be necessary to the When the drill bits contact the surface of corrosion resistance:
extent that they differ in yield strength the stainless steel and as they penetrate,
and rate of work hardening. All have the material will harden and it will be • No contamination by ferrous (iron or
work hardening rates higher than com- more and more difficult to continue steel) material or particles should
mon carbon steels, but the austenitics drilling with the same pressure and take place.
are characterized by large increases in speed. Drilling bits are generally made
strength and hardness with cold work. from high speed steels and monolithic • Mechanically cut edges will naturally
With the exception of the resulfurized carbide. It is important to lubricate the form the corrosion resistant passive
“free-machining” grades (Type 303 is the drill under pressure. Soluble oils or film. The formation of such a passive
common type, but many others can be cutting oils are often used (it is advisable film on cut edges will be enhanced
treated to be more easily machined), all to seek professional recommendations by a chemical (acid) passivation
stainless steels are suitable for crimping on specific oils that are available for use treatment with nitric acid.
or flattening operations. The free machin- with stainless steel). • Thermally cut edges may be affected
ing grades will withstand mild longitudi- For long products and thick sheets in terms of chemical composition
nal deformation, but may exhibit some and plates, the point angle should be and metallurgical structure. Removal
tendency to splitting. In spite of their 120 to 135 degrees. For thin sheets, in of affected surface layers by dress-
higher hardness, most martensitic and order to reduce the surface stresses, the ing is necessary so that impaired
all of the ferritic types can be success- point angle should be increased to 140 areas of mechanical and corrosion
fully fabricated. Exhibit 1 shows the rela- degrees and the relief angle reduced to resistant properties are minimized.
tive fabrication characteristics of three 5 degrees*
groups of stainless steel. *As stated in “Working with Stainless
Steels” by Pierre-Jean CUNAT SIRPE Cutting operations are usually neces-
FABRICATION PROPERTIES OF publisher. sary to obtain the desired blank shape or
STAINLESS STEEL size prior to forming operations and also
Exhibit 2 lists the 30 grades and their to trim a part to final size. Mechanical
UNS number (the Unified Numbering cutting and thermal cutting are the two
System was developed by the American most frequently used cutting operations
Society for Testing Materials and the and the specific methods available are
Society of Automotive Engineers for all discussed in the individual sections below.
commercial metals and alloys). Some These methods are useable with stain-
stainless types are not suitable for certain less steel, but because of the differences
applications and others are designed to in strength, toughness and rate of work
be better adapted. Exhibit 2 shows the hardening, certain details in the opera-
suitability of these 30 types in various tions may need to be modified relative to
fabrication applications. carbon steels.

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3819 Fabrication 6/22/01 2:57 PM Page 7

MECHANICAL Typical relative derated capacities are ting of the blades is, therefore, important.
Shearing as follows: For shearing thin gauge sheet a clear-
The shear strength of annealed ance of 0.001 to 0.002 in. (0.03 to
Low Carbon (mild) steel 0.05 mm) is suggested.
austenitic stainless steel is about 65 to
0.4 in. (10 mm) thick material Closer clearance tends to increase
70 percent of its ultimate tensile strength.
Ferritic Stainless Steel (T430) blade wear, whereas larger clearances
The shear strength of carbon steel is in
0.3 in. (7-8 mm) thick material allow the material being sheared to drag
the range of 55 to 60 percent of its ultimate
Austenitic Material (T304) over to an excessive degree, resulting in
strength. Generally, shears are rated on
0.2 in. (5-6 mm) thick material excessive wear of the blades and a poor
their capacity to shear mild carbon steel
of 50 ksi tensile strength. The shears are cut. As the material thickness increases
Note: Because thinner gauges of the clearance should be increased
supplied with rake on the upper knife in
stainless steel are generally used, the accordingly and adjusted to best suit
accordance with the shear manufac-
force required to shear stainless steel the specific piece of equipment being
turer’s specification. More force and
for a given part is often comparable to used, consistent with minimum roll over,
heavier equipment will be required to
the force needed to shear a similar part burr height and distortion (camber, twist,
shear equal thicknesses of the stainless
made of thicker carbon steel. and bow).
alloys. With more power required it is
Ferritic stainless steels tend to fracture The clearance between the shear
necessary to derate the shears against
after being cut through approximately knives should be sufficient to avoid sec-
their nominal capacity, which is usually
half their thickness. In this respect they ondary shearing by the upper knife as it
given in terms of the thickness of low
are similar to carbon and low alloy passes through the cut. Insufficient clear-
carbon (mild) steel which they are capa-
steels. ance exists if the cross section of the
ble of shearing.
Austenitic stainless steels are charac- sheared edge is smeared from top to
terized by a high ductility and, hence, a bottom. Proper clearance is present if
greater resistance to fracture. A greater about 40 percent of the metal thickness
degree of penetration takes place before is burnished at the top side of the table
the fracture occurs. The clearance set- piece and at the bottom side of the drop-

Exhibit 2
FABRICATION PROPERTIES OF STAINLESS STEEL

Readily heat-treatable for hardening and for mechanical properties

Physical and mechanical properties satisfactory for spinning
Readily joinable by soldering and brazing
Readily joinable by resistance welding
Readily shaped by deep drawing (cold)
Readily joinable by fusion welding
Readily formable by bending
Adaptable for hot forging
Machinability
Group Type No. UNS No.

Austenitic 201 S20100 X X X X X X X X –

202 S20200 X X X X X X X X –
301 S30100 X X X X X X X X –
302 S30200 X X X X X X X X –
303 S30300 XX X – – – – X – –
304 S30400 X X X X X X X X –
304L S30403 X X X X X X X X –
305 S30500 X X X X X X X XX –
309S S30908 X X X X X X X X –
310S S31008 X X X X X X X X –
316 S31600 X X X X X X X X –
316L S31603 X X X X X X X X –
317 S31700 X X X X X X X X –
317LMN S31726 X X X X X X X X –
321 S32100 X X X X X X X X –
347 S34700 X X X X X X X X –

Ferritic 405 S40500 X X X X X X X X –

430 S43000 X X X X X X X X –
439 S43035 X X X X X X X X –
430F S43020 XX X – – – – X – –
442 S44200 X X X – – – X – –
446 S44600 X X X X – – X X –

Martensitic 403 S40300 X X X X – X X – X

410 S41000 X X X X X X X X X
416 S41600 XX X – – – – X – X
420 S42000 X X – – – – X – X
420F S42020 XX X – – – – X – X
440A S44002 X X – – – – X – X
440C S44004 X X – – – – X – X
440F S44020 XX X – – – – X – X
X = Suitable for application. XX = Better adapted for application.

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3819 Fabrication 6/22/01 2:57 PM Page 8

off piece. Although clearances have ance/rake angle, without causing chip- Knife speed for circular shearing is on
been found to vary from shop to shop ping of this blade. the order of 60 to 150 surface feet per
according to specific requirements, a For anything but the shortest of pro- minute (18 to 45 surface meters per
good guide is to use a clearance of duction runs, blades should be made minute) depending on the thickness of
about 5 percent of metal thickness for from high quality tool steels, quenched metal cut. For material below 17 gauge,
stock 0.062 in. (1.6 mm) thick and heav- and tempered to possess the correct 0.058 in. (1.5 mm), the knives are oper-
ier, and 3 percent of the metal thickness combination of hardness, strength and ated at the maximum referenced speed
for stock below 0.062 in. (1.6 mm) thick. toughness. and at lower speeds for heavier gauge
Experience has shown that hard material Recommendations of the type of steel material. Knives should be smoothly
will tolerate somewhat larger clearance for shear knives should come from blade ground to keen cutting edges. Knives
than soft material. Dull tools increase or knife manufacturers. However, sug- deteriorate with metal pickup. This is
shearing pressure, create the effect of gestions on the AISI type steels for minimized by using a lubricant such as
too small a clearance, and produce knives are: Type D-2 of 60 Rc hardness heavy duty water soluble oil or petroleum
burrs on sheared edges. for long runs on light gauge material; base oil to which 15 to 20 percent of
To counteract the shearing force Type A-2 of 60 Rc for intermediate runs kerosene is added.
required, the hold down pressure on and intermediate gauges and Type S-1 Here again recommendations on
the clamps may have to be increased, of 57 Rc for heavy duty shearing. shear knives should come from their
particularly when shearing the austenitic Lubricants are generally not necessary manufacturers. Suggestions on AISI type
grades. when shearing stainless steel, but the steels for knives are: Types D-3 and M-2
Figure 1 shows the typical shearing periodic application of soap or kerosene hardened to 62 to 65 Rc for thin gauges
parameters and mechanical setup. with a swab have been found helpful in to .030 inch; Type D-2 for intermediate
reducing metal pickup on the cutting gauges .030 to 0.100 inch, and Type S-5
edges when the shear is in constant use. for heavier gauges.
Side Some benefits may be obtained by
UPPER
View (MOVING) BLADE a slight reduction of shearing speed Sawing
HOLD
(20-25%), but this may increase the dis- Stainless steels can be cut with mech-
BACK DOWN tortion of the cut piece. anized or hand operated hack saws.
CLEARANCE CLAMPS
RAKE ANGLE Distortion (twist, camber, and bow) High speed steel blades are recom-
MATERIAL tends to increase as the width of the cut mended for all types of sawing. The
BEING
SHEARED
piece decreases relative to the thickness sawing of austenitic grades (300 series)
of the material, and also to a lesser is made more difficult due to their tend-
LOWER
(FIXED)
degree as the length of the cut ency to work harden. When cutting
BLADE increases. Distortion may be minimized these grades the cut must be initiated
CLEARANCE by careful attention to, and adjustment without any riding of the saw on the
of, the various parameters as discussed work, a positive feed pressure must be
above. If these steps do not eliminate maintained, and no pressure, drag or
Front UPPER distortion, stretching the cut piece by slip should occur on the return stroke.
View (MOVING) BLADE
approximately 3-5% usually rectifies An emulsion of soluble oil should be
RAKE/SHEAR
the situation. used as a cutting fluid.
ANGLE The work hardening effect of shearing
MATERIAL is significant in the case of austenitic Hand Hacksawing. Generally used for
BEING
SHEARED stainless steels. Subsequent forming random cutting of light gauge material,
LOWER
(FIXED) BLADE
(bending) may lead to the initiation of a small diameter bar, tube and pipe. A
crack from the sheared edge. This can blade with a wavy set is preferable.
be overcome by mechanical dressing of Wave set tooth blades of 32 teeth per
Figure 1: Schematically shows the shearing the sheared face to remove the work inch (25 mm) mounted in a rigid frame
parameters and mechanical setup. hardened surface layers, or by annealing to prevent bending are preferred for
the cut pieces. material up to 16 gauge, 0.062 in.
The higher power requirements can to (1.6 mm). Wave or raker set teeth of 24
some extent be countered by altering the Circle Shearing teeth per inch (25 mm) are satisfactory
rake/shear angle. A rake of 1 in 40 is a It is important to set circular knives to for material 1⁄16 to 1⁄4 in. (1.6 to 6 mm)
shear angle of approximately 11⁄2°. This correct horizontal and vertical clearance thick. Heavier gauges require coarser
is the suggested least rake which should to attain clean cutting and acceptable teeth to facilitate removal of cuttings and
be used. Small rake/shear angles neces- knife life. Optimum horizontal knife clear- to prevent clogging. Regardless of the
sitate higher power/force, but cause less ance usually varies from one setup to section thickness, it is desirable to have
distortion, whereas larger rakes/shear another. A good guide from which to at least two teeth constantly in contact
angles (e.g., 1 in 16 or 31⁄2°) reduce the start is a clearance equal to 8 percent of with the work to attain smooth cutting.
power/force required, but need higher the thickness of the stock. Usually less Cutting should be accomplished with
hold down pressure on the clamps and vertical clearance in relation to the stock long smooth strokes with light but con-
tend to increase distortion. thickness is required for hard material stant pressure at a rate of about 30 to 50
Blades MUST BE SHARP. Dull blades than for soft material. A minimum of over- strokes per minute. On the back stroke
increase the roll over, burr height and lapping (vertical positive clearance) of the blade should be lifted clear of the
distortion (clamp, twist, and bow). the knives is desirable to attain burr-free surface to avoid riding over and work
The moving blade should be provided edges. Knives are generally overlapped hardening the surface and to maintain
with as large as possible back clear- to cut all the way through the metal up to
about 0.045 in. (1.1 mm) thick. For heav-
ier gauge metal, the knives are sepa-
rated (vertical negative clearance) to
attain a clean cut and break action on
the sheared edge.

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3819 Fabrication 6/22/01 2:57 PM Page 9

sharpness of the teeth particularly when Blanking, Punching, and Clearances are best determined by
sawing austenitic stainless steels. For Nibbling experience and depend on the specific
light gauge material, where bending may piece of equipment employed, the com-
be a problem, backing up the material Blanking. Blanking stainless steels plexity of the job, and the material.
with wood has been found helpful. requires more force than for equal thick- Close clearances require very careful
nesses of carbon steel because of the alignment of the tools and tend to
Power Hacksawing. Cutting fluid should higher shear strength of stainless steel. increase the wear on the tooling. Larger
be flooded on the cut to maximize Part of the reason that greater force is clearance are preferred consistent with
cooling, particularly in cutting the needed is that the blanking cut must be preventing the metal being drawn into
austenitic grades. More than one tooth carried further through the thickness of the die and minimum burr formation
should be in contact with the work at all austenitic stainless steel than is neces- (particularly austenitic stainless steels).
times. Therefore small pitched blades sary with carbon steel, before final break- Larger clearances should be used when
should be used for cutting thinner gauges ing occurs. Thus the punch should also working temper rolled austenitic material.
and small diameters. As the material travel through the metal. To reduce the shearing force in blank-
thickness or diameter increases the tooth Blanking, punching, and piercing ing austenitic stainless steel parts, one of
spacing should increase to give better operations can be carried out without the cutting tools is often provided with
clearance and to minimize chip packing: lubrication. However, the use of a lubri- angular shearing edges, Figure 2. If the
cant reduces the power required and blanked portion is to become the part,
up to 1/4 in. (6 mm) thick/diameter also improves the tool life. Lubricants the angular shear edges should be on
10 teeth per inch (25 mm) which may be used are emulsifiable the die and the punch should be flat to
1/4 - 3/4 in. (6-20 mm) thick/diameter chlorinated waxes/oils, wax based avoid distortion of the work piece. Con-
10/8 teeth per inch (25 mm) pastes, soluble oils, or soap plus borax. versely, if the blanked portion is the dis-
3/4 - 2 in. (20-50 mm) thick/diameter Clearance between the punch and card, the angular shear edges should be
6 teeth per inch (25 mm) the die is important. For the thinnest on the punch to maintain flatness in the
over 2 in. (50 mm) thick/diameter gauges of material a minimum clearance remaining part.
4 teeth per inch (25 mm) of 0.001 in. (0.025 mm) per side is sug- Tooling should be clean and free of
gested. For thicker sheet the clearance any surface imperfections which other-
Band Sawing. Band sawing can be used per side should be between 5-10% of wise tend to pick up material, scoring the
for contour cutting, the sawing of tubes, material thickness, and for plate thick- punch and dies, and possibly causing
pipes and medium to large diameter nesses the clearance per side may be jamming and breaking of the punches.
bars. Adequate cutting fluid should be increased to 15% of the material Blanking and punching are severe
fed to the cut, especially in the cutting of thickness. applications involving both shock and
abrasion. A range of tool steels may be
Cutting Speeds and Feeds Strokes/minute Feed/Stroke used, depending on the aspects of the
particular job, and the production quan-
Wrought Ferritic Stainless Steels 90 0.006 in. (0.15 mm) tity required. Proper heat treatment by
Wrought Martensitic Stainless Steels (Harder) 75 0.006 in. (0.15 mrn)
Wrought Martensitic Stainless Steels (Softer) 100 0.006 in. (0.15 mm)
quenching and tempering must be
Wrought Austenitic Stainless Steels 80 0.006 in. (0.15 rnm) employed to develop the necessary
Cast Austenitic Stainless Steels 65 0.006 in. (0.15 mm) combination of properties, i.e., hardness,
All steels are assumed to be in the annealed (softened) condition wear resistance and toughness.

thick material — a minimum of 30 drops Cutting speeds in surface feet and (meters) per second
per minute, increased for thicker mater-
ial. As in power hacksawing, fine pitched For thicknesses of 1/4 - 1/2 in. 1- 3 in. 4 -12 in.
blades are used for cutting thin material, (6-12 mm) (25-75 mm) (100-300 mm)
the tooth spacing being increased as the
Austenitic Type 304 2.3 (0.71) 1.7 (0.51) 1.2 (0.36)
material being cut increases in thickness. Austenitic Type 316 (*) 1.7 (0.51) 1.0 (0.30) 0.7 (0.20)
Austenitic Type 321 2.3 (0.71) 1.7 (0.51) 1.2 (0.36)
up to 1/16 in. (2 mm) thick/diameter Austenitic Type 309/310 (*) 1.8 (0.56) 1.3 (0.41) 0.8 (0.25)
32 teeth per inch (25 mm) Ferritic Type 430 2.3 (0.71) 1.5 (0.46) 1.2 (0.36)
Martensitic Type 410/420 2.8 (0.86) 1.9 (0.58) 1.4 (0.43)
over 1/16 - 1/4 in. (2 mm - 6 mm) thick/
diameter All steels in the annealed (softened) condition
24/14 teeth per inch (25 mm)
over 1/4 - 3/4 in. (6 mm - 20 mm) thick/ Note: • The thinner the material, the
diameter higher the cutting speed.
10 teeth per inch (25 mm) • Up to about 4 in. (100 mm)
over 3/4 - 13/8 in. (20 mm - 35 mm) thick/diameter a regular tooth
thick/diameter shape should be employed. For
8 teeth per inch (25 mm) thicker material a hook shaped
over 13/8 - 2 in. (35 mm - 50 mm) thick/ tooth has advantages.
diameter • Feed Pressure. For thin material
6 teeth per inch (25 mm) the feed pressure should be a
over 2 in. (50 mm) thick/diameter minimum, for medium thickness
4/3 teeth per inch (25 mm) average pressure, and for thick
material the feed pressure
should be at a maximum for all
materials. The steels indicated
(*) require higher feed pressure.

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Cut-off operations are normally done

Punch Punch wet, using a soluble oil emulsion. Rub-
ber-based discs are used.
Random straight line cutting of sheet
and thin plate is normally done dry. Vitri-
fied or resinoid-bonded discs are used.
Metal Thickness Metal Thickness Care must be exercised not to induce
excessive over-heating of the cut edge.
Dedicated discs (i.e., uncontaminated
by cutting of other material) must be
used.
Random cutting done by hand must
employ safety measures, as the discs
can jam and break in the cut groove.

THERMAL
In conventional oxy-cutting the metal is
first heated by the flame, then an excess
of oxygen is supplied. This causes
exothermic (heat generating) reactions
which generate the heat necessary to
Regular Sheared Punch melt the oxides formed, which are then
for Piercing removed from the cut by the velocity of
Sheared Dies for Blanking
the gas jet.
Stainless steel having a high level of
Figure 2: Face-sheared tools. stainless steel than carbon steel, the chromium (Cr) cannot be cut by simple
capacity of nibbling machines is about oxy-cutting methods due to the very high
Punching. Punching has much in com- four gauges less for austenitic stainless melting point of the chrome oxide which
mon with blanking, except that the holes steels than for carbon steel. Usually the is formed. Modified or other methods,
are smaller and the punched out metal is tools are flat faced and should contain therefore, have to be employed.
usually discarded. Thus the angular no irregular shear edges. If problems are
shear edges are placed on the punch. experienced in cutting a thickness, which Flux Cutting or Metal Powder
The punched holes may be pierced sep- should be possible, or if an unaccept- Cutting
arately or by multiple punching. able cut is produced, attention should be A fine iron-rich metal powder is
In the austenitic stainless steels, circu- given to parameters which include stroke sprayed into the oxy-acetylene gas
lar holes should have a minimum diame- rate, feed rate and clearance. Machines flame. When this burns in the oxygen
ter of at least twice the thickness of the equipped with mechanical feed devices stream, a great amount of heat is gener-
metal and the minimum distance and variable stroke rates are recom- ated, sufficient to melt the refractory
between adjacent holes should be 1/2 the mended. The cutting edges of the tool- chrome oxide, and in addition, a diluting
hole diameter. ing MUST BE SHARP. The importance effect also takes place. The molten
Lubrication should be used to mini- of this aspect cannot be over emphasized. material is removed from the cut by the
mize metal pickup on the tooling and High speed steel or high carbon-high velocity of the gas stream enabling
cool the work piece and the tools. In the chromium alloy die steels hardened to a cutting to proceed.
absence of previous experience, it is rec- Rc hardness of 60 to 62 are satisfactory This process is adaptable from thin to
ommended that lubricant suppliers be materials for blanking, punching, and very thick material, with cutting speeds
consulted as to the proper mixture of nibbling. High speed steels are preferred only slightly less than those for equal
coolant and lubricant. However, in most for nibbling. Cemented carbide punches thicknesses of carbon steel. Therefore, it
instances, lubricants which have been and dies, well supported and properly is particularly suitable for the cutting of
proved satisfactory for blanking, have aligned, are satisfactory for blanking and thick plates and slabs, and the removal
been satisfactory for punching opera- punching, but before proceeding with of feeders and risers from castings.
tions. If annealed austenitic stainless the use of carbide tools, it is recom- The cut edge is both chemically and
steel tends to distort during punching mended that the tool supplier be con- metallurgically affected causing alteration
because the holes are too closely sulted to obtain a recommendation on of chemical composition, and possible
spaced, the tendency for distortion may how to best use the carbide tools. precipitation of carbides (sensitization) in
be prevented by the use of slightly cold the austenitic grades. Prior to welding,
worked material, such as the 1/4 hard Abrasive Cutting 0.10 - 0.12 in. (2.5 - 3 mm) of material
temper rolled, and by the use of flat Abrasive wheels, rotating at high should be removed from the cut edge to
faced tools and reduced clearance speeds, can be used for both cut-off ensure the corrosion resistant properties
between punch and die. operations on relatively small section are retained. Cut edges not welded must
sizes, and for straight line cutting of sheet also be dressed prior to service.
Nibbling. Nibbling is a process of cut- and thin plate material.*The cutting of The process is amendable to auto-
ting by blanking out a series of overlap- large radius curves is also possible. matic set-up on profile cutting equipment.
ping holes and is ideally suited for irregu- Abrasive cutting is a useful method for Stack-cutting is also possible.
lar shapes. This process is widely used cutting thinner cross sections to length (or
for parts where quantities do not justify to a mitre), and for making cuts of limited
the expense of blanking dies. The holes length on the shop floor during fabrication.
can be of varied shape — circular, trian-
gular, or rectangular with rounded cor- *Note: Straight line cutting of thick
ners. The smoothness of the edge is plate (from 3/4 - 4 in./20 - 100 mm thick)
governed by the shape of the tooling can be accomplished by abrasive cut-
and the overlap of successive cuts. ting. This necessitates the use of special-
Since more force is necessary to cut ized equipment.
6
3819 Fabrication 6/22/01 2:57 PM Page 11

A variation on iron powder cutting is which are removed from the cut by • The Plasma Gases. Many gases
the injection of finely pulverized flux into the gas stream. can be used in a plasma-arc torch,
the cutting oxygen stream. This flux provided they do not have an
reacts with the refractory chrome oxide Direct current electrode negative adverse effect on the tungsten cath-
to form a slag of lower melting point gives the most rapid cut. The speed ode or the metal being cut. The effi-
compounds, which is then removed from of cut varies with the thickness and ciency of the gas in terms of the
the cut by the gas stream velocity. This composition of the metal being cut, thickness and the speed of cut
method is sometimes preferred because the oxygen pressure, the amount of depends on its thermal conductivity
it produces a smoother cut. However, it current and the dimensions of the as a plasma at the high tempera-
is not as versatile as powder cutting, the electrode. tures.
edge must also be dressed to a depth of The cut surfaces are rough and
0.08 in. (2 mm) and operators must be The traditional gases used for the
uneven. cutting of stainless steels are the
protected from the toxic fumes which are
produced. gases argon (A), nitrogen (N),
Shielded Metal-Arc Cutting is a hydrogen (H), and helium (He).
modification using a heavily flux Argon is easily ionized, but has a
Arc Cutting coated stick electrode. The flux per-
The extremely high temperatures devel- lower thermal conductivity at high
forms the same function as temperatures. Nitrogen has better
oped in Electric-Arc processes will melt described previously, and the
all metals, thus enabling them to be cut. thermal conductivity and is, there-
molten metal is removed from the fore, added to enable the cutting of
Many modifications of the process cut by gravity, the force of the arc,
exist. Different electrodes can be used, thicker material. Hydrogen has a
or both. high thermal conductivity and, there-
with or without gases either to promote
or prevent the oxidation of the metal Standard welding equipment can be fore, should be used for improved
being cut. The two commonly used used for cutting thicker sheet cutting capabilities and efficiencies
processes are Air Carbon-Arc Cutting gauges and thinner plate. on thick material (over 1/2 in.
and Oxygen Arc-Cutting. [12 mm]). Helium also has a high
The cut edge must be dressed prior thermal conductivity, but is seldom
to welding or being placed in service. used because of its high cost.
• Air Carbon-Arc Cutting. A car-
bon graphite electrode is used and a Plasma Arc Cutting The use of nitrogen under conditions
stream of high velocity compressed Plasma forming gases are constricted employing high arc currents can
air flowing parallel to the electrode and passed through an arc chamber, the lead to the formation of relatively
strikes the molten metal behind the arc supplying a large amount of electri- large amounts of nitrogen dioxide
arc thus removing it from the cut. cal energy. This ionizes the gases and (NO2) - a brown gas. This is highly
As the thickness of the material they exist as a plasma, a mixture of free poisonous gas, and all due precau-
being cut increases, so does the electrons, positively charged ions and tions should be taken.
electrode diameter and the current neutral atoms. Extremely high tempera- Active gases such as carbon dioxide
required. For cutting stainless steels tures are attainable up to 55,000°F (CO2) and compressed air can also
direct current is preferred, and the (30,000°C). Therefore, cutting results be used. The use of such active
power source must have sufficient from the high temperature and not a gases requires torches and nozzles
capacity (e.g., 1/4 in. [6 mm] elec- chemical reaction. The constricted specifically designed for their use.
trode needs 150-350 amps, 1/2 in. plasma arc heats and melts the metal
[12 mm] electrode needs 400-800 in the cut and the molten products are Carbon dioxide is used in conjunc-
amps). removed by the gas jet. tion with nitrogen as the plasma gas.
Plasma Arc Cutting with the Trans- The carbon dioxide performs the
For thorough-cutting, the electrode ferred Arc is schematically illustrated in function of an annular shielding gas.
is held almost vertical. More than Figure 3. The tungsten electrode is the
one cutting pass may be necessary cathode (connected negative terminal), Compressed air is used alone as the
for cutting material over 1/2 in. and the metal being cut is the anode plasma gas, and the plasma arc
(12 mm) thick. (connected positive terminal). temperature is complemented by the

Edges which are to be welded must

be dressed to a depth of 0.08 - 0.10
in. (2 -2.5 mm).
TUNGSTEN
ELECTRODE
Carbon-Arc Cutting is a modifica-
tion which does not make use of the
compressed air. The molten metal is
removed from the cut by gravity, by ;;;; TUNGSTEN
PLASMA ;;;; ELECTRODE
the force of the arc, or both. Provided ;;;;
GASES
;;;;
the recommended settings are fol- ;;;;
lowed, acceptable cuts can be pro- ;;;;
;;;;
duced in the thicker sheet gauges ;;;;
and thin plate. ;;;; D.C.
DIRECTION WORKPIECE
• Oxygen-Arc Cutting. Flux-covered OF CUT
tubular electrodes are used with the
oxygen supplied down the tube. The
electric arc initiates melting and the
flux covering on the electrode acts
to form lower melting point oxides
Figure 3: Schematic illustration of Plasma Arc Cutting with a Transferred Arc.

7
3819 Fabrication 6/22/01 2:57 PM Page 12

exothermic (heat generating) reac- BENDING

tion which takes place, thus reduc- Important Note: In all cutting opera-
ing the electrical energy required. tions on stainless steels the following
guidelines are helpful in maintaining cor- When any metal is bent, the metal
Active gases are claimed to induce rosion resistance: towards the outside of the bend is in ten-
change in the chemical composition sion with the tension gradually increasing
of the surface layers of the cut-edge, • No contamination by ferrous (iron or to a maximum at the outer surface. The
which could effect the corrosion steel) material or particles should metal towards the inside is in compres-
resistance. Cut edges should be take place. sion with the maximum compressive
dressed to ensure corrosion resis- force at the inner surface. If the applied
tance equivalent to the parent • Mechanically cut edges will naturally bending force is not sufficient to cause
material. form the corrosion resistant passive permanent plastic flow of the metal at
film. The formation of such a passive either the outer or inner surfaces, the
In general terms, the use of active film on cut edges will be enhanced metal will return elastically to its original
gases is limited to thicknesses up to by a chemical (acid) passivation shape when the force is removed. There-
approximately 11/2 inches (30 - treatment with nitric acid. fore, the force necessary to make a per-
40 mm), above which their cutting manent bend will depend on: the yield
efficiency falls off. For greater thick- • Thermally cut edges may be affected
strength of the material, the increase in
nesses, the use of nitrogen/hydro- in terms of chemical composition
yield strength as the metal work hardens,
gen mixed plasma gases are usually and metallurgical structure. Removal
required. of affected surface layers by dress-
ing is necessary so that impaired
• The Size, Shape and Quality of areas of mechanical and corrosion
the Cut. The width of the kerf tends resistant properties are minimized.
to be greater than that obtained by
conventional oxy-gas cutting of car-
bon steels. The kerf width is affected
by parameters which include: stand-
off distance, electrode positioning
within the nozzle, electrode shape,
method of electrode dressing/grind-
ing, nozzle size, cutting speed and
thickness of material being cut. Springback
Further, a kerf angle is a typical fea- Form Block
ture. If process parameters are not
carefully controlled this angle can
increase to an unacceptable degree.
Figure 4: Schematic illustration of springback.
The kerf angle should be less than
5°, and it can be reduced to 1°.
the desired angle of the bend, and the
The cut edge should be smooth, thickness of the material.
clean and have a very small heat- The austenitic stainless steels, with
affected zone (HAZ) adjacent to the their higher rates of work hardening,
cut edge. require more power than is required to
bend carbon steel of equal thickness to
• Process Parameters. Depending the same angle. Also, the bending of
on the thickness of material to be cold rolled tempers, such as 1⁄4 and 1⁄2
cut, the following are the main hard and ferritic grades require more
variables: force than bends made on annealed
• Arc Current (amps) austenitic material.

• Plasma Gas - flow rates and mix- SPRINGBACK

ture ratios Springback as the name applies, is the
tendency of a part to return to its original
• Nozzles - size, shape and design
shape after a bending operation has
which affect the been performed on it. This occurs
because not all of the strain applied dur-
• Cutting speed and quality of cut ing bending is plastic and, hence, per-
(optimum cutting speed giving a manent. The elastic portion of the strain,
good quality cut is less than the which is recoverable, will cause the
maximum attainable cutting piece to straighten somewhat when the
speed). bending force is removed, as illustrated
• Width and shape of cut. in Figure 4.
In simple bending, the springback
In conjunction with the recommenda- depends upon many factors which can
tions of the supplier of the equipment, be subdivided into two groups:
these variables should be determined
and set out as qualified procedures to
ensure not only the quality of the cut, but
also such factors as the economy and
safety of the operation.

8
3819 Fabrication 6/22/01 2:57 PM Page 13

a. The geometrical factors, such as ing pressures that are used for hot rolled Exhibit 3 shows the minimum bend
thickness, bend radius and bend angle carbon steel four gauges heavier. Cold radii for press brake forming of annealed
and rolled tempers and the ferritic grades and cold worked tempers of austenitic
require larger radii than annealed stainless steel.
b. The characteristics of materials, austenitic material. As with carbon steels, V-shaped
such as alloy composition and the yield On bending a part, the tool stroke female dies are frequently used. In this
strength (before and after bending). The should be as short as possible to lessen case the die opening is usually about
amount of springback per degree of the tendency of stainless steels to foul or eight times the inside radius of the
bend is constant regardless of the total score the tools. To avoid ironing, the formed part.
angle of the bend. Springback increases clearance between the die and the
with increasing ratio of bend radius to punch should be about 10 percent more Roll Bending
part thickness, that is a small bend than the metal thickness. Dies should be The roll bending of flat stainless steel is
radius results in less springback than a given a high polish, and must be free performed in the same manner as with
large radius on a part of equal thickness. from all surface blemishes, to prevent carbon steel. More power is required
Increasing yield strength also increases marring the finish of the stainless and there is more springback. The
springback. In addition, the springback steel parts. increased springback can be offset by
depends upon the degree to which the increasing the roll pressure.
part conforms to the contour of the tools The most common types of roll ben-
under load.
;; ;;

ders are of the pyramid or pinch types.

;; ;;
Other types of benders are also used,
1.01
but in the design of tools one must
remember to compensate for greater
springback as compared with carbon
1.02 Example steel.
Using a thickness (T) of 0.100 in.
1.03 and a die radius of 1.00 in.
The minimum cylinder which can be
Part Radius + T/2

made in stainless steel on a pyramid

Die Radius + T/2

Die Radius
1.04 = 10
T type bender is about twice the center roll
1.05
Then
diameter as compared to about one and
1.07 Die angle 1.12 a half times for low carbon steel.
=
Part angle (on average)
1.10
If part angle is to be 90°, the part Roll Forming
must be bent an average of 100.8°. Roll forming is roughly similar to draw-
or

1.15
If the die angle is to be 90°, the part
bench forming, except that it is per-
1.20
Part Angle
Die Angle

angle will be an average of 80.3°. formed with driven rolls, rather than
1.30 idling rolls, and is, therefore, a continu-
ous process. It is a more economical
1.40
method of shaping sections in long
1.50
lengths and large quantities.
1.70 Stainless steels can be roll-formed
readily in the annealed state. Extensive
2.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 16 20 roll forming has been performed suc-
Die Radius cessfully on harder tempers, but more
Thickness passes are required.
As with drawbench forming, generally
Figure 5: Relationship normally encountered between thickness of material, radius and angle of die and the the same bend radii recommendations
radius and angle of the part in bending annealed type 300 stainless steels. as for other methods of bending should
be followed, though bends approaching
Figure 5 shows springback data If the brake forming process involves zero radius have been satisfactorily roll-
which have been encountered in some primarily a drawing operation, lubricants formed.
commercial bending operations. must be used. High carbon or alloy steels are satis-
Minimum recommended bend radii factory roll materials. Cast aluminum
TYPES vary over rather wide limits. When bend- bronze rolls have been used where slid-
ing the annealed, more ductile, austenitic ing motions between roll and part are
Press Brakes grades, a minimum radius of 1/2 the great.
Press brake bending of austenitic metal thickness is possible. For hard Dilute solutions of water soluble oils
stainless steels is performed in the same tempers of austenitic and ferritic grades make adequate lubricants for roll forming
way as bending of carbon steel with radii up to six times the metal thickness stainless steels. Soap solutions and
allowances made for the higher strength may be required. extreme pressure lubricants give greater
and greater springback of stainless roll protection and produce a finer finish
steels. The power necessary to bend on the stainless steel. They are, however,
annealed stainless steel is 50 to 60 per- more difficult to remove.
cent more power than is needed for car-
bon steel. Cold rolled tempers will need Exhibit 3
even more because of their higher MINIMUM BEND RADII FOR PRESS BRAKE FORMING
strengths.
Due to their high ductility, the Annealed Steels
1/2 to 11/2 t
annealed austenitic stainless steels can Stainless and Low-Carbon Steels
be bent to equally small bend radii, Work-Hardened Stainless Steels
gauge for gauge, as carbon steel. How- 1/4 Hard 1 to 2 t
1/2 Hard 21/2 to 4 t
ever, it is a good rule in setting up brake
forming procedure for one gauge of Full Hard 4 to 6 t
Where t = Metal Thickness
stainless steel, to assume the same form-
9
3819 Fabrication 6/22/01 2:57 PM Page 14

Stretch Forming DESCALING • Sand blasting — This method is

In free bends the material on the out- generally unsatisfactory. However,
side of the bend is always in tension and REMOVAL OF OXIDE SCALE for a severely contaminated surface,
the metal on the inside of the bend is in sand blasting can be used as a last
compression. In stretch forming suffi- Pickling Solutions resort. New, clean sand will remove
cient tension is applied to the material When stainless steel has been heated debris and heavy iron-contamination
being bent, so that the compressive to elevated temperatures, such as during from the surface. But avoid using
forces acting on the inside of the bend annealing or welding, an oxide scale will sand blasting, if possible.
may be counterbalanced and leave this form on the surface unless the material is
completely surrounded by a protective • Glass-bead blasting — Good
metal either in a neutral condition or with
atmosphere. Any such oxides should be results have been obtained with
a small amount of tension. Of course,
removed to restore the stainless steel to clean, glass beads. Before applying
stretch forming increases the tension
its optimum corrosion resistant condition. this method, a test should be made
force on the outside of the bend. How-
Because they may vary in nature and to determine that it will remove the
ever, the high ductility of the annealed
composition, there is no single acid or surface contamination. Also, periodi-
austenitic stainless steels make them
process that will universally remove all cally test to see how much reuse of
well suited to this method of forming.
types of oxides. the beads can be tolerated before
Stretch forming finds its greatest use
The most common pickling solution they begin to recontaminate the
in forming angles, channels, and hollow
used to remove scale produced by surface. (Walnut shells have also
parts where it is effective in preventing
annealing austenitic stainless steel in air performed well.)
buckling.
Commonly a tension force 10 to 20 is 10 to 15 percent nitric acid plus 1 to 3
percent above the yield strength is percent hydrofluoric acid. The solution is REMOVAL OF WELD
applied to the metal before bending is usually used at temperatures of 120 to DISCOLORATION
140°F (50 to 60°C). This acid mixture effi- During welding some discoloration,
started.
ciently removes oxides, loosely imbed- which is a thin oxide layer, will be evident
Springback is greatly reduced by this
ded iron and chromium depleted layers, in the heated area near the weld.
method of forming because none of the
and leaves the stainless steel surface in a Mechanical removal or this heat tint
deformed metal is under compressive
clean, passivated condition. For light should be limited to clean glass bead
force during bending. By proper selec-
scale the hydrofluoric acid is usually blasting, flapper wheels, aluminum oxide
tion of applied tension, it is sometimes
about 1 percent and for heavier scales discs and wire brushing with austenitic
possible to reduce springback to a negli-
the HF content may be increased to 2 to stainless steel wire brushes. Sand and
gible amount.
3 percent. grit blasting should be prohibited. Pick-
Sulfuric acid 8 to 12 percent with ling will remove the smeared surface
2 percent rock salt (NaCl) at 150 to layer left by these mechanical cleaning
170°F (65 to 77°C) is well suited for operatons restoring much of the corro-
handling ferritic or martensitic stainless sion resistance lost during these
steels. mechanical cleaning operations. Electro-
When the oxide scale is heavy and cleaning with a hand held electrocleaning
tenacious the stainless steel may be tool is an equally effective alternative to
treated for 5 to 10 minutes in a bath of 8 pickling for heat tint removal.
to 10 percent sulfuric acid at a tempera-
ture of 150 to 160°F (65 to 71°C). Upon PASSIVATION
removal from the bath the part should be
scrubbed to remove the sludge and after PASSIVATION OF STAINLESS
rinsing, pickling can be finished in a STEEL
nitric-hydrofluoric acid pickling solution. On the surface of stainless steels there
When the above solutions cannot be is an extremely thin transparent film.
used at the recommended temperature, Nevertheless, it is tenacious, uniform,
they may be used at room temperature stable and passive. It imparts to the sur-
but it is usually necessary to strengthen face the property of passivity, normally
the acid concentration. A cold solution associated with noble or inert metals and
takes longer to act and agitation of the it is to this passive film that stainless
part can be helpful. steels owe their superior corrosion
resistance.
Blasting The film will form spontaneously, or
• Grit blasting — Grit blasting is repair itself if damaged, both in air due to
generally unsatisfactory because the presence of oxygen, or when
grit is seldom clean, and even if it immersed in solutions, provided there is
is initially, it soon becomes contami- sufficient oxygen or oxidizing elements
nated with abraded material. Grit present. The basic passivation treatment
blasting leaves a rough profile that for stainless steel is exposure of a clean
makes the stainless steel prone to surface to air. However, there is much
crevice corrosion, whether or not practical evidence which shows that pas-
the surface is free of iron. Thus, sivity, and therefore corrosion resistance,
grit blasting should be avoided. is enhanced if the passive film is formed
by the action of oxidizing acid solutions.
Nitric acid is such an oxidizing acid, and
is always used for passivation treatments.
Nitric acid does not corrode stainless
steel, does not alter critically dimen-
sioned parts and will not remove heat
tint, embedded iron or other embedded
10
3819 Fabrication 6/22/01 2:57 PM Page 15

surface contamination. Nitric acid passi- FINISHING CARE IN THE SHOP

vation is most useful in enhancing the
corrosion resistance of freshly machined GRINDING, POLISHING, AND HANDLING
surfaces. BUFFING Mechanical damage (e.g., scratches
The standard nitric acid passivating Grinding, polishing, and buffing opera- and gouges) can occur easily during
solution is made up and used as follows: tions are applied to stainless steel in handling if not guarded against. Such
much the same manner as to other mechanical damage will result in the
10 to 15 percent by volume of nitric metals. The differences which exist are passive oxide film being “punctured”
acid (HNO3) in water. Quickest and related to properties of stainless steel. leading to a possible lower resistance to
best passivation results if used at the initiation of corrosion than the sur-
150°F (65°C) for the austenitic (300 1. More power is required to remove rounding chemically passivated surface.
series) stainless steels, and 120°F metal because of its higher In addition, corrosion in such areas can
(50°C) for the ferritic and martensitic strength. be accelerated by the galvanic corrosion
(400 series) plain chromium stainless 2. The austenitic stainless steels have effect due to the unfavorable relative
steels. The immersion time is approxi- lower rates of heat conductivity than area ratios which exist.
mately 30 minutes, followed by carbon steel. Thus, the surfaces
thorough water washing. may become hotter than the sur- • Plates and sheets should be
face of carbon steel and heat tinting stored vertically in racks and not be
It is, however, appreciated that it is not of the stainless steel surface may dragged out of the racks or over
always possible to fully immerse fabrica- occur. one another. Racks should be pro-
tions in a hot passivating solution, and tected to prevent iron contamination.
therefore, swabbing with cold acid solu- Two variables determine the amount of
tion is normally used where lower con- grinding and polishing required, namely, • Heavy plates should be carefully
centrations and temperatures of acid the initial surface condition and the separated and chocked with
ease handling and application. It must desired finish. The rougher the starting wooden blocks, in order for the
be appreciated that longer contact times surface, the coarser is the first grinding forks of a fork-lift to be inserted
will be required. wheel. For the first grind on welds, it is between plates without mechani-
common practice to use a wheel or a cally damaging the surface. If the
For austenitic (300 series) belt with a grit size of 20 to 60. If the arti- forks are haphazardly forced in
15% nitric acid at 65/80°F (20/25°C) cle has a surface equivalent to a 2B between plates, some degree of
.............................30 to 90 minutes sheet finish, it is often customary to start contamination of the scratches and
with a 100 grit. Succeeding operations gouges could also occur, thus
For ferritics (400 series) should make use of increasingly finer grit aggravating the damage so
12% nitric acid at 65/80°F (20/25°C) size until the desired smoothness is induced.
.............................30 to 45 minutes reached. For more information refer to
the SSINA publication “Finishes for Stain- • Plates and sheets laid out for use
The acid solution is swabbed on with less Steel.” should be off the floor and be
sponges, soft paint brushes or fine nylon divided by wooden planks to pre-
pads. Continual swabbing is necessary vent surface damage and facilitate
to ensure contact over the time period. subsequent handling.
For the treatment of small localized areas
proprietary passivating pastes are • Plate clamps, if used, must be used
obtainable and can be used. Contact with care as the serrated faces usu-
time should be in accordance with sup- ally dig in, indent and gouge the
pliers’ recommendations, as the concen- surface.
trations may differ from paste to paste,
and the lower alloyed grades will require • If chain slings are used, these
shorter times. Thorough water rinsing inevitably tend to slip, again causing
MUST follow all passivating treatments. mechanical damage of the surface.
Slings of heavy duty synthetic mate-
rial are preferable.

• Thin gauge cold rolled material

often has a superior finish (e.g., pol-
ished or bright annealed). Clean
linen gloves should be worn when
handling such material to avoid fin-
ger markings. Such marks can be
removed by the use of a mild
organic solvent followed by cleaning
with a warm detergent solution.
Sometimes a warm detergent will
suffice. Thorough clean water rinsing
and drying completes the removal
procedure.

Note: ASTM A380 describes a num-

ber of ways fabricating shops can
reduce surface contamination dur-
ing fabrication.

11
3819 Fabrication 6/22/01 2:57 PM Page 16

CONTAMINATION CLEANING CLEANING METHODS

Contamination arises mainly from the Soap or detergent and water will
surfaces of equipment which have previ- RUST CONTAMINATION remove ordinary deposits of grease, dirt
ously been used in contact with carbon Sometimes the appearance of rust and similar contaminations. Washing
(mild) steel. The carbon steel and oxide streaks on stainless steel leads to the should be followed with a water rinse
scale may be smeared on and trans- belief that the stainless steel is rusting. and thorough drying.
ferred to the stainless steel surface. While Look for the source of the rust in some Tightly adhering deposits of food, oil,
it is not always possible to have handling iron or steel not actually a part of the grease, milkstone, atmospheric stains
equipment dedicated for use with stain- stainless steel itself. Steel (ferrous) conta- and other light discolorations may be
less steel, this should be done if possible mination is prevented by the use of stain- removed with the appropriate commer-
(e.g., synthetic material slings). less steel wire brushes, and grinding with cial cleaners shown in Exhibit 4.
All other handling equipment should abrasives that have not been used on For high luster finishes soft clothes or
be cleaned prior to use with stainless carbon steel. pads must be used without contamina-
steel. It is, therefore, advisable to plan tion from foreign dirt or grit (even from
and schedule the handling of stainless The primary method of cleaning sur- water employed to dampen) in order to
steel, because if handling equipment is faces contaminated with embedded iron avoid scratching highly reflective
used on a random basis, this cleaning is nitric-HF pickling in 10% nitric 2% HF surfaces.
is often neglected and contamination either warm or at ambient temperature. For additional information refer to the
results. Pickling paste is a good alternative to NiDI publication No. 9001 “Cleaning and
immersion. Descaling Stainless Steels.” or the SSINA
Designer Handbook “The Care and
CAUTION: Do not use paint, lacquer Cleaning of Stainless Steel.”
or varnish on stainless steel for mainte-
nance. It is much safer and easier to
clean the metal periodically than to rely
on any sort of protective covering.

Exhibit 4
EFFECTIVE CLEANING METHODS

Job Cleaning Agents* Comments

Routine Cleaning Warm Water, Soap, Ammonia, Detergent Apply with sponge or cloth.
Can be used on all finishes.

Fingerprints and Smears 3M Stainless Steel Cleaner and Polish, Arcal 20, Provides barrier film to minimize fingerprints.
Lac-O-Nu, Lumin Wash, O’Cedar Cream Polish, Can be used on all finishes.
Stainless Shine

Stubborn Stains and Discoloration 3M Stainless Steel Cleaner and Polish, Allchem Rub lightly, using dry or damp cloth, in the
Concentrated Cleaner, Samae, Twinkle, Cameo direction of polish lines on the stainless steel.
Copper Cleaner, Grade FFF or Grade F Italian
Pumice, Whiting or talc, Liquid Nu Steel, Copper’s
or Revere Stainless Steel Cleaner, Household
Cleaners, Lumin Cleaner, Zud Restoro, Sta-Clean,
Highlite, Allen Polish, Penny-Brite, Copper-Brite

Grease and Blood, Scotch-Brite Power Pad 2001, Easy-Off, De-Grease-It, Excellent removal on acids, all finishes.
Burnt-on or Baked-on Foods 4% to 6% hot solution of such agents as tri-sodium Particularly useful where rubbing is not practical.
polyphosphate, 5% to 15% caustic soda solution

Grease and Oil Any good commercial detergent or caustic cleanser. Apply with sponge or cloth in direction of
polish lines.

*NOTE: Use of proprietary names is intended only to indicate a type of cleaner and does not constitute an endorsement. Omission of any proprietary cleanser does not imply its
inadequacy. All products should be used in strict accordance with instructions on package.

12