PHYSICAL METALLURGY OF ALUMINIUM

Dr. C.S.Sivaramakrishnan

Dy. Director
National Metallurgical Laboratory
Jamshedpur - 831 007

Despite the fact that the production is highly energy intensive.

aluminium and its alloys are the most widely used engineering
materials next only to iron and steel because of their functional and
economical competitiveness. The world over, efforts are on to improve
the properties of aluminium/alloys with a view to replacing costly and
heavy weight materials in many applications, automobile, space and
aerospace for example, for energy saving and economic benefits.

The properties of aluminium alloys heavily depend on structural

features and can be enhanced multifold by alloy chemistry, heat
treatment and thermo-mechanical processing. This has been possible
with the increased insight into the physical metallurgy of aluminium
alloys. The basic advantages and applications areas of aluminium are
the following :

1. Properties

• Light weight (1/3 density of steel)

• Resistant to weather
• High reflectivity
• Aluminium alloys can equal the strength of steel
• High elasticity; properties do not deteriorate at low
temperature
• Readily workable: can be easily thinned to 1/100 mm
• Conducts electricity & heat comparable with copper
• Excellent founding properties

2. Application Areas

Areas Due to
Transportation- Light-weight, resistance to corrosion
Architecture - Decorative aspects
Package - Resistance to corrosion, decorative aspects
Electrical industry - Good electrical & heat conductivity
Household - Good conductivity, resistance to Corrosion
Chemical & Food industry - Resistance to corrosion

Alloy Classification

Aluminium and its alloys are broadly classified as cast and

wrought under the 4 digit classification as per ASTM (American
Society for Testing Materials) specifications. Aluminium alloys can
again be sub-classified into Heat treatable and Non-heat treatable
alloys. The cast alloys are used as cast components with minor
machining or heat-treatment. The wrought alloys, on the other hand,
are used after the cast ingots are mechanically worked, heat treated or
thermo-mechanically processed.

Aluminium Alloys Alloy No.

Al 99.00% Min. or greater lxxx

• Copper 2x.xx
• Mn (with Mg)
• Silicon 4xxx
• Mg 5xxx
• Mg & Si 6xxx
• Zn, Mg 7xxx
• Other elements 8xxx
• Unused series 9xxx

1st digit is indicates the alloy group

2nd & 3rd indicate aluminium purity
digit after decimal place indicate the product form either casting or ingot

Major Alloy System : • Al-Cu alloys : A1-8Cu, A1-10%Cu

- also contains Zn/Si besides Cu
- Heat treatable Al-Cu alloy

• Al-Mg Alloys : Excellent corrosion resistance, good

machinability.
- (Al-4Mg) ; attractive appearance
- Also contain Zn - die cast
- Al-7Mg - sand cast
- A1-10 Mg
Al-Si alloys : High corrosion resistance, good weldability & low
specific gravity
- Al-5.3% Si Also contains Mg to strengthen by Mg2Si

• Al-Si-Mg, Al-Si, Al-Si-Mg-Cu

• Al-hyper : Contain Ni. Cu.Mg, V - Engine blocks
eutectic Si : Outstanding fluidity and machinability
• Al-Zn
• Al-Zn - Bearing and bushes

Minor alloying additions : Si - Not good for tensile

properties
Fe - Not good ductility
Be - Used in Al-Mg alloys
Cr,Mn - improves ductility
Ni - improves tensile strength at
high temperature
• Ti, B,Zr - Grain refinement
.• P - Modifies hyper eutectic Al-
Si alloys

Bi,Pb,Sn - improves machinability (Chip breakers)

H- 2
 Wrought Allots Alloy No.

Al 99.00% min. or greater lxxx

o Cu 2xxx
o Mn 3xxx
o Si 4xxx
o Mg 5xxx
o Mg & Si 6xxx
o Zn 7xxx
o Other elements 8xxx
o Unused series 9xxx

1st digit identifies the alloy group

2nd digit indicates impurities
3rd & 4th digit indicates minimum aluminium content

Wrought Alloys - Al-Mg, Al-Cu, Al-Cu-Mg, Al-Mg-Si, Al-Zn-Mg, Al-Zn-

Mg-Cu.

EFFECTS OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS & IMPURITIES ON PROPERTIES

• Density - Mg, Li & Si decrease density of aluminium

- Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Ti and Zn increase density of Al
- Si increase density till its solid solubility (S.S) limit
(since lattice decreases). Above S.S. the density
decreases.

* Thermal expansion - Mg/Zn increases thermal expansion, others

decrease.
* Electrical Conductivity - All elements reduce electrical conductivity
* Surface tension- Bi Ca, Li, Mg, Pb, Sb and Sn reduce surface tension.
- Ag, Cu, Fe, Ge, Mn, Si, Zn have no effect.
* viscosity - Cu, Fe, Ti increase viscosity
- Zn has no effect on viscosity
- Mg, Li reduces viscosity

METALLOGRAPHY OF ALUMINIUM ALLOYS

Etching to Reveal Structure

Cast structure consists of grains. Etching causes dissolution of

atom layers of metal from individual grains producing steps. The
individual grains reflect light to different degrees. This enables the
grains and phases to be distinguished (Fig.2a & 2b). Commonly used
etching reagents for aluminium/alloys are Keller's reagent, hydro-
fluoric acid and sodium hydroxide. Micro and Macro structures can be
revealed by suitable etchants.

CAST STRUCTURE

Nucleation & Growth

When the melt reaches the freezing point, nuclei form which
increase in size and arrange themselves in certain close packed
pattern. The latent heat released by the nuclei is conducted away by
the surrounding matrix. The growth of the nuclei stops when the
neighbouring crystal meet each other at grain boundaries and form
grains. Inside each grain the aluminium atoms (- 1021 atoms in one
grains) arrange in a lattice (Fig.3 & 4). Different grains have different
orientation. Grain boundaries are weak areas with regard to chemical
corrosion.
ln pure aluminium and alloys undercooling occurs before
nucleation if the heat. is removed faster mid no external surfaces are
present. In commercial alloys, Ti, Ii , Inc, etc . arc present. in line
distribution on which nucleation of aluminium takes place and the
undercooling will be minimum.
Ingot Structures (Fig.5)
Chill zone - Narrow region of fine equiaxed crystals
Columnar zone - Parallel to heat flow direction
Equiaxed zone of relatively coarse equiaxed crystals.
Chill Zone
The 1st crystallization takes place near the cold mould wall
copiously forming fine grained zone equiaxed in nature.
Columnar Zone
Grains from Chill Zone grow parallel to heat flow direction
releasing heat to mould and to the centre, forming long columnar
grains.
Equiaxed Central Zone
The central liquid solidifies with fresh nucleation or nuclei
derived from chill zone due to convection to form coarse equiaxed
grains.
Dendritic Growth
If one looks into the inside of a grain a tree like structure can be
seen which are dendrite arms. Cross section of a grain would reveal
cells which are sections of dendrite arms. Dendritic growth occurs
due to the fact that heat is taken away from corners and edges of cubic
nuclei of aluminium.
EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAM (Fig.6 , 7a & 7b)
There are graphic representation of temperature Vs
composition indicating the phases, solidus/liquidus temperatures etc.
e.g. Al-Cu, Al-Si. These diagrams are obtained through thermal analysis
primarily in liquid to solid transformation. For solid - solid transfor-
mation various other methods like dilatometry, metallography,
resistivity etc. arc employed to get. the equilibrium diagrams. The

H-4
solidification process can be followed with the help of au equilibrium
diagram in a homogeneous alloy system. The various phases are
designated as a. 0. y. 8. etc.

Lever Rule

Lever Rule will give the fraction of a particular phase.

Eutectic:A liquid transforms to two solids at. a fixed temperature.

Al 12.5%Si, A1-33%Cu.
Refer Fig.7a.
A-C-beginning of crystallization. Growth of aluminium rich
primary crystal (a S.S.)

C-D-Simultaneous growth of two crystal types forming eutectic

network around primary aluminium(a)

E-D--Pure eutectic crystallization

D- End of crystallization.

Modification

Process for refining the micro-structure through addition of a

third element before casting an alloy e.g.. Na for hypo & eutectic Al-Si
alloys and P for hyper eutectic 0 fir Al-S Alloys. By modification the
mechanical properties -ire significantly enhai iccd.

GRAIN REFINEMENT

Refining the grain size by heterogeneous or homogeneous

nucleation. Fine grain size is desired for excellent. room temperature
mechanical properties.

TYPES OF EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAMS

Simple Eutectics Partly Miscible (Monotectie system,No Known

Intermetallics are formed with
these elements)
Be 11B Cd 1113
Si 1VB In 11113
Zn IIB TA IVA
Ga IIIB Pb IBB
Ge IVB Bi VB
Sn 1V13 Na la
K IA
Fig 1113 Rb IA
CS IA

Lanthanides, actinides are miscible in liquid state and form

complex binary systems with intermetallics.

I-1-5
 -

Solid solution with peritectics at Al end of phase diagram

Ti IVA
V VA
Cr VIA
Zr IVA
Cb VA
Mo VIA
11f IVA
Tn VA
W VIA
o All other metallic elements are completely miscible in liquid
state of aluminium
o Si is completely miscible in liquid Al
o B has only 0.02% solubility in liquid Al
o C slightly soluble
o P & As insoluble
o S is appreciably soluble
o SE & Te completely miscible.
o Except 1-12 common gases are note soluble in aluminium.
o No element is completely miscible in aluminium in solid
state
o Zn has the greatest S.S. (66.4 at%)
o Ag, Mg, Li have greater than 10 at % solid solubility.

HARDENING PROCESSES IN ALUMINIUM/ALUMINIUM ALLOYS

o Work hardening

o Alloy hardening - Solid Solution hardening (used in non heat

treatable alloys)
- Precipitation hardening (used in heat
treatable alloys)
Hardening phase
Heat treatable Al-Mg-Si (6xxx) Mg2Si)
Al-Cu (2xxx) - CuAl2
Al-Zn-Mg (7xxx) - MgZn2

Non-heat treatable - Al-Mg (5xxx_)

Al (lxxx)
Al-Mn (3xxx)

o Precipitation Hardening (Fig.8)

* Solution Treatment (above solubility curve)

* Quenching (water)
* Ageing - (NA,AA); NA - Natural Ageing
AA - Artificial Ageing

Precipitation Hardening (Fig. 8)

* Solution Treatment. (above solubility curve)

H- 6
 * Quenching (Water)
* Ageing - (NA-AA) NA - Natural Ageing
AA - Artificial Ageing

Precipitation Stages (Fig.t)

Zone formation due to atomic vibration and clustering of unlike

atoms (Al <--> Cu, Mg <--> Zn, Mg <-->Si).
Strengthening due to hindrance to dislocation movement.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Altenpohl; Aluminium viewed from within Aluminium Verlag,

Dusseldorf, 1982.

2. D.A.Granger, Solidification structures of aluminium alloy ingots,

Vol.9, ASM Handbook, 1985, 629-636.

3. M.C. Flemings, Solidification Processing, McGraw Ilill, 1974.

4. Aluminium - Properties and Physical Metallurgy, Ed. John

E.Hatch, ASM 1984.

5. 1.J. Polmear, Light Alloys - Metallurgy of light metals, 2nd

Edition, 1981, Edward Arnold.

6. Microstructural control in aluminium Alloys : Deformation.

recovery and recrystallization. Ed. E.11cnry Chia and II. J.
McQueen, Met.Soc., 1985.

7. Key to Aluminium Alloys, Compiled by W.I lufnagel, Pub .

Aluminium Zentrale, 1982.

1-1-7
 Al-Cu-Mg
Age
AI Mg si hat Bening
alloys
-—
Al-Zrt-My --1

.44
111
91 T 11
Al -Zit Mg 6-

Al-Si

VA
Casting
alloys
0 4* Al-Si-Cu .

Al _I 1 War k-
liar do( tiny
alloys

Fig, . altanituon

(Intl( it ►formrdinte shiffos bright flefloctlon of incident light

by etched grains. The observer sees
from above "steps" In the crystal
structure revealed by etching In the
(darn of ohne► vallon, ench r,lopn In the
crystal sralm-n reflects mote ft loss
light Into the nye of Ihn observer. I tin
crystal on the for tell rollects the light
directly back at the source and there-
fore seems dark. Whereas. the crystals
on the far right reflects the light directly
In the eye of the observer and appears
bright. The schematic section, perpen-
dicular to the etched surface, shows
four crystals with their cryslallogtraphic
planes parallel to the page. Angle of
Incident light: 45" (M. Schenck.

Fig.2a

rIchert aluminum surface

(99 99% Al). Electron micrograph. One
can see that the etchant removed
layers of atoms, one alter the other,
preferentially from crystallographic:
planes parallel to Ihn laces ol lho ele-
mentary cube. 7 500x

H- 8
 Coolinglsolidilication) and heating (melting) curves
for 99.99% aluminum.
heat
\ scbiii#c II„i)?
i1; ealI
0'
---\
660 cr ,rtiodyil ig IIIL
11e(11 01' li isioi 1

I owilition 011111) nlitichtia (1

rig.2b

Aluminum ()toms
in Ille 'troll : in 11)e :,solid stilly:
tvoclom 1111)1 own/ Morns l'il\cil in lhe
o1' the atoms lattice

- ( 0- (%

..... 0N,,b -0.... 0-' --- ' --(

o_1.. Io
13 d ...• n 'r) i
.
0, (?,I ?. o
0'. _ 1 d 0
o....,_ 0 , p
. .,,0 \ to._0,
o o(ito
11011aVIOr of Flf01111 during
crystallization
r _.,
of nIumaium (I. n., during solidification of nn alu- (.F)(-„ri..-... .Y ,-io 1 c!.._1- ____„
0 0

minum melt).
"Solidificalion fronl ", that is,11)e y
Fig.3. lie•t,ecil (Ind solid taumir HMI

1-1-9
 Structure of a hypoeutectic •1' • /1,-- •
- alloy (Hanemann-Schrader). An alu-
minum-10% copper alloy, eutectic
.• "..)*:1*- 1
r

around larger aluminum-rich primary • • • • / 4.:- •I 4i>

1.3i t (.4(
crystals (a-solid solution). 550x,
-0"
\lb
, .1 •

1,11- 0.
L, s c.; ;A:./... . s,. :(,
j\,.Ii ( I, ,
;'--
1.4■
11
t• • ''' . )I'. „ , .. .3 —; •"'"v■ :::.,
'‘Viii ,I);;‘Vilj ;'14 3 ..:ki,'-7":(
' i ■ 4"'s,,,
)

1)L-:*-)
,.,f,,,
Aluminum alloy with 8%
silicon. Hypoeutectic alloy with alu-
minum-rich primary crystals. 85x.

Aluminum alloy with 20%

silicon. Hypereutectic alloy with primary
• silicon crystals. Alusuisse micrograph.
See Figure 38 for eutectic alloy struc-
ture. 120x.

Structure of sand-
cast aluminum-silicon alloys.

Fig4•

H-
 nw,l,wr ihmnIllrmOrlAcmmw 16,11 1,111 4alitmlittmlblq.1,0Wcw:lillrollitIOnquIrdialw)
T hr,ptillI nlmchmthwilywrimvo,11,, d 1hrim,0 71,1,1111.;COmitilmcirAilhOpttitrO,mthol;owillitholmlm
7onns, owncl;tIly In Thu flpi/Of Inclrri HUI 13)It 1111t1:1( Wahl.; dirt N itr if 011,1:tiOn O1i1t(P;it010
Iltci 101110Val crl !Will.

F ig. 5..

Solidification of a
homogeneous alloy under equi- Liquidus
Temp.
librium conditions.
53 liquid
Solidus
Temp.

solid liquid 4 r a
(homogeneous
sfruclui .e)

Solidification of a
homogeneous alloy under non-
equilibrium conditions.
iquidus
Temp.

Q, Theorel. I
Solidus —1— k-.
< _ K3
Temp.

Acludl
Su
1---
cb Solidus

Solidification of a
heterogeneous alloy under equi-
librium conditions. The 13 crystals
are solid solution crystals, rich in
the alloying metal.

he/Crovneous
. Observing
.,;olit .y14.1)4.1111 ‘e
crystallization with tho aid of an
equilibrium diagram.
At (.111110
Athwi 'ruin/qui it 7°A,
1:1111 pt).', 711.i111
 Liquidus
Tempe ratu
Solidus
TeMpeTatun

Time

Fig.7a . Schematic solidification curve

0 mushy
Tempera ture

I. t t. r .1. t t• t • I.
77 16 711 2 28 .72 36
Fig.7b
Mass % Copper.

Relation between equilibrium diagram and structure

for the aluminium-copper system. Representation of
4% copper content.
 H-13

5oo Solution
treatment

450
Quenching
$.4
Artificial ageing
w
Natural ageing

Tx:\AALL (13

Fig.8. Schematic precipitation hardening of

A1-4Cu-2Mg (2024) alloy

o C 0 0 C:
O o0co
0000C
O 000C Fig.9a
00o0C
6 C.
Atomic arrangement: :
(a) Pure Metal (b) Substitutional
Solid Solution (Cu/Mg) (c) Interstitial
Solid Solution (H2 )
Two foreign crystals
(heterogeneities).
••
• • 0 • 0:, . •
• 41
•\
1,-, .-1' v‘.
. •
••.*Y,;2
•No':,;,7 •c,,•
• •

• • `." • •
,: s' '•■
1
• • • •,

Fig.9b • • .•• •
.• • •)
• •
•• • • • • • V

Grain ooundary, • ' • 1..•

Al atom 0 foreign atom.
l'between two Al grains
Atomic arrangement in a heterogeneous structure