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equivalent
series resistance
Equivalent series resistance is the underdog of ultracapacitor specifications. Limelight is often
spoken for by Farads and operating voltage and the resulting energy density. However, when
deployed for high pulse power loads – the strongpoint of ultracapacitors – ESR has the single
strongest impact towards system efficiency and working temperature. These, in turn, determine
the percentage of energy that can be retrieved from the ultracapacitor in “real life” and the
operating temperature, which is the sole strongest predictor of ultracapacitor lifetime.

Higher ESR drops capacitance at high loads

The Ragone plot shown below depict the dependence of the usable energy content at different
power levels. A 10 second discharge equates to a discharge power of 1.5 kW per kg of weight
(considering the ultracapacitor weight of approx. 0.5kg, the capacitor is discharge at approx 0.75
kW). At this point the ultracapacitor has energy content of 4 Wh/kg.

At five times higher power demand – the ultracapacitor is discharged within 2 seconds – heat
losses are such that power drops from ideal 7.5 kW to 5 kW and energy content is down to 2.7 Wh/
kg of usable energy. The area between the two lines equals the heat and contact resistance losses.

Please see technical annex for the mathematical representation of this and other ESR related ultra-
capacitor performance implications.

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Comparison of capacitors with a large difference in ESR

By deploying a host of material science, capacitor construction and electrode manufacturing

innovations Skeleton has been able to cut ultracapacitor internal resistance to approximately
half of that found in equivalent competitor products.

The Ragone plot below shows the difference between similarly sized capacitors with a 3-fold differ-
ence in internal resistance. At modest power levels - 10 second discharge - the product with higher
ESR levels manages 3.3 Wh/kg (-30%) while Skeleton product manages over 4 Wh/kg (-11.5%).

In conclusion: the competing product tested is essentially unusable at power levels over 1 kW/
kg and Skeleton product’s efficiency still outperforms the competing product at five times higher
power demands.

Skeleton 420F Commercial 310F

ESR (5 sec) 0,65 mOhm 1,89 mOhm
ESR (10 msec) 0,37 mOhm 1,25 mOhm
Power, Pmax 3,12 kW 0,8 kW
Energy 0,47 Wh 0,31 Wh
Emax

Contact and total resistance - manufacturer quoted ESR values are not the whole story

As a de-facto standard manufacturers quote ESR values obtained in a 10 ms voltage drop test.
These values are relevant only in the framework of application times below 1 second. For real-life
comparisons a five-second voltage drop test or a 0.1 Hz test with alternating current yield an ESR
value more relevant for most real-life applications.

Contact resistance is the resistance seen in the current path, including capacitor terminals, the
aluminium foil current collector, the microscopic boundary gap between electrode carbon layer and
the foil current collector and, finally, the carbon structure of the electrodes. The contact resistance
makes up approximately 50% of the total ESR. Total resistance value adds “pore resistance”, the

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equivalent series resistance

effect of which gains in amplitude in the timeframe between 0.5 and 5 second application time,
with the ESR elevation gains dropping off after that. The source of pore resistance is the result of
atomic forces between electrolyte ions and the carbon structure of the electrodes, which hold them
in place (labelled “ensnarement” in the scientific literature).

A comparison of two products with closely matched weight. Measurements performed with Electrochemical
Impedance Spectrometry, from 100 Hz to 0.1 Hz. Contact resistance is measured at 10ms(100 Hz) and total
resistance at 10 seconds (0.1 Hz). The plot is adapted from the Nyquist plot by substituting the derivative
Y-axis with reciprocal of AC frequency (1/v) in seconds.

Total resistance in a different capacitor – LiCap

Lithium Ion capacitors are often praised for their energy density, but are in practice let down
by approximately 10-fold lower life-expectancy and lower power density. Hybrid capacitors use
one “traditional” ultracapacitor electrode on one side and a lithium-ion battery electrode on the
other. This combination of the two technologies creates a compromise between a battery and a
supercapacitor.

The ultracapacitor rule of thumb - by which total resistance is approximately double that of contact
resistance – does not hold in a hybrid system. As seen in the test example below, LiCap exhibits a
4-fold increase in resistance values already at 1sec. The internal test results with a commercially
available 7500F hybrid capacitor show how 10 ms resistance value of 0.34 mOhm is elevated to a
1s resistance value seen in testing was 1.36 mOhm.

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Lithium- ion hybrid capacitor test results

ESRDC 10msec mOhm 0,35 mOhm

ESRDC 1sec 1,36 mOhm
Capacitance 6995 F
Diameter 60 mm
Length 138 mm

ESR is lower at higher temperatures

Internal resistance has an inverse relationship to temperature – higher temperatures lead to lower
resistance. The temperature effect can be mainly attributed to the electrolyte, more specifically, the
viscosity of the electrolyte solvent, in this case acetonitrile (AN). Acetonitrile freezes below -40OC
and boils at 82OC with the viscosity highest at the lowest temperature.

Electrolyte solvent viscosity matters due to its

strong influence towards the mobility of the
electrolyte ions and their interaction with the
nano-porous carbon: the higher the porosity of High energy
the carbon material, the stronger is the effect of electrode
electrolyte viscosity and temperature towards
ESR.
High power
To generalize, it is the electrodes with higher electrode
specific capacitance which are more susceptible
to temperature effects and low power oriented
electrodes with low ESR less The considerable Skeleton in-house tests have, on aver-
latitude of the extent temperature may have age, shown a 24% increase in resistance at
on different types of electrodes is exemplified 25OC compared to 60OC and 170% at -15OC.
by a Skeleton dataset depicted on the graph: Scholarly literature indicates an 18% increase.
between 60°C and -15°C there can be an over The two extremes of temperature-depend-
4-fold difference in ESR, or it can be as low as ence are populated by specialized electrodes
25%. Both extremes are populated by samples tuned for extreme power or energy density.
of highly graphitized high-power electrodes at
the lower end and highly porous carbon at the
highest extreme.

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Case Study

The task is to design a system with the ability to deliver 275 kW of power for 10 seconds
at higher than 95% efficiency. Nominal voltage range is approx. 850 – 425 V, dictated
by minimum voltage requirements are loosely based on a pair of Yasa 750 motors
(http://www.yasamotors.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/YASA-750-Product-Sheet.pdf).
No converters are to be used.

The main design considerations include:

• The number of cells to be connected in series for the required voltage range;
• Ultracapacitor size;
• Number of strings to be connected in parallel;

The number of cells connected in series is an easy requirement to calculate: with a nominal poten-
tial of 2.85 V at least 299 cells are needed. The number of parallel strings is an interplay of heat-
loss vs cell capacity. Among Skeleton products the two capacitor models closest to the design
requirements are 300 pcs of 3200 F cells connected in a single string or 600 pcs of 1800 F cells
connected in two parallel strings.

Option1: 1P 300S Option 2:2P 300S

F 3200 1800
ESR 10ms 0.075 0.079
ESR 5 0.12 0.16
Cells in single string 300 300
Number of strings in parallel 1 2

The 1800 F system with 600 cells has superior characteristics: nearly 3% higher round-trip
efficiency and also more capacity, which combined add around 18% to the duration of the 275 kW
output.

System specification Discharge calculations

System configuration 1P 300S 767 Wh useable energy
Max voltage 855 V
Min Voltage 428 V 855 V Umax (nom)
Capacitance 10.7 F 847 V Umax (practical)
Ri (at 5 sec) 0.0396 Ohms 428 V Umin (nominal)
Ri (at 10 msec) 0.0261 Ohms 445 V Umin (practical)
Average power 275000 W 322 A Imin @ Umax
642 A Imax @ Umin
323 A Imin @ Umax, Pract
618 A Imax @ Umin, Pract
472 A Average I, Practical
8,395 V IR-drop at Umax
16,77 V IR-drop at Umin
10,06 s Time (theor)
88622 J Lost discharge energy
96,8% Energy Efficiency

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equivalent series resistance

System specification Discharge calculations

System configuration 2P 300S 901 Wh usable energy
Max voltage 855 V
Min Voltage 428 V 855 V Umax (nom)
Capacitance 12,0 F 853 V Umax (practical)
Ri (at 5 sec) 0,0258 Ohms 428 V Umin (nominal)
Ri (at 10 msec) 0,0132 Ohms 432 V Umin (practical)
Average power 275000 W 161 A Imin @ Umax
321 A Imax @ Umin
161 A Imin @ Umax, Pract
318 A Imax @ Umin, Pract
240 A Average I, Practical
2,12 V IR-drop at Umax
4,24 V IR-drop at Umin
11,79 s Time (theor)
17478 J Lost discharge energy
99,5 % Energy Efficiency

While a better system, the one with1800 F cells is over-engineered for the purpose as additional
efficiency and capacity beyond 95% and 10 seconds of acceleration assistance are not seen as
design drivers. Added weigh, cost and complexity more than outweigh the marginal benefits to be
had from the overengineered system.

Voltage curve analysis

A simulation of the 300 cell system (2 charge and discharge cycles at constant power) is shown
below to convey a more concise overview of where the ESR related losses occur.

Please observe the following features of the voltage curve:

1. Voltage drop at maximum voltage exhibits loss of energy due to contact resistance at start of
discharge
2. Voltage “drop” in the opposite direction at minimum voltage signifies the same at end of
discharge
3. The accelerating drop of the voltage curve is enhanced by a higher rate of energy loss observed
at higher currents (in a constant power scenario higher current occurs at lower voltages).

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If the ESR of the capacitors doubled (both contact and total resistance), the heat losses would be
higher by 2.8% points and the maximum duration of the acceleration assistance would drop to 9.75
seconds. Below we are comparing the discharge voltage curves of three systems: ideal, nominal
and 2x ESR.

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Starting at the same level of charge (voltage at 855 V) the ideal system would supply 10.63 seconds
of 275 kW output while the 1xESR and 2xESR systems deliver 10.16 seconds and 9.75 seconds
respectively. Changes in the slope of the voltage curve for the ideal system stem purely from the
squared relationship between voltage and energy content while real life systems are affected also
by ESR and therefore see a faster drop-off of the voltage curve.

To summarize: The comparative efficiency of each system can be derived from the root mean square
(RMS) of the area below the voltage curve. The ESR losses can be observed as 1) the initial voltage
drop, 2) increasing angle of descent of the voltage curve at lower voltages.

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equivalent series resistance

TECHNICAL ANNEX
ESR definition

The equivalent series resistance ESR, also known as the internal resistance, is a physical value
representing the Ohmic losses in a simplified equivalent diagram comprising a resistor and an ideal
capacitor in a serial circuit (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1
Series equivalent diagram
of an ultracapacitor

The ESR is caused by non-ideal properties of the ultracapacitor materials, i.e. pore and contact
resistances, ionic inertia, electrolyte conductivity, impurities etc. Ultracapacitor manufacturers use
different methods to express the ESR values, Skeleton Technologies has chosen for engineering
calculations the 5 s current cutoff method as it represents most accurately Ohmic losses and their
effects.

Effects of the ESR

Let us use symbols U, I, Ri for the voltage, current and ESR, respectively.

1. According to the Ohm’s law, the current flowing through a resistance causes a voltage drop
∆U=I • Ri
2. While an ultracapacitor is charged or discharged, some of the energy is lost with the dissipation
power ∆P=I² • Ri i.e. current squared.
3. The dissipated power causes the ultracapacitors to warm up with the final temperature rise of
∆Tf=∆P • Rth = I² • Ri • Rth , where Rth is the thermal resistance.

ESR and the performance data

The ESR becomes evident in multiple values describing the ultracapacitor’s performance:
1. matched impedance power

2. usable power

3. power at 95 % efficiency

4. constant current application time

In the equations above, UR and C stay for the rated voltage and capacitance, respectively.

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Lower ESR vs higher capacitance

Let us consider two nearly similar ultracapacitors:

SCA3200 Generic
Rated voltage 2.85 V 2.85 V
Rated capacitance 3200 V 3400 V
ESR 0.13 mΩ 0.22 mΩ
Thermal resistance, case-ambient 3.2 °C/W 3.2 °C/W

Based on the equation we can plot constant current application times for
both (Fig. 2). As seen, the SCA3200 outperforms a generic 3400 F ultracapacitor at currents
exceeding 840 A, where lower ESR compensates higher capacitance.

Fig. 2
Constant current application times for SCA3200 and generic 3400 F ultracapacitors

Thermal benefits

From the equation ∆Tf=I2 • Ri • Rth it can be seen, that the final temperature rise at constant
current operation is proportional to the ESR. In practice it means that less cooling efforts are
needed or the ultracapacitors can be deployed in warmer environments. Moreover, keeping the
temperature under control helps to avoid premature ageing. An example of constant current
operation temperature rise is given in Fig. 3 below.

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equivalent series resistance

Fig. 3
Temperature rise at constant current operation, caused by ESR

Conclusions

Less ESR results in:

1. less voltage drop;
2. less power loss and more efficiency;
3. longer application time;
4. more available power;
5. more available current;
6. less temperature rise;
7. longer operational lifetime.

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