Resistor

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Resistor

A typical axial-lead resistor

Type Passive
Working principle Electric resistance
Electronic symbol

Two common schematic symbols

Axial-lead resistors on tape. The component is cut from the tape during assembly and the part is
inserted into the board.

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as

a circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow, adjust signal
levels, to divide voltages, bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines, among other
uses. High-power resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat may be used
as part of motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for generators. Fixed
resistors have resistances that only change slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage.
Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp
dimmer), or as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous
in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as discrete components can be composed of various
compounds and forms. Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits.
The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors
are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. The nominal value of the
resistance falls within the manufacturing tolerance, indicated on the component.

Contents
1 Electronic symbols and notation
2 Theory of operation
o 2.1 Ohm's law
o 2.2 Series and parallel resistors
o 2.3 Power dissipation
3 Nonideal properties
4 Fixed resistor
o 4.1 Lead arrangements
o 4.2 Carbon composition
o 4.3 Carbon pile
o 4.4 Carbon film
o 4.5 Printed carbon resistor
o 4.6 Thick and thin film
o 4.7 Metal film
o 4.8 Metal oxide film
o 4.9 Wire wound
o 4.10 Foil resistor
o 4.11 Ammeter shunts
o 4.12 Grid resistor
o 4.13 Special varieties
5 Variable resistors
o 5.1 Adjustable resistors
o 5.2 Potentiometers
o 5.3 Resistance decade boxes
o 5.4 Special devices
6 Measurement
7 Standards
o 7.1 Production resistors
o 7.2 Resistance standards
8 Resistor marking
o 8.1 Preferred values
o 8.2 SMT resistors
o 8.3 Industrial type designation
9 Electrical and thermal noise
10 Failure modes
11 See also
12 References
13 External links
Electronic symbols and notation
Main articles: Electronic symbol and Letter and digit code for resistance values

Two typical schematic diagram symbols are as follows:

(a) resistor, (b) rheostat (variable resistor), and (c) potentiometer

IEC resistor symbol

The notation to state a resistor's value in a circuit diagram varies.

One common scheme is the letter and digit code for resistance values following IEC 60062. It
avoids using a decimal separator and replaces the decimal separator with a letter loosely
associated with SI prefixes corresponding with the part's resistance. For example, 8K2 as part
marking code, in a circuit diagram or in a bill of materials (BOM) indicates a resistor value of
8.2 k. Additional zeros imply a tighter tolerance, for example 15M0 for three significant digits.
When the value can be expressed without the need for a prefix (that is, multiplicator 1), an "R" is
used instead of the decimal separator. For example, 1R2 indicates 1.2 , and 18R indicates 18 .

Theory of operation

The hydraulic analogy compares electric current flowing through circuits to water flowing
through pipes. When a pipe (left) is clogged with hair (right), it takes a larger pressure to achieve
the same flow of water. Pushing electric current through a large resistance is like pushing water
through a pipe clogged with hair: It requires a larger push (voltage) to drive the same flow
(electric current).[1]

Ohm's law

Main article: Ohm's law

The behaviour of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified by Ohm's law:

Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I), where the
constant of proportionality is the resistance (R). For example, if a 300 ohm resistor is attached
across the terminals of a 12 volt battery, then a current of 12 / 300 = 0.04 amperes flows through
that resistor.

Practical resistors also have some inductance and capacitance which affect the relation between
voltage and current in alternating current circuits.

The ohm (symbol: ) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon Ohm. An
ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured over a
very large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 m = 103 ), kilohm (1 k = 103
), and megohm (1 M = 106 ) are also in common usage.

Series and parallel resistors

Main article: Series and parallel circuits

The total resistance of resistors connected in series is the sum of their individual resistance
values.

The total resistance of resistors connected in parallel is the reciprocal of the sum of the
reciprocals of the individual resistors.
For example, a 10 ohm resistor connected in parallel with a 5 ohm resistor and a 15 ohm resistor
produces 1/1/10 + 1/5 + 1/15 ohms of resistance, or 30/11 = 2.727 ohms.

A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series connections can be broken up into
smaller parts that are either one or the other. Some complex networks of resistors cannot be
resolved in this manner, requiring more sophisticated circuit analysis. Generally, the Y-
transform, or matrix methods can be used to solve such problems.[2][3][4]

Power dissipation

At any instant, the power P (watts) consumed by a resistor of resistance R (ohms) is calculated

as: where V (volts) is the voltage across the resistor and I (amps) is the current flowing
through it. Using Ohm's law, the two other forms can be derived. This power is converted into
heat which must be dissipated by the resistor's package before its temperature rises excessively.

Resistors are rated according to their maximum power dissipation. Discrete resistors in solid-
state electronic systems are typically rated as 1/10, 1/8, or 1/4 watt. They usually absorb much
less than a watt of electrical power and require little attention to their power rating.

An aluminium-housed power resistor rated for 50 W when heat-sinked

Resistors required to dissipate substantial amounts of power, particularly used in power supplies,
power conversion circuits, and power amplifiers, are generally referred to as power resistors; this
designation is loosely applied to resistors with power ratings of 1 watt or greater. Power resistors
are physically larger and may not use the preferred values, color codes, and external packages
described below.
If the average power dissipated by a resistor is more than its power rating, damage to the resistor
may occur, permanently altering its resistance; this is distinct from the reversible change in
resistance due to its temperature coefficient when it warms. Excessive power dissipation may
raise the temperature of the resistor to a point where it can burn the circuit board or adjacent
components, or even cause a fire. There are flameproof resistors that fail (open circuit) before
they overheat dangerously.

Since poor air circulation, high altitude, or high operating temperatures may occur, resistors may
be specified with higher rated dissipation than is experienced in service.

All resistors have a maximum voltage rating; this may limit the power dissipation for higher
resistance values.

VZR power resistor 1.5k 12W, manufactured in 1963 in the Soviet Union

Nonideal properties
Practical resistors have a series inductance and a small parallel capacitance; these specifications
can be important in high-frequency applications. In a low-noise amplifier or pre-amp, the noise
characteristics of a resistor may be an issue.

The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in some precision
applications.

The unwanted inductance, excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent on the
technology used in manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified individually for a
particular family of resistors manufactured using a particular technology.[5] A family of discrete
resistors is also characterized according to its form factor, that is, the size of the device and the
position of its leads (or terminals) which is relevant in the practical manufacturing of circuits
using them.

Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating which must exceed the
anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is mainly of concern in
power electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are physically larger and may
require heat sinks. In a high-voltage circuit, attention must sometimes be paid to the rated
maximum working voltage of the resistor. While there is no minimum working voltage for a
given resistor, failure to account for a resistor's maximum rating may cause the resistor to
incinerate when current is run through it.

Fixed resistor

A single in line (SIL) resistor package with 8 individual, 47 ohm resistors. One end of each
resistor is connected to a separate pin and the other ends are all connected together to the
remaining (common) pin pin 1, at the end identified by the white dot.

Lead arrangements

Resistors with wire leads for through-hole mounting

Through-hole components typically have "leads" (pronounced /lidz/) leaving the body "axially,"
that is, on a line parallel with the part's longest axis. Others have leads coming off their body
"radially" instead. Other components may be SMT (surface mount technology), while high
power resistors may have one of their leads designed into the heat sink.

Carbon composition

Three carbon composition resistors in a 1960s valve (vacuum tube) radio

Carbon composition resistors (CCR) consist of a solid cylindrical resistive element with
embedded wire leads or metal end caps to which the lead wires are attached. The body of the
resistor is protected with paint or plastic. Early 20th-century carbon composition resistors had
uninsulated bodies; the lead wires were wrapped around the ends of the resistance element rod
and soldered. The completed resistor was painted for color-coding of its value.

The resistive element is made from a mixture of finely powdered carbon and an insulating
material, usually ceramic. A resin holds the mixture together. The resistance is determined by the
ratio of the fill material (the powdered ceramic) to the carbon. Higher concentrations of carbon,
which is a good conductor, result in lower resistance. Carbon composition resistors were
commonly used in the 1960s and earlier, but are not popular for general use now as other types
have better specifications, such as tolerance, voltage dependence, and stress. Carbon composition
resistors change value when stressed with over-voltages. Moreover, if internal moisture content,
from exposure for some length of time to a humid environment, is significant, soldering heat
creates a non-reversible change in resistance value. Carbon composition resistors have poor
stability with time and were consequently factory sorted to, at best, only 5% tolerance.[6] These
resistors are non-inductive that provide benefit when used in voltage pulse reduction and surge
protection applications.[7] These resistors, however, if never subjected to overvoltage nor
overheating were remarkably reliable considering the component's size.[8]

Carbon composition resistors are still available, but comparatively quite costly. Values ranged
from fractions of an ohm to 22 megohms. Due to their high price, these resistors are no longer
used in most applications. However, they are used in power supplies and welding controls.[8]

Carbon pile

A carbon pile resistor is made of a stack of carbon disks compressed between two metal contact
plates. Adjusting the clamping pressure changes the resistance between the plates. These
resistors are used when an adjustable load is required, for example in testing automotive batteries
or radio transmitters. A carbon pile resistor can also be used as a speed control for small motors
in household appliances (sewing machines, hand-held mixers) with ratings up to a few hundred
watts.[9] A carbon pile resistor can be incorporated in automatic voltage regulators for generators,
where the carbon pile controls the field current to maintain relatively constant voltage.[10] The
principle is also applied in the carbon microphone.

Carbon film

Carbon film resistor with exposed carbon spiral (Tesla TR-212 1 k)

A carbon film is deposited on an insulating substrate, and a helix is cut in it to create a long,
narrow resistive path. Varying shapes, coupled with the resistivity of amorphous carbon (ranging
from 500 to 800 m), can provide a wide range of resistance values. Compared to carbon
composition they feature low noise, because of the precise distribution of the pure graphite
without binding.[11] Carbon film resistors feature a power rating range of 0.125 W to 5 W at
70 C. Resistances available range from 1 ohm to 10 megohm. The carbon film resistor has an
operating temperature range of 55 C to 155 C. It has 200 to 600 volts maximum working
voltage range. Special carbon film resistors are used in applications requiring high pulse
stability.[8]

Printed carbon resistor

A carbon resistor printed directly onto the SMD pads on a PCB. Inside a 1989 vintage Psion II
Organiser

Carbon composition resistors can be printed directly onto printed circuit board (PCB) substrates
as part of the PCB manufacturing process. Although this technique is more common on hybrid
PCB modules, it can also be used on standard fibreglass PCBs. Tolerances are typically quite
large, and can be in the order of 30%. A typical application would be non-critical pull-up
resistors.

Thick and thin film

Laser Trimmed Precision Thin Film Resistor Network from Fluke, used in the Keithley
DMM7510 multimeter. Ceramic backed with glass hermetic seal cover.

Thick film resistors became popular during the 1970s, and most SMD (surface mount device)
resistors today are of this type. The resistive element of thick films is 1000 times thicker than
thin films,[12] but the principal difference is how the film is applied to the cylinder (axial
resistors) or the surface (SMD resistors).

Thin film resistors are made by sputtering (a method of vacuum deposition) the resistive material
onto an insulating substrate. The film is then etched in a similar manner to the old (subtractive)
process for making printed circuit boards; that is, the surface is coated with a photo-sensitive
material, then covered by a pattern film, irradiated with ultraviolet light, and then the exposed
photo-sensitive coating is developed, and underlying thin film is etched away.

Thick film resistors are manufactured using screen and stencil printing processes.[8]
Because the time during which the sputtering is performed can be controlled, the thickness of the
thin film can be accurately controlled. The type of material is also usually different consisting of
one or more ceramic (cermet) conductors such as tantalum nitride (TaN), ruthenium oxide (RuO
2), lead oxide (PbO), bismuth ruthenate (Bi
2Ru
2O
7), nickel chromium (NiCr), or bismuth iridate (Bi
2Ir
2O
7).

The resistance of both thin and thick film resistors after manufacture is not highly accurate; they
are usually trimmed to an accurate value by abrasive or laser trimming. Thin film resistors are
usually specified with tolerances of 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, or 1%, and with temperature coefficients of 5 to
25 ppm/K. They also have much lower noise levels, on the level of 10100 times less than thick
film resistors.[citation needed]

Thick film resistors may use the same conductive ceramics, but they are mixed with sintered
(powdered) glass and a carrier liquid so that the composite can be screen-printed. This composite
of glass and conductive ceramic (cermet) material is then fused (baked) in an oven at about
850 C.

Thick film resistors, when first manufactured, had tolerances of 5%, but standard tolerances have
improved to 2% or 1% in the last few decades. Temperature coefficients of thick film resistors
are high, typically 200 or 250 ppm/K; a 40 kelvin (70 F) temperature change can change the
resistance by 1%.

Thin film resistors are usually far more expensive than thick film resistors. For example, SMD
thin film resistors, with 0.5% tolerances, and with 25 ppm/K temperature coefficients, when
bought in full size reel quantities, are about twice the cost of 1%, 250 ppm/K thick film resistors.

Metal film

A common type of axial-leaded resistor today is the metal-film resistor. Metal Electrode
Leadless Face (MELF) resistors often use the same technology, and are also cylindrically shaped
but are designed for surface mounting. Note that other types of resistors (e.g., carbon
composition) are also available in MELF packages.

Metal film resistors are usually coated with nickel chromium (NiCr), but might be coated with
any of the cermet materials listed above for thin film resistors. Unlike thin film resistors, the
material may be applied using different techniques than sputtering (though this is one of the
techniques). Also, unlike thin-film resistors, the resistance value is determined by cutting a helix
through the coating rather than by etching. (This is similar to the way carbon resistors are made.)
The result is a reasonable tolerance (0.5%, 1%, or 2%) and a temperature coefficient that is
generally between 50 and 100 ppm/K.[13] Metal film resistors possess good noise characteristics
and low non-linearity due to a low voltage coefficient. Also beneficial are their tight tolerance,
low temperature coefficient and long-term stability.[8]

Metal oxide film

Metal-oxide film resistors are made of metal oxides which results in a higher operating
temperature and greater stability/reliability than Metal film. They are used in applications with
high endurance demands.

Wire wound

High-power wire wound resistors used for dynamic braking on an electric railway car. Such
resistors may dissipate many kilowatts for an extended length of time.

Types of windings in wire resistors:

1. common
2. bifilar
3. common on a thin former
4. Ayrton-Perry

Wirewound resistors are commonly made by winding a metal wire, usually nichrome, around a
ceramic, plastic, or fiberglass core. The ends of the wire are soldered or welded to two caps or
rings, attached to the ends of the core. The assembly is protected with a layer of paint, molded
plastic, or an enamel coating baked at high temperature. These resistors are designed to
withstand unusually high temperatures of up to 450 C.[8] Wire leads in low power wirewound
resistors are usually between 0.6 and 0.8 mm in diameter and tinned for ease of soldering. For
higher power wirewound resistors, either a ceramic outer case or an aluminum outer case on top
of an insulating layer is used if the outer case is ceramic, such resistors are sometimes
described as "cement" resistors, though they do not actually contain any traditional cement. The
aluminum-cased types are designed to be attached to a heat sink to dissipate the heat; the rated
power is dependent on being used with a suitable heat sink, e.g., a 50 W power rated resistor
overheats at a fraction of the power dissipation if not used with a heat sink. Large wirewound
resistors may be rated for 1,000 watts or more.

Because wirewound resistors are coils they have more undesirable inductance than other types of
resistor, although winding the wire in sections with alternately reversed direction can minimize
inductance. Other techniques employ bifilar winding, or a flat thin former (to reduce cross-
section area of the coil). For the most demanding circuits, resistors with Ayrton-Perry winding
are used.

Applications of wirewound resistors are similar to those of composition resistors with the
exception of the high frequency. The high frequency response of wirewound resistors is
substantially worse than that of a composition resistor.[8]

Foil resistor

The primary resistance element of a foil resistor is a special alloy foil several micrometers thick.
Since their introduction in the 1960s, foil resistors have had the best precision and stability of
any resistor available. One of the important parameters influencing stability is the temperature
coefficient of resistance (TCR). The TCR of foil resistors is extremely low, and has been further
improved over the years. One range of ultra-precision foil resistors offers a TCR of 0.14 ppm/C,
tolerance 0.005%, long-term stability (1 year) 25 ppm, (3 years) 50 ppm (further improved 5-
fold by hermetic sealing), stability under load (2000 hours) 0.03%, thermal EMF 0.1 V/C,
noise 42 dB, voltage coefficient 0.1 ppm/V, inductance 0.08 H, capacitance 0.5 pF.[14]

Ammeter shunts

An ammeter shunt is a special type of current-sensing resistor, having four terminals and a value
in milliohms or even micro-ohms. Current-measuring instruments, by themselves, can usually
accept only limited currents. To measure high currents, the current passes through the shunt
across which the voltage drop is measured and interpreted as current. A typical shunt consists of
two solid metal blocks, sometimes brass, mounted on an insulating base. Between the blocks,
and soldered or brazed to them, are one or more strips of low temperature coefficient of
resistance (TCR) manganin alloy. Large bolts threaded into the blocks make the current
connections, while much smaller screws provide volt meter connections. Shunts are rated by full-
scale current, and often have a voltage drop of 50 mV at rated current. Such meters are adapted
to the shunt full current rating by using an appropriately marked dial face; no change need to be
made to the other parts of the meter.

Grid resistor

In heavy-duty industrial high-current applications, a grid resistor is a large convection-cooled

lattice of stamped metal alloy strips connected in rows between two electrodes. Such industrial
grade resistors can be as large as a refrigerator; some designs can handle over 500 amperes of
current, with a range of resistances extending lower than 0.04 ohms. They are used in
applications such as dynamic braking and load banking for locomotives and trams, neutral
grounding for industrial AC distribution, control loads for cranes and heavy equipment, load
testing of generators and harmonic filtering for electric substations.[15]

The term grid resistor is sometimes used to describe a resistor of any type connected to the
control grid of a vacuum tube. This is not a resistor technology; it is an electronic circuit
topology.

Special varieties

Cermet
Phenolic
Tantalum
Water resistor

Variable resistors
Adjustable resistors

A resistor may have one or more fixed tapping points so that the resistance can be changed by
moving the connecting wires to different terminals. Some wirewound power resistors have a
tapping point that can slide along the resistance element, allowing a larger or smaller part of the
resistance to be used.

Where continuous adjustment of the resistance value during operation of equipment is required,
the sliding resistance tap can be connected to a knob accessible to an operator. Such a device is
called a rheostat and has two terminals.

Potentiometers

Typical panel mount potentiometer

Drawing of potentiometer with case cut away, showing parts: (A) shaft, (B) stationary carbon
composition resistance element, (C) phosphor bronze wiper, (D) shaft attached to wiper, (E, G)
terminals connected to ends of resistance element, (F) terminal connected to wiper.

An assortment of small through-hole potentiometers designed for mounting on printed circuit

boards.
Main article: Potentiometer

A potentiometer or pot is a three-terminal resistor with a continuously adjustable tapping point

controlled by rotation of a shaft or knob or by a linear slider.[16] It is called a potentiometer
because it can be connected as an adjustable voltage divider to provide a variable potential at the
terminal connected to the tapping point. A volume control for an audio device is a common use
of a potentiometer. A typical low power potentiometer (see drawing) is constructed of a flat
resistance element (B) of carbon composition, metal film, or conductive plastic, with a springy
phosphor bronze wiper contact (C) which moves along the surface. An alternate construction is
resistance wire wound on a form, with the wiper sliding axially along the coil.[16] These have
lower resolution, since as the wiper moves the resistance changes in steps equal to the resistance
of a single turn.[16]

High-resolution multiturn potentiometers are used in a few precision applications. These have
wirewound resistance elements typically wound on a helical mandrel, with the wiper moving on
a helical track as the control is turned, making continuous contact with the wire. Some include a
conductive-plastic resistance coating over the wire to improve resolution. These typically offer
ten turns of their shafts to cover their full range. They are usually set with dials that include a
simple turns counter and a graduated dial, and can typically achieve three digit resolution.
Electronic analog computers used them in quantity for setting coefficients, and delayed-sweep
oscilloscopes of recent decades included one on their panels.
Resistance decade boxes

Main article: Decade box

Resistance decade box "Kurbelwiderstand", made in former East Germany.

A resistance decade box or resistor substitution box is a unit containing resistors of many values,
with one or more mechanical switches which allow any one of various discrete resistances
offered by the box to be dialed in. Usually the resistance is accurate to high precision, ranging
from laboratory/calibration grade accuracy of 20 parts per million, to field grade at 1%.
Inexpensive boxes with lesser accuracy are also available. All types offer a convenient way of
selecting and quickly changing a resistance in laboratory, experimental and development work
without needing to attach resistors one by one, or even stock each value. The range of resistance
provided, the maximum resolution, and the accuracy characterize the box. For example, one box
offers resistances from 0 to 100 megohms, maximum resolution 0.1 ohm, accuracy 0.1%.[17]

Special devices

There are various devices whose resistance changes with various quantities. The resistance of
NTC thermistors exhibit a strong negative temperature coefficient, making them useful for
measuring temperatures. Since their resistance can be large until they are allowed to heat up due
to the passage of current, they are also commonly used to prevent excessive current surges when
equipment is powered on. Similarly, the resistance of a humistor varies with humidity. One sort
of photodetector, the photoresistor, has a resistance which varies with illumination.

The strain gauge, invented by Edward E. Simmons and Arthur C. Ruge in 1938, is a type of
resistor that changes value with applied strain. A single resistor may be used, or a pair (half
bridge), or four resistors connected in a Wheatstone bridge configuration. The strain resistor is
bonded with adhesive to an object that is subjected to mechanical strain. With the strain gauge
and a filter, amplifier, and analog/digital converter, the strain on an object can be measured.

A related but more recent invention uses a Quantum Tunnelling Composite to sense mechanical
stress. It passes a current whose magnitude can vary by a factor of 1012 in response to changes in
applied pressure.

Measurement
The value of a resistor can be measured with an ohmmeter, which may be one function of a
multimeter. Usually, probes on the ends of test leads connect to the resistor. A simple ohmmeter
may apply a voltage from a battery across the unknown resistor (with an internal resistor of a
known value in series) producing a current which drives a meter movement. The current, in
accordance with Ohm's law, is inversely proportional to the sum of the internal resistance and the
resistor being tested, resulting in an analog meter scale which is very non-linear, calibrated from
infinity to 0 ohms. A digital multimeter, using active electronics, may instead pass a specified
current through the test resistance. The voltage generated across the test resistance in that case is
linearly proportional to its resistance, which is measured and displayed. In either case the low-
resistance ranges of the meter pass much more current through the test leads than do high-
resistance ranges, in order for the voltages present to be at reasonable levels (generally below 10
volts) but still measurable.

Measuring low-value resistors, such as fractional-ohm resistors, with acceptable accuracy

requires four-terminal connections. One pair of terminals applies a known, calibrated current to
the resistor, while the other pair senses the voltage drop across the resistor. Some laboratory
quality ohmmeters, especially milliohmmeters, and even some of the better digital multimeters
sense using four input terminals for this purpose, which may be used with special test leads. Each
of the two so-called Kelvin clips has a pair of jaws insulated from each other. One side of each
clip applies the measuring current, while the other connections are only to sense the voltage
drop. The resistance is again calculated using Ohm's Law as the measured voltage divided by the
applied current.

Standards
Production resistors

Resistor characteristics are quantified and reported using various national standards. In the US,
MIL-STD-202[18] contains the relevant test methods to which other standards refer.

There are various standards specifying properties of resistors for use in equipment:

IEC 60062 (IEC 62) / DIN 40825 / BS 1852 / IS 8186 / JIS C 5062 etc. (Resistor color
code, letter and digit code, date code)
EIA RS-279 / DIN 41429 (Resistor color code)
IEC 60063 (IEC 63) / JIS C 5063 (Standard E series values)
MIL-PRF-26
MIL-PRF-39007 (Fixed power, established reliability)
MIL-PRF-55342 (Surface-mount thick and thin film)
MIL-PRF-914
MIL-R-11 STANDARD CANCELED
MIL-R-39017 (Fixed, General Purpose, Established Reliability)
MIL-PRF-32159 (zero ohm jumpers)
UL 1412 (fusing and temperature limited resistors)[19]

There are other United States military procurement MIL-R- standards.

Resistance standards

The primary standard for resistance, the "mercury ohm" was initially defined in 1884 in as a
column of mercury 106.3 cm long and 1 square millimeter in cross-section, at 0 degrees Celsius.
Difficulties in precisely measuring the physical constants to replicate this standard result in
variations of as much as 30 ppm. From 1900 the mercury ohm was replaced with a precision
machined plate of manganin.[20] Since 1990 the international resistance standard has been based
on the quantized Hall effect discovered by Klaus von Klitzing, for which he won the Nobel Prize
in Physics in 1985.[21]

Resistors of extremely high precision are manufactured for calibration and laboratory use. They
may have four terminals, using one pair to carry an operating current and the other pair to
measure the voltage drop; this eliminates errors caused by voltage drops across the lead
resistances, because no charge flows through voltage sensing leads. It is important in small value
resistors (1000.0001 ohm) where lead resistance is significant or even comparable with respect
to resistance standard value.[22]

Resistor marking
Main article: Electronic color code

Most axial resistors use a pattern of colored stripes to indicate resistance, which also indicate
tolerance, and may also be extended to show temperature coefficient and reliability class. Cases
are usually tan, brown, blue, or green, though other colors are occasionally found such as dark
red or dark gray. The power rating is not usually marked and is deduced from the size.

The color bands of the carbon resistors can be three, four, five or, six bands. The first two bands
represent first two digits to measure their value in ohms. The third band of a three- or four-
banded resistor represents multiplier; a fourth band denotes tolerance (which if absent, denotes
20%). For five and six color-banded resistors, the third band is a third digit, fourth band
multiplier and fifth is tolerance. The sixth band represents temperature co-efficient in a six-
banded resistor.

Surface-mount resistors are marked numerically, if they are big enough to permit marking; more-
recent small sizes are impractical to mark.

Early 20th century resistors, essentially uninsulated, were dipped in paint to cover their entire
body for color-coding. A second color of paint was applied to one end of the element, and a color
dot (or band) in the middle provided the third digit. The rule was "body, tip, dot", providing two
significant digits for value and the decimal multiplier, in that sequence. Default tolerance was
20%. Closer-tolerance resistors had silver (10%) or gold-colored (5%) paint on the other end.

Preferred values

See also: E-series of preferred numbers

Early resistors were made in more or less arbitrary round numbers; a series might have 100, 125,
150, 200, 300, etc.[23] Resistors as manufactured are subject to a certain percentage tolerance, and
it makes sense to manufacture values that correlate with the tolerance, so that the actual value of
a resistor overlaps slightly with its neighbors. Wider spacing leaves gaps; narrower spacing
increases manufacturing and inventory costs to provide resistors that are more or less
interchangeable.

A logical scheme is to produce resistors in a range of values which increase in a geometric

progression, so that each value is greater than its predecessor by a fixed multiplier or percentage,
chosen to match the tolerance of the range. For example, for a tolerance of 20% it makes sense
to have each resistor about 1.5 times its predecessor, covering a decade in 6 values. In practice
the factor used is 1.4678, giving values of 1.47, 2.15, 3.16, 4.64, 6.81, 10 for the 110-decade (a
decade is a range increasing by a factor of 10; 0.11 and 10100 are other examples); these are
rounded in practice to 1.5, 2.2, 3.3, 4.7, 6.8, 10; followed, by 15, 22, 33, and preceded by
0.47, 0.68, 1. This scheme has been adopted as the E48 series of the IEC 60063 preferred number
values. There are also E12, E24, E48, E96 and E192 series for components of progressively
finer resolution, with 12, 24, 96, and 192 different values within each decade. The actual values
used are in the IEC 60063 lists of preferred numbers.

A resistor of 100 ohms 20% would be expected to have a value between 80 and 120 ohms; its
E6 neighbors are 68 (5482) and 150 (120180) ohms. A sensible spacing, E6 is used for 20%
components; E12 for 10%; E24 for 5%; E48 for 2%, E96 for 1%; E192 for 0.5% or better.
Resistors are manufactured in values from a few milliohms to about a gigaohm in IEC60063
ranges appropriate for their tolerance. Manufacturers may sort resistors into tolerance-classes
based on measurement. Accordingly, a selection of 100 ohms resistors with a tolerance of 10%,
might not lie just around 100 ohm (but no more than 10% off) as one would expect (a bell-
curve), but rather be in two groups either between 5 and 10% too high or 5 to 10% too low (but
not closer to 100 ohm than that) because any resistors the factory had measured as being less
than 5% off would have been marked and sold as resistors with only 5% tolerance or better.
When designing a circuit, this may become a consideration. This process of sorting parts based
on post-production measurement is known as "binning", and can be applied to other components
than resistors (such as speed grades for CPUs).

Earlier power wirewound resistors, such as brown vitreous-enameled types, however, were made
with a different system of preferred values, such as some of those mentioned in the first sentence
of this section.

SMT resistors
This image shows four surface-mount resistors (the component at the upper left is a capacitor)
including two zero-ohm resistors. Zero-ohm links are often used instead of wire links, so that
they can be inserted by a resistor-inserting machine. Their resistance is non-zero but negligible.

Surface mounted resistors of larger sizes (metric 1608 and above) are printed with numerical
values in a code related to that used on axial resistors. Standard-tolerance surface-mount
technology (SMT) resistors are marked with a three-digit code, in which the first two digits are
the first two significant digits of the value and the third digit is the power of ten (the number of
zeroes). For example:

334 = 33 104 ohms = 330 kilohms

222 = 22 102 ohms = 2.2 kilohms
473 = 47 103 ohms = 47 kilohms
105 = 10 105 ohms = 1 megohm

Resistances less than 100 ohms are written: 100, 220, 470. The final zero represents ten to the
power zero, which is 1. For example:

100 = 10 100 ohm = 10 ohms

220 = 22 100 ohm = 22 ohms

Sometimes these values are marked as 10 or 22 to prevent a mistake.

Resistances less than 10 ohms have 'R' to indicate the position of the decimal point (radix point).
For example:

4R7 = 4.7 ohms

R300 = 0.30 ohms
0R22 = 0.22 ohms
0R01 = 0.01 ohms

Precision resistors are marked with a four-digit code, in which the first three digits are the
significant figures and the fourth is the power of ten. For example:
1001 = 100 101 ohms = 1.00 kilohm
4992 = 499 102 ohms = 49.9 kilohm
1000 = 100 100 ohm = 100 ohms

000 and 0000 sometimes appear as values on surface-mount zero-ohm links, since these have
(approximately) zero resistance.

More recent surface-mount resistors are too small, physically, to permit practical markings to be
applied.

Industrial type designation

Format: [two letters]<space>[resistance value (three digit)]<nospace>[tolerance

code(numerical one digit)] [24]

Power Rating at 70 C
Power
MIL-R-11 MIL-R-39008
Type No. rating
Style Style
(watts)
BB 18 RC05 RCR05
CB 4
1
RC07 RCR07
EB 2
1
RC20 RCR20
GB 1 RC32 RCR32
HB 2 RC42 RCR42
GM 3 - -
HM 4 - -
Tolerance Code
Industrial
MIL
type Tolerance
Designation
designation
5 5% J
2 20% M
1 10% K
- 2% G
- 1% F
- 0.5% D
- 0.25% C
- 0.1% B

Steps to find out the resistance or capacitance values:

 1. First two letters gives the power dissipation capacity.
2. Next three digits gives the resistance value.
1. First two digits are the significant values
2. Third digit is the multiplier.
3. Final digit gives the tolerance.

If a resistor is coded:

EB1041: power dissipation capacity = 1/2 watts, resistance value = 1010^410% =

between 910^4 ohms and 1110^4 ohms.
CB3932: power dissipation capacity = 1/4 watts, resistance value = 3910^320% =
between 46.810^3 ohms and 31.210^3 ohms.

Electrical and thermal noise

Main article: Noise (electronics)

In amplifying faint signals, it is often necessary to minimize electronic noise, particularly in the
first stage of amplification. As a dissipative element, even an ideal resistor naturally produces a
randomly fluctuating voltage, or noise, across its terminals. This JohnsonNyquist noise is a
fundamental noise source which depends only upon the temperature and resistance of the
resistor, and is predicted by the fluctuationdissipation theorem. Using a larger value of
resistance produces a larger voltage noise, whereas a smaller value of resistance generates more
current noise, at a given temperature.

The thermal noise of a practical resistor may also be larger than the theoretical prediction and
that increase is typically frequency-dependent. Excess noise of a practical resistor is observed
only when current flows through it. This is specified in unit of V/V/decade V of noise per
volt applied across the resistor per decade of frequency. The V/V/decade value is frequently
given in dB so that a resistor with a noise index of 0 dB exhibits 1 V (rms) of excess noise for
each volt across the resistor in each frequency decade. Excess noise is thus an example of 1/f
noise. Thick-film and carbon composition resistors generate more excess noise than other types
at low frequencies. Wire-wound and thin-film resistors are often used for their better noise
characteristics. Carbon composition resistors can exhibit a noise index of 0 dB while bulk metal
foil resistors may have a noise index of 40 dB, usually making the excess noise of metal foil
resistors insignificant.[25] Thin film surface mount resistors typically have lower noise and better
thermal stability than thick film surface mount resistors. Excess noise is also size-dependent: in
general excess noise is reduced as the physical size of a resistor is increased (or multiple resistors
are used in parallel), as the independently fluctuating resistances of smaller components tend to
average out.

While not an example of "noise" per se, a resistor may act as a thermocouple, producing a small
DC voltage differential across it due to the thermoelectric effect if its ends are at different
temperatures. This induced DC voltage can degrade the precision of instrumentation amplifiers
in particular. Such voltages appear in the junctions of the resistor leads with the circuit board and
with the resistor body. Common metal film resistors show such an effect at a magnitude of about
20 V/C. Some carbon composition resistors can exhibit thermoelectric offsets as high as 400
V/C, whereas specially constructed resistors can reduce this number to 0.05 V/C. In
applications where the thermoelectric effect may become important, care has to be taken to
mount the resistors horizontally to avoid temperature gradients and to mind the air flow over the
board.[26]

Failure modes
The failure rate of resistors in a properly designed circuit is low compared to other electronic
components such as semiconductors and electrolytic capacitors. Damage to resistors most often
occurs due to overheating when the average power delivered to it greatly exceeds its ability to
dissipate heat (specified by the resistor's power rating). This may be due to a fault external to the
circuit, but is frequently caused by the failure of another component (such as a transistor that
shorts out) in the circuit connected to the resistor. Operating a resistor too close to its power
rating can limit the resistor's lifespan or cause a significant change in its resistance. A safe design
generally uses overrated resistors in power applications to avoid this danger.

Low-power thin-film resistors can be damaged by long-term high-voltage stress, even below
maximum specified voltage and below maximum power rating. This is often the case for the
startup resistors feeding the SMPS integrated circuit.[citation needed]

When overheated, carbon-film resistors may decrease or increase in resistance.[27] Carbon film
and composition resistors can fail (open circuit) if running close to their maximum dissipation.
This is also possible but less likely with metal film and wirewound resistors.

There can also be failure of resistors due to mechanical stress and adverse environmental factors
including humidity. If not enclosed, wirewound resistors can corrode.

Surface mount resistors have been known to fail due to the ingress of sulfur into the internal
makeup of the resistor. This sulfur chemically reacts with the silver layer to produce non-
conductive silver sulfide. The resistor's impedance goes to infinity. Sulfur resistant and anti-
corrosive resistors are sold into automotive, industrial, and military applications. ASTM B809 is
an industry standard that tests a part's susceptibility to sulfur.

An alternative failure mode can be encountered where large value resistors are used (hundreds of
kilohms and higher). Resistors are not only specified with a maximum power dissipation, but
also for a maximum voltage drop. Exceeding this voltage causes the resistor to degrade slowly
reducing in resistance. The voltage dropped across large value resistors can be exceeded before
the power dissipation reaches its limiting value. Since the maximum voltage specified for
commonly encountered resistors is a few hundred volts, this is a problem only in applications
where these voltages are encountered.

Variable resistors can also degrade in a different manner, typically involving poor contact
between the wiper and the body of the resistance. This may be due to dirt or corrosion and is
typically perceived as "crackling" as the contact resistance fluctuates; this is especially noticed as
the device is adjusted. This is similar to crackling caused by poor contact in switches, and like
switches, potentiometers are to some extent self-cleaning: running the wiper across the resistance
may improve the contact. Potentiometers which are seldom adjusted, especially in dirty or harsh
environments, are most likely to develop this problem. When self-cleaning of the contact is
insufficient, improvement can usually be obtained through the use of contact cleaner (also known
as "tuner cleaner") spray. The crackling noise associated with turning the shaft of a dirty
potentiometer in an audio circuit (such as the volume control) is greatly accentuated when an
undesired DC voltage is present, often indicating the failure of a DC blocking capacitor in the
circuit.

See also

Electronics portal

Circuit design
Dummy load
Electrical impedance
Iron-hydrogen resistor
Piezoresistive effect
Shot noise
Thermistor
Trimmer (electronics)

References
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ISBN 978-981-281-388-6.
A family of resistors may also be characterized according to its critical resistance. Applying
a constant voltage across resistors in that family below the critical resistance will exceed the
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