ABC

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DERMATOLOGY
FOURTH EDITION

Paul K Buxton
 ABC OF
DERMATOLOGY
Fourth Edition
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 ABC OF
DERMATOLOGY
Fourth Edition

PAUL K BUXTON
Consultant Dermatologist
Royal Infirmary, Edinburgh
 © BMJ Publishing Group Ltd 1988, 1993, 1998, 1999, 2003

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording and/or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publishers

First published by the BMJ Publishing Group Ltd in 1988

Second edition 1993
Third edition 1998
Hot Climates edition 1999
Fourth edition 2003

BMJ Publishing Group Ltd, BMA House, Tavistock Square,

London WC1H 9JR

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 0-7279-1696-3

Typeset by Newgen Imaging Systems (P) Ltd., Chennai, India

Printed and bound in Malaysia by Times Offset
Cover picture is a light micrograph of a vertical section through a human
skull showing several hair follicles. With permission of
Dr Clive Kocher/Science Photo Library
Contents

CD Rom instructions ii
Contributors vi
Acknowledgements vii
Preface viii
1 Introduction 1
2 Psoriasis 8
3 Treatment of psoriasis 13
4 Eczema and dermatitis 17
5 Treatment of eczema and inflammatory dermatoses 25
6 Rashes with epidermal changes 27
7 Rashes arising in the dermis 35
8 Blisters and pustules 39
9 Leg ulcers 43
10 Acne and rosacea 47
11 The hair and scalp 51
D Kemmett
12 Diseases of the nails 57
AL Wright
13 Lumps and bumps 61
14 The sun and the skin 65
R StC Barnetson
15 Black spots in the skin 68
16 The skin and systemic disease—Genetics and skin disease 72
( JA Savin)
17 Cutaneous immunology—Autoimmune disease and the skin 82
( DJ Gawkrodger)
18 Bacterial infection 87
RJ Hay
19 Viral infections 92
20 AIDS and the skin 98
MA Waugh
21 Fungal and yeast infections 101
RJ Hay
22 Insect bites and infestations 105
23 Tropical dermatology 109
B Leppard
24 Practical procedures and where to use them 115
DWS Harris
25 Dermatology in general practice 121
R Balfour, E Crawford
26 Formulary 124
Appendix: Patient support groups 129
Index 130

v
Contributors

R Balfour D Kemmett
General Practitioner, Edinburgh Consultant Dermatologist, Lothian University NHS Trust,
Edinburgh
R StC Barnetson
Professor of Dermatology, Department of Dermatology, B Leppard
Prince Albert Hospital, Camperdown, Australia Professor, Regional Dermatology Training Centre, Moshi,
Tanzania
E Crawford
General Practitioner, Edinburgh JA Savin
Consultant Dermatologist, Lothian University NHS Trust,
DJ Gawkrodger Edinburgh
Consultant Dermatologist, Royal Hallamshire Hospital, Sheffield
MA Waugh
DWS Harris Consultant in Genitourinary Medicine, Leeds Teaching
Consultant Dermatologist, Whittington Hospital, London Hospitals NHS Trust, Leeds

RJ Hay AL Wright
Dean, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences Consultant Dermatologist, Bradford Royal Infirmary
and Professor of Dermatology, Queens University, Belfast

vi
Acknowledgements

Professor R StC Barnetson, University of Sydney, Australia, wrote the original chapter on the sun and the skin, which is included in
this edition. Professor Barbara Leppard, Regional Dermatology Training Centre, Moshi, Tanzania, has contributed a chapter on tropical
dermatology with her own illustrations and some from Professor Barnetson. Professor R Hay, St Johns Institute of Dermatology,
UMDS, Guy’s Hospital, London, extensively revised the section on bacterial and fungal infections and provided some illustrations.
Dr JA Savin, Lothian University NHS Trust, Edinburgh, rewrote the section on genetics and skin disease. Dr MA Waugh, consultant
in GU medicine, The Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust, provided material and illustrations on AIDS. Dr Robin Balfour and
Dr Ewan Crawford, general practitioners in Edinburgh, provided contributions on dermatology in general practice.
Material from contributors to earlier editions has been retained, particularly that supplied by Dr DJ Gawkrodger, consultant
dermatologist, Royal Hallamshire Hospital, Sheffield (autoimmunity), Dr DWS Harris, consultant dermatologist, Whittington
Hospital, London (practical procedures), Dr D Kemmett, consultant dermatologist, Lothian University NHS Trust, Edinburgh
(diseases of hair and scalp), Dr AL Wright, consultant dermatologist, Bradford Royal Infirmary (diseases of nails).
The illustrations come from the Fife hospitals, the Royal Infirmary Edinburgh and the author’s own collection. Some specific
illustrations have been donated by Dr JA Savin (flea bites on the ankle); Dr Peter Ball (rubella); Professor CV Ruckley (varicose
veins); Dr GB Colver (spider naevus); Dr MA Waugh and Dr M Jones (AIDS); Dr PMW Copemen (dermatoses in black skin).
Miss Julie Close made the diagrams of the nail and types of immune response. The illustrations for dermatology in general practice
were produced by Sister Sheila Robertson, Dermatology Liaison Nurse in Fife and Julie Close. The text of the third edition, on which
this one is based, was typed by Mrs Mary Henderson. I would also like to thank Pat Croucher, who proofread the third edition, for
copy-editing the script for this edition with perception and patience. Sally Carter and the editorial staff at BMJ Books gave great help
and support.
Finally thanks are due to all the hospital staff—and particularly the patients—without whom dermatology could not be practised
at all.

vii
Preface

The remit for the first edition of the ABC of Dermatology in 1987 was that it should concentrate on common conditions and give
down to earth advice. The ABC format proved well suited for this and there has been a steady demand for the book since then. In
this edition the same approach is maintained while taking into account advances in diagnosis and treatment. Research in genetics
and immunology is providing ever-increasing insights into the mechanisms that underlie clinical changes, and has led to more
accurate diagnosis and more rational treatment. Specialised techniques that may not be relevant to common conditions can be of
the greatest importance to an individual patient with a rare disease. In epidermolysis bullosa, for example, the ability to differentiate
accurately between the different types with electronmicroscopy and immunohistochemistry is of considerable significance. Generally
research increases our understanding of how diseases arise, but we have to admit to ourselves and our patients that why they occur
remains as elusive as ever.
In recent years the management of inflammatory skin conditions has become both more effective and less demanding for the
patient. In addition there is greater recognition of the impact of skin diseases on the patient’s life. Major advances in treatment
include more effective and safer phototherapy and the use of immunosuppressive drugs that enable inflammatory dermatoses to be
managed without the need to attend for dressings or admission to hospital. This is just as well, since dermatology inpatient beds are
no longer available in many hospitals. As a consequence, more dermatology patients are managed in the community with a greater
role for the community nurse and general practitioner or family doctor. Dermatology liaison nurses play a very important part in
making sure that the patients are using their treatment effectively at home and in maintaining the link between the hospital
department, the home situation, and the general practitioner. Self-help groups are a valuable resource of support for patients, and
there is now much more information available to the public on the recognition and management of skin disease.
Progress has been made in increasing the awareness of the general public and the politicians (who control the resources for
health care) of the importance of skin diseases. In countries with minimal medical services there are immense challenges—
particularly the need for training medical workers in the community who can recognise and treat the most important conditions.
This has a major impact on the suffering and disability from skin diseases. The International Foundation for Dermatology and the
pioneering Regional Dermatology Training Centre in Moshi, Tanzania, have set an important lead in this regard.
All the chapters have been revised for this new edition and a number of new illustrations included. A new chapter on tropical
dermatology, which was previously included in the “hot climates” Australasian edition, is incorporated. In addition, there is a chapter
on dermatology in general practice. Colleagues with special areas of expertise have been generous in giving advice and suggestions
for this edition, which I trust will be a means of introducing the reader to a fascinating clinical discipline, covering all age groups
and relevant to all areas of medicine.
Edinburgh, 2003, Paul Buxton

viii
1 Introduction

The object of this book is to provide the non-dermatologist

with a practical guide to the diagnosis and treatment of skin
conditions. One advantage of dealing with skin conditions is
that the lesions are easily examined and can be interpreted
without the need for complex investigations, although a biopsy
may be required to make or confirm the diagnosis. An
understanding of the microscopic changes underlying the
clinical presentation makes this interpretation easier and more
interesting.
In the early chapters the relationship between the clinical
presentation and the underlying pathological changes is
discussed for a few important conditions, such as psoriasis.
These are then used as a model for comparison with other skin
diseases. This approach is suitable for skin conditions that
present with characteristic lesions.
In other disorders a variety of causes may produce the same
type of lesion. In this case it is more helpful to describe the Psoriasis—large legions
characteristic clinical pattern that results. For example, similar
inflamatory changes may result from drug allergy, autoimmune
disease, or infection.
Tumours, acne, and leg ulcers are covered as separate
subjects, as are diseases of the hair and nails.
The same condition is sometimes dealt with in more than
one section, for example, fungal infections are discussed under
“Rashes with epidermal changes” and again under “Fungal and
yeast infections”, giving different perspectives of the same
disorder.
Skin lesions are sometimes an indication of internal disease
and may be the first clinical sign. For example, the girl in the
photograph presented with a rash on her face, made worse by
sunlight. She then mentioned that she was aware of lassitude,
weight loss, and vague musculoskeletal symptoms which, in
conjunction with the appearance of the rash, suggested lupus
erythematosus. This was confirmed by further investigations
and appropriate treatment was initiated. Other dermatological
Lupus erythematosus
associations with systemic disease are discussed in the relevant
sections.

The significance of skin disease

A large proportion of the population suffers from skin diseases,
which make up about 10% of all consultations in primary care
in the United Kingdom. However, community studies show that
over 20% of the population have a medically significant skin
condition and less than 25% of these consulted a doctor.
The skin is not only the largest organ of the body, it also
forms a living biological barrier and is the aspect of ourselves
we present to the world. It is therefore not surprising that there
is great interest in “skin care”, with the associated vast cosmetic
industry. The impairment of the normal functions of the skin
can lead to acute and chronic illness with considerable
disability and sometimes a need for hospital treatment.
A wide variety of tumours, both benign and malignant, arise
in the skin. Fortunately the majority are harmless and most Skin tags—examples of benign
moles never develop dysplastic change. tumours
Most cancers arising in the skin remain localised and are
only invasive locally, but others may metastasise. It is important
therefore to recognise the features of benign and malignant
tumours, particularly those, such as malignant melanoma, that

1
ABC of Dermatology

can develop widespread metastases. Recognition of typical

benign tumours saves the patient unneccessary investigations Epidermis
and the anxiety involved in waiting for results.
Although a wide range of internal diseases produce physical
signs in the skin, most skin diseases do not themselves have
a
serious physical effects. However there can be significant
psychological effects and problems with personal relationships,
employment, and sporting activity. It is therefore important to
use what Dr Papworth called “wide angle lenses” in assessing
d
the patient and their disease. So, in addition to concentrating
on the skin changes, the overall health and demeanour of the b
c
patient should be taken into account. This also means making
sure that there are no other signs, such as involvement of the
nails, mucous membranes, or other parts of the skin. The
general physical condition and psychological state of the Macule Dermis
patient should be assessed, with more specific examination a) Melanin pigment in epidermis
if indicated. b) Melanin pigment below epidermis
c) Erythema due to dilated dermal blood vessels
d) Inflammation in dermis

Section through skin

Descriptive terms
All specialties have their own common terms, and familiarity
with a few of those used in dermatology is a great help. The
most important are defined below.

Macule
Derived from the Latin for a stain, the term macule is used to
describe changes in colour or consistency without any elevation
above the surface of the surrounding skin. There may be an
increase of melanin, giving a black or blue colour depending
on the depth of the pigment. Loss of melanin leads to a white
macule. Vascular dilatation and inflammation produce
erythema.

Papules and nodules

A papule is a circumscribed, raised lesion, conventionally less
than 1 cm in diameter. It may be due to either epidermal or
dermal changes.
Eythema

Section through skin with a papule A papule surrounded by a depigmented macule

2
 Introduction

A nodule is similar to a papule but over 1 cm in diameter.

A vascular papule or nodule is known as an haemangioma.

Plaque
Plaque is one of those terms which conveys a clear meaning to
dermatologists but is often not understood by others. To take it
literally, one can think of a commemorative plaque stuck on
the wall of a building, with a large area relative to its height and
a well defined edge. Plaques are most commonly seen in
psoriasis.

1.5 cm 0.5 cm
Papule Haemangioma

Plaques in psoriasis
Section through skin with plaque

Vesicles and bullae

Vesicles and bullae are raised lesions that contain fluid. A bulla
is a vesicle larger than 0.5 cm. They may be superficial within
the epidermis or situated in the dermis below it.

Section through skin showing situations of vesicle and bulla

Acute reaction to insect bite—bullae

Lichenification
Lichenification is another term frequently used in
dermatology as a relic of the days of purely descriptive
medicine. Some resemblance to lichen seen on rocks and
trees does occur, with hard thickening of the skin and
accentuated skin markings. It is most often seen as a
result of prolonged rubbing of the skin in localised Lichen simplex
areas of eczema.

3
ABC of Dermatology

Nummular lesions
Nummular literally means a “coin-like” lesion. There is no hard
and fast distinction from discoid lesions, which are flat disc-like
lesions of variable size. It is most often used to describe a type
of eczematous lesion.

Pustules
The term pustule is applied to lesions containing purulent
material—which may be due to infection, as in the case
shown—or sterile pustules, which are seen in pustular psoriasis.

Atrophy Numular lesion as a response Pustule due to infection

to a vaccination site in the arm
Atrophy refers to loss of tissue which may affect the epidermis,
dermis, or subcutaneous fat. Thinning of the epidermis is
characterised by loss of the normal skin markings, and there
may be fine wrinkles, loss of pigment, and a translucent
appearance. There may be other changes as well, such as
sclerosis of the underlying connective tissue, telangiectasia,
or evidence of diminished blood supply.

Ulceration
Ulceration results from the loss of the whole thickness of the
epidermis and upper dermis. Healing results in a scar.

Erosion
An erosion is a superficial loss of epidermis that generally heals
without scarring. Epidermal atrophy

Tropical ulcer Bullous pemphigoid causing erosion

Excoriation
Excoriation is the partial or complete loss of epidermis as a
result of scratching.

Fissuring
Fissures are slits through the whole thickness of the skin.

Excoriation of epidermis Hyperkeratosis with fissures

4
 Introduction

Desquamation
Desquamation is the peeling of superficial scales, often
following acute inflammation.

Annular lesions
Annular lesions are ring shaped lesions.

Reticulate
The term reticulate means “net-like”. It is most commonly seen
when the pattern of subcutaneous blood vessels becomes
visible. Desquamation

Reticulate pattern on skin

Ring-shaped annular lesion

Rashes
Approach to diagnosis
A skin rash generally poses more problems in diagnosis than a
single, well defined skin lesion such as a wart or tumour. As in
all branches of medicine a reasonable diagnosis is more likely
to be reached by thinking firstly in terms of broad diagnostic
categories rather than specific conditions. Psoriasis of both legs
There may have been previous episodes because it is a
constitutional condition, such as atopic eczema. In the case of
contact dermatitis, regular exposure to a causative agent leads Diagnosis of rash
to recurrences that fit with the times of exposure and this is • Previous episodes of the rash, particularly in childhood,
usually apparent from the history. Endogenous conditions such suggest a constitutional condition such as atopic eczema
as psoriasis can appear in adults who have had no previous • Recurrences of the rash, particularly in specific situations,
episodes. If there is no family history and several members of suggests a contact dermatitis. Similarly a rash that only occurs
the household are affected, a contagious condition, such as in the summer months may well have a photosensitive basis
scabies, should be considered. A common condition with a • If other members of the family are affected, particularly
without any previous history, there may well be a
familial tendency, such as atopic eczema, may affect several transmissible condition such as scabies
family members at different times.
A simplistic approach to rashes is to clarify them as
being from “inside” or “outside”. Examples of “inside” or
endogenous rashes are atopic eczema or drug rashes, whereas
fungal infection or contact dermatitis are “outside”
rashes.

Symmetry
Most endogenous rashes affect both sides of the body, as in the
atopic child or a man with psoriasis on his knees. Of course,
not all exogenous rashes are asymmetrical. A seamstress who
uses scissors in her right hand may develop an allergy to metal
in this one hand, but a hairdresser or nurse can develop Contact dermatitis as a response to Irritant dermatitis
contact dermatitis on both hands. mascara

5
ABC of Dermatology

Distribution
It is useful to be aware of the usual sites of common skin
conditions. These are shown in the appropriate chapters.
Eruptions that appear only on areas exposed to sun may be
entirely or partially due to sunlight. Some are due to a
sensitivity to sunlight alone, such as polymorphous light
eruption, or a photosensitive allergy to topically applied
substances or drugs taken internally.

Morphology
The appearance of the skin lesion may give clues to the
underlying pathological process.
The surface may consist of normal epidermis overlying
a lesion in the deeper tissues. This is characteristic
of many types of erythema in which there is dilatation of the
dermal blood vessels associated with inflammation. The skin Allergic reaction producing
overlying cysts or tumours in the dermis and deeper tissues is photosensitivity
usually normal. Conditions affecting the epidermis will
produce several visible changes such as thickening of the
keratin layer and scales in psoriasis or a more uniform
thickening of the epidermis in areas lichenified by rubbing.
An eczematous process is characterised by small vesicles in the
epidermis with crusting or fine scaling.
The margin of some lesions is very well defined, as in
psoriasis or lichen planus, but in eczema it merges into
normal skin.
Blisters or vesicles occur as a result of (a) oedema between the
epidermal cells or (b) destruction of epidermal cells or (c) the
result of separation of the epidermis from the deeper tissues.
Of course, more than one mechanism may occur in the same
lesion. Oedema within the epidermis is seen in endogenous
eczema, although it may not be apparent clinically, particularly
if it is overshadowed by inflammation and crusts. It is also
a feature of contact dermatitis. Lesion in deeper tissue with Small vesicles of eczema
normal epidermis

Eczema—intraepidermal vesicle Pemphigus—destruction of Pemphigoid—blister forming

epidermal cells below epidermis

Blisters occur in:

• viral diseases such as chickenpox, hand, foot and mouth
disease, and herpes simplex
• bacterial infections such as impetigo
• eczema and contact dermatitis
• primary blistering disorders such as dermatitis herpetiformis,
pemphigus and pemphigoid as well as metabolic disorders
such as porphyria. Herpes simplex

6
 Introduction

Impetigo Pemphigoid Impetigo

Bullae, blisters over 0.5 cm in diameter, may occur in congenital

A relevant history should be taken in relation to
conditions (such as epidermolysis bullosa), lichen planus, and
occupational and environmental factors
pemphigoid without much inflammation. However, those
forming as a result of vasculitis, sunburn, or an allergic reaction • Where? Site of initial lesion(s) and subsequent distribution
may be associated with pronounced inflammation. In pustular
• How long? Has condition been continuous or intermittent?
• Prognosis—Is it getting better or worse?
psoriasis there are deeper pustules, which contain polymorphs • Previous episodes—How long ago? Were they similar? Have
but are sterile and show little inflammation. Drug rashes can there been other skin conditions?
appear as a bullous eruption. • Who else? Are other members of the family affected? Or
Induration is thickening of the skin due to infiltration of colleagues at work or school?
cells, granuloma formation, or deposits of mucin, fat, or amyloid. • Other features—Is there itching, burning, scaling, or blisters?
Inflammation is indicated by erythema, which may be Any association with drugs or other illnesses?
• Treatment—By prescription or over the counter? Have
accompanied by increased temperature if acute—for example, prescribed treatments actually been used?
in cellulitis or erythema nodosum. There may be a chronic
inflammatory infiltrate in, for example, conditions such as
lichen planus or lupus erythematosus. The following points are helpful when examining
skin lesions
Distribution
Assessment of the patient • This may give the essential clue, so a full examination is
necessary. For example, there are many possible causes for
As well as assessing the clinical changes, the effect of a skin dry thickened skin on the palms, and finding typical psoriasis
condition on the patient’s life and their attitude to it must always on the elbows, knees, and soles may give the diagnosis
be taken into account. For example, severe pustular psoriasis of Morphology
the hands can be devastating for a self employed electrician and • Are the lesions dermal or epidermal? Macular (flat) or
total hair loss from the scalp very distressing for a 16 year old girl. forming papules? Indurated or forming plaques? With a well
defined edge? Forming crusts, scabs, or vesicles?
Fear that a skin condition may be due to cancer or
infection is often present and reassurance should always be Pattern
• This is the overall clinical picture of both morphology and
given whether asked for or not. If there is the possibility of a distribution. For example, an indeterminate rash may be
serious underlying cause that requires further investigation, it is revealed as pityriasis rosea when the “herald patch” is found
part of good management to answer any questions the patient
has and provide an explanation that he or she can understand.
It is easy to forget this aspect of medical practice at times. Inheritance (genetic)
The significance of occupational factors must be taken into
account. In some cases, such as an allergy to hair dyes in a Infection Environment
hairdresser, it may be impossible for the patient to continue
their job. In other situations the allergy can be easily avoided. Disease process
Patients understandably ask whether psoriasis can be cured
Change in Response of
and often want to know the cause. The cause is unknown and environment organism
the best answer is that the tendency to develop psoriasis is part (immunological,
of a person’s constitution and some factor triggers the Treatment physiological)
development of the clinical lesions. Known factors include
physical or emotional stress, local trauma to the skin Outcome
(Koebner’s phenomenon), infection (in guttate psoriasis),
drugs (
blockers, lithium, and antimalarial drugs). Factors possibly affecting development of skin disease such as psoriasis
To illustrate the use of these basic concepts in the diagnosis
of lesions in practice two common skin diseases are considered— Further reading
psoriasis, which affects 1–2% of the population, and eczema, an Braun-Falco O, Plewig G, Wolff HH, Winkelmann RK. Dermatology.
even more common complaint. Both are rashes with distinctive Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1991
epidermal changes. The difficulty arises with the unusual lesion: Champion RH, Burton JL, Ebling FJ. Textbook of dermatology. 6th ed.
Is it a rarity or a variation of a common disease? What should Oxford: Blackwell Scientific, 1998
make us consider further investigation? Is it safe to wait and see Fitzpatrick TB, Freedberg IM, Eisen AZ, Austen KF, Wolff K.
if it resolves or persists? The usual clinical presentations of Dermatology in general medicine. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1993
Sams WM, Lynch PJ, eds. Principles and practice of dermatology,
psoriasis and eczema are also used as a basis for comparison with 2nd ed. New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1996
variations of the usual pattern and other skin conditions.

7
2 Psoriasis

The familiar pink or red lesions with a scaling surface and well
defined edge are easily recognised. These changes can be
related to the histological appearance:

Thick keratin
scale

Increased
Polymorphs thickness of
epidermis

Dilated tortuous
blood vessels

Increased epidermal proliferation—nuclei found … throughout the epidermis

• The increased thickness of the epidermis, presence of nuclei

above the basal layer, and thick keratin are related to
increased epidermal turnover.
• Because the epidermis is dividing it does not differentiate
adequately into normal keratin scales. These are readily
removed to reveal the tortuous blood vessels beneath,
appearing clinically as “Auspitz sign”. The psoriatic plaque can
be likened to a brick wall badly built by a workman in too
much of a hurry—it may be high but it is easily knocked down.
• The polymorphs that migrate into the epidermis form sterile
pustules in pustular psoriasis. These are most commonly seen
on the palms and soles.
• The dilated blood vessels can be a main feature, giving the
clinical picture of intense erythema.
Pitting of the nail
The equivalent changes in the nail cause thickening and “pits”
0.5–1.0 mm in diameter on the surface; these are thought to be
due to small areas of psoriatic changes in the upper layer of the
nail plate that then fall out. Onycholysis, in which the nail plate
is raised up, also occurs in psoriasis.

Clinical appearance
The main characteristics of psoriatic lesions, which reflect the
pathological processes listed above, follow.
Plaques consisting of well defined raised areas of psoriasis.
These may be few or numerous, covering large areas of the
trunk and limbs. Sometimes there are large confluent lesions.

Small lesions

Plaques Plaques

Large lesions

8
 Psoriasis

Scaling may predominate, giving a thick plaque, which is

sometimes likened to limpets on the sea shore, hence the name
“rupioid”. Scratching the surface produces a waxy
appearance—the “tache de bougie” (literally “a line of candle
wax”).
Erythema may be conspicuous, especially in lesions on the
trunk and flexures.
Pustules are rare on the trunk and limbs, but deep seated
pustules on the palms and soles are fairly common. In the form
of palmo-plantar pustulosis they may occur without psoriasiatic
lesions elsewhere.
The size of the lesions varies from a few millimetres to very
extensive plaques. Rupoid lesions

The typical patient

Psoriasis usually occurs in early adult life, but the onset can be
at any time from infancy to old age, when the appearance is
often atypical.
The following factors in the history may help in making a
diagnosis:
• There may be a family history—if one parent has psoriasis
16% of the children will have it, if both parents, the figure
is 50%.
• The onset can occur after any type of stress, including
infection, trauma, or childbirth. Widespread pustular psoriasis
• The lesions may first appear at sites of minor trauma—
Koebner’s phenomenon.
• The lesions usually clear on exposure to the sun.
• Typically, psoriasis does not itch.
• There may be associated arthropathy—affecting either the
fingers and toes or a single large joint.

Clinical presentation
Patients usually present with lesions on the elbows, knees, and
scalp. The trunk may have plaques of variable size and which
are sometimes annular. Patients with psoriasis show Koebner’s
phenomenon with lesions developing in areas of skin trauma
such as scars or minor scratches. Normal everyday trauma such
as handling heavy machinery may produce hyperkeratotic
lesions on the palms. In the scalp there is scaling, sometimes
producing very thick accretions. Erythema often extends
beyond the hair margin. The nails show “pits” and also
thickening with separation of the nail from the nail bed
(oncholysis).

Common patterns of distribution in psoriasis

Scalp psoriasis

Annular lesions

9
ABC of Dermatology

Koebner’s phenomenon: psoriasis Psoriasis of the nail Psoriasis of the hand

in surgical scar

Guttate psoriasis—from the Latin gutta, a drop—consists of

widespread small pink macules that look like drops of paint.
It usually occurs in adolescents and often follows an acute

haemolytic streptococcal infection. There may be much
distress to both parent and child when a previously healthy
adolescent erupts in spots. Fortunately it also resolves quite
rapidly.
Pustular lesions occur as either chronic deep seated lesions
or generalised pustular psoriasis.
Chronic deep seated lesions occur on the palms and soles
with surrounding erythema which develops a brown colour and
scaling. It is important to reassure the patient that, despite their
appearance, these pustules are not infectious—they consist of Guttate psoriasis
sterile collections of polymorphs.
These lesions occur in an older age group than psoriasis,
and psoriasis may not be present elsewhere. It is more common
in smokers. Acrodermatitis pustulosa is a variant that occurs in
a younger age group in which there are pustules and
inflammation arround the nails and the fingertips.
Generalised pustular psoriasis is uncommon. Pustules
develop in association with erythema. It may be precipitated by
the use of steroids.
Flexural psoriasis produces well defined erythematous areas
in the axillae and groins and beneath the breasts. Scaling is
minimal or absent. It must be distinguished from a fungal
infection and it is wise to send specimens for mycology if there
is any doubt.

Pustules on the foot

Flexural psoriasis
Napkin psoriasis

10
 Psoriasis

Napkin psoriasis in children may present with typical

psoriatic lesions or a more diffuse erythematous eruption with
exudative rather than scaling lesions.
Erythrodermic psoriasis is a serious, even life threatening,
condition with erythema affecting nearly the whole of the skin.
Diagnosis may not be easy as the characteristic scaling of
psoriasis is absent, although this usually precedes the
erythroderma. Less commonly the erythema develops
suddenly without preceding lesions. There is a considerable
increase in cutaneous blood flow, heat loss, metabolism,
and water loss.
It is important to distinguish between the stable, chronic,
Erytherodermic psoriasis
plaque type of psoriasis, which is unlikely to develop
exacerbations and responds to tar, dithranol, and ultraviolet
treatment, and the more acute erythematous type, which is
unstable and likely to spread rapidly. The use of tar, dithranol,
or ultraviolet light can irritate the skin and will make it more
widespread and inflamed.

Joint disease in psoriasis

Patients with seronegative arthropathy of the non-rheumatoid
type show double the normal (2%) incidence of psoriasis.
Psoriatic arthropathy commonly affects the distal
interphalangeal joints, sparing the metacarpophalangeal joints,
and is usually asymmetrical. Radiological changes include
a destructive arthropathy with deformity. Rheumatoid
nodules are absent. The sex ratio is equal but a few patients Acute arthropathy
develop a “rheumatoid-like” arthropathy, which is more
common in women than in men. A third rare group have
arthritic changes in the larger joints, where there is
considerable resorption of bone. Other members of the
families of those with psoriatic arthropathy are affected in
40% of cases.
There may be pustular psoriasis of the fingers and toes
associated with arthropathy which can be sufficiently severe to
immobilise the patient.
Both psoriatic arthropathy and Reiter’s syndrome are
associated with the presence of HLA B27. Reiter’s syndrome is
characterised by polyarthritis and the development of
urethritis, inflammatory changes in the conjunctivae,
and skin lesions including pustulosis hyperkeratosis of the
soles.

Acute arthropathy—X ray signs

Causes of psoriasis
The cause is unknown but there is an inherited predisposition.
The strong genetic influence may result from
a single dominant gene with poor penetrance or a number of
genetic influences. Other factors such as local trauma, general
illness and stress are also involved, so the cause of psoriasis is
best regarded as being multifactorial. HLA-Cw6 is the
phenotype most strongly associated with psoriasis, particularly
the early onset variety in which hereditary factors seem to play
the greatest part. There is an increase in HLA expression in
psoriatic arthropathy.
Local trauma, acute illness, and stress may be factors in
causing the appearance of clinical lesions.
Haemolytic
streptococcal throat infection is a common precipitating factor
in guttate psoriasis. Antimalarial drugs, lithium, and
blockers
can make psoriasis worse. There is evidence that psoriasis
occurs more readily and is more intractable in patients with a
high intake of alcohol. Smoking is associated with
palmo-plantar pustulosis. Acute arthropathy—X ray signs

11
ABC of Dermatology

There is evidence that both hormonal and immunological

mechanisms are involved at a cellular level. The raised Stress
Infection
concentrations of metabolites of arachodonic acid in the Local trauma
Precipitating factors
affected skin of people with psoriasis are related to the Alcohol
Drugs
clinical changes. Prostaglandins cause erythema, whereas Genetic predisposition
leukotrienes (LTB4 and 12 HETE) cause neutrophils to
accumulate. The common precursor of these factors is
phospholipase A2, which is influenced by calmodulin, a
cellular receptor protein for calcium. Both phospholipase
A2 and calmodulin concentrations are raised in psoriatic Calmodulin
lesions. Phospholipase C
T helper lymphocytes have been found in the dermis as well Polyamines Leukotrienes
Proteinases
as antibodies to the basal cell nuclei of psoriatic skin. In
addition, dermal factors contribute to the development of
psoriatic lesions. Increased
T lymphocytes
Leukotrienes Prostaglandins
The detailed treatment of psoriasis is covered in the next proliferation
12 HETE
chapter. The only point to be made here is the importance of
encouraging a positive attitude with expectation of Vascular
improvement but not a permanent cure, since psoriasis can dilatation

recur at any time. Some patients are unconcerned about very

extensive lesions whereas to others the most minor lesions are
a catastrophe. Neutrophils

Further reading
Farber EM. Psoriasis. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1987
Fry L. An atlas of psoriasis. London: Parthenon Publications, 1992
Mier PD, Van de Kerkhof PC. Textbook of psoriasis. Edinburgh:
Churchill Livingstone, 1986
Roenigk HH, Maibach HI. Psoriasis. Basle: Dekker, 1991 Hormonal and immunological mechanisms and dermal factors involved in
the development of psoriasis

12
3 Treatment of psoriasis

It vanished quite slowly, beginning with the end of the tail, and ending
with the grin, which remained some time after the rest of it had gone.
Lewis Carroll, Alice in Wonderland

To ignore the impact of the condition on the patient’s life is to

fail in treating psoriasis. Like the Cheshire cat that Alice met, it
tends to clear slowly and the last remaining patches are often
the hardest to clear. This is frustrating enough, but there is
also the knowledge that it will probably recur and need further
tedious courses of treatment, so encouragement and support
are an essential part of treatment.
In an attempt to quantify the impact of psoriasis on the life
of the individual patient the Psoriasis Disability Index (PDI) has
been developed. This takes the form of a questionnaire and
Preparation applied to affected area (left). Application of
covers all aspects of the patient’s work, personal relationships, stockinette (right)
domestic situation, and recreational activities. It can be helpful
in assessing the effectiveness of treatment as perceived by the
patient.
Patients understandably ask whether psoriasis can be cured
and often want to know the cause. The cause is unknown and
the best answer is that the tendency to develop psoriasis is part
of an affected person’s constitution and some factor triggers
the development of the clinical lesions. Known factors include
physical or emotional stress, local trauma to the skin
(Koebner’s phenomenon), infection (in guttate psoriasis),
drugs (
blockers, lithium, and antimalarial drugs).
Treatment comprises ointments and pastes, systemic drugs,
or various forms of ultraviolet light. The treatment should suit
the type of psoriasis. The age and health of the patient, social
and occupational factors need to be taken into consideration.
The motivation of the individual patient is also important.
Bandages being applied to larger areas (left). Patient now prepared
The preparations mentioned in the text are listed in the for contact treatment (right)
formulary in chapter 26. It is estimated that 80% of patients
with psoriasis do not consult a doctor, as the lesions are
minimal.

Treatment of psoriasis
Type of psoriasis Treatment Alternative treatment
Stable plaque psoriasis Tar preparations Short contact dithranol
Calcipotriol  topical steroids
Tacalcitol
Ultraviolet B (TL 01)
Extensive stable plaques As above. If not responding: Methotrexate
Ultraviolet B (TL01) Ciclosporin A
psoralen with ultraviolet A  etretinate Tacrolimus
Widespread small plaque Ultraviolet B Tar

Guttate psoriasis Emollients then ultraviolet B Weak tar preparations

Facial psoriasis 1% hydrocortisone ointment
Flexural psoriasis Local mild to moderate strength
steroids  antifungal
Pustular psoriasis of hands and feet Moderate to potent strength topical Acitretin
steroids
Acute erythrodermic, unstable, or Inpatient treatment Methotrexate
general pustular psoriasis Short term local Acitretin
steroids for acutely inflamed lesions Ciclosporin or other immunosuppressants

13
ABC of Dermatology

Local treatment
Local treatments entail the use of ointments and pastes, usually
containing tar in various forms. It is much easier to apply them
in hospital than at home if patients can make the time for
hospital visits. Inpatient treatment can be more intensive and
closely regulated; it also has the advantage of taking the patient
completely away from the stresses of the everyday environment.
In some units a “five day ward” enables patients to return home Short contact dithranol
at weekends, which is particularly important for parents with Indications
young children. • Stable plaque psoriasis on the trunk and limbs
Coal tar preparations are safe and effective for the stable Suitable preparations
plaque-type psoriasis but will irritate acute, inflamed areas. • Those available are in a range of concentrations such as
However, tar may not be strong enough for thicker Dithocream (0·1%, 0·25%, 0·5%, 1·0%, 2·0%) or Anthranol
(0·4%, 1·0%, 2·0%)
hyperkeratotic lesions. Salicylic acid, which helps dissolve
keratin, can be used in conjunction with tar for thick plaques. Method
• Start with the lowest concentration and increase strength
Refined coal tar extracts can be used for less severe areas of every five to six days if there are no problems
psoriasis. • Apply cream to affected areas and then wash it off completely
Ichthammol, prepared from shale rather than coal tar, is less 20–30 minutes later
irritating and has a soothing effect on inflamed skin. It is • Apply a bland emollient immediately after treatment
therefore useful for “unstable” or inflamed psoriasis, when tar Cautions
would not be tolerated. • Do not apply to inflamed plaques, flexures, or the face
Dithranol, obtained originally from the Goa tree in south • Avoid contact of the dithranol with clothing and rinse the
India, is now made synthetically. It can easily irritate or burn bath well after use to avoid staining
• Never leave the cream on for longer than 30 minutes
the skin, so it has to be used carefully and should be kept from (60 minutes is not twice as effective)
contact with normal skin as far as possible. For hospital
treatment pastes are used and the lesions surrounded by
petroleum jelly to protect the normal skin. Dithranol creams
can be used at home—they are applied for 30 minutes and
then washed off. A low concentration (0·1%) is used initially
and gradually increased to 1% or 2% as necessary. All dithranol
preparations are irritants and produce a purple-brown staining
that clears in time. If used in the scalp dithranol stains red or
fair hair purple.
Emollients soften dry skin and relieve itching. They are
a useful adjunct to tar or dithranol.
Corticosteroid preparations produce an initial clearing of
psoriasis, but there is rapid relapse when they are withdrawn
and tachyphylaxis (increasing amounts of the drug having
a diminishing effect) occurs. Strong topical steroids should be
avoided. Only weak preparations should be used on the face
but moderately potent steroids can be used elsewhere:
(a) if there are only a few small lesions of psoriasis;
(b) if there is persistent chronic psoriasis of the palms, soles,
and scalp (in conjunction with tar paste, which is applied on
top of the steroid at night); and (c) in the treatment of
psoriasis of the ears, flexures, and genital areas. In flexural
psoriasis secondary infection can occur and steroid
preparations combined with antibiotics and antifungal drugs
should be used, such as Terra-Cortril with nystatin and
Psoriasis suitable for short
Trimovate. contact dithranol treatment
Systemic corticosteroids should not be used, except in life
threatening erythroderma, because of the inevitable “rebound”
that occurs when the dose is reduced. The management of
psoriasis in patients taking steroids for an unrelated condition
may require inpatient or regular outpatient attendances to
clear the skin lesions.
Calcipotriol and tacalcitol, vitamin D analogues, are
calmodulin inhibitors used topically for mild or moderate
plaque psoriasis. They are non-staining creams that are easy to
use but can cause irritation. Sometimes a plateau effect is seen
with the treatment becoming less effective after an initial
response. If so, other agents, such as tar preparations, have to
be used as well to clear the lesions completely. It is important
not to exceed the maximum recommended dose so as to
prevent changes in calcium metabolism.

14
 Treatment of psoriasis

Ultraviolet treatment (phototherapy)

Ultraviolet B is short wavelength ultraviolet light and is used for
widespread thin lesions or guttate psoriasis. The dose has to be
accurately controlled to give enough radiation to clear the skin
without burning. Recently, “narrow waveband” ultraviolet B
treatment has been developed, which increases the therapeutic
effect and diminishes burning. It can be used instead of
psoralen with ultraviolet A in many cases.
Ultraviolet A is long wavelength ultraviolet light, which
activates psoralens in the skin. This results in diminished DNA
synthesis and hence reduced epidermal turnover. The
combination of psoralen with ultraviolet A is known as PUVA Guttate psoriasis suitable for ultraviolet B treatment
therapy: a dose of 8-methoxypsoralen (8MOP), 0·6–0·8 mg/kg
body weight, is taken one to two hours before treatment.
5-Methoxypsoralen is also used, particularly in patients
develop itching or nausea with 8MOP.
Other long term cumulative side effects of ultraviolet
treatment include premature ageing of the skin, lentigenes, and
eventually cutaneous malignancies. For this reason the total
cumulative dose is kept below 1000 Joules.
After medical assessment treatment is given two or three
times a week, with gradually increasing doses of ultraviolet A.
Once the psoriasis has cleared maintenance treatments can be
continued once every two or three weeks. Protective goggles
are worn during treatment with ultraviolet A and dark glasses
for 24 hours after each treatment. The glasses are tested for
their effectiveness in screening ultraviolet A light.
A variable degree of erythema and itching may occur after
treatment. Longer term side effects include a slight risk of
epitheliomas developing, premature ageing of the skin, and
cataract formation (which can be prevented by wearing
ultraviolet A filtering goggles during and after treatment). The
total cumulative dosage is carefully monitored and kept as low Ultraviolet B cabinet
as possible to reduce the risk of side effects.

Systemic treatment
Extensive and inflamed psoriasis that is resistant to local
treatment may require systemic treatment. A number of
antimetabolite drugs (such as azathioprine and hydroxyurea)
and immunosuppressive drugs (such as ciclosporin A) are
effective, but the most widely used are methotrexate and
acitretin.
Methotrexate inhibits folic acid synthesis during the S phase
of mitosis and diminishes epidermal turnover in the lesions of
psoriasis. Because it is hepatotoxic liver function has to be
assessed initially and at regular intervals during treatment. The
dosage must be monitored, and when a total of 1·5 g is reached
a liver biopsy is indicated to exclude significant liver damage.
Although it is rare, bone marrow suppression can occur
insidiously and rapidly in some patients. In order to detect this
an initial test dose is followed by a full blood count. If this gives Before phototherapy After phototherapy
normal results a weekly dose of 7·5–15 mg is used. As it is
excreted in the urine, the dose must be reduced if renal
function is impaired. Aspirin and sulphonamides
diminish plasma binding.

15
ABC of Dermatology

Methotrexate may interact with barbiturates, para-

aminobenzoic acid, phenytoin, probenecid, phenylbutazone,
oral contraceptives, and colchicine.
Acitretin is a vitamin A derivative that can be prescribed only
in hospital in the United Kingdom. It is useful in pustular
psoriasis and has some effect on other types of psoriasis.
However, the effect is increased when combined with PUVA.
Minor side effects include drying of the mucous membranes,
crusting in the nose, itching, thinning of the hair, and
erythema of the palms and nail folds. These are usually not
severe and settle when treatment stops. More serious side
effects include hepatotoxicity and raised lipid concentrations.
Liver function tests and serum lipid (cholesterol and
triglyceride) concentrations have to be carefully monitored.
Etretinate is teratogenic and should only be taken by women
during reproductive years if effective contraception is used
during treatment and for two years afterwards, as the half life
is 70–100 days.
Ciclosporin A is an immunosuppressant widely used following
organ transplantation. It is effective in suppressing the
inflammatory types of psoriasis. Blood tests should be carried
out before starting treatment, particularly serum creatinine,
urea, and electrolytes, as ciclosporin A can interfere with renal
function.

Erythematous psoriasis suitable for methotrexate treatment,

having failed to respond to phototherapy

Further reading
Lowe NJ. Managing your psoriasis. London: Master Media, 1993
Lowe NJ. Practical psoriasis therapy, 2nd ed. St Louis: Mosby, 1992

Psoriasis of the scalp

This condition can be very difficult to clear, particularly if there are thick scales
• 3% salicylic acid in a suitable base and left on for four to
six hours or overnight and then washed out with a tar
shampoo
• Dithranol preparations are effective but will tint blonde or
red hair purple
• Steroid preparations can be used to control itching

Scalp psoriasis

16
4 Eczema and dermatitis

The terms eczema and dermatitis are interchangeable, covering

a wide variety of conditions from the child with atopic eczema
to the adult with an allergy to cement. If patients are told they
have dermatitis they may assume that it is related to their
employment with the implication that they may be eligible for
compensation. It is not unusual for industrial workers to ask
“Is it dermatitis, doctor?”, meaning “is it due to my job?”

Clinical appearance
Eczema is an inflammatory condition of the skin characterised
by groups of vesicular lesions with a variable degree of exudate
and scaling. In some cases dryness and scaling predominate, Eczema
with little inflammation. In more acute cases there may be
considerable inflammation and vesicle formation, in keeping
with the Greek for “to boil out”, from which the word eczema is
derived. Sometimes the main feature may be blisters that
become very large.
Eczema commonly itches and the clinical appearance may
be modified by scratching, which with time may produce
lichenification (thickening of the skin with increased skin
markings). Also as a result of scratching the skin surface may be
broken and have excoriations, exudate, and secondary infection.
Pathology of eczema
Pathology
The characteristic change is oedema between the cells of the
epidermis, known as spongiosus, leading to formation of vesicles. Stress
The whole epidermis becomes thickened with an increased
keratin layer. A variable degree of vasodilatation in the dermis Sweating Skin
irritation
and an inflammatory infiltrate may be present.

Climate
Types of eczema Atopic
eczema

The many causes of eczema are not consistently related to the

distribution and clinical appearance. In general there are Foods Inoculations
either external factors acting on the skin producing
inflammatory changes or it is an endogenous condition. It is House dust
Infection
important to remember there can be more than one cause—for mite

example, in atopic eczema or varicose eczema on the ankle an

allergic reaction may develop to the treatments used. Factors leading to development of atopic eczema
Atopic eczema affects mainly the flexor surfaces of the elbows
and knees as well as the face and neck. To a variable degree it
can affect the trunk as well.
The typical patient with atopic eczema is a fretful, scratching
child with eczema that varies in severity, often from one hour to
the next. In the older child or adult, eczema is more chronic
and widespread and its occurrence is often related to stress.
Atopic eczema is common, affecting 3% of all infants, and runs
a chronic course with variable remissions. It normally clears
during childhood but may continue into adolescence and adult
life as a chronic disease. It is often associated with asthma and
rhinitis. Sufferers from atopic eczema often have a family
history of the condition.
Variants of atopic eczema are pityriasis alba—white patches on
the face of children with a fair complexion—and chronic
juvenile plantar dermatosis—dry cracked skin of the forefoot in
children. This does not affect the interdigital spaces and is not
due to a fungal infection.
Eczema herpeticum. Children with atopic eczema are
particularly prone to herpes virus infection, which may be life Atopic eczema—distribution

17
ABC of Dermatology

Atopic eczema Plantar dermatosis Nummular eczema

threatening. Close contact with adults with “cold sores” should

therefore be avoided.
Nummular eczema appears as coin shaped lesions on legs and
trunk.
Stasis eczema occurs around the ankles, where there is
impaired venous return.
Paget’s disease of the breast. Whereas bilateral eczema of the
nipples and areolae occur in women, any unilateral, persistent,
areas of dermatitis in this region may be caused by Paget’s
disease, in which there is underlying carcinoma of the ducts. In
such cases a biopsy is essential.
Lichen simplex is a localised area of lichenification produced
by rubbing.
Neurodermatitis is a term often used synonymously with
lichen simplex. It is also used to describe generalised
dryness and itching of the skin, usually in those with atopic
eczema.
Asteatotic eczema occurs in older people with a dry,
“crazypaving” pattern, particularly on the legs.
Pompholyx is itching vesicles on the fingers, with lesions on Nummular eczema—distribution
the palms and soles in some patients.
Infection can modify the presentation of any type of eczema
or contact dermatitis.

Classification of eczema
Endogenous Exogenous Secondary
(constitutional) eczema (contact) eczema changes
Atopic Irritant Lichen simplex
Nummular or discoid Allergic Neurodermatitis
Pompholyx Photodermatitis Asteatosis
Stasis Pompholyx Stasis eczema
Seborrhoeic (discussed later) Infection

Paget’s disease of the nipple Lichen simplex

18
 Eczema and dermatitis

Asteatosis Pompholyx Infected eczema

Contact dermatitis Common sources of allergic contact dermatitis

The skin normally performs its function as a barrier very • Jewellery, clothing, wristwatch, scissors, cooking utensils
effectively. If this is overcome by substances penetrating the • Cement, leather
• Hair dyes, tights, shoes
epidermis an inflammatory response may occur leading to • Rubber gloves and boots
epidermal damage. These changes may be due to either (a) an • Creams, ointments, cosmetics
allergic response to a specific substance acting as a sensitiser or • Nickel—and cobalt occasionally
(b) a simple irritant effect. An understanding of the difference • Chromate
between these reactions is helpful in the clinical assessment of • Paraphenylenediamine—used in hair dyes
contact dermatitis. • Rubber preservative chemicals
• Preservatives (parabenz, quarternium), balsam of Peru,
fragrances, lanolin, neomycin, benzocaine in medicated
ointments

Cosmetics
Toothpaste/lipstick Earings
Necklace
Necklace/medallion

Jeans studs
Local anaesthetics
Medicaments Watch strap
and 'piles' treatments
Detergents Rings Cleaning materials in
industrial dermatitis

Varicose eczema
and ulcer treatments
Footwear

Contact dermatitis—common sources

Allergic contact dermatitis

The characteristics of allergic dermatitis are: Ag Ag
• Previous exposure to the substance concerned.
• 48–96 hours between contact and the development of
changes in the skin.
• Activation of previously sensitised sites by contact with the
same allergen elsewhere on the body.
Inflammation
• Persistence of the allergy for many years. Antigen (Lymphokines)
presenting T helper cells
The explanation of the sequence of events in a previously cell T suppressor cells
sensitised individual is as follows: The antigen penetrates the
epidermis and is picked up by a Langerhans cell sensitised to it.
It is then transported to the regional lymph node where the "T" lymphocyte
paracortical region produces a clone of T cells specifically Cloning
Interleukin 1
programmed to react to that antigen. The sensitised T cells
Lymph node
accumulate at the site of the antigen and react with it to Proliferation Paracortical area
produce an inflammatory response. This takes 48 hours and is Interleukin 2
amplified by interleukins that provide a feedback stimulus to
the production of further sensitised T cells. Immunological response leading to contact dermatitis

19
ABC of Dermatology

Allergic contact dermatitis can be illustrated by the example

of an individual with an allergy to nickel who has previously
Sensitisers in leg ulcer treatments
reacted to a wrist watch. Working with metal objects that • Neomycin
contain nickel leads to dermatitis on the hands and also a flare • Lanolin (wool alcohol)
• Formaldehyde
up at the site of previous contact with the watch. The skin • Tars
clears on holiday but the dermatitis recurs two days after the • Chinaform (the “C” of many proprietary
person returns to work. steroids)

Allergic response to sulfapyridine Allergic response to Solarcaine Allergic response to topical neomycin (left). After stopping ointment (right)
and sun

Irritant contact dermatitis

This has a much less defined clinical course and is caused by
a wide variety of substances with no predictable time interval
between contact and the appearance of the rash. Dermatitis
occurs soon after exposure and the severity varies with the
quantity, concentration, and length of exposure to the
substance concerned. Previous contact is not required,
unlike allergic dermatitis where previous sensitisation is
necessary.

Photodermatitis
Photodermatitis, caused by the interaction of light and
Allergic response to dithranol
chemical absorbed by the skin, occurs in areas exposed to light.
It may be due to (a) drugs taken internally, such as
sulphonamides, phenothiazines, and dimethylchlortetracycline,
or (b) substances in contact with the skin, such as topical
antihistamines, local anaesthetics, cosmetics, and
antibacterials.

Morphology
The clinical appearance of both allergic and irritant contact
dermatitis may be similar, but there are specific changes that
help in differentiating them. An acute allergic reaction tends to
produce erythema, oedema, and vesicles. The more chronic
lesions are often lichenified. Irritant dermatitis may present as
slight scaling and itching or extensive epidermal damage
resembling a superficial burn, as the child in the illustration
shows.

Pathology
The reaction to specific allergens leads to a typical eczematous
reaction with oedema separating the epidermal cells and blister
formation. In irritant dermatitis there may also be eczematous
changes but also non-specific inflammation, thickening of
keratin, and pyknotic, dead epidermal cells. Photodermatitis

20
 Eczema and dermatitis

The distribution of the skin changes is often helpful. For

example, an itchy rash on the waist may be due to an allergy to
rubber in the waistband of underclothing or a metal fastener.
Gloves or the rubber lining of goggles can cause a persisting
dermatitis. An irritant substance often produces a more diffuse
eruption, as shown by the patient who developed itching and
redness from dithranol.
An allergy to medications used for treating leg ulcers is a
common cause of persisting dermatitis on the leg.

Acute irritant dermatitis

Allergic response to elastic in underpants

Allergic reaction to cosmetics

Substances commonly causing allergic occupational

dermatitis
• Chromate—in cement and leather
• Biocides, for example, formaldehyde and isothiazolinones,
used in cutting oils in engineering
• Epoxy resins (uncured monomers)
• Rubber chemicals
Allergic reaction to epoxy resin
• Hair dressing chemicals—particularly dyes and setting lotions
• Plant allergens

Patch testing
Patch testing is used to determine the substances causing
contact dermatitis. The concentration used is critical. If it
is too low there may be no reaction, giving a false negative
result, and if it is too high it may produce an irritant reaction,
which is interpreted as showing an allergy (false positive).
Another possible danger is the induction of an allergy by
the test substance. The optimum concentration and best
vehicle have been found for most common allergens, which Acutely infected eczema
are the basis of the “battery” of tests used in most dermatology
units.
The test patches are left in place for 48 hours then
removed, the sites marked, and any positive reactions noted.
A further examination is carried out at 96 hours to detect any
further reactions.

21
ABC of Dermatology

It is most important not to put a possible causative

substance on the skin in a random manner without proper
dilution and without control patches. The results will be
meaningless and irritant reactions, which are unpleasant for
the patient, may occur.

Test patches in place Positive reactions marked

Acute
Impairment in function
of stratum corneum

Skin clinically
abnormal
Patches being removed after 48 hours

Skin clinically
Occupational dermatitis normal but
physiologically
abnormal
Dermatitis, which is simply inflammation of the skin, can arise Damage Repair
as a result of:

• Inherited tendency to eczema (atopy)

• Contact dermatitis, which may be either irritant or allergic Contact with irritant
• Infection.
Chronic
Impairment in function
of stratum corneum

In the workplace, all three factors may contribute to dermatitis. "Failure" of

repair mechanism
For example, a student nurse or trainee hairdresser is exposed
to water, detergents, and other factors that will exacerbate any
pre-existing eczema. In addition, there may be specific allergies
and, as a result of the broken skin, secondary infection can
occur making the situation even worse. The following points
are helpful in determining the role of occupational causes.
• If the dermatitis first occurred during employment or with a
change of employment and had not been present before,
then occupational factors are more likely.
• If the condition generally clears during holidays and when
away from the workplace, this suggests an occupational cause,
Contact with irritant Time
but chronic irritant dermatitis may persist when the patient is
away from the workplace.
Progression of acute and chronic dermatitis
• If there is exposure to substances that are known to induce
dermatitis and protective measures are inadequate at the
workplace then an occupational cause is likely.
• If secondary infection is present, this can keep a dermatitis
active even when away from the workplace and sometimes
allergen exposure continues at home; for example, an allergy

22
 Eczema and dermatitis

to rubber gloves at work will also occur when rubber gloves

are used for domestic work at home.
Whatever the cause of the dermatitis, the end result may seem
the same clinically, because the inflammation and blisters of
atopic eczema may be indistinguishable from an allergic
reaction to rubber gloves. Generally, contact dermatitis is more
common on the dorsal surface of the hands whereas atopic
eczema occurs on the palms and sides of the fingers.
Irritant contact dermatitis can occur acutely as mentioned
above and there is usually a definite history of exposure to Treatment of occupational dermatitis
irritating chemicals. The exact cause of the dermatitis should be identified as far
Chronic irritant dermatitis can be harder to assess as it develops as possible. It is important to ascertain exactly what an
insidiously in many cases. Often it starts with episodes of individual’s job entails; for example, a worker in a plastics
transient inflammation that clear up, but with each successive factory had severe hand dermatitis but the only positive
episode the damage becomes worse with an escalation of result on patch testing was to nickel. On visiting the factory
inflammatory changes that eventually become chronic and it became clear that the cause was a nickel plated handle
fixed. that he used several thousand times a day and not the plastic
Once chronic damage has occurred the skin is vulnerable to components that the machine was making. It is also
any further irritation, so the condition may flare up in the future important to assess the working environment because
even after removal of the causative factors. Individuals with exposure to damp and irritants (for example, on an oil rig
atopic eczema are particularly liable to develop chronic irritant or in a coal mine) can irritate the skin.
dermatitis and secondary infection is an additional factor. If occupational factors are suspected, then a full
Allergic contact dermatitis occurs as an allergic reaction to assessment and investigation in a dermatology department is
specific substances. As this involves a cell mediated response important as the patient’s future working life may be at
the inflammatory reaction occurs about two days after stake
exposure and once the allergy is present further exposure will
inevitably produce a reaction. Some substances are much more
likely to produce an allergy, such as epoxy resin monomer, than
others, such as cement, which characteristically requires
exposure over many years before an allergy develops. In
addition to the capacity of the substance to produce an allergic
reaction, individuals also vary considerably in the capacity to
develop allergies.
Immediate type sensitivity is sometimes seen as a reaction to
food protein and sensitivity to latex gloves. This can produce
a very severe reaction, particularly in atopic individuals.
Systemic causes
• Endocrine diseases—diabetes, myxoedema,
hyperthyroidism
The itching skin (pruritus) • Metabolic diseases—hepatic failure,
chronic renal failure
It is sometimes very difficult to help a patient with a persistently • Haematological—polycythaemia, iron
itching skin, particularly if there is no apparent cause. Pruritus deficiency anaemia
is a general term for itching skin, whatever the reason. • Malignancy—lymphoma, reticulosis,
carcinomatosis
• Psychological—anxiety, parasitophobia
Itching with skin manifestations • Tropical infection—filariasis, hookworm
Eczema is associated with itching due to the accumulation of • Drugs—alkaloids
fluid between the epidermal cells that are thought to produce
stretching of the nerve fibres. As a result of persistent
scratching there is often lichenification which conceals the
original underlying areas with eczema. Exposure to irritants
and persistent allergic reactions can produce intense itching
and should always be considered.
“Allergic reactions” due to external agents often cause
intense itching. Systemic allergic reactions such as a fixed drug
eruption, erythema multiforme, and vasculitis are less likely to
cause pruritus.
Psoriasis, which characteristically has hyperkeratotic
plaques, usually does not itch but sometimes there can be
considerable itching. Occasionally this is due to secondary
Investigations
infection of breaks in the skin surface. • Skin scrapings for mycology
Lichen planus presents with groups of flat-topped papules • Patch testing for allergies
• Full blood count, erythrocyte sedimentation
which often cause an intense itch. Blistering disorders of the rate, liver and renal function tests
skin may itch. • Urine analysis
In herpes simplex there is usually burning and itching in the • Stools for blood and parasites
early stages.

23
ABC of Dermatology

In herpes zoster there may be a variable degree of itching, but Treatment

this is overshadowed by the pain and discomfort of the fully Treatment of the cause must be carried out when possible.
developed lesions. Calamine lotion cools the skin with 0·5% menthol or 1%
By contrast, bullous impetigo causes few symptoms, although phenol in aqueous cream. Camphor-containing preparations
there may be extensive blisters. Itching is usually not present. and crotamiton (Eurax) are also helpful. Topical steroid
Dermatitis herpetiformis is characterised by intense persistent ointments and occlusive dressings may help to prevent
and severe itching that patients often describe as being scratching and may help to break the itch–scratch–itch cycle.
unendurable. Usual measures such as topical steroids and Emollients should be used for dry skin.
antihistamines have little if any effect. Topical local anaesthetics may give relief but intolerance
By contrast, the blisters of pemphigoid do not itch although develops and they can cause allergic reactions. Sedative
the earlier inflamed lesions can be irritating. antihistamines at night may be helpful. In liver failure
Parasites. Fleas and mites cause pruritic papules in groups. cholestyramine powder may help to relieve the intense
The patient may not realise that they may have been acquired pruritus, as this is thought to be due to bile salts in the skin.
after a walk in the country or encountering a dog or cat. Antihistamines can be helpful both for their antipruritic
Nodular prurigo may develop after insect bites and is effect and because many are sedative and enable the itching
characterised by persistent itching, lichenified papules, and patient to sleep.
nodules over the trunk and limbs. The patient attacks them Pruritus ani is a common troublesome condition and the
vigorously and promotes a persisting “itch–scratch–itch” cycle following points may be helpful:
which is very difficult to break.
• Advise gentle cleaning once daily and patients should be
Parasitophobia is characterised by the patient reporting the
advised to avoid excessive washing.
presence of small insects burrowing into the skin which persists
• Avoid harsh toilet paper, especially if coloured, because
despite all forms of treatment. The patient will produce small
cheap dyes irritate and cause allergies. Olive oil and cotton
flakes of skin, fibres of clothing, and pieces of dust, usually in
wool can be used instead.
carefully folded pieces of paper, for examination. These should
• Weak topical steroids will help to reduce inflammation, with
always be examined and the patient gently informed that no
zinc cream or ointment as a protective layer on top.
insect could be found but this will not be believed. Treatment is
• Anal leakage from an incompetent sphincter, skin tags, or
therefore very difficult and sometimes recourse has to be had
haemorrhoids may require surgical treatment.
to psychotropic drugs (see page 106).
• There may be an anxiety or depression and prutitus ani itself
Infestations with lice cause irritation and a scabies mite can
can lead to irritability and depression.
cause widespread persistent pruritus, even though only a dozen
or so active scabies burrows are present. It is always acquired by Pruritus vulvae is a persistent irritation of the vulva which
close human contact and the diagnosis may be missed unless an can be most distressing and is most common in
adequate history of personal contacts and a thorough clinical postmenopausal women. It is important to eliminate any
examination is carried out. However, a speculative diagnosis of factors that may be preventing resolution. These include:
scabies should be avoided.
• Secondary infection with pyogenic bacteria or yeasts
• Eczema or contact dermatitis
Itching with no skin lesions • Lichen sclerosus atrophicus.
If no dermatological lesions are present generalised pruritus or
itchy skin may indicate an underlying internal cause. In elderly The adjacent vaginal mucosa should be examined to exclude
patients, however, the skin may itch simply because it is dry. an intraepithelial neoplasm or lichen planus. Treatment
Hodgkin’s disease may present with pruritus as a sign of the includes suitable antiseptic preparations such as 2% eosin,
internal malignancy long before any other manifestations. regular but not excessive washing, emollients, and topical
A 35 year old ambulance driver attended the dermatology steroids, bearing in mind the possibility of infection.
clinic with intense itching but a normal skin and no history of
skin disease. His general health was good and both physical Further reading
examination and all blood tests were normal. However, a chest
Adams RM. Occupational skin disease, 2nd ed. Philadelphia:
x ray examination showed a mediastinal shadow that was found Saunders, 1990
to be due to Hodgkin’s lymphoma. Fortunately this was easily Arndt KA. Manual of dermatological therapeutics, 5th ed. New York:
treated. Other forms of carcinoma rarely cause pruritus. Little, 1995
Atherton DJ. Eczema in childhood. The facts. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1994
Metabolic and endocrine disease Cronin E. Contact dermatitis. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone,
Biliary obstruction and chronic renal disease cause intense pruritus. 1980
Thyroid disease can be associated with an itching skin. In Fisher AA. Contact dermatitis, 3rd ed. Baltimore: Williams and
Wilkins, 1986
hyperthyroidism the skin seems normal but in hypothyroidism
Foussereau J, Benezra JE, Maibach H. Occupational contact dermatitis.
there is dryness of the skin causing pruritus. Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1982
Blood diseases. Polycythaemia and iron deficiency are Schwanitz HJ. Atopic palmoplantar eczema. Berlin: Springer-Verlag,
sometimes associated with itching skin. 1988

24
5 Treatment of eczema and inflammatory
dermatoses

Treat the patient, not just the rash. Many patients accept their
Treatment guidelines
skin condition with equanimity but others suffer much distress,
especially if the face and hands are affected. Acceptance by the • Treat the patient, not just the rash
doctor of the individual and his or her attitudes to the disease
• Complete cure may not be possible
• Be realistic about the problems of applying treatments at
goes a long way to helping the patient live with the condition. home
The common inflammatory skin diseases can nearly • Make sure the patient understands how to carry out the
always be improved or cleared, but it is wise not to promise treatment
a permanent cure. • Advise using emollients and minimal soap
Be realistic about the treatment people can apply in their own • Provide detailed guidance on using steroids
homes. It is easy to unthinkingly give patients with a widespread
rash a large amount of ointment to apply twice daily, which is
hardly used because: (a) they have a busy job or young children
and simply do not have time to apply ointment to the whole skin;
(b) they have arthritic or other limitations of movement and can
reach only a small part of the body; (c) the tar or other ointment
is smelly or discolours their clothes. Most of us have been guilty of
forgetting these factors at one time or another.
Dry skin tends to be itchy, so advise minimal use of soap.
Emollients are used to soften the skin, and the simpler the
better. Emulsifying ointment BP is cheap and effective but
rather thick. By mixing two tablespoons in a kitchen blender
with a pint of water, the result is a creamy mixture that can
easily be used in the bath. A useful preparation is equal parts of
white soft paraffin and liquid paraffin. Various proprietary bath
oils are available and can be applied directly to wet skin. There
are many proprietary emollients.
Wet weeping lesions should generally be treated with creams
rather than ointments (which remain on the surface).
Steroid ointments are effective in relieving inflammation and
itching but are not always used effectively. Advise patients to
use a strong steroid (such as betamethasone or fluocinolone Weeping eczema
acetonide) frequently for a few days to bring the condition
under control; then change to a weaker steroid (dilute
betamethasone, fluocinolone, clobetasone, hydrocortisone) less
frequently. Strong steroids should not be continued for long
periods, and, as a rule, do not prescribe any steroid stronger
than hydrocortisone for the face. Strong steroids can cause
atrophy of the skin if used for long periods, particularly when
applied under occlusive dressings. On the face they may lead to
florid telangiectasia and acne-like pustules. Avoid using steroids
on ulcerated areas. Prolonged use of topical steroids may mask
an underlying bacterial or fungal infection.
Immunosuppressants are a valuable adjunct in severe cases not
responding to topical treatment and antibiotics. Ciclosporin is
usually given on an intermittent basis, with careful monitoring
for side effects. Azathioprine is also used, provided the
thiopurine methyl transferase (TPMT) level is normal.
Tacrolimus is an immunosuppressant that has recently
become available in two strengths as an ointment. It promises
to be a successful treatment but is relatively expensive.
Acute erythema
Specific treatment
Wet, inflamed, exuding lesions
(1) Use wet soaks with plain water, normal saline, or
aluminium acetate (0·6%). Potassium permanganate
(0·1%) solution should be used if there is any sign of
infection.

25
ABC of Dermatology

(2) Use wet compresses rather than dry dressings

(“wet wraps”).
(3) Steroid creams should be used as outlined above. Greasy
ointment bases tend to float off on the exudate.
(4) A combined steroid–antibiotic cream is often needed as
infection readily develops.
(5) Systemic antibiotics may be required in severe cases. Take
swabs for bacteriological examination first.

Dry, scaling, lichenified lesions

(1) Use emollients.
(2) Use steroid ointments, with antibiotics if infection
is present.
(3) A weak coal tar preparation or ichthammol can be used on
top of the ointments. This is particularly useful at night to Lichenified eczema
prevent itching. 1–2% coal tar can be prescribed in an
ointment. For hard, lichenified skin salicylic acid can be
incorporated and the following formulation has been
found useful in our department:
(a) Coal tar solution BP 10%, salicylic acid 2%, and
unguentum drench to 100%.
(b) 1% ichthammol and 15% zinc oxide in white soft
paraffin is less likely to irritate than tar and is suitable
for children.
Infected eczema: before (left) and after (right) treatment
(4) In treating psoriasis start with a weaker tar preparation and
progress to a stronger one.
(5) For thick, hyperkeratotic lesions, particularly in the scalp,
Hand dermatitis: hints on management
salicylic acid is useful. It can be prescribed as 2–5% in
aqueous cream, 1–2% in arachis oil, or 6% gel. • Hand washing: use tepid water and soap without perfume or
colouring or chemicals added; dry carefully, especially
between fingers
It is often easiest for the patient to apply the preparation to the • When in wet work: wear cotton gloves under rubber gloves
scalp at night and wash it out the next morning with a tar (or plastic if you are allergic to rubber); try not to use hot
shampoo. water and cut down to 15 minutes at a time if possible;
remove rings before wet or dry work; use running water if
possible
Infection • Wear gloves in cold weather and for dusty work
Remember that secondary infection may be a cause of • Use only ointments prescribed for you
persisting lesions. • Things to avoid on unprotected skin:
Shampoo
Peeling fruits and vegetables, especially citrus fruits
Hand dermatitis Polishes of all kinds
Solvents, for example, white spirit, thinners, turpentine
Hand dermatitis poses a particular problem in management
Hair lotions, creams, and dyes
and it is important that protection is continued after the initial Detergents and strong cleansing agents
rash has healed because it takes some time for the skin to “Unknown” chemicals
recover its barrier function. Ointments or creams should be • Use “moisturisers” or emollients which have been
reapplied each time the hands have been washed. recommended by your doctor to counteract dryness
It is useful to give patients a list of simple instructions such
as those shown in the box on the right.
Further reading
Atherton DJ. Diet and children with eczema. London: National Eczema
Society, 1986
Launer JM. A practical guide to the management of eczema for general
practitioners. London: National Eczema Society, 1988
Mackie RM. Eczema and dermatitis. London: Martin Dunitz, 1983
Orton C. Eczema relief: a complete guide to all remedies—alternative and
orthodox. London: Thorsons, 1990

26
6 Rashes with epidermal changes

Familiarity with the clinical features of psoriasis and eczema,

which all clinicians see from time to time, provides a basis for
comparison with other rather less common conditions.
The characteristics that each condition has in common
with psoriasis and eczema are highlighted in the relevant
tables.

Characteristics of lichen planus

Lichen planus Clinical features of psoriasis Clinical features of eczema
Possible family history Possible family history
Like psoriasis, the lesions are well defined and raised. They also
Sometimes related to stress Sometimes worse with stress
occur in areas of trauma—the Koebner’s phenomenon. There
Itching—rare Usually itching
is no constant relation to stress.
Unlike psoriasis, there is no family history. Itching is Extensor surfaces and trunk Flexor surfaces and face
common. The distribution is on the flexor aspects of the limbs, Well defined, raised lesions Poorly demarcated lesions
particularly the ankles and wrists, rather than on the extensor Hyperkeratosis Oedema, vesicles, lichenification
surfaces, as in psoriasis. It also occurs on the trunk. However, Scaling, bleeding points Secondary infection sometimes
localised forms of lichen planus can occur on the shin, palm, beneath scales present
and soles or elsewhere. Koebner’s phenomenon
Nail involvement is less common than in psoriasis. There Nails affected
may be thinning and atrophy of part or all of a nail and these Scalp affected
often take the form of a longitudinal groove, sometimes with Mucous membranes
destruction of the nail plate. The oral mucosa is commonly not affected
affected with a white, net-like appearance and sometimes
ulceration.
The typical flat topped lesions have a shiny hyperkeratotic
lichenified surface with a violaceous colour, interrupted by
milky white streaks—Wickham’s striae.
Less commonly, very thick hypertrophic lesions occur
and also follicular lesions. Lichen planus is one cause of
localised alopecia on the scalp as a result of hair follicle
destruction.
Lichen planus usually resolves over many months to leave
residual brown or grey macules. In the oral mucosa and areas
subject to trauma ulceration can occur.

Lichen planus—wrist

Lichen planus (left). Lichen planus—oral mucosa (right) Lichen planus—nails

27
ABC of Dermatology

Treatment
There is usually a gradual response to topical steroids, but in
very extensive and inflamed lesions systemic steroids may be
needed. Localised hypertrophic lesions can be treated with
intralesional injections.

Similar rashes
Lichenified eczema
This is also itchy and may occur on the ankles and wrists.
The edge of the lesion is less well defined and is irregular. The
flat topped, shiny papules are absent.

Lichen planus—skin

Lichenified eczema

Guttate psoriasis—section through lesion (left); lichenified eczema—section

through lesion (right)

Guttate psoriasis
Guttate psoriasis is not as itchy as lichen planus. Scaling
erythematous lesions do not have the lichenified surface of
lichen planus.

Pityriasis lichenoides
The lesions have a mica-like scale overlying an erythematous
papule.

Drug eruptions
Rashes with many features of lichen planus can occur in
patients taking:
• Chloroquine
•
•
•
Chlorpropamide
Chlorothiazide }
Anti-inflammatory drugs
The three “C”s

• Gold preparations
Guttate psoriasis
It also occurs in those handling colour developers.
Lichen planus
Treatment • Flexor surfaces
The main symptom of itching is relieved to some extent by • Mucous membranes affected
moderately potent steroid ointments. Very hypertrophic lesions • Itching common
may respond to strong steroid preparations under polythene • Violaceous colour
• Wickham’s striae
occlusion. Careful intralesional injections may be effective in • Small discrete lesions
persistent lesions. In very extensive, severe lichen planus • Lichenified
systemic steroids may be indicated.

28
 Rashes with epidermal changes

Pathology of lichen planus Hyperkeratosis

As expected from the clinical appearance, there is hypertrophy Increase in granular layer
and thickening of the epidermis with increased keratin. The
white streaks seen clinically occur where there is pronounced
thickness of the granular layer and underlying infiltrate. Cellular infiltrate

Degenerating basal cells may form “colloid bodies”. The basal

Degeneration of basal layer
layer is being eaten away by an aggressive band of lymphocytes,
the remaining papillae having a “saw toothed” appearance.

Seborrhoeic dermatitis Lichen planus—pathology

Seborrhoeic dermatitis has nothing to do with sebum or any

other kind of greasiness. There are two distinct types, adult and
infantile.

Adult seborrhoeic dermatitis

The adult type is more common in men and in those with
a tendency to scaling and dandruff in the scalp. There are
several commonly affected areas:
• Seborrhoeic dermatitis affects the central part of the face,
scalp, ears, and eyebrows. There may be an associated
blepharitis, giving some red eyes and also otitis externa.
• The lesions over the sternum sometimes start as a single Seborrhoeic dermatitis
“medallion” lesion. A flower-like “petaloid” pattern can occur.
The back may be affected as well.
• Lesions also occur in well defined areas in the axillae and
groin and beneath the breasts. Characteristics of seborrhoeic dermatitis
Typically the lesions are discrete and erythematous and they Clinical features of psoriasis Clinical features of eczema
may develop a yellow crust. The lesions tend to develop from the Possible family history Possible family history
hair follicles. It is a persistent condition that varies in severity. Sometimes related to stress Sometimes worse with stress
Clinically and pathologically the condition has features of Itching—rare Usually itching
both psoriasis and eczema. There is thickening of the Extensor surfaces and trunk Flexor surfaces and face
epidermis with some of the inflammatory changes of psoriasis
Well defined, raised lesions Poorly, demarcated lesions
and the intercellular oedema of eczema. Parakeratosis—the
Hyperkeratosis Oedema, vesicles, lichenification
presence of nuclei above the basement layer—may be
Scaling, bleeding points Secondary infection sometimes,
noticeable. Recently, increased numbers of Pityrosporum ovale
beneath scales present
organisms have been reported.
Koebner’s phenomenon
Treatment Nails affected
Topical steroids produce a rapid improvement, but not Scalp affected
permanent clearing. Topical preparations containing salicylic Mucous membranes
acid, sulphur, or ichthammol may help in long term control. not affected
Triazole antifungal drugs by mouth have been reported to
produce clearing and can be used topically. These drugs clear
yeasts and fungi from the skin, including P. ovale, which is
further evidence for the role of this organism.

Seborrhoeic dermatitis affecting centre of face

Seborrheoic dermatitis under breasts Seborrhoeic dermatitis—distribution pattern

29
ABC of Dermatology

Infantile seborrhoeic dermatitis

In infants less than six months old a florid red eruption occurs
with well defined lesions on the trunk and confluent areas in
the flexures associated with scaling of the scalp. There is no
consistent association with the adult type of seborrhoeic
dermatitis. It has been suggested that infantile seborrhoeic
dermatitis is a variant of atopic eczema. It is said to be more
common in bottle fed infants. A high proportion of affected
infants develop atopic eczema later but there are distinct
differences.
Itching is present in atopic eczema but not in seborrhoeic
dermatitis.
The clinical course of atopic eczema is prolonged with
frequent exacerbation, whereas seborrhoeic dermatitis clears in
a few weeks and seldom recurs.
Treatment comprises emollients, avoiding soap, and applying
hydrocortisone combined with an antibiotic plus nystatin (for
example, Terra-Cortril plus nystatin cream). Hydrocortisone
can be used on the scalp.

Allergy
IgE concentrations are often raised in atopic eczema and food
allergy is common, but not in seborrhoeic dermatitis. Infantile Seborrhoeic dermatitis

Perioral dermatitis
Perioral dermatitis is possibly a variant of seborrhoeic
dermatitis, with some features of acne. Papules and pustules
develop around the mouth and chin. It occurs mainly in
women.

Pityriasis rosea Perioral dermatitis

The word “pityriasis” is from the Greek for bran, and the fine
bran-like scales on the surface are a characteristic feature. The
numerous pale pink oval or round patches can be confused
with psoriasis or discoid eczema. The history helps because this
condition develops as an acute eruption and the patient can
often point to a simple initial lesion—the herald patch.
There is commonly slight itching. Pityriasis rosea occurs
mainly in the second and third decade, often during the winter
months. “Clusters” of cases occur but not true epidemics. This
suggests an infective basis. There may be prodromal symptoms
with malaise, fever, or lymphadenopathy. Numerous causes have
been suggested, from allergy to fungi; the current favourite is a
virus infection.
The typical patient is an adolescent or young adult, who Pityriasis rosea—herald lesions
is often more than a little concerned about the sudden
appearance of a widespread rash. The lesions are widely
distributed, often following skin creases, and concentrated on
Characteristics of pityriasis rosea
the trunk with scattered lesions on the limbs. The face and
scalp may be affected. Clinical features of psoriasis Clinical features of eczema
Early lesions are red with fine scales—usually 1–4 cm in Possible family history Possible family history
diameter. The initial herald patch is larger and may be Sometimes related to stress Sometimes worse with stress
confused with a fungal infection. Subsequently the widespread Itching—rare Usually itching
eruption develops in a matter of days or, rarely, weeks. As time Extensor surfaces and trunk Flexor surfaces and face
goes by the lesions clear to give a slight pigmentation with Well defined, raised lesions Poorly demarcated lesions
a collarette of scales facing towards the centre. Hyperkeratosis Oedema, vesicles, lichenification
Scaling, bleeding points Secondary infection sometimes
Similar rashes beneath scales present
Discoid eczema presents with itching and lesions with Köebner’s phenomenon
erythema, oedema, and crusting rather than scaling. Vesicles
Nails affected
may be present. The rash persists unchanged.
Scalp affected
A drug eruption can sometimes produce similar lesions.
In guttate psoriasis the lesions are more sharply defined and Mucous membranes
not affected
smaller (0·5–1·0 cm) and have waxy scales.

30
 Rashes with epidermal changes

Pathology
Characteristics of pityriasis lichenoides
Histological changes are non-specific, showing slight
inflammatory changes in the dermis, oedema, and slight Clinical features of psoriasis Clinical features of eczema
hyperkeratosis. Possible family history Possible family history
Sometimes related to stress Sometimes worse with stress
Pityriasis lichenoides Itching—rare Usually itching
Extensor surfaces and trunk Flexor surfaces and face
Pityriasis lichenoides is a less common condition occurring in Well defined, raised lesions Poorly demarcated lesions
acute and chronic forms. Hyperkeratosis Oedema, vesicles, lichenification
The acute form presents with widespread pink papules Scaling, bleeding points Secondary infection sometimes
which itch and form crusts, sometimes with vesicle formation beneath scales present
suggestive of chickenpox. There may be ulceration. The lesions Koebner’s phenomenon
may develop in crops and resolve over a matter of weeks.
Nails affected
The chronic form presents as reddish brown papules—often
Scalp affected
with a “mica”-like scale that reveals a smooth, red surface
Mucous membranes
underneath, unlike the bleeding points of psoriasis. In lichen
not affected
planus there is no superficial scale and blistering is unusual.
The distribution is over the trunk, thighs, and arms, usually
sparing the face and scalp.
The underlying pathology—vascular dilatation and a
lymphocytic infiltrate with a keratotic scale—is in keeping with
the clinical appearance. The cause is unknown.
Treatment is with topical steroids. Ultraviolet light treatment
is also helpful.

Pityriasis lichenoides showing acute

erythematous rash

Pityriasis lichenoides—distribution pattern

Pityriasis versicolor
Pityriasis versicolor is a skin eruption that usually develops after
sun exposure with white macules on the tanned skin but pale A mica scale pityriasis lichenoides
brown patches on the covered areas, hence the name
versicolor, or variable colour. The lesions are: (a) flat;
(b) only partially depigmented—areas of vitiligo are totally
white; and (c) do not show inflammation or vesicles.
The causative organism is a yeast, Pityrosporum orbiculare, that
takes advantage of some unknown change in the epidermis and
develops a proliferative, stubby, mycelial form, Malassezia furfur.
This otherwise incidental information can be simply put to
practical use by taking a superficial scraping from a lesion on to
a microscope slide—add a drop of potassium hydroxide or
water with a coverslip. The organisms are readily seen under
the microscope as spherical yeast forms and mycelial rods,
resembling “grapes and bananas” (“spaghetti and meatballs” in
the United States).
Treatment is simple: selenium sulphide shampoo applied
regularly with ample water while showering or bathing will clear
the infection. The colour change may take some time to clear. Pityriasis versicolor skin lesions

31
ABC of Dermatology

Ketoconazole shampoo is an effective alternative. Oral

terbinafine, which is very effective in other fungal infections,
has no effect.

Desquamating stage of
generalised erythema
Any extensive acute erythema, from the erythroderma of
psoriasis to a penicillin rash, commonly shows a stage of
shedding large flakes of skin—desquamation—as it resolves.
If only this stage is seen it can be confused with psoriasis. Desquamation

Localised lesions with

epidermal changes
Psoriasis, seborrhoeic dermatitis, atopic eczema, and contact
dermatitis can all present with localised lesions.
Psoriasis may affect only the flexures, occur as a genital
lesion, or affect only the palms. The lack of itching and
epidermal changes with a sharp edge help in differentiation
from infective or infiltrative lesions.
Seborrhoeic dermatitis can occur in the axillae or scalp with no
lesions of other areas. Flexural seborrhoeic dermatitis
In atopic eczema the “classical” sites in children—flexures of
the elbows and knees and the face—may be modified in adults
to localised vesicular lesions on the hands and feet in older
patients. Some atopic adults develop severe, persistent
generalised eczematous changes.
Contact dermatitis is usually localised, by definition, to the
areas in contact with irritant or allergen. Wide areas can be
affected in reactions to clothing or washing powder, and
sometimes the reaction extends beyond the site of contact.

Fungal infections
Apart from athlete’s foot, toenail infections, and tinea cruris
(most commonly in men), “ringworm” is in fact not as common
as is supposed. The damp, soggy, itching skin of athlete’s foot
is well known. An itching, red diffuse rash in the groin Corynebacterium minutissimum
differentiates tinea cruris from psoriasis. However, erythrasma, (erythrasma)
a bacterial infection, may be confused with seborrhoeic
dermatitis and psoriasis—skin scrapings can be taken for
culture of Corynebacterium minutissimum or, more simply, coral Lupus erythematosus
pink fluorescence shown with Wood’s light. The scaling Systemic Discoid
macules from dog and cat ringworm (Microsporum canis) itch
greatly, whereas the indurated pustular, boggy lesion (kerion)
of cattle ringworm is quite distinctive.
Fungal infection of the axillae is rare; a red rash here is
more likely to be due to erythrasma or seborrhoeic
dermatitis.
Tinea cruris is very unusual before puberty and is
uncommon in women.
In all cases of suspected fungal infection skin scrapings
should be taken on to black paper, in which they can be folded Malar erythema may Thickened plaques with
be transient atrophy and
and sent to the laboratory. Special “kits” are available, which follicular keratosis
contain folded black paper and Sellotape strips on slides for Men : Women Men : Women
taking a superficial layer of epidermis. 1 : 9 1 : 3

+++ Photosensitivity ++
Lupus erythematosus ++++ Systemic disease -
There are two forms of this condition: discoid, which is usually
+++ Antinuclear antibodies +/-
limited to the skin, and systemic, in which the skin lesions are
associated with renal disease, arthritis, and other disorders.
There is also a subacute type with limited systemic involvement. Characteristics of systemic and discoid lupus erythematosus

32
 Rashes with epidermal changes

Systemic lupus erythematosus, which is much more common in

women than men, can be an acute, fulminating, multisystem
disease that requires intensive treatment, or a more chronic
progressive illness. Characteristically there is malar erythema
with marked photosensitivity and a butterfly pattern. It may be
transient. There may be scalp involvement as well with alopecia
and also telangiectasia of the perifungal blood vessels. Mouth
ulcers may also be present. Systemic involvement may cause
nephritis, polyarteritis, leukopenia, pleurisy, myocarditis, and
central nervous system involvement.
Systemic lupus erythematosus can present in many forms Systemic lupus erythematosus—subacute
and imitate other diseases. The facial rash can resemble
rosacea, cosmetic allergy, or sun sensitivity. Systemic
involvement may present with lassitude, weight loss, anaemia,
arthritis, renal failure, dyspnoea, or cardiac signs among others.
Criteria for making a diagnosis of systemic lupus
erythematosus have been established, of which at least four
must be present.
In the subacute variety there is less severe systemic
involvement, with scattered lesions occurring on the face, scalp,
chest, and arms.
Treatment is with systemic steroids, with immunosuppressive
agents if necessary. Antimalarial drugs, such as
hydroxychloroquine, are more effective in the subacute type.
In discoid lupus erythematosus there are well defined lesions
with a combination of atrophy and hyperkeratosis of the hair
follicles giving a “nutmeg grater” appearance. They occur
predominantly on the cheeks, nose, and forehead. It is about
three times as common in women as men, which is a lower
ratio than in the systemic variety. There is a tendency for the
skin lesions to gradually progress and to flare up on sun
exposure. It is rare for progression to the systemic type to
occur.
Treatment is with moderate to very potent topical steroids
and hydroxychloroquine by mouth, together with suitable sun
screens.

Fixed drug eruptions Discoid lupus erythematosus

Generalised drug eruptions are considered under erythema,
but there is a localised form recurring every time the drug is
used. There is usually a well defined, erythematous plaque,
sometimes with vesicles. Crusting, scaling, and pigmentation
occur as the lesion heals. It is usually found on the limbs, and
more than one lesion can occur.

Criteria for diagnosing systemic lupus

erythematosus
• Malar rash
• Discoid plaques
• Photosensitivity
• Mouth ulcers
• Arthritis
• Serositis
• Renal disease
• Neurological disease
• Haematological changes
• Immunological changes
• Antinuclear antibodies Fixed drug eruption

33
ABC of Dermatology

Erythema

With epidermal changes, not itching? With epidermal changes, itching?

Yes Yes

Yes Yes
Yes Does gentle scratching give greasy Well defined edge and some scaling? With vesicles and poorly defined edge? Eczema
Psoriasis scales with bleeding points beneath
No No
(Auspitz sign)?
No
Thickening hyperkeratotic Yes Lichen
Bowen's epidermis due to rubbing? simplex
disease or Yes Solitary lesion, slowly growing with
No
intraepidermal sharp uneven outline?
carcinoma
Papules of violaceous colour with white
striae and hyperkeratosis—look for lacy Yes Lichen
Fixed drug white net-like lesions, sometimes with
planus
eruption: ulcers on oral mucosa.
Barbiturates Blisters may be present?
Sulphonamides Yes Yes
Oedematous epidermis Well defined edge, no scaling? No
Chlordiazepoxide
Phenolphthalein No
Dapsone Yes
Inflammed lesion with advancing Fungal
Tetracycline
scaling edge, especially in groin? injection
No

Discoid lupus
erythematosus Yes Hyperkeratosis and atrophy with Non-specific erythematous lesions
– 'nutmeg depression of surface of lesion on trunk and limbs—look for "burrow" Yes
on sun exposed skin? on wrists, ankles, breasts and genital Scabies
grater' surface
areas. Older lesions form residual
papules?

Erythematous palpable lesions Fixed, developing and Yes

with little epidermal change? recurring over weeks Vasculitis
or months?

Yes No
Yes Yes Lupus
Recurrent Fixed, developing and
Urticaria erythem-
itching lesions? recurring over days?
atosus

Causes of epidermal rashes

34
7 Rashes arising in the dermis

The erythemas
Complex reactions occurring in the capillaries and arterioles of
the skin cause erythema, which is simply redness of the skin.
This may present as flat macules or as papules, which are raised
above the surrounding skin. The lesions may be transient or
last for weeks, constant or variable in distribution, with or
without vesicles.
It is possible to recognise specific patterns within this
Erythema from antibiotics
plethora of clinical signs, but even the most experienced
dermatologist may be reduced to making a general diagnosis of
“toxic” erythema. The best we can do therefore is to recognise Causes of “toxic” erythema
the common types of erythema and list the possible causes. It is Drugs
then a matter of deciding on the most likely underlying • Antibiotics, barbiturates, thiazides
condition or group of conditions—for example, bacterial Infections
infection or autoimmune systemic disease. • Any recent infections such as streptococcal throat infection or
erysipelas; spirochaetal infections; viral infections
Systemic causes
Morphology and distribution • Pregnancy; connective tissue disease; malignancy
Because there can be the same cause for a variety of
erythematous rashes detailed descriptions are of limited use.
None the less, there are some characteristic patterns. Erythema multiforme: precipitating causes
Infections
Morbilliform • Herpes simplex—the commonest cause
The presentation of measles is well known, with the appearance • Mycoplasma infection
of Koplik’s spots on the mucosa, photophobia with • Infectious mononucleosis
conjunctivitis, and red macules behind the ears, spreading to • Poliomyelitis (vaccine)
• Many other viral and bacterial infections
the face, trunk, and limbs. The prodromal symptoms and • Any focal sepsis
conjunctivitis are absent in drug eruptions. Other viral • BCG inoculaton
conditions, including those caused by echoviruses, rubella, Collagen disease
infectious mononucleosis, and erythema infectiosum, may • Systemic lupus erythematosus
have to be considered. • Polyarteritis nodosa
Neoplasia
Scarlatiniform • Hodgkin’s disease
• Myeloma
These rashes are similar to that in scarlet fever, when an acute • Carcinoma
erythematous eruption occurs in relation to a streptococcal
Chronic inflammation
infection. Characteristically erythema is widespread on the • Sarcoidosis
trunk. There is intense erythema and engorgement of the • Wegener’s granuloma
pharyngeal lymphoid tissue with an exudate and a “strawberry” Drugs
tongue. Bacterial infections can produce a similar rash, as can • Barbiturates
drug rashes, without the systemic symptoms. • Sulphonamides
• Penicillin
• Phenothiazine and many others
Figurate erythemas
These are chronic erythematous rashes forming annular or
serpiginous patterns. There may be underlying malignancy
or connective tissue disease.

Erythema multiforme
Erythema multiforme is sometimes misdiagnosed because of the
variety of lesions and number of possible precipitating causes;
some of these are listed in the box on the right.

Erythema multiforme Erythema multiforme

35
ABC of Dermatology

Clinical picture
The usual erythematous lesions occur in crops on the limbs
and trunk. Each lesion may extend, leaving a cyanotic centre,
which produces an “iris” or “target” lesion. Bullae may develop
in the lesions and on the mucous membranes. A severe bullous
form, with lesions on the mucous membranes, is known as the
Stevens–Johnson syndrome. There may be neural and
bronchial changes as well. Barbiturates, sulphonamides, and
other drugs, are the most common cause.
Histologically there are inflammatory changes,
vasodilatation, and degeneration of the epidermis.
A condition that may be confused is Sweet’s syndrome,
which presents as acute plum coloured raised painful lesions on
the limbs—sometimes the face and neck—with fever. It is
more common in women. The alternative name, “acute
febrile neutrophilic dermatosis”, describes the presentation and Annular lesions of erythema multiforme
the pathological findings of a florid neutrophilic infiltrate.
There is often a preceding upper respiratory infection.
Treatment with steroids produces a rapid response but
recurrences are common.

Erythema induratum
Erythema induraturn occurs on the lower legs posteriorly, usually
in women, with diffuse, indurated dusky red lesions that may
ulcerate. It is more common in patients with poor cutaneous
circulation. Epithelioid cell granulomas may form.
This erythema was originally described in association with
tuberculous infection elsewhere in the body (Bazin’s disease).
Annular lesions of erythema Blistering lesions of erythema multiforme
It represents a vasculitic reaction to the infection, and when multiforme
there is no tuberculous infection another chronic infection may
be responsible.

Erythema nodosum
Erythema nodosum occurs as firm, gradually developing
lesions, predominantly on the extensor aspect of the legs. They
are tender and progress over four to eight weeks from an acute
erythematous stage to residual lesions resembling bruises.
Single or multiple lesions occur, varying in size from 1 to
5 cm. The lesions are often preceded by an upper respiratory
tract infection and may be associated with fever and arthralgia.
Infections (streptococcal, tuberculous, viral, and fungal) and
sarcoidosis are the commonest underlying conditions. Drugs
can precipitate erythema nodosum, the contraceptive pill and
the sulphonamides being the commonest cause. Ulcerative
colitis, Crohn’s disease, and lymphoma may also be associated Erythema induratum
with the condition.

Rashes due to drugs

There is an almost infinite variety of types of drug reaction.
External contact with drugs can cause a contact dermatitis
presenting with eczematous changes. This occurs commonly with
neomycin and bacitracin. Chloramphenicol and sulphonamides
from ophthalmic preparations can also cause dermatitis around
the eyes. Penicillin is a potent sensitiser so is not used for topical
treatment.

Erythema nodosum
Topical neomycin allergy Same patient after withdrawing neomycin

36
 Rashes arising in the dermis

Drugs used systemically can cause a localised fixed drug

eruption or a more diffuse macular or papular erythema,
symmetrically distributed. In the later stages exfoliation, with
shedding scales of skin, may develop. Antibiotics, particularly
penicillins, are the most common cause. They also cause
erythema multiforme as already mentioned.
Penicillins are the most common cause of drug rashes,
which range from acute anaphylaxis to persistent diffuse
erythematous lesions. Joint pains, fever, and proteinuria may be
associated, as in serum sickness.
Ampicillin often produces a characteristic erythematous
maculopapular rash on the limbs seven to 20 days after the start
of treatment. Such rashes occur in nearly all patients with
infectious mononucleosis who are given ampicillin.
Fixed drug eruption

Vasculitis Drug reactions

Inflammation associated with immune complexes in the Blistering eruptions
capillaries and small blood vessels is part of the pathological • Barbiturates
• Sulphonamides
changes of many of the conditions described above. The term • Iodines or bromides
vasculitis is also used clinically to describe a variable clinical • Chlorpropamide
picture with red macules and papules and with necrosis and • Salicylates
bruising in severe cases. In children purpura is more • Phenylbutazone
prominent and these cases are classified as Henoch–Schönlein Lichen planus like reactions
purpura. The legs and arms are usually affected. Skin signs are • Chloroquine
preceded by malaise and fever with arthropathy and there may • Chlorothiazide
be associated urticaria. As a high proportion of cases are • Chlorpropamide
associated with systemic lesions, it is essential to check for renal, Photosensitivity (seen on areas exposed to light)
skeletal, gastrointestinal, and central nervous system disease. In
• Thiazide diuretics
• Sulphonamides
children with Henoch–Schönlein purpura nephritis is • Tetracyclines
common.

Vasculitis
• Inflammation around dilated capillaries and small blood
vessels
• A common component of the erythemas
• May occur as red macules and papules with necrotic lesions
on the extremities
• In children a purpuric type (Henoch–Schönlein purpura)
occurs in association with nephritis
• Systemic lesions may occur, with renal, joint, gastrointestinal,
and central nervous system involvement

Purpura
Vasculitis
Is seen on the skin as a result of:
• Thrombocytopenia—platelet deficiency
• Senile purpura—due to shearing of capillaries as a result of
defective supporting connective tissue
• Purpura in patients on corticosteroid treatment—similar to
senile purpura
• Schamberg’s disease—brown macules and red spots
resembling cayenne pepper on the legs of men
• Associated vasculitis

Some conditions associated with vasculitis

• Infection—streptococcal, hepatitis
• Drugs—numerous, including sulphonamides, penicillin,
phenothiazine, phenacitin
• Chemicals—insecticides, weed killers, phenolic compounds
• Connective tissue diseases—systemic lupus erythematosus,
rheumatoid arthritis
• Lymphoma and leukaemia
• Dysproteinaemias
Acute vasculitis with necrosis Necrotising angiitis

37
ABC of Dermatology

Urticaria
In this condition itching red weals develop; they resemble the
effects of stinging nettle (Urtica dioica) on the skin. The
condition may be associated with allergic reactions, infection,
or physical stimuli, but in most patients no cause can be found.
Similar lesions may precede, or be associated with, vasculitis
(urticarial vasculitis), pemphigoid, or dermatitis herpetiformis.
The histological changes may be very slight but usually
there is oedema, vasodilatation, and a cellular infiltrate of
lymphocytes, polymorphs, and histiocytes. Various vasoactive
substances are thought to be involved, including histamine, Urticaria
kinins, leukotrienes, prostaglandins, and complement.
Angio-oedema is due to oedema of the subcutaneous tissues;
it can occur rapidly and may involve the mucous membranes.
Hereditary angio-oedema is a rare form with recurrent severe
episodes of subcutaneous oedema, swelling of the mucous
membranes, and systemic symptoms. Laryngeal oedema is the
most serious complication.
The physical urticarias, which account for about 25% of
cases, include dermatographism and the pressure, cold, heat,
solar, cholinergic, and aquagenic urticarias.
Dermatographism is an exaggerated release of histamine from
stroking the skin firmly with a hard object, such as the end of a
pencil. Pressure urticaria is caused by sustained pressure from
clothing, hard seats, and footwear; it may last some hours. Cold
urticaria varies in severity and is induced by cold, particuarly by
cold winds or by the severe shock of bathing in cold water. It
appears early in life—in infancy in the rare familial form. In a
few cases abnormal serum proteins may be found. Heat urticaria
Angio-oedema
is rare, but warm environments often make physical urticaria
worse. Solar urticaria is a rare condition in which sunlight causes
an acute urticarial eruption. Tolerance to sun exposure may
Some reported causes of non-physical urticaria
develop in areas of the body normally exposed to sun. There is
sensitivity to a wide spectrum of ultraviolet light. Cholinergic • Food allergies—fish, eggs, dairy products, chocolate, nuts,
strawberries, pork, tomatoes
urticaria is characterised by the onset of itching urticarial • Food additives—for example, tartrazine dyes, sodium
papules after exertion, stress, or exposure to heat. The benzoates
injection of cholinergic drugs induces similar lesions in some • Salicylates—both in medicines and foods
patients. Aquagenic urticaria occurs on contact with water, • Infection—bacterial, viral, and protozoal
regardless of the temperature. • Systemic disorders—autoimmune and “collagen” diseases;
Non-physical urticaria may be acute in association with reticuloses, carcinoma, and dysproteinaemias
allergic reactions to insect bites, drugs, and other factors.
• Contact urticaria—may occur from contact with meat, fish,
vegetables, plants, and animals, among many other factors
Chronic recurrent urticaria is fairly common. Innumerable • Papular urticaria—a term used for persistent itching papules
causes have been suggested but, to the frustration of patient at the site of insect bites; it is also sometimes applied to
and doctor alike, it is often impossible to identify any specific urticaria from other causes
factor. • Inhalants—for example, house dust, animal danders

Treatment of urticaria
• Eliminate possible causative factors, such as aspirin, and by a
diet free from food additives
• Antihistamines. Also, H2 blockers, for example, cimetidine
• Adrenaline can be used for acute attacks, particularly if there
is angio-oedema of the respiratory tract
• Systemic corticosteroids should not be used for chronic
urticaria but may be needed for acute urticarial vasculitis

Dermatographism

Further reading
Berlit P, Moore P. Vasculitis, rheumatic diseases and the nervous system.
Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1992
Champion RH, Greaves MW, Black AK. The urticarias. Edinburgh:
Churchill Livingstone, 1985
Czametzki BM. Urticaria. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1986

38
8 Blisters and pustules

Development, duration, and The differential diagnosis of blistering eruptions

distribution Widespread blisters
• Eczema—lichenification and crusting, itching
Several diseases may present with blisters or pustules. There is • Dermatitis herpetiformis—itching, extensor surface, persistent
no common condition that can be used as a “reference point” • Chickenpox—crops of blisters, self limiting, prodromal illness
with which less usual lesions can be compared in the same way • Pityriasis lichenoides—pink papules, developing blisters
as rashes can be compared with psoriasis. A different approach • Erythema multiforme—erythematous and “target” lesions,
mucous membranes affected
is needed for the assessment of blistering or pustular lesions, • Pemphigoid—older patients, trunk, and flexures affected.
based on the history and appearance, and is summarised as the Preceding erythematous lesions, deeply situated, tense blisters
three Ds: development, duration, and distribution. • Pemphigus—adults, widespread superficial blisters, mucous
membranes affected (erosions)
Development • Drug eruptions—history of drugs prescribed, overdose
Was there any preceding systemic illness—as in chickenpox, (barbiturates, tranquillisers)
hand, foot, and mouth disease, and other viral infections? Was Localised blisters
there a preceding area of erythema—as in herpes simplex or • Eczema—“pompholyx” blisters on hand and feet, itching
• Allergic reactions, including topical medication, insect bites
pemphigoid? Is the appearance of the lesions associated with • Psoriasis—deep, sterile, non-itching blisters on palms and soles
itching—as in herpes simplex, dermatitis herpetiformis, and • Impetigo—usually localised, staphylococci and streptococci
eczematous vesicles on the hands and feet? isolated
• Herpes simplex—itching lesions developing turbid blisters
Duration
Some acute blistering arises rapidly—for example, in allergic Diseases presenting with blisters and pustules
reactions, impetigo, erythema multiforme, and pemphigus.
Other blisters have a more gradual onset and follow a chronic Itching Non-itching
course—as in dermatitis herpetiformis, pityriasis lichenoides, and Eczema pompholyx Erythema multiforme
the bullae of porphyria cutanea tarda. The rare genetic disorder on hands and feet
epidermolysis bullosa is present from, or soon after, birth. Allergic reactions Pemphigus vulgaris
Dermatitis herpetiformis Bullous pemphigoid
Distribution Chickenpox Bullous impetigo
The distribution of blistering rashes helps considerably in Herpes simplex Insect bite allergy
making a clinical diagnosis. The most common patterns of Pustular psoriasis on hands and feet
those that have a fairly constant distribution are shown.
Itching is a very useful symptom. If all the accessible lesions
are scratched and it is hard to find an intact blister it is
probably an itching rash.

Clinical features: widespread blisters

Chickenpox
Dermatitis herpetiformis Dermatitis herpetiformis
Chickenpox is so well known in general practice that it is rarely
seen in hospital clinics and is sometimes not recognised. The
prodromal illness lasts one to two days and is followed by
erythematous lesions that rapidly develop vesicles, then
pustules, followed by crusts in two to three days. Crops of
lesions develop at the same sites—usually on the trunk, face,
scalp, and limbs. The oral mucosa may be affected. The
condition is usually benign.

Dermatitis herpetiformis
Dermatitis herpetiformis occurs in early and middle adult life
and is characterised by symmetrical, intensely itching vesicles
on the trunk and extensor surfaces. The vesicles are superficial.
The onset is gradual, but may occur rapidly. The distribution is
shown in the diagram.
Variants of dermatitis herpetiformis are larger blisters
forming bullae and erythematous papules and vesicles.

Associated conditions
Coeliac disease with villous atrophy and gluten intolerance may
occur in association with dermatitis herpetiformis. Linear IgA Dermatitis herpetiformis—distribution pattern

39
ABC of Dermatology

disease is a more severe, widespread disease, in which there are

“linear” deposits of lgA along the basement membrane of the
epidermis and not only at the tips of the papillae as in
dermatitis herpetiformis. Treatment is with dapsone or
sulfapyridine together with a gluten free diet.

Erythema multiforme with blisters

Blisters can occur on the lesions of erythema multiforme Erythema multiforme in Erythema multiforme showing
to a variable degree; when severe, generalised, and affecting Stevens–Johnson syndrome blisters
the mucous membranes it is known as Stevens–Johnson
syndrome. The typical erythematous maculopapular changes
develop over one to two days with a large blister (bulla)
developing in the centre of the target lesions. In severe
progressive cases there is extensive disease of the mouth, eyes,
genitalia, and respiratory tract. The blisters are subepidermal,
although some basement membrane remains on the floor of
the blister.

Pityriasis lichenoides varioliformis acuta

As the name implies lichenified papules are the main
Pityriasis lichenoides
feature of pityriasis lichenoides varioliformis acuta (or
Mucha–Habermann disease), but vesicles occur in the acute
form. Crops of pink papules develop centrally, with vesicles,
necrosis, and scales—resembling those of chickenpox—hence
the “varioliformis”. There is considerable variation in the
clinical picture, and a prodromal illness may occur. The
condition may last from six weeks to six months. No infective
agent has been isolated. The pathological changes parallel the
clinical appearance with inflammation around the blood vessels
and oedema within the dermis.

Pemphigoid
The bullous type of pemphigoid is a disease of the elderly in
which tense bullae develop rapidly, often with a preceding
erythematous rash, as well as on normal skin. It is mainly seen
in the elderly and is slightly more common in women.The
flexural aspects of the limbs and trunk and flexures are mainly
affected. The bullae are subepidermal and persistent, with
antibodies deposited at the dermo-epidermal junction. Unlike
pemphigus there is a tendency for the condition to remit after
Bullous pemphigoid Mucous membrane pemphigoid
many months.
Another type of pemphigoid occurs in which there is scarring
of the oral mucous membrane and the conjunctiva.
Occasionally localised lesions are seen on the legs with
evidence of an immune reaction, but often the absence of
circulating antibasement membrane antibodies. This is a relatively
benign condition and often responds to topical steroids.
Treatment is with corticosteroids by mouth, 40–60 mg
daily in most patients, although higher doses are required by
some. Azathioprine aids remission, with reduced steroid
requirements, but takes some weeks to produce an effect. It is
essential to check the serum thiopurine methyl transferase
(TPMT) level before starting treatment. Patients with low levels
have impaired ability to metabolise azathioprine and are likely
to suffer toxic effects. Topical steroids can be used on
developing lesions.
Chronic scarring pemphigoid affects the mucous
membranes with small bullae that break down, leading to
erosions and adhesions in the conjunctivae, mouth, pharynx,
and genitalia.
There is also a localised type of pemphigoid occurring
on the legs of elderly women that runs a benign self-limiting
course. Bullous pemphigoid—distribution pattern

40
 Blisters and pustules

Pemphigus
The most common form of pemphigus vulgaris is a chronic
progressive condition with widespread superficial bullae arising
in normal skin. In about half of the cases this is preceded by
blisters and erosions in the mouth. The bullae are easily
broken, and even rubbing apparently normal skin causes the
superficial epidermis to slough off (Nikolsky sign). These
changes are associated with the deposition of immunoglobulin
in the epidermal intercellular spaces. It is a serious condition
with high morbidity, despite treatment with steroids and
azathioprine. Pemphigus vegetans and pemphigus
erythematosus are less common variants.

Differential diagnosis of ulcers in the

mouth
• Trauma (dentures)
• Aphthous ulcers
• Candida albicans infection Pemphigus—distribution pattern
• Herpes simplex
• Erythema multiforme (from drugs)
• Pemphigus
• Lichen planus
• Carcinoma

Clinical features: localised blisters

Pompholyx, which means “a bubble”, is characterised by
Pemphigus vulgaris
persistent, itchy, clear blisters on the fingers, which may
extend to the palms, with larger blisters. The feet may be
Nikolsky sign
affected. Secondary infection leads to turbid vesicle fluid.
Pompholyx may be associated with a number of conditions—
atopy, stress, fungal infection elsewhere, and allergic reactions.
It may occur as a result of ingesting nickel in nickel
sensitive patients and a similar reaction has been reported to
neomycin.
Pustular psoriasis is characterised by deep seated sterile
blisters, often with no sign of psoriasis elsewhere—hence the
term palmopustular pustulosis. Foci of sepsis have long been
considered a causative factor and recent studies have shown a Pompholyx Pustular psoriasis
definite association with cigarette smoking. The pattern of HLA
antigens indicates that this may be a separate condition from
psoriasis.
Bullous impetigo is seen in children and adults. Staphylococci
are usually isolated from the blister fluid. The blisters are
commonly seen on the face and are more deeply situated than
in the non-bullous variety.
Herpes simplex. Primary infection with type 1 virus occurs
on the face, lips, and buccal mucosa in children and young
adults. Type II viruses cause genital infection. Itching may be
severe.

Bullous impetigo

Herpes simplex—type I
virus infection Herpes simplex—type II virus infection

41
ABC of Dermatology

Herpes zoster is due to varicella virus producing groups of

vesicles in a dermatome distribution, usually thoracic,
trigeminal, or lumbosacral. It is more common after the fourth
decade of life.
Insect bite allergy. Large blisters, which are usually not
itching, can occur on the legs of susceptible individuals.
Bullous drug eruptions. Fixed drug eruptions can develop
bullae, and some drugs can cause a generalised bullous
Herpes zoster
eruption, particularly:
Barbiturates (particularly if taken in overdose)
Sulphonamides
Herpes zoster
Penicillins
Penicillamine
Captopril } pemphigus-like blisters
Frusemide (may be phototoxic)
Remember that there may be an associated erythematous
eruption.

Insect bite allergy Drug reaction to sulfapyridine

42
9 Leg ulcers

Although the patient will not probably die of this disease, yet, without great
care, it may render her miserable. The disease may be very much relieved by
art, and it is one of very common occurrence.
Sir Benjamin Brodie (1846)

Despite the great increase in our understanding of the

pathology of leg ulcers, their management is still largely “art”.
Consequently there are numerous treatments, each with their Venous leg ulcers
enthusiastic advocates. There are, however, basic concepts
which are helpful in management. As about 95% of leg ulcers
are of the “venous” or gravitational variety these will be
considered first.

Pathology of venous ulcers

The skin
Ulcers arise because the skin dies from inadequate provision
of nutrients and oxygen. This occurs as a consequence of
(a) oedema in the subcutaneous tissues with poor lymphatic
and capillary drainage and (b) the extravascular accumulation
of fibrinous material that has leaked from the blood vessels.
The result is a rigid cuff around the capillaries, preventing
diffusion through the wall, and fibrosis of the surrounding
tissues.

The blood vessels

Arterial perfusion of the leg is usually normal or increased, but
stasis occurs in the venules. The lack of venous drainage is a
consequence of incompetent valves between the superficial veins
and the deeper large veins on which the calf muscle “pump”
Varicose veins Ulcers and fibrosis
acts. In the normal leg there is a superficial low pressure venous
system and deep high pressure veins. If the blood flow from
superficial to deep veins is reversed then the pressure in the
superficial veins may increase to a level that prevents venous
drainage, Vancose veins with “back pressure” causing stasis and
oedema.

Incompetent valves Superficial Deep Dilated Deep

Incompetent valves leading to gravitational ulcers may be vein vein superficial vein vein
Calf Calf
preceded by:
(1) deep vein thrombosis associated with pregnancy or, less
commonly, leg injury, immobilisation, or infarctions in
the past
(2) primary long saphenous vein insufficiency
(3) familial venous valve incompetence that presents at an
earlier stage—there is a familial predisposition in half of all
patients with leg ulcers—or
(4) deep venous obstruction.
Foot

Skin Muscle "pump"

Rigid
fascia
Subcutaneous
tissue

Healthy valves in legs Incompetent valves in legs

Incompetent flow in legs

43
ABC of Dermatology

Who gets ulcers?

Mainly women get ulcers—2% of those over 80 have venous
ulcers as a long term consequence of the factors listed above.
Leg ulcers are more likely to occur and are more severe in
obese people.

Clinical changes
Oedema and fibrinous exudate often lead to fibrosis of the Atrophie blanche
subcutaneous tissues, which may be associated with localised
loss of pigment and dilated capillary loops, an appearance
known as “atrophic blanche”. This occurs around the ankle
with oedema and dilated tortuous superficial veins proximally
and can lead to “champagne bottle legs”, the bottle, of course,
being inverted. Ulceration often occurs for the first time after a
trivial injury.
Lymphoedema results from obliteration of the superficial
lymphatics, with associated fibrosis. There is often hypertrophy
of the overlying epidermis with a “polypoid” appearance, also
known as lipodermatosclerosis.
Venous ulcers occur around the ankles, commonly over the
medial malleolus. The margin is usually well defined with a
shelving edge, and a slough may be present. There may also be “Champagne bottle legs” with “Champagne bottle legs” with
surrounding eczematous changes. Venous ulcers are not usually ulceration ulceration
painful but arterial ulcers are.
It is important to check the pulses in the leg and foot as
compression bandaging of a leg with impaired blood flow can
cause ischaemia and necrosis.

Treatment
When new epidermis can grow across an ulcer it will, and the
aim is to produce an environment in which this can take place.
To this end several measures can be taken:
(1) Oedema may be reduced by means of: (a) diuretics; Bandaging
(b) keeping the legs elevated when sitting; (c) avoiding
standing as far as possible; (d) raising the heels slightly
from time to time helps venous return by the “calf muscle
pump”; (e) applying compression bandages to create a
pressure gradient towards the thigh.
(2) Exudate and slough should be removed. Lotions can be
used to clean the ulcer and as compresses—0·9% saline
solution, sodium hypochlorite solution, Eusol, or 5%
hydrogen peroxide.

Cleaning the ulcers

Cleaning with saline

solution Applying antiseptic cream

44
 Leg ulcers

There is some evidence that antiseptic solutions and

chlorinated solutions (such as sodium hypochlorite and
Eusol) delay collagen production and cause inflammation.
Enzyme preparations may help by “digesting” the
slough. To prevent the formation of granulation
tissue use silver nitrate 0·25% compresses, a silver nitrate
“stick” for more exuberant tissue, and curettage, if
necessary.
(3) The dressings applied to the ulcer can consist of: Applying ichthopaste bandages as
a protective layer
(a) simple non-stick, paraffin gauze dressings—an allergy
may develop to those with an antibiotic; (b) wet
compresses with saline or silver nitrate solutions for
exudative lesions; (c) silver sulfadiazine (Flamazine) or
hydrogen peroxide creams (Hioxyl); and (d) absorbent
dressings, consisting of hydrocolloid patches or powder,
which are helpful for smaller ulcers.
(4) Paste bandages, impregnated with zinc oxide and
antiseptics or ichthammol, help to keep dressings in place
and provide protection. They may, however, traumatise the
skin, and allergic reactions to their constituents are not
uncommon.
(5) Treatment of infection is less often necessary than is
commonly supposed. All ulcers are colonised by bacteria to
some extent, usually coincidental staphylococci. A purulent Bandaging ulcers
exudate is an indication for a broad spectrum antibiotic
and a swab for bacteriology. Erythema, oedema, and
tenderness around the ulcers suggest a
haemolytic
streptococcal infection, which will require long term
antibiotic treatment. Dyes can be painted on the edge of
the ulcer, where they fix to the bacterial wall as well as the
patient’s skin. In Scotland bright red eosin is traditionally
used, while in the south a blue dye, gentian violet, is
favoured. Systemic antibiotics have little effect on ulcers Treatment of venous leg ulcers
but are indicated if there is surrounding cellulitis. A swab
• Take measures to eliminate oedema and reduce weight—
for culture and sensitivity helps to keep track of organisms make sure the patient understands these
colonising the area. • Never apply steroid preparations to the ulcer itself or it will
(6) Surrounding eczematous changes should be treated. not heal. Make sure that both nurses and patients are aware
Use topical steroids, not more than medium strength, of this
avoiding the ulcer itself. Ichthammol 1% in 15% zinc • Beware of allergy developing to topical agents—especially to
antibiotics
oxide and white soft paraffin or Ichthopaste bandages
• There is no need to submit the patient to a variety of
can be used as a protective layer, and topical antibiotics antibiotics according to the differing bacteria isolated from
can be used if necessary. It is important to remember leg ulcer slough, unless there is definite evidence of infection
that any of the commonly used topical preparations can of adjacent tissue clinically
cause an allergic reaction: neomycin, lanolin, • A vascular “flare” around the ankle and heel with varicose
formaldehyde, tars, Chinaform (the “C” of many veins, sclerosis, or oedema indicates a high risk of ulceration
proprietary steroids). developing
• Make sure arterial pulses are present. A Doppler apparatus
(7) Skin grafting can be very effective. There must be a healthy can be used
viable base for the graft, with an adequate blood supply;
natural re-epithelialisation from the edges of the ulcer is a
good indication that a graft will be supported. Pinch grafts
or partial thickness grafts can be used. Any clinical
infection, particularly with pseudomonal organisms, should
be treated.
(8) Maintaining general health, with adequate nutrition and
weight reduction, is important.
(9) Corrective surgery for associated venous abnormalities.

Arterial ulcers
Ulcers on the leg also occur as a result of: (a) atherosclerosis
with poor peripheral circulation, particularly in older patients;
(b) vasculitis affecting the larger subcutaneous arteries; and
(c) aterial obstruction in macroglobulinaemia,
cryoglobulinaemia, polycythaemia, and “collagen” disease,
particularly rheumatoid arthritis. Arterial ulcer

45
ABC of Dermatology

Arterial ulcers are sharply defined and accompanied by

pain, which may be very severe, especially at night. The leg,
especially the pretibial area, is affected rather than the ankle.
In patients with hypertension a very tender ulcer can develop
posteriorly (Martorelli’s ulcer).
As mentioned above, compression bandaging will make
arterial ulcers worse and may lead to ischaemia of the leg.

Diagnosis
The differing presentation of arterial and venous ulcers helps
in distinguishing between them, but some degree of aterial
insufficiency often complicates venous ulcers. Ulcer in diabetic foot Tuberculous ulceration
Phlebography and Doppler ultrasound may help in
detecting venous incompetence and arterial obstruction, which
can sometimes be treated surgically.
Ulcers on the leg may also occur secondary to other diseases,
because of infection, in malignant disease, and after trauma.

Secondary ulcers
Ulcers occur in diabetes, in periarteritis nodosa, and in
vasculitis. Pyoderma gangrenosum, a chronic necrotic ulcer
with surrounding induration, may occur in association with
ulcerative colitis or rheumatoid vasculitis. Squamous cell carcinoma
in venous ulcer

Infections
Infections that cause ulcers include staphylococcal or
streptococcal infections, tuberculosis (which is rare in the
United Kingdom but may be seen in recent immigrants), and
anthrax.

Malignant diseases
Squamous cell carcinoma may present as an ulcer or, rarely,
develop in a pre-existing ulcer. Basal cell carcinoma and
melanoma may develop into ulcers, as may Kaposi’s sarcoma. Dermatitis artefacta

Trauma
Patients with diabetic or other types of neuropathy are at risk of Further reading
developing trophic ulcers. Rarely they may be self induced— Browse NL, Burnand KG, Lea M. Diseases of the veins: pathology,
“dermatitis artefacta”. diagnosis and treatment. London: Edward Arnold, 1988
Kappert A. Diagnosis of peripheral vascular disease. Berne: Hauber,
1971
Ryan TJ. The management of leg ulcers, 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1987

46
10 Acne and rosacea

Acne goes with adolescence, a term derived from the Greek

“acme” or prime of life. The young girl who is desperately
aware of the smallest comedo and the young man, with his face
or back a battlefield of acne cysts and scars, are familiar to us
all. Both need treatment and help in coming to terms with
their condition.

What is acne?
Acne cysts and scars
Acne lesions develop from the sebaceous glands associated with
hair follicles—on the face, external auditory meatus, back,
chest, and anogenital area. (Sebaceous glands are also found
on the eyelids and mucosa, prepuce and cervix, where they are
not associated with hair follicles.) The sebaceous gland contains
holocrine cells that secrete triglycerides, fatty acids, wax esters,
and sterols as “sebum”. The main changes in acne are:
(1) an increase in sebum secretion;
(2) thickening of the keratin lining of the sebaceous duct, to
produce blackheads or comedones—the colour of
blackheads is due to melanin, not dirt;
(3) an increase in Propionibacterium acnes bacteria in
the duct;
(4) an increase in free fatty acids;
(5) inflammation around the sebaceous gland, probably as
a result of the release of bacterial enzymes.

Underlying causes
There are various underlying causes of these changes.
Sebaceous gland—
Hormones histology of acne
Androgenic hormones increase the size of sebaceous glands
and the amount of sebum in both male and female adolescents.
Oestrogens have the opposite effect in prepubertal boys and
eunuchs. In some women with acne there is lowering of the
concentration of sex hormone binding globulin and a
consequent increase in free testosterone concentrations. There Blocked pore
is probably also a variable increase in androgen sensitivity. Oral
contraceptives containing more than 50 micrograms
ethinyloestradiol can make acne worse and the combined type
may lower sex hormone binding globulin concentrations,
leading to increased free testosterone. Infantile acne occurs in
the first few months of life and may last some years. Apart from Bacterial
Excess grease action
rare causes, such as adrenal hyperplasia or virilising tumours, from enlarged
transplacental stimulation of the adrenal gland is thought sebaceous
to result in the release of adrenal androgens—but this does gland
not explain why the lesions persist. It is more common
in boys. Sebaceous gland—
pathology in acne
Fluid retention
The premenstrual exacerbation of acne is thought to be due to
fluid retention leading to increased hydration of and swelling
of the duct. Sweating also makes acne worse, possibly by the
same mechanism. Hormones—the cause of all the trouble
• Androgens
Diet – increase the size of sebaceous glands
– increase sebum secretion
In some patients acne is made worse by chocolate, nuts, and • Androgenic adrenocorticosteroids—have the same effect
coffee or fizzy drinks. • Oestrogens—have the opposite effect

47
ABC of Dermatology

Seasons
Acne often improves with natural sunlight and is worse in
Types of acne
winter. The effect of artificial ultraviolet light is unpredictable. Acne vulgaris
• Affects comedogenic areas
• Occurs mainly in puberty, in boys more than girls
External factors • Familial tendency
Oils, whether vegetable oils in the case of cooks in hot kitchens Infantile acne
or mineral oils in engineering, can cause “oil folliculitis”, • Face only
leading to acne-like lesions. Other acnegenic substances • Clears spontaneously
include coal tar, dicophane (DDT), cutting oils, and Severe acne
halogenated hydrocarbons (polychlorinated biphenols and • Acne conglobata
related chemicals). Cosmetic acne is seen in adult women who • Pyoderma faciale
have used cosmetics containing comedogenic oils over many • Gram negative folliculitis
years. Occupational acne
• Oils
• Coal and tar
Iatrogenic factors • Chlorinated phenols
Corticosteroids, both topical and systemic, can cause increased • DDT and weedkillers
keratinisation of the pilosebaceous duct. Androgens, Steroids
gonadotrophins, and corticotrophin can induce acne in • Systemic or topical
adolescence. Oral contraceptives of the combined type can Hormones
induce acne, and antiepileptic drugs are reputed to cause acne. • Combined type of oral contraceptives and androgenic
hormones

Types of acne
Acne vulgaris
Acne vulgaris, the common type of acne, occurs during puberty
and affects the comedogenic areas of the face, back, and chest.
There may be a familial tendency to acne. Acne vulgaris is
slightly more common in boys, 30–40% of whom have acne
between the ages of 18 and 19. In girls the peak incidence is
Acne keloidalis Acne with comedones
between 16 and 18 years. Adult acne is a variant affecting 1% of
men and 5% of women aged 40. Acne keloidalis is a type of
scarring acne seen on the neck in men.
Patients with acne often complain of excessive greasiness of
the skin, with “blackheads”, “pimples”, or “plukes” developing.
These may be associated with inflammatory papules and
pustules developing into larger cysts and nodules. Resolving
lesions leave inflammatory macules and scarring. Scars may be
atrophic, sometimes with “ice pick” lesions or keloid formation.
Keloids consist of hypertrophic scar tissue and occur
predominantly on the neck, upper back, and shoulders and
over the sternum. Acne vulgaris

Acne excoreé
The changes of acne are often minimal but the patient, often “Ice-pick” scars
a young girl, picks at the skin producing disfiguring erosions.
It is often very difficult to help the patient break this habit.

Infantile acne
Localised acne lesions occur on the face in the first few months
of life. They clear spontaneously but may last for some years.
There is said to be an associated increased tendency to severe
adolescent acne.
Acne fulminans Pyoderma faciale

Acne conglobata
This is a severe form of acne, more common in boys and in
tropical climates. It is extensive, affecting the trunk, face, and
limbs. In “acne fulminans” there is associated systemic illness
with malaise, fever, and joint pains. It appears to be associated
with a hypersensitivity to P. acnes. Another variant is pyoderma
faciale, which produces erythematous and necrotic lesions and
occurs mainly in adult women.
Gram negative folliculitis occurs with a proliferation of
organisms such as klebsiella, proteus, pseudomonas, and
Escherichia coli. Acne conglobata Gram negative folliculitis

48
 Acne and rosacea

Occupational
Treatment of acne
Acne-like lesions occur as a result of long term contact with oils
or tar as mentioned above. This usually results from lubricating, First line Second line Third line
cutting, or crude oil soaking through clothing. In chloracne Encourage Topical Oral retinoids
there are prominent comedones on the face and neck. It is positive attitudes vitamin A acid for 3–4 months
caused by exposure to polychlortriphenyl and related (hospitals only)
compounds and also to weedkiller and dicophane. Avoid environmental Topical antibiotics
and occupational
factors
Topical treatment Ultraviolet light
Treatment of acne Benzoyl peroxide
Salicylic acid
In most adolescents acne clears spontaneously with minimal
A tetracycline by mouth Antiandrogens
scarring. Reassurance and explanation along the following lines
for several months
helps greatly:
(1) The lesions can be expected to clear in time.
(2) It is not infectious.
(3) The less patients are self conscious and worry about their
appearance the less other people will take any notice of
their acne.
It helps to give a simple regimen to follow, enabling patients to
take some positive steps to clear their skin and also an
alternative to picking their spots.
Patients with acne should be advised to hold a hot wet
flannel on the face (a much simpler alternative to the
commercial “Facial saunas”), followed by gentle rubbing in of a
plain soap. Savlon solution, diluted 10 times with water, is an
excellent alternative for controlling greasy skin. There are
many proprietary preparations, most of which act as
keratolytics, dissolving the keratin plug of the comedone. They
Acne after treatment
can also cause considerable dryness and scaling of the skin. Acne before treatment
Benzoyl peroxide in concentrations of 1–10% is available as
lotions, creams, gels, and washes. Resorcinol, sulphur, and
salicylic acid preparations are also available.
Vitamin A acid as a cream or gel is helpful in some patients.
A topical tretinoin gel has recently been introduced.
Ultraviolet light therapy is less effective than natural
sunlight but is helpful for extensive acne. It is a helpful
additional treatment in the winter months.
Oral treatment. The mainstay of treatment is oxytetracycline, Severe cystic acne before (left) and after (right) treatment with tetracycline
which should be given for a week at 1 g daily then 500 mg
(250 mg twice daily) on an empty stomach. Minocycline or
doxycycline are alternatives that can be taken with food.
Perseverance with treatment is important, and it may take some
months to produce an appreciable improvement. Erythromycin
is an alternative to tetracycline, and co-trimoxazole can be used
for Gram negative folliculitis. Tetracycline might theoretically
interfere with the absorption of progesterone types of birth
control pill and should not be given in pregnancy.
Topical antibiotics. Erythromycin, the tetracyclines, and
clindamycin have been used topically. There is the risk of
producing colonies of resistant organisms.
Keloid scars
Antiandrogens. Cyproterone acetate combined with
ethinyloestradiol is effective in some women; it is also
a contraceptive.
Synthetic retinoids. For severe cases resistant to other
treatments these drugs, which can be prescribed only in
hospital, are very effective and clear most cases in a few
months. 13-cis-Retinoic acid (isotretinoin) is usually used for
acne. They are teratogenic, so there must be no question of
pregnancy, and can cause liver changes with raised serum lipid
values. Regular blood tests are therefore essential. A three
month course of treatment usually gives a long remission.
Recently topical isotretinoin gel has been introduced.
Residual lesions, keloid scars, cysts, and persistent nodules Keloid scars on dark skin
can be treated by injection with triamcinolone or freezing with

49
ABC of Dermatology

liquid nitrogen. For severe scarring dermabrasion can produce

good cosmetic results. This is usually carried out in a plastic
Remember the following points
surgery unit. • Avoid topical steroids
• Persevere with one antibiotic not short courses of different
types
• Do not prescribe a tetracycline for children and pregnant
Rosacea women
• Oxytetracycline must be taken on an empty stomach half
Rosacea is a persistent eruption occurring on the forehead an hour before meals
and cheeks. It is more common in women than men.
There is erythema with prominent blood vessels. Pustules,
papules, and oedema occur. Rhinophyma, with thickened
erythematous skin of the nose and enlarged follicles, is a
variant. Conjunctivitis and blepharitis may be associated. It is
usually made worse by sunlight.
Rosacea should be distinguished from:
• Acne, in which there are blackheads, a wider distribution,
and improvement with sunlight. Acne, however, may coexist
with rosacea—hence the older term “acne rosacea”.
• Seborrhoeic eczema, in which there are no pustules and Blepharitis Rosacea
eczematous changes are present.
• Lupus erythematosus, which shows light sensitivity, erythema,
and scarring but no pustules.
• Perioral dermatitis, which occurs in women with pustules and
erythema around the mouth and on the chin. There is
usually a premenstrual exacerbation. Treatment is with oral
tetracyclines.
Rosacea
Treatment
The treatment of rosacea is with long term courses of
oxytetracycline, which may need to be repeated. Topical
treatment along the lines of that for acne is also helpful.
Topical steroids should not be used as they have minimal
effect and cause a severe rebound erythema, which is difficult
to clear. Avoiding hot and spicy foods may help.
Recent reports indicate that synthetic retinoids are also
effective.

Rosacea Rhinophyma

Lupus erythematosus

Perioral dermatitis on treatment

with cyproterone acetate

Further reading
Cunliffe WJ, Cotterill JA. The acnes: clinical features, pathogenesis and
treatment. St Louis: Mosby, 1989.
Plewig G, Kligman AM. Acne and rosacea, 2nd ed. Berlin: Springer-
Verlag, 1992

50
11 The hair and scalp
D Kemmett

Introduction
Hair, which has an essential physiological role in animals, is
mainly of psychological importance in man. A good head of
hair provides some degree of warmth for the human head and 85% of hair 15% of hair
also protection from ultraviolet radiation, but its significance is
otherwise in the eye of the beholder. In the form of wool, hair
is of economic importance and considerable research has been Sebaceous
carried out into the cycles of growth and the structure of wool gland
keratin in sheep.
Too much hair, particularly on the face of women, is an
embarrassment and cosmetic problem and loss of hair from the Telogen
scalp is equally troublesome. Changes in hair growth are not club hair
only of cosmetic significance but can also be associated with Dermal
underlying diseases. Diseases occurring in the skin of the scalp New anagen hair
papilla Cord of
can damage hair follicles leading to loss of hair. This chapter epithelial cells

covers: (a) the normal pattern of hair growth; (b) causes of

hair loss; (c) skin diseases involving the scalp; (d) causes Anagen Catagen Telogen

of excess hair growth; (e) abnormalities of the hair itself; 3 years Few days 100 days
and (f) treatment.
Diagrammatic cross-section of hair at various growth phases

The normal pattern of hair growth

Unlike other epidermal structures which grow continuously,
hair has a cyclical pattern of growth. The growing phase or
anagen lasts an average of 1000 days on the scalp followed by
Anagen 1000 days
an involutional phase known as catagen which is quite short,
lasting only a few days. The hair then enters a resting phase,
telogen, lasting about 100 days. In man, hair growth is normally
asynchronous, with each individual hair following its own cycle
independently of the others. The basal layer of the hair bulb
from which the hair itself is produced is known as the matrix
Telogen 100 days
and contains melanocytes from which melanin pigment is
incorporated into the hair. The type of melanin determines the Catagen
colour and in grey or white hair, pigment production is
reduced or absent. Hair growth cycle
The body surface with the exception of the palms, soles,
the lips, and the genitalia, is covered with fine vellus hairs that
do not have a medulla and are not pigmented. These hairs
develop into longer coarse, medullated, terminal hair on
the scalp and eyebrows. At puberty a similar change occurs
in the pubic area and the axillae, also on the face and trunk,
in the male. These changes are androgen dependent, even in
females, but testicular androgen is required to produce beard
growth and balding in men.
Racial characteristics and the genetic make-up of the
individual determine the type and colour of the hair. Straight
black oriental hair is clearly different from the nordic
blonde type.

Male pattern baldness

Hair loss
This is known as alopecia, said to be derived from the Latin
“alopex”, a fox, presumably because of the bald patches of
mange seen in wild foxes.
Adult male pattern alopecia is so common as to be
considered normal. Circulating levels of testosterone are not

51
ABC of Dermatology

raised in bald men but there is evidence that availability of the

hormone to the hair follicle is increased. In postmenopausal
women there may be widespread thinning of the hair but
loss of hair at the temples often occurs to some degree at an
earlier age.
Alopecia may be diffuse or localised. If it is simply due to a
physiological derangement of hair growth, the follicles remain
Men Women
intact, whereas inflammation may lead to scarring and loss of
the hair follicles. Hence, hair loss can be classified into the
categories shown in the illustration on the right.
Adult pattern of alopecia: comparison between men and women

Diffuse Scarring

Alopecia
Inheritance (genetic)
Localised Non-scarring Family history of
– Male pattern alopecia
– Alopecia areata
Classification of alopecia
Infection Environment
Fungal Trauma
Diffuse hair loss – Human
– Animal pyogenic
– Accidental
– Self induced
An interruption of the normal hair cycle leads to generalised
Disease process
hair loss. This may be due to changes in circulating hormones,
drugs, inflammatory skin disease, and “stress” of various types. Change in Response of
Telogen effluvium occurs if all the hairs enter into the resting environment organism
phase together, most commonly after childbirth or severe (immunological,
Treatment physiological)
illness. Two or three months later the new anagen hair Induced inflammation
Antifungal
displaces the resting telogen hair, resulting in a disconcerting, Antibacterial Cortico steroid
but temporary, hair loss from the scalp. Stress of any type, Ultraviolet light
such as an acute illness or an operation, causes a similar type Outcome
of hair loss.
Postfebrile alopecia occurs when a fever exceeds 39 C,
Factors leading to development of alopecia
particularly with recurrent episodes. It has been reported in
a wide range of infectious diseases, including glandular fever,
influenza, malaria, and brucellosis. It also occurs in fever
associated with inflammatory bowel disease.
Dietary factors such as iron deficiency and
hypoproteinaemia may play a role, but are rarely the sole
cause of diffuse alopecia.
Severe malnutrition with a protein deficiency results in
dystrophic changes with a reduction in the rate of hair growth.
Congenital alopecia may occur in some hereditary syndromes.
Anagen effluvium occurs when the normal development of
hair and follicle is interfered with, resulting in inadequate
growth. As a result, hairs are shed earlier than usual, while still
in the anagen phase. Anagen effluvium Diffuse alopecia caused by ciclosporin
Endocrine causes of diffuse alopecia include both hypo-
and hyperthyroidism, hypopituitarism, and diabetes mellitus.
In hypothyroidism the hair is thinned and brittle, whereas in
hypopituitarism the hair is finer and soft but does not grow
adequately.
Systemic drugs—cytotoxic agents, anticoagulants,
immunosuppressants, and some antithyroid drugs—may cause
diffuse hair loss, usually an “anagen effluvium” as mentioned
above.
Inflammatory skin disease, when widespread, can be associated
with hair loss, for example in erythroderma due to psoriasis or
severe eczema.
Deficiency states are a rare cause of alopecia. Patients who
suffer from hair loss are often convinced that there is some
deficiency in their diet and may sometimes produce the results Diffuse alopecia caused by
of an “analysis” of their hairs which show deficiencies in specific erythrodermic psoriasis
trace elements. In fact it is very difficult to cause actual hair loss
even in gross malnutrition and in those dying from starvation
in refugee camps, the hair growth in the scalp is usually

52
 The hair and scalp

present. In chronic malnutrition or kwashiorkor, the hair

assumes a curious red/brown colour which may be due to iron
Causes of diffuse non-scarring alopecia
deficiency. Androgenetic alopecia
• Male pattern
• Female pattern
Treatment Endocrine-thyroid disease (hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism)
Wherever possible, the cause should be treated. This may be • Hypopituitarism
a matter of replacement therapy in hormonal deficiency. In • Diabetes mellitus
alopecia due to stress, once this cause is removed hair Stress
growth may revert to normal. Treatment of inflammatory • Postpartum telogen
skin disease will result in some improvement of the • Postoperative effluvium
hair loss. • Postfebrile
Androgenic alopecia in men is best accepted, with Drugs
assurance that it indicates normal virility. • Cytotoxics
Minoxidil causes hair growth and is commercially available • Anticoagulants anagen
• Antithyroid agents effluvium
as a lotion. This has to be applied continuously every day as the • Ciclosporin
scalp reverts to a level of loss which would have occurred
Erythrodermic skin disease
without treatment as soon as it is stopped. It is effective in • Psoriasis
about half the patients with male pattern alopecia. • Eczema
• Inflammatory
Deficiency states
Localised alopecia • Protein malnutrition
• Iron deficiency
Alopecia areata is a common form of hair loss. It is seen in 2%
of patients attending the average dermatology clinic in the
United Kingdom. There may be small patches of hair loss or
the whole scalp may be affected. Resolution occurs in a few
months or the condition may persist for years. There may be
slight inflammation of the skin in the affected areas—in
keeping with the possibility of an underlying immune reaction
against the hair follicles. There is also an association with
autoimmue disease and atopy.
In the affected areas the follicles are visible and empty. The Alopecia areata Alopecia areata, showing exclamation
mark hairs
hairs about to be lost have an “exclamation mark” appearance
and in some areas that are resolving, fine vellus hairs are seen.
Patches commonly occur on the scalp, face, or eyebrows. In
alopecia totalis, the whole head is involved, and in alopecia
universalis hair is lost from the whole of the body.
In many patients, particularly if it is a first episode, regrowth
occurs within a few months with fine pale hairs appearing
first, being replaced by normal adult hair. In older patients,
non-pigmented hair may persist in previous patches of
alopecia. Factors associated with a poor prognosis are:
(1) Repeated episodes of alopecia
(2) Very extensive or complete hair loss (alopecia totalis)
Alopecia totalis
(3) Early onset before puberty
(4) In association with atopy
Differential diagnosis includes trauma from the habit of
plucking hair (trichotillomania) in mentally disturbed patients
and traction alopecia from tight hair rollers or hair styles that
involve tension on the hair. In fungal infections (tinea capitis)
there is scaling and broken hairs. Fungal spores or hyphae are
visible in hair specimens on microscopy.
Inflammation is present with loss of hair follicles in lupus
erythematosus and lichen planus.
Trichotillomania Traction alopecia
Treatment
An initial limited area of alopecia areata in adult life can be
expected to regrow and treatment is generally not needed.
Treatments that are carried out include:
(1) Injection of triamcinolone diluted with local anaesthetic
which usually stimulates localised regrowth of hair.
Unfortunately it often falls out again and there is a risk of
causing atrophy. Topical steroid lotion can be used but
results are variable.

53
ABC of Dermatology

(2) Ultraviolet light or psoralen with ultraviolet A can give

good, if transient, results in a few patients but it has little
Aetiological factors in alopecia areata
effect in the majority. It may act by suppressing an immune Genetic
reaction around the hair root. • Familial in about 20% of cases
• Associated with Down’s syndrome
(3) Induced contact dermatitis and irritants are occasionally
Immunological
effective. Cantharadin and dithranol have been used for
• T lymphocytic infiltrate around hair follicles
many years as irritants. Primula leaves or chemicals • Associated with autoimmune disease
(for example, diphencyprone) can be applied to produce Stress
an acute contact dermatitis. The mechanism by which • May be associated in individual patients
acute inflammation stimulates hair growth is not
understood.
Causes of scarring alopecia
Trauma
Scarring alopecia • For example, burns
Inflammation
The absence of hair follicles is an important physical sign as it Acute
indicates: • bacterial (pyogenic infection, syphilis)
• viral (herpes simplex, herpes zoster,
(1) The presence of an inflammatory process that requires varicella)
further investigation. • fungal (keroin caused by animal ringworm)
(2) That there is unlikely to be any substantial recovery of hair Chronic
growth. • lupus erythematosus
• lichen planus
The presence of inflammation does not necessarily produce • folliculitis decalvans
marked erythema—in lichen planus and lupus erythematosus, • morphoea
the inflammatory changes are often chronic. Systemic lupus Rare
erythematosus produces areas of inflammation • pyoderma gangrenosum
that extend, leaving residual scarring. In discoid lupus • necrobiosis lipoidica
erythematosus there is more scaling with keratotic plugs in • sarcoidosis
the follicle. Localised scleroderma (morphoea) also causes
alopecia, often with a linear atrophic lesion—the en coup de
sabre pattern.
More acute inflammatory changes are seen as a result of
pyogenic infection or kerion in which there is a marked
inflammatory reaction to fungal infection from cattle. In
“folliculitis decalvans” there is florid folliculitis with deep
seated pustules and scarring. Treatment is with prolonged
antibiotics. Scarring in lupus erythematosus
Tinea capitis can be associated with alopecia.
Trauma can also cause scarring with alopecia.
En coup de sabre pattern in alopecia

Skin disease involving the scalp

The scalp can be involved in any skin disease, but most
commonly in psoriasis and seborrhoeic eczema. A mild degree
of scaling from accumulation in skin scales is so common as to
be normal (dandruff). Increased accumulation of scales is
seen in seborrhoeic dermatitis in which pityrosporum
organisms may play a part. Sometimes masses of thick
adherent scales develop in pityriasis amiantacea, usually due to
psoriasis. Eczema and contact dermatitis can also involve the
scalp. Folliculitis decalvans Tinea capitis

Contact eczema, hair dye

Atopic eczema Pityriasis amiantacea

54
 The hair and scalp

Treatment
Cutaneous diseases of the scalp
Scaling and inflammatory changes can be improved with the
use of sulphur and salicylic ointment. It is effective but messy Common
Inflammatory
and best applied at night. Tar preparations, oil of cade, and
• Psoriasis
coconut oil in various formulations are all effective. Topical • Seborrhoeic eczema
steroids can also be used to suppress inflammation. • Contact dermatitis
Infection
• Folliculitis—staphylococcal or streptococcal
Hair shaft abnormalities • Fungal infection
Microsporum, with hair loss
Congenital abnormalities of the hair shaft itself lead to weak, Trichophyton, with scaling and inflammation
thin and broken hairs. In some cases there is a characteristic • Herpes—zoster and simplex
appearance, for example “spun glass” appearance of pili torti Infestation
with a twisted hair. In monilethrix there are regular nodes in • Pediculosis
the hair shaft. Less common
There are other abnormalities of the hair shaft which are • Lupus erythematosus
not associated with increased fragility, such as the Willi hair • Lichen planus
• Pemphigoid and pemphigus
syndrome, progressive kinking of the hair and uncombable
hair, in which the hair grows in disorderly profusion,
completely resistant to combing and brushing. In pili annulati
there may be a spangled appearance due to bright bands in
the hair shaft.

Excessive hair
Two types of overgrowth of hair occur:
Monilethrix
Hirsuties
This is the growth of coarse terminal hair in a male distribution
occurring in a woman. This is not always easy to assess since Monilethrix
what is unacceptable and emotionally disturbing to one woman
may be quite acceptable to another. The amount of hair growth
Causes of hirsutism
may appear to be within normal limits in a patient complaining
of excessive hair but it should never be dismissed as of no Hereditary, racial with wide variation of
normal pattern
consequence if it is important to the woman concerned.
Nevertheless, it is important to limit the number of Endocrine
Adrenal
investigations once it is clear that there is no underlying • Virilising tumours
abnormality. Strong reassurance may then be the most helpful • Cushing’s syndrome
management. It is of course most apparent on the face but is • Adrenal hyperplasia
often present on the thighs, abdomen and back as well. Ovarian
Hirsuties occurs most commonly after the menopause and • Virilising tumours
may be present to some degree in normal women as a result of • Polycystic ovary syndrome
familial or racial traits. It may arise without any underlying Pituitary
hormonal disorder or as a result of virilising hormones. These • Acromegaly
causes are listed in the box on the right. In addition to • Hyperprolactinaemia
androgens, a number of drugs can cause hirsuties. It is Iatrogenic
important to remember that hirsuties may be part of a virilising • Anabolic steroids
syndrome or polycystic ovaries. It is useful to measure the
• Androgens, corticosteroids
• Danazol, phenytoin
serum testosterone and oestrogen level, as well as urinary • Psoralens (in psoralen with ultraviolet A)
17 oxosteroid concentrations.

Hypertrichosis
This is an excessive growth of hair which may be generalised
or localised. It may be due to metabolic disturbance or drugs,
or simply a feature of a localised lesion such as a mole.

Hirsuties due to virilising

tumour

Hypertrichosis caused by minoxidil

55
ABC of Dermatology

Treatment
Causes of hypertrichosis
It is clearly important to treat any underlying cause and this
will usually improve the condition. Otherwise treatment is • Naevoid—in pigmented naevi and Becker’s naevus
symptomatic and includes: • Congenital (rare)
• Acquired—porphyria, hyperthyroidism, anorexia nervosa
• Removal of hair by shaving or hair removing creams. some developmental defects, for example, Hurler’s
• Electrolysis and diathermy, which gives permanent syndrome, tumours (hypertrichosis lanuginosa), drugs
(diazoxide, minoxidil, ciclosporin)
destruction of the hair follicle.
• Antiandrogen drugs such as cyproterone can be used under
specialist supervision.
Further reading
Orfanos CE, Happle R. Hair and hair disease. Berlin: Springer-
Verlag, 1990
Rook A, Dawber R. Diseases of the hair and scalp, 3rd ed. Oxford:
Blackwell Scientific, 1997

56
12 Diseases of the nails
AL Wright

In animals and birds claws are used for digging and grasping as
well as for fighting. The human nail may be used as a weapon Posterior nail fold Cuticle Lunula Lateral nail fold
but its main function is to protect the distal soft tissues of the
Separation
fingers and toes. of plate from bed
As an ectodermal derivative composed of keratin, the nail
plate grows forward from a fold of epidermis over the nail bed
which is continuous with the matrix proximally. The keratin
composing the nail is derived mainly from the matrix with
contributions from the dorsal surface of the nail fold, and the
nail bed also adds keratin to the deep surface. Free margin
The nail grows slowly for the first day after birth then
more rapidly until it slows in old age. The rate of nail growth
is greater in the fingers than the toes, particularly on the
dominant hand. It is slower in women but increases during Matrix Nail bed
pregnancy. Finger nails grow at approximately 0·8 mm per week
and toe nails 0·25 mm per week. Section through finger showing nail structure

Physical signs in the nails

The changes in the nail may be due to a local disease process,
a manifestation of a skin disease, or a systemic disorder.
Hereditary disorders may also affect the nails. It is therefore
important to take both a general history and specifically
enquire about skin diseases. It sometimes happens that the nail
changes are the only sign of a dermatological disease, although
the patient may have a previous history of lichen planus or
psoriasis, for example. Localised infection or trauma will affect
Effect of trauma
one or two nails. Skin disease, such as psoriasis, affects many or
all nails, usually symmetrically, whereas systemic illness or drugs
will affect all the nails.

Local nail changes

Trauma
• Acute trauma. This may remove the whole nail.
• Chronic trauma as a result of badly fitting footwear may
cause thickening of the nail with deformed growth,
onychogryphosis. Chronic trauma due to overenthusiastic
manicuring or habitual picking at finger nails can result in
deformity and impaired growth.
• Repeated trauma in occupations that involve repetitive Paronychia
action, such as assembling cardboard boxes, may cause
detachment of the nail (onycholysis) or splitting of the nails.

Infection
• Infection of the tissues around the nail (paronychia)
is often mixed with pyogenic organisms, including
pseudomonas, as well as yeasts such as candida. This
condition occurs most frequently in those employed in the
food industry and occupations where there is repeated
exposure to a moist environment and minor trauma.
The index and middle fingers are most frequently
involved.
• Infection of the nail plate itself occurs in fungal infections,
which are commonly due to Trichophyton or Epidermophyton
species. Fungal infection

57
ABC of Dermatology

• Those living in the tropics may acquire infection with

Scopulariopsis brevicaulis, which produces a black discoloration
of the nail.

Skin diseases affecting the nails

Pitting of nail Lichen planus
Since the nail plate consists of specialised keratin produced by
basal cells, it is not surprising that it is affected by skin diseases.
Some conditions, such as psoriasis, may produce characteristic
changes whereas in other conditions, such as eczema, the
changes are much less specific.
Psoriasis causes an accumulation of keratin, as in lesions of
the skin. This may result in the nail being both thickened and
raised from the nail bed (onycholysis). There may be the
changes of pustular psoriasis in the surrounding tissues,
indistinguishable from acrodermatitis pustulosa. Loss of minute
plugs of abnormal keratin results in “pitting”.
Dystrophy due to lupus Pterygium formation due to
Lichen planus produces atrophy of the nail plate which may erythematosus lichen planus
completely disappear. The cuticle may be thickened and grow
over the nail plate, known as pterygium formation.
Eczema may be associated with brittle nails that tend to
split. Thickening and deformity of the nail occurs in
eczema or contact dermatitis, sometimes with horizontal
ridging.
Darier’s disease results in dystrophy of the nail and
longitudinal streaks which end in triangular-shaped nicks at the
free edge. On the skin there may be the characteristic brownish
scaling papules on the central part of the back, chest, and neck.
These are made worse by sun exposure.
Alopecia areata is quite often associated with changes in the
nails including ridges, leuconychia, and friable nails. It may be
associated with “20 nail dystrophy”.
Autoimmune conditions such as pemphigus and pemphigoid
may be associated with a variety of changes including ridging,
splitting of the nail plate, and atrophy in some or all of the
nails.
Nail dystrophy Beau’s line
Discoloration of the nail and friability are associated with
lupus erythematosus.

General diseases affecting the nails

Nail changes in systemic illness
Acute illness results in a transverse line of atrophy known as
a Beau’s line. Shedding of the nail, onychomedesis, may occur in
severe illness.

Chronic diseases
Clubbing affects the soft tissues of the terminal phalanx with
swelling and an increase in the angle between the nail plate Clubbing
and the nail fold. It is associated with chronic respiratory
disease, cyanotic heart disease, and occasionally in chronic
gastrointestinal conditions. It is occasionally hereditary
and may be unilateral in association with vascular
abnormalities.

Colour changes
All the nails may be white (leukonychia) due to
hypoalbuminaemia in conditions such as cirrhosis of the liver.
Brown discoloration is seen in renal failure and the “yellow nail
syndrome”, may be associated with abnormalities of the
lymphatic drainage. The nail may have a yellow colour in
Yellow nail syndrome
jaundice. Drugs may cause changes in colour, for example
tetracycline may produce yellow nails, antimalarials a blue Leukonychia

58
 Diseases of the nails

discolouration, and chlorpromazine a brown colour.

Leuconychia or whiteness of the nails occurs in fungal
Pigmented streaks
infections. Small white spots on the nail are quite commonly Malignant melanoma
seen and are thought to be due to trauma of the nail plate. Normal in pigmented skin
• Melanocytic naevi
Longitudinal pigmented streaks result from increased • Lentigo
melanin deposition in the nail plate. • Addison’s disease
Longitudinal brown streaks are frequently seen in
individuals with racially pigmented skin, particularly after
trauma. This is rare in caucasians but occurs as a result of
a benign pigmented naevus at the base of the nail and in
associated lentigo. The most important cause to remember is
subungual melanoma, which may present with a longitudinal
deep brown or black streak. Hutchinson’s sign with
pigmentation extends into the surrounding tissues, particularly
the cuticle. Adrenal disease may rarely be associated with
longitudinal streaks.

Specific changes in the nail plate

Thickening
This may be due to: Melanocystic naevus
• Hyperkeratosis—psoriasis; fungal infection
• Hypertrophy—chronic trauma (onychogryphosis);
pachyonychia congenita
• Atrophy lupus erythematosus—lichen planus; congenital
dystrophy.
Thickening of the nail plate may be due to hyperkeratosis in
psoriasis, in which case the changes will be symmetrical
and there may well also be pitting of the nail and
onycholysis. Similar changes are seen in fungal infection
of the nail, which may be symmetrical on the toes. Nail
clippings should be sent for microscopy and mycological
culture.
Hypertrophy of the nail plate occurs as a result of chronic
trauma, with only a few nails affected, and is usually seen in Psoriasis
the feet.
Pachyonychia congenita is a rare congenital disorder
characterised by hypertrophic nails.
Hyperkeratosis, due to the accumulation of keratin under the
nail plate, is also seen in psoriasis. It occurs occasionally in
association with chronic dermatitis.

Detachment of the nail plate (onycholysis)

• Psoriasis
• Fungal infection
• Trauma
• Thyrotoxicosis.
Onycholysis is due to a detachment of the nail from the nail
Onycholysis due to
bed. If it is extensive, there may be complete loss of the nail psoriasis
plate. It is most commonly seen in psoriasis and occasionally in
fungal infections of the nail. It may occur as a result of trauma
or thyrotoxicosis

Pitting of the surface of the nail plate

• Psoriasis
• Alopecia
Pitting of the nail plate is due to punctate depressions on the
surface of the nail plate. They are most often seen in psoriasis
but may occur in alopecia areata.

Horizontal ridging
• Beau’s lines may be seen after systemic illness and acute Onycholysis due to
episodes of hand dermatitis. psoriasis

59
ABC of Dermatology

Longitudinal ridging
• Single due to pressure from nail fold tumours
• Multiple due to lichen planus
• Alopecia areata
• Psoriasis
• Darier’s disease.
Ridging represents a disturbance of nail growth. Inflammation
as seen in acute paronychia or trauma can result in a single nail
developing a horizontal ridge. After an acute illness there may
be horizontal lines on all the nails. The lines may also occur Darier’s disease
with eczema.
A single longitudinal ridge can result from pressure due to
benign or malignant tumours in the nail fold. A mucoid cyst
can produce a longitudinal ridge. Multiple longitudinal lines
are characteristic of lichen planus, psoriasis, alopecia areata,
and Darier’s disease.
Koilonychia is a concave deformity of the nail plate, generally
occurring in the finger nails. It may be idiopathic or occur as a
result of iron deficiency anaemia.

Lesions adjacent to the nail

Mucoid cysts develop subcutaneously over the
distal interphalangeal joint and may be adjacent to the nail,
producing abnormalities of growth. These cysts develop as an Longitudinal ridge Mucoid cyst
extension of the synovial membrane and are linked to the joint
by a fine tract. Very careful excision is required for a cure.
Naevi may occur adjacent to the nail and a benign
melanocytic naevus can produce a pigmented streak.
Subungual melanoma may produce considerable pigmentation
of the nail and often causes pigmentation of the cuticle, so
called Hutchinson’s sign. Sometimes subungual melanoma is
amelanotic so there is no pigmentary changes and any rapidly
growing soft tumour should raise suspicions of this condition.
Subungual exostosis can cause a painful lesion under the
nail. It is confirmed by x ray examinations. Big toe exostosis Nail dystrophy with alopecia areata
Glomus tumours arise as tender nodules.
Periungual fibrokeratomas also develop in patients with
tuberous sclerosis.

Treatment of nail conditions

It is clearly not possible to treat congenital abnormalities of the
nail, but avoiding exposure to trauma may help. Nail changes
associated with dermatological conditions may improve as the
skin elsewhere is treated. Systemic treatment of associated Nail dystrophy with eczema
dermatoses will of course tend to improve the nail as well, for
example methotrexate or retinoids for psoriasis.
Infective lesions respond to antifungal or antibiotic
treatment. In chronic paronychia there is often a mixed
infection and a systemic antibiotic combined with topical Further reading
nystatin may be required. It is also important to keep the hands Baden HP. Diseases of the hair and nails. Chicago: Year Book Medical,
as dry as possible. 1986
The imidazole antifungal drugs are fairly effective but are Baran R. Nail disorders: common presenting signs, differential diagnosis
fungistatic. Terbinaline is fungicidal and a short course is as and treatment. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone, 1991
De Berker DA, Baran R, Dawber RP. Handbook of diseases of the nails
effective as prolonged treatment with the older drug and their management. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific, 1995
griseofulvin.

60
13 Lumps and bumps

The skin is a common site for neoplastic lesions, but most

invade only locally and with treatment usually do not pose any
threat to the life of the patient. The exception is malignant
melanoma, which is dealt with in chapter 15. This is a rare
tumour with a high mortality, and recent publicity campaigns Seborrhoeic wart Seborrhoeic wart
have been aimed at preventing the tragedy of fatal metastases
from a neglected melanoma.
As a result a large number of patients are being seen with
Epidermis
pigmented skin lesions and nodules, only a very few of which
are neoplastic. The question is how to distinguish the benign,
the malignant, and the possibly malignant. The following
guidelines may help in deciding whether the lesion can be
safely left or should be treated.
A correlation of the clinical and pathological features is
helpful in making a confident diagnosis of the more common Normal
tumours. basal
layer

Nodular basal cell carcinoma

Seborrhoeic warts
Seborrhoeic warts come in various shapes, sizes, and colours. Ulcer with rolled edge
When deeply pigmented, inflamed, or growing they may appear
to have the features of a malignant lesion, but the following
features are characteristic:

• Well defined edge.

• Warty, papillary surface—often with keratin plugs.
• Raised above surrounding skin to give a “stuck on”
appearance.
Ulcerated basal cell carcinoma

Individual lesions vary considerably in size, but are usually

0·5–3·0 cm in diameter. Protuberant and pedunculated lesions
occur. Solitary lesions are commonly seen on the face and neck
but more numerous, large lesions tend to occur on the trunk.
They become more common with increasing age.

Basal cell carcinoma

By contrast, the early basal cell carcinoma—or rodent ulcer—
Clumps of neoplastic basal cells Neoplastic basal cells—histology
presents as a firm nodule, clearly growing within the skin and
below it, rather than on the surface. The colour varies from
that of normal skin to dark brown or black, but there is
commonly a “pearly” translucent quality. As its name implies,
the tumour is composed of masses of dividing basal cells that
have lost the capacity to differentiate any further. As a result no
epidermis is formed over the tumour and the surface breaks
down to form an ulcer, the residual edges of the nodule
forming the characteristic “rolled edge”. Once the basal
cells have invaded the deeper tissues the rolled edge
disappears.

Variants
Variants of the usual pattern can cause problems in diagnosis.
Cystic basal cell carcinomas occur, and those that show Basal cell carcinoma (later stage Cystic basal cell carcinoma
differentiation towards hair follicles or sweat glands may of figure above)

61
ABC of Dermatology

have a less typical appearance. Pigmented lesions can resemble

melanoma. The superficial spreading type may be confused
with a patch of eczema. This usually occurs on the trunk, does
not itch, and shows a gradual but inexorable increase in size.
A firm “whipcord” edge may be present. The sclerosing type
has scarring of the epidermis associated with basal cell
carcinoma.
Superficial basal cell carcinoma Pigmented basal cell carcinoma
Treatment
Various methods of destroying tumour tissue are used
and the results are similar for radiotherapy and surgical
excision:
• Ulcerated lesions may invade tissue planes, blood vessels, and
nerves more extensively than is clinically apparent.
• Although modern techniques of radiotherapy result in
minimal scarring and atrophy these may cause problems near
Squamous cell carcinoma—initial
the eye. Sclerosing basal cell carcinoma changes
• Basal cell carcinomas in skin creases, such as the nasolabial
fold, tend to ulcerate and are hard to excise adequately.
• Surgical excision has the advantage that should the lesion
recur, radiotherapy is available to treat it, whereas it is not
desirable to treat recurrences after radiotherapy with further
irradiation.

Squamous cell carcinoma Squamous cell carcinoma—more

differentiated tumour
Squamous cell carcinoma represents proliferation of the
epidermal keratinocytes in a deranged manner—with a visible
degree of differentiation into epidermal cells that may show
individual cell keratinisation and “pearls” of keratin. In other
tumours bizarre cells with mitoses, cells with clear cytoplasm, or Ulcer Epidermis
spindle cells may be seen.
This type of cancer often develops from a preceding solar
keratosis or an area of Bowen’s disease. They may also
complicate a chronic ulcer due to stasis, as in venous ulcer of
the ankle, or infection such as leprosy or tuberculosis. In
addition to local spread, metastases can occur with involvement
of other organs such as the liver, lung or brain, and
lymphadenopathy. The first change clinically is a thickening of Squamous neoplastic cells
the skin with scaling or hyperkeratosis of the surfaces. The
more differentiated tumours often have a warty, keratotic crust
whereas others may be nodular. The edge is poorly defined.
There may be associated dilated, telangiectatic blood vessels.
The original hard, disc-like lesion becomes nodular and
ulcerates with strands of tumour cells invading the deeper
tissue. The thick warty crust, often found elsewhere, may be
absent from the lesions on the lip, buccal mucosa, and penis.
These histological changes complement the clinical
Squamous cell carcinoma—histological
appearance and are clearly different from those of basal cell
appearance
carcinoma.

Treatment
Small lesions should be excised as a rule, making sure that the
palpable edge of the tumour is included, with a 3–5 mm
margin. Radiotherapy is effective but fragile scars may be a
disadvantage on the hand. Cryotherapy or topical fluorouracil
can be used for histologically confirmed, superficial lesions and
also for solar keratoses.

Solar keratoses
Solar keratoses occur on sites exposed to the sun and are more
common in those who have worked out of doors or sunbathed Solar keratoses
excessively. The common sites are the face, back of the hands,

62
 Lumps and bumps

arms, and legs. They also develop on the scalp in bald men
and on the lips, particularly in pipe smokers. They show
alterations in keratinisation and have the potential to become
dysplastic and eventually develop into squamous cell
carcinoma, a change often preceded by inflammation. They
can be regarded as squamous cell carcinoma grade 1/2.
The clinical appearance varies from a rough area of skin
to a raised keratotic lesion. The edge is irregular and they
are usually less than 1 cm in diameter. Inflammation and
tenderness may be associated with progression to carcinoma. Bowen’s disease

Treatment
Treatment with cryotherapy, using liquid nitrogen or carbon
dioxide, repeated if necessary, is usually effective.
5-Fluorouracil cream is useful for larger or multiple lesions.
It is applied twice daily for two weeks, which produces
inflammation and necrosis. Simple dressings are applied for the
next two weeks. This process can be repeated if necessary. As it
is a cytotoxic drug it should be handled with care and applied
sparingly with a cotton bud while wearing gloves.
Paget’s disease of the nipple

Other conditions
Bowen’s disease is characterised by a well defined, erythematous
macule with little induration and slight crusting. It is a
condition of the middle aged and elderly, occurring commonly
on the trunk and limbs. It is an intraepidermal carcinoma,
which has been reported to follow the ingestion of arsenic in
“tonics” taken in years gone by or exposure to sheep dip,
weedkiller, or industrial processes. After many years florid Keratoacanthoma
carcinoma may develop with invasion of deeper tissues. It may
be confused with a patch of eczema or superficial basal cell
carcinoma. Lesions on covered areas may be associated with
underlying malignancy. Erythroplasia of Queyrat is a similar
process occurring on the glans penis or prepuce.
Paget’s disease of the nipple presents with unilateral non-
specific erythematous changes on the aureola and nipple,
spreading to the surrounding skin. The cause is an underlying
adenocarcinoma of the ducts. It should be considered in any
Dermatofibroma
patient with eczematous changes of one breast that fail to
respond to simple treatment. Extramammary lesions occur.
Keratoacanthoma is a rapidly growing fleshy nodule that
develops a hard keratotic centre. Healing occurs with some
scarring. Although benign, it may recur after being removed
with curette and cautery, particularly from the face, and is best
excised.

Benign tumours
Dermatofibroma is a simple, discrete firm nodule, arising in the
dermis at the site of an insect bite or other trivial injury. Often Skin tags Lipoma
there is a brown or red vascular lesion initially, which then
becomes fibrotic—a sclerosing haemangioma. The histiocytoma
is similar but composed of histiocytes.
Skin tags may be pigmented but rarely cause any diagnostic
problems unless inflamed. Some are in fact pedunculated
seborrhoeic warts and others simple papillomas
(fibroepithelial polyps).
Lipomas are slow growing benign subcutaneous tumours.
Syringoma
Other benign tumours
A wide variety of tumours may develop from the hair follicle
and sebaceous, exocrine (sweat), and apocrine glands. The
more common include syringomas—slowly growing, small,
multiple nodules on the face of eccrine gland origin.

63
ABC of Dermatology

Naevus sebaceous is warty, well defined, varying in size from a

small nodule to one several centimetres in diameter. Lesions
occur in the scalp of children, may be present at birth, and
gradually increase in size. They may proliferate or develop into
a basal cell carcinoma in adult life and they are therefore best
removed.
Verrucous epidermal naevi are probably a variant, found on
the trunk and limbs.

Cysts
The familiar epidermoid cyst—also known as sebaceous cyst or
wen—occurs as a soft, well defined, mobile swelling usually on
the face, neck, shoulder, or chest. It is not derived from
sebaceous glands but contains keratin produced by the lining Naevus sebaceous
wall.
Pilar cysts on the scalp are similar lesions derived from hair
follicles.
Milia are small keratin cysts consisting of small white
papules found on the cheek and eyelids.

Vascular lesions
Verrucous epidermal naevus Epidermoid cyst
The more common vascular naevi are described.
The port wine stain, or naevus flammeus, presents at birth as
a flat red lesion, usually on the face, neck, or upper trunk.
There is usually a sharp midline border on the more common
unilateral lesions. In time the affected area becomes raised and
thickened because of proliferation of vascular and connective
tissue. If the area supplied by the ophthalmic or maxillary
divisions of the trigeminal nerve is affected there may be
associated angiomas of the underlying meninges with Milia
epilepsy—Sturge–Weber syndrome. Lesions of the limb may be
associated with arteriovenous fistulae.
Cavernous angioma—strawberry naevi—appear in the first
few weeks of life or at birth. A soft vascular swelling is found,
most commonly on the head and neck. The lesions resolve
spontaneously in time and do not require treatment unless
interfering with visual function.
Spider naevus consist of a central vascular papule with fine
lines radiating from it. They are more common in children and
women. Large numbers in a man raise the possibility of liver
disease.
Campbell de Morgan spots are discrete red papules 1–5 mm in Naevus flammeus Sturge–Weber syndrome
diameter. They are more common on the trunk.
Pyogenic granuloma is a lesion that contains no pus but is in
fact vascular and grows rapidly. It may arise at the site of
trauma. Distinction from amelanotic melanoma is important.

Pyogenic granuloma
Cavernous angioma in a Patient five years later without Spider naevi
five month old baby treatment

Further reading
Enzinger F, Weiss S. Soft tissue tumours, 2nd ed. St Louis: Mosby,
1988
Mackie RM. Skin cancer: an illustrated guide to the etiology, clinical
features, pathology and management of benign and malignant cutaneous
tumours, 2nd ed. London: Martin Dunitz, 1996

64
14 The sun and the skin
R StC Barnetson

People with darkly pigmented skin very rarely get skin cancer.
Skin types and sun
Those of a Celtic constitution, when exposed to strong sunlight
in countries such as Australia, get skin cancer very readily. • Type 1—Never tans, freckles, red hair, blue eyes
Australia has the highest incidence of skin cancer in the world,
• Type 2—Tans with difficulty, less freckled
• Type 3—Tans easily, dark hair, brown eyes
with 140 000 new cases per year, and 1200 deaths per year, • Type 4—Always tans, Mediterranean skin
mainly from melanoma. • Type 5—Brown skin (for example, Indian)
It is therefore important to understand that there is a • Type 6—Black skin (for example, African)
variation in skin sensitivity to sunlight. This is rated from one to
six (Fitzpatrick classification). Skin type one subjects have red
hair and do not tan, burn very easily in the sun and develop
skin cancer readily, whereas skin type six subjects have black
skin (with an inbuilt sun protection factor of 10) and very
rarely develop skin cancer. This is a useful guide in assessing
the risk of sun damage and in determining the dose of
ultraviolet B in treatment.

Ultraviolet radiation
There are three types of ultraviolet radiation—the short Aborigines do not get skin
cancer
wavelength ultraviolet C (100–280 nm), ultraviolet B (290–
320 nm), and long wavelength ultraviolet A (320–400 nm).
Beyond this is visible light then infrared, and radiowaves.
ultraviolet C does not penetrate beyond the stratosphere as it is
absorbed by the ozone layer. Ultraviolet B is very important in
both sunburn and the development of skin cancer. Ultraviolet A UVC UVB* UVA† Visible Infrared
is thought to be of increasing importance in the development Wavelength: Short wave Long wave: (380-770 nm) (700 nm)
(280 nm) sunburn (320-400 nm)
of skin cancer, and causes tanning but not sunburn. It is also spectrum
important in people with photosensitivity. The effects of (280-320 nm)
ultraviolet radiation may be classified as short term * The UVB band (280-320 nm) is responsible for erythema, sunburn, tanning and skin malignancy
(sunburn, photosensitivity) or long term (skin cancer, † UVA light (320-400 nm) has the greatest penetration into the dermis and augments UVB
erythema and perhaps skin malignancy
wrinkling, solar elastosis, solar keratoses, seborrhoeic warts).
There is general awareness that the sun causes cancer in Light spectrum (UVCultraviolet C, UVBultraviolet B,
the skin, with some people becoming obsessively fearful of any UVAultraviolet A)
exposure to sun. A sensible approach with emphasis on
reasonable precautions is called for. Useful points are:
• Most moles are entirely harmless.
• Detecting the changes in moles or early melanoma enables Noon Sun
the diagnosis to be made at an early stage with a good chance
of curative treatment.
• The non-melanotic, epidermal cancers—basal cell and
squamous cell carcinomas—grow slowly and are generally not
life threatening. But squamous cell carinoma arising at sites 6 am 6 pm
of trauma, on the extremities, or in ulcers may metastasise.
Exposure to sun has usually occurred many years previously. Sun
Subject
Sun

Earth
Prevention of sun damage and
skin cancer
Prevention of sun damage and skin cancer will depend on Intensity of
UV light
reducing exposure to ultraviolet radiation. This can be
achieved in a number of ways:
• Covering the skin with clothes. It must be remembered
however that light clothes such as shirts or blouses may only
have a sun protection factor of four. A wide-brimmed hat is 6 am Noon 6 pm
essential to protect the face and neck.
• Sunscreens will greatly reduce sun exposure for exposed
parts such as the face and hands. Sunscreens are much more Diurnal variation in UV intensity of light from sun

65
ABC of Dermatology

efficient than previously, particularly those with a sun

protection factor greater than 30; they are now water
Effects of sun
resistant, and most have a broad spectrum, protecting against Short term
ultraviolet B and ultraviolet A. This is important because • Sunburn
• Photosensitivity
there is now increasing evidence that ultraviolet A is
Long term
important in the development of skin cancer.
• Skin wrinkling
• Exposure to midday sun, particularly in tropical or • Telangiectasia
subtropical latitudes, should be avoided. At this time of the • Hyper and hypopigmentation
day the sunlight passes vertically through the atmosphere and • Solar elastosis
there is less filtering of dangerous ultraviolet light. So • Actinic keratosis
remember the adage: “Between eleven and three, stay under • Seborrhoeic warts
a tree” in the summer months. • Skin cancers

Development of skin cancers

Sun-damaged skin
A number of different features characterise sun-damaged skin,
which is often seen in the elderly particularly if they have lived
in a sunny climate such as Australia. The skin has many fine
wrinkles and often has a sallow yellowish discoloration
particularly on the face and other exposed parts of the body.
Hyperpigmentation occurs as result of recent sun exposure,
which may be diffuse or localised in the form of solar lentigo. Sun damaged skin
In some areas there may be hypopigmentation, particularly
where solar keratoses have been treated with liquid nitrogen
(cryotherapy). There may be marked telangiectasia and
numerous blood vessels are seen. In some, there may be
thickening and a yellow hue of the skin, particularly of the
neck, due to elastin deposition in the upper dermis;
this is known as solar elastosis.

Forms of skin cancer

There are three common forms of skin cancer caused by
ultraviolet light: basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma,
and malignant melanoma. Whereas there seems to be a direct
relationship with the amount of ultraviolet exposure and basal
cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma, the relationship
with ultraviolet exposure and melanoma is more complex and Solar elastosis
it seems likely that intermittent exposure to ultraviolet light is
the main factor (for example, exposure to sunlight on
holidays). These different types of neoplastic change that
occur in the skin are discussed in chapters 13 and 15.

Causes of photosensitivity
Photosensitivity • Idiopathic—for example, polymorphic light eruption, actinic
prurigo, solar urticaria
Exposure to sun in non-pigmented races causes inflammation • Photoaggravated dermatoses—for example, lupus
in the skin, depending on the skin type and amount of erythematosus, eczema
exposure. In some individuals there is an abnormal sensitivity • Metabolic—porphyria—for example, erythropoietic, hepatic
to sunlight. This may arise because of an idiopathic reaction to • Drug induced—for example, sulphonamides, phenothiazines
sunlight or allergic reaction that is activated by sunlight. Some • Chemical induced (topical)—for example, tar, anthracene
chemicals seen to induce photosensitivity without causing an
allergy. Other causes are metabolic diseases and inflammatory
conditions that are made worse by sun exposure.

Polymorphic light eruption

This is the most common of the idiopathic photosensitive
rashes and occurs predominantly in women. It is due to
both the shorter (ultraviolet B) and longer (ultraviolet A)
wavelength types of sunlight. The eruption occurs from hours
to days after exposure and varies in severity from a few
inflamed papules to extensive inflamed oedematous lesions.
There may be only a few trivial lesions initially, but increasingly Photosensitivity caused by drugs
severe reactions can develop restricting the patients ability to
venture outside. A useful measure of seventy is to ask the

66
 The sun and the skin

patient if they cross to the shady side of the street to avoid the
sun. Treatment includes topical or systemic steroids for the
acute rash and prevention by using sunscreens. Desensitisation
by narrow waveband phototherapy before exposure is effective.

Solar urticaria
This is a much less common condition and may be induced by
longer wavelength (ultraviolet A) and visible radiation as well as
ultraviolet B. It is characterised by rapidly developing irritation
and in the exposed skin is followed by urticarial wheals. It can
occur as part of a photoallergic reaction, in which case
avoidance of the relevant allergen will prevent the condition.
Treatment is with antihistamines and sunscreens. In some
cases phototherapy with ultraviolet B, narrow waveband or
psoralen with ultraviolet A (PUVA), is helpful.

67
15 Black spots in the skin

There has been a great increase in public awareness of

melanoma, and any dark lesions of the skin are sometimes
regarded with the same dread as Long John Silver’s “black
spot” in Treasure Island—a sign of imminent demise. However,
the vast majority of pigmented lesions are simply moles or
harmless pigmented naevi. The most important thing is to
know which moles can be safely ignored and which should be
removed. Benign moles are described first, then malignant
melanoma, followed by a discussion of the differences between
these two. Benign mole

Benign moles
Benign moles are naevi with a proliferation of melanocytes and
Benign moles
a variable number of dermal naevus cells. Some moles are
congenital and are present from birth, but most develop in
early childhood and adolescence. The number of moles
remains constant during adult life with a gradual decrease
from the sixth decade onwards.
There is often an increase in both the number of moles and
the degree of pigmentation during pregnancy.

Acquired melanocytic naevi Benign pigmented naevus

Acquired melanocytic naevi are the familiar moles and present in
a number of different ways depending on the type of cells and
the depth in the skin.
Junctional naevi are flat macules with melanocytes
proliferating along the dermo-epidermal border.
Compound naevi have pigmented naevus cells at the dermo-
epidermal border and in the dermis, producing a raised brown
lesion. The dermal melanocytes may accumulate around the
skin appendages and blood vessels and form a band of cells
without melanin or more deeply penetrating strands of spindle
Blue naevus
cells. Proliferating naevus cells may throw the overlying Spitz naevus
epidermis into folds, giving a papillary appearance.
In a purely intradermal naevus the junctional element is lost,
with the deeper cells showing characteristics of neural tissue.
Other types of acquired pigmented naevi include the following.
Blue naevus is a collection of deeply pigmented melanocytes
situated deep in the dermis, which accounts for the deep
slate-blue colour.
Spitz naevus presents as a fleshy pink papule in children. It is
composed of large spindle cells and epitheloid cells with
occasional giant cells, arranged in “nests”. It is benign and the
old name of juvenile melanoma should be abandoned.
Halo naevus consists of a melanocytic naevus with a
surrounding halo of depigmentation associated with the Halo naevus
presence of antibodies against melanocytes in some cases.
The whole naevus gradually fades in time.
Becker’s naevus is an area of increased pigmentation, often
associated with increased hair growth, which is usually seen on
the upper trunk or shoulders. It is benign.
Freckles or ephelides are small pigmented macules, less than
0·5 cm in diameter, that occur in areas exposed to the sun in fair
skinned people. These macules fade during the winter months.

Congenital pigmented naevi

Congenital pigmented naevi are present at birth, generally over
1 cm in diameter, and vary from pale brown to black in colour.
They often become hairy and more protuberant, possibly with Becker’s naevus

68
 Black spots in the skin

an increased risk of malignant change. Larger lesions can cover

a considerable area of the trunk and buttocks, such as the
bathing trunk naevi, and their removal may present a
considerable problem.

Dysplastic naevi
These show very early malignant change and may progress to
malignant melanoma. They are deeply pigmented often with
an irregular margin.
In dysplastic naevus syndrome multiple pigmented naevi that
occur predominantly on the trunk, becoming numerous during
adolescence. They vary in size—many being over 0·5 cm—and Congenital hairy naevus Dysplastic naevus syndrome
tend to develop into malignant melanoma, particularly if there
is a family history of this condition.

Melanoma
Melanoma is an invasive malignant tumour of melanocytes.
Most cases occur in white adults over the age of 30, with
a predominance in women.

Incidence
The incidence of melanoma has doubled over the past 10 years Melanoma
in Australia (currently 40/100 000 population) and shown a
similar increase in other countries. In Europe twice as many
women as men develop melanoma—about 12/100 000 women
and 6/100 000 men.

Prognosis
The prognosis is related to the thickness of the lesion,
measured histologically in millimetres from the granular layer
to the deepest level of invasion. Lesions less than 0·76 mm thick
have a 100% survival at five years, 0·76–1·5 mm thick an 80%
Melanoma
survival at five years, and lesions over 3·5 mm less than 40%
survival. These figures are based on patients in whom the
original lesion had been completely excised. A recent study in
Scotland has shown an overall five year survival of 71·6–77·6%
for women and 58·7% for men.

Sun exposure Nodular melanoma

The highest incidence of melanoma occurs in countries with
the most sunshine throughout the year. However, skin type
and the regularity of exposure to sun are also important. The
incidence is much greater in fair skinned people from higher
latitudes who have concentrated exposure to sun during
holidays than in those with darker complexions who have more
regular exposure throughout the year. Severe sunburn may also
predispose to melanoma.
Superficial melanoma with
Genetic factors nodules
Since melanin protects the skin from ultraviolet light it is not Lentigo maligna
surprising that melanoma occurs most commonly in fair
skinned people who show little tanning on exposure to sun,
particularly those of Celtic origin. Members of families with the
dysplastic naevus syndrome are more likely to develop
melanoma in their moles. These patients have multiple naevi
from a young age.

Pre-existing moles
It is rare for ordinary moles to become malignant but
congenital naevi and multiple dysplastic naevi are more likely
Nodule developing in superficial
to develop into malignant melanoma. spreading melanoma

69
ABC of Dermatology

Types of melanoma
There are four main types of melanoma.
Superficial spreading melanoma is the more common variety.
It is common on the back in men and on the legs in women.
As the name implies the melanoma cells spread superficially in
the epidermis, becoming invasive after months or years.
The margin and the surface are irregular, with pigmentation
varying from brown to black. There may be surrounding Superficial spreading melanoma Nodular melanoma in a lentigo
inflammation and there is often clearing of the central portion.
The invasive phase is associated with the appearance of
nodules and increased pigmentation. The prognosis is
correspondingly poor.
Lentigo maligna melanoma occurs characteristically in areas
exposed to sun in elderly people. Initially there is a slowly
growing, irregular pigmented macule that is present for many
years before a melanoma develops.
Nodular melanoma presents as a dark nodule from the start Benign lentigo Acral melanoma
without a preceding in situ epidermal phase. It is more
common in men than women and is usually seen in people in
their fifties and sixties. Because it is a vertical invasive growth
phase from the beginning there is a poor prognosis.
Acral melanoma occurs on the palm and soles and near or
under the nails. Benign pigmented naevi may also occur in
these sites and it is important to recognise early dysplastic
change by using the criteria set out below. A very important
indication that discoloration of the nail is due to melanoma is Talon noir of left heel
Hutchinson’s sign—pigmentation of the nail fold adjacent to
the nail. It is important to distinguish talon noir, in which a
black area appears on the sole or heel. It is the result of
trauma—for example sustained while playing squash—causing
haemorrhage into the dermal papillae. Paring the skin gently
with a scalpel will reveal distinct blood filled papillae, to the
relief of doctor and patient alike.

Other types of melanoma Dysplastic melanoma

As the melanoma cells become more dysplastic and less well
differentiated they lose the capacity to produce melanin and
form an amelanonitic melanoma. Such non-pigmented nodules
may be regarded as harmless but are in fact extremely Amelanotic melanoma
dangerous.

Malignant melanoma in a black person; note the surrounding “halo”

Progressive
growth in depth
of malignant
melanoma

70
 Black spots in the skin

Prognosis
Criteria for suspecting malignant changes in pigmented
This depends on the depth to which the melanoma has
lesions
penetrated below the base of the epidermis—lesions confined
to the epidermis having better prognosis than those • Growth—Benign pigmented naevi continue to appear in
adolescents and young adults. Any mole increasing in size in
penetrating into the dermis. The Clark classification describes
an adult over the age of 30 may be a melanoma
the depth of penetration as follows: • Shape—Moles usually have a symmetrical, even outline, any
Level I—within the epidermis indentations being quite regular; melanomas usually have an
irregular edge with one part advancing more than the others
Level II—few melanoma cells within the dermal papillae
• Colour—Variation in colour of benign moles is even but a
Level III—many melanoma cells in the papillary dermis melanoma may be intensely black or show irregular
Level IV—invasion of the reticular dermis coloration varying from white to slate blue, with all shades of
Level V—invasion of the subcutaneous tissues black and brown. Inflammation may give a red colour as well.
The amelanotic melanoma shows little or no pigmentation
The Breslow classification is based on measurements of tumour • Size—Apart from congenital pigmentation naevi most benign
thickness from the granular layer overlying epidermis. A depth moles are less than 1 cm in diameter. Any lesion growing to
of less than 1·5 mm is associated with a 90% five year survival, over 0·5 cm should be carefully checked
1·5–3·5 mm with a 75% five year survival, and greater than • Itching—Normally a mole does not itch but a melanoma may.
3·5 mm with only a 50% five year survival. Irritated seborrhoeic warts also itch
In deeper tumours “sentinel lymph node” biopsy may be • Bleeding and crusting occur in an actively growing melanoma
carried out to assess whether lymphatic spread has occurred. If more than two of these features are present refer the patient
for specialist opinion
How to tell the difference A simple summary:
Benign moles show little change and remain static for years. A—Asymmetry of the lesion C—Variations in colour
Any change may indicate that a mole is in fact a melanoma or B—Irregularity of the border D—Diameter larger
than 0·5 cm
that a mole is becoming active. Size, shape, and colour are the
main features and it is change in them that is most important.
Patients with moles should have these changes explained to
them, in particular that they indicate activity of the cells, not Further reading
necessarily malignant change. Ackerman AB. Malignant melanoma and other melanocytic neoplasms.
Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins,1984
Mackie R (ed). Primary and secondary prevention of malignant
melanoma. Basle: Karger
Roses DF. Diagnosis and management of cutaneous malignant melanoma.
Philadelphia: Saunders, 1983
Seigler HE. Clinical management of melanoma. The Hague: Nijhoff,
1982

71
16 The skin and systemic disease—Genetics and
skin disease (JA Savin)

When a man has on the skin of his body a swelling or an eruption or a

spot … and the disease appears to be deeper than the skin it is a leprous
disease.
Leviticus 13: 2–3

In ancient times changes in the skin were taken to indicate

When to suspect an underlying systemic disease
that the whole body was diseased and although arguments
continue about what the Old Testament writers understood • An unusual rash which does not have the features of one of
the common primary inflammatory skin conditions
by “leprous”, there was clearly an appreciation of the • Evidence of systemic illness—weight loss, and other symptoms
connection between the skin and systemic illness. Clinical such as breathlessness, altered bowel function or painful
signs in the skin may give valuable diagnostic clues to joints
underlying disease. The cutaneous signs of systemic disease • Erythema of the skin due to inflammation around the blood
is a very large subject; and what follows is only an outline vessels, usually without epidermal changes—reactive
of the more common skin changes that may be associated erythema. Vasculitis, in which there are palpable
erythematous lesions which may be painful or nodular
with systemic illness.
• Unusual changes in pigmentation or texture of the skin
A disease affecting internal organs may produce the same • Palpable dermal lesions that may be due to granuloma,
changes in both the skin and other organs—as in the connective metastases, lymphoma, or deposits of fat or minerals
tissue diseases. However, underlying conditions may be
associated with skin changes brought about by quite different
processes, as in acanthosis nigricans or dermatomyositis in which
there is an underlying neoplasm with characteristic skin signs.
Sometimes severe skin disease itself may be the cause of
generalised illness.
The skin is also a common site for allergic reactions to
drugs, with a rash being the first clinical sign. The florid skin
lesions of AIDS illustrate the results of infections when the
immune response is impaired.

Conditions affecting
both the skin and the
Rash from penicillin
internal organs
Immune reactions
Allergic reactions to drugs such as penicillin can occur.
In this case the penicillin molecule attaches to serum protein.
This compound acts as an antigen and may form a complex
with IgG antibody. It is this complex which attaches to blood
vessel walls to produce an inflammatory reaction. This presents
as a rash developing a few days to two weeks after treatment on
the skin, but if it occurs in the kidneys the resulting tissue
damage can have serious consequences. This is an example of
Type III allergy with antigen–antibody complexes being
deposited in the small blood vessels. Sometimes a much more
acute anaphylactic reaction develops A fixed drug eruption is
characterised by a localised patch of erythema that flares up
whenever the drug is taken. Erythema multiforme can occur in
drug reactions. Erythema multiforme
Connective tissue diseases involve complex immunological
processes that affect both internal organs and the skin. This
means that it is particularly important to realise the
significance of any associated skin changes.

Lupus erythematosus
This condition has been described as “a disease with a
thousand faces” because of the wide range of organs involved

72
 The skin and systemic disease—Genetics and skin disease

and the numerous ways in which it can present. In three

quarters of the patients the skin is involved. There are four
Clinical variants of lupus erythematosus
main types, with numerous variations. • Systemic
In systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) the commonest skin • Subacute cutaneous
• Discoid (neonatal)
change is an acute erythematous eruption occurring bilaterally • Systemic sclerosis
on the malar area of the face in a “butterfly” distribution.
There may also be photosensitivity, hair loss, and areas of
vasculitis in the skin. There is often intolerance of sunlight. It is
more common in females with a female:male ratio of 8:1.
The systemic changes include fever, arthritis and renal
involvement, but there may be involvement of a wide range of
organs. The criteria for diagnosing the condition include
at least four of the features in the box on the right.
Subacute lupus erythematosus is a variant in about 10% of Criteria for diagnosing systemic lupus erythematosus
patients with lupus erythematosus that presents with • Malar rash • Serositis
non-scarring erythematosus plaques mainly on the face, hands • Discoid plaques • Neurological involvement
and arms. Papulo squamous lesions also occur. They may be • Photosensitivity • Haematological changes
annular. Systemic involvement is less common and severe than • Arthritis • Immunological changes
• Mouth ulcers • Antinuclear antibodies
in SLE. It is associated with a high incidence of neonatal lupus • Renal changes
erythematosus in children born to mothers with the condition.
The antinuclear factor test is positive in 60% and
anticytoplasmic antibodies are present in 80% of patients.
Discoid lupus erythematosus (DLE) is a condition in which
circulating antinuclear antibodies are very rare. There are quite
well defined photosensitive inflammatory lesions, with some
degree of atrophy and hyperkeratosis of the follicles, giving a
“nutmeg grater” feel. It occurs predominantly on the face or
areas exposed to the sun, becoming worse in the summer
months. Scarring is common causing hair loss in lesions on the
scalp.
Treatment of SLE with the threatened or actual involvement
of other organs is important. Prednisolone is usually required Systemic lupus
erythematosus
and sometimes immunosuppressant drugs such as azathioprine
as well. Treatment of DLE is generally with topical steroids.
Hydroxychloroquine by mouth is also used, generally in a dose
of 200 mg daily. This drug can diminish visual acuity in higher
doses and this should be checked every few months. A simple
chart, the Amsler Chart, is available for patients to use, consisting
of a central dot with a grid which becomes blurred when held at
arm’s length when there is any impairment of acutity.

Dermatomyositis
This condition is associated in adults with underlying
carcinoma—commonly of the breasts, lung, ovary, or
gastrointestinal tract. It is characterised by localised erythema
with a purple hue (heliotrope), predominantly on the eyelids,
cheeks, and forehead. There may be similar changes on the
dorsal surface of the fingers, often with dilated nail fold
capillaries. These changes may precede the discovery of an Dermatomyositis
underlying tumour and may also fade away once it is removed.
There is a variable association with muscle discomfort and
weakness, mainly in the upper limb girdle. The finding of
muscle weakness together with specific electromyographic
changes and an inflammatory infiltrate in the muscle means
there is almost certainly an underlying malignancy, so suitable
investigation is indicated.

Systemic sclerosis
As the name implies, there is extensive sclerosis of the
connective tissue of the lungs, gastrointestinal tract, kidneys,
and heart. Endothelial cell damage in the capillaries results in
fibrosis and sclerosis of the organs concerned. The skin
becomes tethered to the subcutaneous tissues and immobile,
leading to fixed claw like hands, constricted mouth with
furrowed lips, and beak-like nose. There are vascular changes
producing Raynaud’s phenomenon and telangiectasia around Persistent dermatomyositis

73
ABC of Dermatology

the mouth and on the fingers. There are also flat “mat-like”
telangiectasia on the face.
CREST syndrome
Workers manufacturing polyvinyl chloride can develop skin • C—Calcinosis cutis
changes similar to systemic sclerosis with erosions of the bones, • R—Raynaud’s phenomenon
• E—Esophagus
hepatic and pulmonary lesions. Pesticides and epoxy resin can • S—Scleroderma
also produce scleroderma-like changes. • T—Telangiectasia
It is associated with antinuclear antibodies (speckled or
nucleolar), and in about 50% of cases, circulating immune
complexes may be present.
A variant is the CREST syndrome. In this type of scleroderma
there is Calcinosis with calcium deposits below the skin on the
fingers and toes, Raynaud’s phenomenon with poor peripheral
circulation, immobility of the oEsophagus, dermal Sclerosis of
the fingers and toes, and Telangiectasia of the face and lips and
adjacent to the toe and finger nails. It has a better prognosis
than systemic sclerosis. Antinuclear antibodies at the
centromere are frequently present.
Morphoea is a benign form of localised systemic sclerosis in
CREST syndrome
which there is localised sclerosis with very slight inflammation.
There is atrophy of the overlying epidermis. The early changes
often consist of a dusky appearance to the skin.

Lichen sclerosus
The full name is lichen sclerosis et atrophicus—or LSA. This is
a relatively uncommon condition seen mainly in women in
whom well defined patches of superficial atrophy of the
epidermis occur with a white colour. There is fibrosis of the
underlying tissues. It frequently occurs in the vulva and
perineum and may also appear on the penis as balanitis
xerotica obliterans. Extragenital lesions may occur anywhere on
the skin. It may occur in a more acute form in children where
it tends to resolve, but in adults it is a very chronic condition.
There is an increased incidence of squamous cell carcinoma. Calcinosis cutis
Treatment is with topical steroids and excision of any areas that
appear to be developing tumours.
The cause of the hyalinized collagen and epidermal atrophy
is unknown, but in early lesions there is an infiltrate of
lymphocytes with CD3, CD4, CD8, and CD68 markers. There is
also an increase in Langerhans cells, so there may well be an
immunological basis for these changes.

Vascular changes
Vascular lesions are associated with a wide range of conditions
including infections, neoplasia, and allergic reactions.
Hormones, particularly oestrogen, may affect the small blood
vessels of the skin to produce telangiectasia and small
angiomas, such as spider naevi.
Vasculitis and purpura, described in chapter 7, may be
associated with disease of the kidneys and other organs.
“Splinter haemorrhages” under the nails are usually the result
of minor trauma but may be associated with a wide range of
Vasculitis
conditions, including subacute bacterial endocarditis and
rheumatoid arthritis.
Livedo reticularis is a cyanotic, net-like discoloration of the
skin over the legs. It may be idiopathic or associated with
arteritis or changes in blood viscosity.
Erythrocyanosis is a dusky, red, cyanotic change in the skin
over the legs and thighs, where there is a deep layer of
underlying fat. The condition becomes worse in the winter Livedo reticulosis
months. It is most common in young women and usually
resolves over the years. Lupus erythematosus, sarcoidosis, and
tuberculous infection may localise in affected areas.
Telangiectasia and clubbing may be features of scleroderma
in the CREST syndrome described above.
In carcinoid and phaeochromocytoma vasoactive substances
cause episodes of flushing and telangiectasia.

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 The skin and systemic disease—Genetics and skin disease

In hereditary haemorrhagic telangiectasia thin walled ectatic

blood vessels develop in the mucous membranes and the skin—
generally on the upper half of the body and the nail beds.

Erythemas
Erythema is macular redness of the skin due to congestion in
the capillaries. It occurs as part of immunological reactions in Erythemas associated with systemic
the skin as in drug allergies and specific patterns of viral conditions
infections, such as measles. There are other types that show • Erythema multiforme
a specific pattern but are associated with a wide range of • Erythema annulare
underlying conditions, such as erythema multiforme. • Erythema chronicum migrans
Erythema multiforme is associated with herpes and other viral
• Erythema gyratum repens
• Erythema marginatum
infections or streptococcal and various bacterial infections, but
also with many other conditions, particularly connective tissue
disease, sarcoidosis, and reactions to drugs such as
sulphonamides.
The lesions consist of erythematous macules becoming
raised and typically developing into “target lesions” in which
there is a dusky red or purpuric centre with a pale indurated
zone surrounded by an outer ring of erythema. The lesions
may be few or multiple and diffuse, often involving the hands,
feet, elbows, and knees. Blisters may develop.
In the more severe forms there may be dermal changes and
blister formation with involvement of the mucous membranes
(Stevens–Johnson syndrome). There is often pyrexia with
gastrointestinal and renal lesions. It can progress to toxic
epidermal necrolysis, which some consider a form of erythema
multiforme.
Erythema annulare is a specific pattern in the skin with a
large number of reported associations, ranging from fungal
and viral infections to sarcoidosis and carcinoma. It consists of
a small erythematous macule that enlarges to form an
expanding ring, usually on the trunk.
Erythema chronicum migrans is associated with Borrelia
infection and Lyme disease—it is described on page 106.
There are many other types of “figurate erythemas”. Erythema
gyratum repens is associated with underlying carcinoma and
erythema marginatum, which is now rare, with rheumatic fever.
Figurate erythema
Angiomas
Spider naevi, which show a central blood vessel with radiating
branches, are frequently seen in women (especially during
pregnancy) and children. If they occur in large numbers,
particularly in men, they may indicate liver failure. Palmar
erythema and yellow nails may also be present.

Congenital angiomas
Eruptive angiomas may be associated with systemic angiomas
of the liver, lung, and brain. Port wine stain due to abnormality
of the dermal capillaries commonly develops on the head and
neck. It may be associated with congenital vascular abnormalities
of the meningies and epilepsy. Vascular abnormalities of the eye,
and also glaucoma, occur with lesions on the face.

Erythema of the nailbeds

This may be associated with connective tissue disease, such as
lupus erythematosus, scleroderma, and dermatomyositis.
Erythema of nailbeds and
clubbing
Changes in pigmentation
Hypopigmentation
Hormonal
A widespread partial loss of melanocyte functions with loss
of skin colour is seen in hypopituitarism and is caused by an
absence of melanocyte stimulating hormone.

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ABC of Dermatology

Genetic
In albinism, an autorecessive condition, there is little or no
Autoimmune associations with vitiligo
production of melanin with loss of pigment from the skin, hair, • Thyroid disease • Myasthenia gravis
and eyes. Other genetic conditions with loss of skin pigment • Pernicious anaemia • Alopecia areata
• Hypoparathyroidism • Halo naevus
include piebaldism, phenylketonuria, and tuberous sclerosis. • Addison’s disease • Morphoea and
Localised depigmentation is most commonly seen in • Diabetes lichen sclerosus
vitiligo, in which a family history of the condition is found in
one third of the patients. In the sharply demarcated,
symmetrical macular lesions there is loss of melanocytes and
melanin. There is an increased incidence of organ specific
antibodies and their associated diseases.
Other causes of hypopigmented macules include:
postinflammatory conditions after psoriasis, eczema, lichen
planus, and lupus erythematosus; infections, for example, tinea
versicolor and leprosy; chemicals, such as hydroquinones,
hydroxychloroquine, and arsenicals, reactions to pigmented
naevi, seen in halo naevus; and genetic diseases, such as
tuberous sclerosis (“ash leaf” macules).

Hyperpigmentation
There is wide variation in the pattern of normal pigmentation Vitiligo
as a result of heredity and exposure to the sun. Darkening of
the skin may be due to an increase in the normal pigment
melanin or to the deposition of bile salts in liver disease, iron
salts (haemochromatosis), drugs, or metallic salts from
ingestion. In agyria ingested silver salts are deposited in the skin.
Causes of hyperpigmentation include the following factors.

Hormonal
An increase in circulating hormones that have melanocyte
stimulating activity occurs in hyperthyroidism, Addison’s Agyria (silver salts in skin)
disease, and acromegaly. In women who are pregnant or taking
oral contraceptives there may be an increase in melanocytic
pigmentation of the face. This is known as melasma
(or chloasma) and occurs mainly on the forehead and cheeks.
It may fade slowly. Sometimes a premenstrual darkening of the
face occurs.
Increased deposition of haemosiderin is generalised in
haemochromatosis. Localised red-brown discoloration of the
legs is seen with longstanding varicose veins. It also occurs
in a specific localised pattern in Schamberg’s disease, Melasma
when there is a “cayenne pepper” appearance of the legs
and thighs.

Neoplasia
Lymphomas may be associated with increased pigmentation.
Acanthosis nigricans, characterised by darkening and
thickening of the skin of the axillae, neck, nipples, and
umbilicus, occurs with internal cancers, usually
adenocarcinoma of the stomach. It is also seen in acromegaly.
There is a benign juvenile type. Pseudoacanthosis nigricans is
much more common, consisting of simple darkening of the Acanthosis nigricans
skin in the flexures of obese individuals; it is not associated with
malignancy.

Carcinoma left upper zone

Pseudoacanthosis nigricans Acanthosis nigricans

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 The skin and systemic disease—Genetics and skin disease

Drugs
Chlorpromazine, other phenothiazines, and minocycline may
cause an increased pigmentation in areas exposed to the sun.
Phenytoin can cause local hyperpigmentation of the face
and neck.

Inflammatory reactions
Postinflammatory pigmentation is common, often after acute
eczema, fixed drug eruptions, or lichen planus. Areas of
lichenification from rubbing the skin are usually darkened.

Malabsorption and deficiency states

In malabsorption syndromes, pellagra, and scurvy there is
commonly increased skin pigmentation.
Neurofibromatosis Neurofibromatosis
Congenital conditions
There is clearly a marked variation in pigmentation and in the
number of freckles in normal individuals. There may be
localised well defined pigmented areas in neurofibromatosis
with “cafe au lait” patches. Increased pigmentation with a blue
tinge occurs over the lumbosacral region in the condition
known as Mongolian blue spot.
Peutz–Jeghers syndrome is described under the section
“The gut and the skin”, below. There are pigmented macules
Increased pigmentation in Peutz–Jeghers syndrome
associated with intestinal polyposis in the oral mucosa, lips, malabsorption syndrome
and face.

Skin markers of internal malignancy

Malignant lesions • Acanthosis nigricans—usually intra-abdominal lesions
Malignant lesions may cause skin changes such as acanthosis • Erythematous rashes, “figurate erythema”
• Pruritus—usually lymphoma
nigricans and dermatomyositis or produce secondary deposits. • Dermatomyositis in the middle aged and elderly
Lymphomas can arise in or invade the skin. Pruritus may be • Acquired ichthyosis
associated with Hodgkin’s disease.
Mycosis fungoides is a T cell lymphoma of cutaneous origin.
Initially well demarcated erythematous plaques develop on
covered areas with intense itching. In many cases there is a Non-specific skin changes associated with malignant
gradual progression to infiltrated lesions, nodules, and disease
ulceration. In others the tumour may occur de novo or be • Secondary deposits
preceded by generalised erythema. • Secondary hormonal effects
Poikiloderma, in which there is telangiectasia, reticulate Acne (adrenal tumours)
pigmentation, atrophy, and loss of pigment, may precede Flushing (carcinoid)
Pigmentation
mycosis fungoides, but it is also seen after radiotherapy and in • Generalised pruritus (particularly lymphoma)
connective tissue diseases. • Figurate erythema
Parapsoriasisis a term used for well defined maculopapular • Superficial thrombophlebitis
erythematous lesions that occur in middle and old age. Some • Various eruptive skin lesions seen in Gardener’s and Bazex
cases undoubtedly develop into mycosis fungoides and a biopsy syndromes
specimen should be taken of any such fixed plaques that do not
clear with topical steroids.

Lymphoma Parapsoriasis

Poikiloderma

B cell lymphoma

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ABC of Dermatology

The gut and the skin Diseases that pyoderma gangrenosum

may occur with
Vasculitis of various kinds, periarteritis nodosa, connective
tissue diseases such as scleroderma, and many metabolic • Ulcerative colitis
diseases produce both cutaneous and gastrointestinal lesions. • Crohn’s disease
• Rheumatoid arthritis
There are, however, some specific associations. • Monoclonal gammopathy
Dry skin, asteatosis, and itching, with superficial eczematous • Leukaemia
changes and a “crazy paving” pattern, occur in malabsorption
and cachectic states. Increased pigmentation, brittle hair and
nails may also be associated.
Pyoderma gangrenosum gives rise to an area of non-specific
inflammation and pustules break down to form a necrotic ulcer
with hypertrophic margins. There is an underlying vasculitis.
There is a strong association with ulcerative colitis and also with
Crohn’s disease, rheumatoid arthritis, abnormal gamma
globulins, and leukaemia.
Dermatitis herpetiformis, which has already been discussed, is
an intensely itching, chronic disorder with erythematous and
blistering lesions on the trunk and limbs. It is more common in
men than women. Most patients have a gluten sensitive Early pyoderma gangrenosum Pyoderma gangrenosum
enteropathy with some degree of villus atrophy. There is an
associated risk of small bowel lymphoma.
Peutz–Jeghers syndrome is inherited as an autosomal dominant
characterised by the appearance in infancy of pigmented
macules of the oral mucosal membranes, lips, and face.
Benign intestinal polyps, mainly in the ileum and jejunum,
which rarely become malignant, are associated with the
condition.
Other conditions include congenital disorders with
connective tissue and vascular abnormalities that affect
the gut, such as Ehlers–Danlos syndrome and
pseudoxanthoma elasticum (arterial gastrointestinal bleeding),
purpuric vasculitis (bleeding from gastrointestinal lesions), and
neurofibromatosis (intestinal neurofibromas). Dermatitis herpetiformis
In Crohn’s disease (regional ileitis) perianal lesions and sinus
formation in the abdominal wall often occur. Glossitis and
thickening of the lips and oral mucosa and vasculitis may be
associated.
Liver disease may affect the skin, hair, and nails to a variable
Liver disease and the skin
degree. Obstructive jaundice is often associated with
itching which is thought to be due to the deposition of bile Obstructive
salts in the skin. Evidence of this is the fact that drugs which • Jaundice
• Pruritus
combine with bile salts such as cholestyramine improve pruritus
Liver failure
in some patients. Jaundice is the physical manifestation of bile
• Multiple spider naevi (in men)
salts in the skin. • Palmar erythema
Liver failure is characterised by a number of skin signs, • White nails—hypoalbuminaemia
particularly vascular changes causing multiple spider naevi • Porphyria cutanea tarda
and palmar erythema due to diffuse telangiectasia. It is not Cirrhosis
unusual to see spider naevi on the trunk in women but large • Xanthomas (primary biliary cirrhosis)
numbers in men should raise suspicion of underlying hepatic • Asteatosis
disease.
Porphyria cutanea tarda as a result of chronic liver
disease produces bullae, scarring, and hyperpigmentation
in sun exposed areas of the skin. Xanthomas may be
associated with primary biliary cirrhosis and in chronic liver
disease asteotosis, with dry skin producing a “crazy paving”
pattern.

Diabetes and the skin

In diabetes the disturbances of carbohydrate–lipid metabolism,
small blood vessel lesions, and neural involvement may be
associated with skin lesions. The more common of these
include the following.

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 The skin and systemic disease—Genetics and skin disease

Infection
Diabetic patients have an increased susceptibility to
staphylococcal, coliform, and pseudomonal infection. Candida
albicans infection is also more common in diabetics.

Vascular lesions
“Diabetic dermopathy”, due to a microangiopathy, consists of
erythematous papules which slowly resolve to leave a scaling
macule on the limbs. Atherosclerosis with impaired peripheral
circulation is often associated with diabetes. Ulceration due to
neuropathy (trophic ulcers) or impaired blood supply may
occur, particularly on the feet.

Specific skin lesions Diabetic ulcer Necrobiosis lipoidica

Necrobiosis lipoidica
Between 40% and 60% of patients with this condition may
develop diabetes, but it is not very common in diabetic patients
(0·3%). As the name indicates, there is necrosis of the
connective tissue with lymphocytic and granulomatous
infiltrate. There is replacement of degenerating collagen fibres
with lipid material. It usually occurs over the shin but may
appear at any site.

Granuloma annulare Granuloma annulare

This usually presents with localised papular lesions on the
hands and feet but may occur elsewhere. The lesions may be
partly or wholly annular and may be single or multiple.
There is some degree of necrobiosis, with histiocytes forming
“palisades” as well as giant cells and lymphocytes. It is seen more
commonly in women, usually those aged under 30. There is
an association with insulin dependent diabetes. In itself it is
a harmless and self limiting condition that slowly clears
but may recur.
Porphyria

Other diseases
Porphyrias are due to the accumulation of intermediate
metabolites in the metabolic pathway of haem synthesis.
There are several types. In hepatic porphyrias there is skin
fragility leading to blisters from exposure to the sun or minor
trauma. In erythropoietic and erythrohepatic photoporphyrias
there is intense photosensitivity. They are sometimes associated
with sensitivity to long wavelength ultraviolet light that Xanthomas
penetrates window glass.
Porphyria cutanea tarda usually occurs in men, with a genetic
predisposition, who have liver damage as a result of an
excessive intake of alcohol. There is impaired porphyria
metabolism leading to skin fragility and photosensitivity, with
blisters and erosions, photosensitivity on the face and the Common types of xanthoma
dorsal surface of the hands. Association with hyperlipidaemia
Xanthomas are due to the deposition of fat in connective Clinical type Primary Secondary
tissue cells. They are commonly associated with Xanthelasma of the II (may be
hyperlipidaemia—either primary or secondary to diabetes, the eyelids—yellow plaques normal)
nephrotic syndrome, hypothyroidism, or primary biliary Tuberous nodules on II, III 
cirrhosis. Four of the primary types are associated with an elbows and knees
increased risk of atherosclerosis; type I is not. Diabetes may be Eruptive—small yellow papules I, III, IV, V 
associated with the eruptive type. on buttocks and shoulders
Necrotising fasciitis is an area of cellulitis that develops Plane—yellow macules, I, III 
vesicles. Necrosis of the skin may indicate much more palmar creases involved
extensive, life threatening necrosis of the deeper tissues. Generalised—widespread myeloma
Urgent surgical debridement is indicated. macules
Amyloid deposits in the skin occur in primary systemic Tendons—swelling II, III 
on fingers or ankles
amyloidosis and myeloma.

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ABC of Dermatology

Pregnancy
Pregnancy may be associated with pruritus, in which the skin
appears normal in 15–20% of women (prunigo gestationis). It
is generally more severe in the first trimester.
Polymorphic eruptions also present with pruritis with urticaria
papules and plaques (the PUPP syndrome). It usually occurs on
the abdomen in the third trimester and then becomes
widespread. There may be a postpartum flare up. It can be a
distressing condition for the mother but the baby is not
affected, and it rarely recurs in subsequent pregnancies. Topical
steroids can be used, but systemic steroids should be avoided.
Pemphigoid gestationis is a rare disorder that may resemble
PUPP initially but develops pemphigoid-like vesicles, spreading Polymorphic eruption Pemphigoid gestationis
over the abdomen and thighs: autoantibodies to the basement
membrane are present.

Sarcoidosis
Pulmonary and other systemic manifestation of sarcoidosis may
occur without involvement of the skin. The most common
changes are:
• Erythema nodosum, which is often a feature of early
pulmonary disease.
• Papules, nodules, and plaques are associated with acute and
subacute forms of the disease.
• Scar sarcoidosis, with papules occurring in scars.
• Lupus pernio is characterised by dusky red infiltrated lesions
on the nose and fingers. Nodule in sarcoidosis

Thyroid disease
Thyroid disease is associated with changes in the skin, which
may sometimes be the first clinical signs. There may be
evidence of the effect of altered concentrations of thyroxine on
the skin, with changes in texture and hair growth. Associated
increases in thyroid stimulating hormone concentration may
lead to pretibial myxoedema. In autoimmune thyroid disease Sarcoid granuloma
vitiligo and other autoimmune conditions may be present.

Genetics and skin disease

by JA Savin
Though many genetic disorders of the skin are inherited in
a classically Mendelian way (single gene disorders), others are
genetically more complex. As a general rule, the common skin
disorders that run in families, such as psoriasis, atopic eczema,
and acne, tend to belong to the latter group. Clinical signs of thyroid disease
Single gene disorders Hypothyroidism Hyperthyroidism
Recent advances in genetic technology have been relatively easy Dry skin Soft, thickened skin
to apply to these, usually rather uncommon, disorders, most of Oedema of eyelids and hands Pretibial myxoedema
which had already been classified accurately on clinical Absence of sweating Increased sweating (palms and
grounds. Several things followed from this: soles)
Coarse, thin hair—loss of pubic, Thinning of scalp hair
(1) The next step has often been an improvement in current axillary, and eyebrow hair
clinical classifications, which can now be based logically on
Pale “ivory” skin Diffuse pigmentation
the underlying molecular abnormalities of the disorders in
Brittle poorly growing nails Rapidly growing nails
question. A good example of this is the modern
Purpura, bruising, and Palmar erythema
classification of the inherited mechano-bullous disorders
telangiectasia Facial flushing
(also known as epidermolysis bullosa).
(2) New skin constituents were quickly recognized, their function
being understood after studying the disorders in which they

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 The skin and systemic disease—Genetics and skin disease

are abnormal. Soon it was realized that the same molecules

could be the targets both for genetic abnormalities and for
acquired skin diseases. One example of this is the way in
which autoantibodies directed against one of the constituents
of hemidesmosomes (BP180) cause pemphigoid, whereas
mutations in the gene responsible for BP180 are the basis of
the junctional type of epidermolysis bullosa.
(3) Advances have been made too in our understanding of
the structure and function of normal skin and its
appendages—for example, the finding that melanocortin-1
receptor gene variants are associated with fair skin, red
hair, and skin tumours.
(4) Mosaics were soon recognized. Clinically these are linear
abnormalities in the skin, usually present at birth, which
often contain cells with the same genetic abnormalities as
those of known generalised genodermatoses. A good
example of this is the way the same abnormalities in the
genes controlling the production of keratins 1 and 10 can
be responsible both for a generalised skin condition
(epidermolytic hyperkeratosis) and for warty linear naevi. Blashko’s lines
The mosaic areas follow Blashko’s lines, a bizarre pattern
of lines and whorls, which are not the same as
dermatomes.
(5) The prenatal diagnosis of severe genodermatoses has
become more accurate, though gene therapy has not yet The abnormality underlying some inherited skin disorders
fulfilled its early promise. Skin disorder Abnormality in
Ehlers–Danlos syndrome Collagen and the
Genetically complex disorders extracellular matrix
Psoriasis is a good example. It clusters in some families but does
Dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa Type VII collagen
not follow a classical Mendelian pattern of inheritance.
Pseudoxanthoma elasticum Elastic tissue
Environmental triggers are important, as well as genetic factors.
Over the last few years, several wide scans of the genome have Xeroderma pigmentosum DNA repair
been undertaken with the aim of identifying the location of the Simple epidermolysis bullosa Keratins 5 and 14
genes that determine susceptibility to psoriasis. Five have been Epidermolytic hyperkeratosis Keratins 1 and 10
confirmed, all on different chromosomes, and now designated Palmoplantar keratoderma Keratins 9 and 16
as Psors1 to Psors5. A further six loci may have similar effects, Junctional epidermolysis bullosa Laminins
but the evidence for them is less strong. Psors1, on X-linked recessive ichthyosis Steroid sulphatase
chromosome 6p21.3, is an especially important gene for Darier’s disease Epidermal cell adhesion
psoriasis susceptibility in many populations and lies within the Albinism (tyrosinase negative type) Tyrosinase
area of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC). However
it is not itself an HLA class 1 gene, and may belong to the
newly described MHC class 1 chain-related (MIC) gene family.
The possession of one allele (A5.1) of this gene seems to lead
to a type of psoriasis that starts especially early, and is more
common in familial than in sporadic cases.
In atopic eczema, matters are equally complicated.
Environmental factors may well be responsible for the recent
rise in its prevalence as the gene pool within the population is
not likely to have changed greatly, but a genetic component is
obvious too, even though affected children can be born to
clinically normal parents. Within each family, atopic disorders
tend to run true to type, so that, in some, most affected
members will have eczema, in others, respiratory allergy
predominates. The inheritance of atopic eczema probably Further reading
involves genes that predispose to the state of atopy, and others Fine JD, Eady RA, Bauer EA, et al. Revised classification system for
that determine whether it is asthma, eczema, or hay fever that inherited epidermolysis bullosa. J Am Acad Dermatol 2000;42:
develops. One plausible gene for the inheritance of atopy 1051–66
encodes for the
subunit of the high affinity IgE receptor, and Harper J. Inherited skin disorders. Oxford: Butterworth–Heinemann
1999
lies on chromosome 11q13. However several groups have failed
Moss C, Savin JA. Dermatology and the new genetics. Oxford: Blackwell
to confirm earlier reports of this linkage, and a gene linked to Science, 1995
atopic eczema has recently been found on chromosome 3q21.

81
17 Cutaneous immunology—Autoimmune disease
and the skin (DJ Gawkrodger)

Types of allergic reaction

Allergic and other immune reactions may occur in the
skin—the “immunological battleground of the body”—rather
than involving internal organs. An acute vasculitis occurring in
the skin is unpleasant and requires treatment but the same
reaction occurring in the kidneys can be life threatening.
The pattern of skin changes can indicate the type of
immune process involved and also whether there is likely
to be systemic involvement. The immune response of the
skin is also used clinically in the tuberculin skin test to
detect the level of immunity to tuberculosis. It is also
the means of immunisation when an injection of inactivated
organisms induces an immune response that protects the
entire body.
The different types of immune reaction are all manifested
in the skin as part of a normal response to pathogens or as an
allergic reaction. The difference is expressed by the word Reaction to fish protein
“allergy”, first used by Von Pirquet in 1906, derived from the
Greek (

), meaning literally “other work”. In other
words it is a response that is appropriate for pathogenic
organisms such as a tubercle bacillus but is misdirected against
a harmless substance such as a rubber glove or the metal of a
Ig E
watch strap buckle.
Fc receptor
Immunological reactions are of four types—five if
autoimmunity is counted—of responses mediated by antibodies
known as the humoral response and one by the lymphocytes
known as the cell mediated response.

Immediate hypersensitivity
This type of reaction is caused by “reagin” antibodies, which
consist mainly of lgE, that react with allergens such as
housedust mite, animal dander, or grass pollens. These
Mast cell Histamine
reactions may occur in both the skin or the lung to produce
+ inflammatory
asthma. Allergic reactions to insect stings can cause severe mediators
systemic effects—“anaphylaxis”, which literally means “without
protection”. Food proteins can also cause an immediate type of
hypersensitivity reaction. The IgE molecule is attached to
Type I—immediate hypersensitivity
specific receptors on the surface of mast cells and when
activated by linkage to specific allergen inflammatory
mediators are released. This is an acute process, hence the
name “immediate hypersensitivity”. Antibody

The initial response occurring within five minutes is due to Target cell

by the release of histamine, heparin, tryptophan. This is followed

by inflammatory mediators—released in five to 30 minutes—
leukotrien, prostaglandin. The later response, occurring after
some hours, is caused by cytokines—predominantly tumour +
Complement Antigen
necrosis factor  (TNF-) and interleukin 4 (IL4).
Severe reactions cause shock that is made worse by stress
and exercise, as in the case of a young woman, allergic to wasp
stings, who had a wasp sting when picnicking by a lake. She
then plunged into the cold water, swimming vigorously, leading Lysis Fc receptor
to a fatal anaphylactic reaction. Acute anaphylactic reactions to
peanuts may be life threatening.

Cytotoxic reactions K cell

In this case cells become the target of attack by circulating
antibodies. There are a number of causes, such as drugs or
proteins attached to the cell surface that act as haptens so they Type II—cytotoxic

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 Cutaneous immunology—Autoimmune disease and the skin

become antigenic. This occurs in drug induced haemolysis

from drugs. Alternatively, immune complexes are attached to
the surface of the cell with the incorporation of complement
leading to lysis. In haemolytic anaemia and incompatible blood
transfusions antibodies are formed against erythrocytes. They
may also be destroyed by killer cells. A typical example is Antigen + Complement
+ Polymorphs
haemolytic anaemia.
This immune response is the means of destroying cells that
become antigenic as a result of being infected with virus.
In autoimmune diseases antibodies are directed against
specific structures.
Damaged basement membrane
Antigen–antibody complex reactions Antibody
As a result of antibody production to antigens in the
circulation, complexes form in the blood and these may be
Type III—circulating immune complexes
deposited in capillaries resulting in inflammatory changes.
Similar changes may occur in the lung. This involves the
activation of complement and the release of mediators of
inflammation, producing vasodilatation and the accumulation
Antigen on skin
of polymorphs.
Epidermal
Langerhans
Delayed hypersensitivity cell

This type of reaction results from lymphocytes known as

Sensitised T cell
T cells, because of their derivation from the thymus, which Antigen presenting reacts with antigen
react with antigen in the skin. The reaction is initiated by cell (Veiled cell) Inflammation
antigen attached to Langerhan’s cells in the epidermis being associated with:
Interferon
transported to the paracortical area of the regional lymph node Cytokines
with the production of lymphocytes sensitised specifically for Macrophages
that antigen. There is also the production of interleukin which
has a feedback effect in stimulating the production of more
sensitised lymphocytes.
Lymph node
The reaction of the T lymphocytes in the epidermis results in Paracortical area
the accumulation of macrophages and the release of
inflammatory mediators.
T cell sensitised to antigen
Interleukins stimulate proliferation

Type IV—delayed hypersensitivity

Autoimmune disease and the skin
by DJ Grawkrodger
There is always the risk that the well developed human immune
system may react against the body’s own tissues, with a failure to
distinguish between “self” and “non-self”. An immune response
develops which may be specific for a particular organ, such as
the thyroid gland, or react against a number of different
organs, as in connective tissue diseases. The skin can manifest
both types of autoimumme response. The results of such
reactions can be destruction of the cells concerned and the Reaction to metal
production of inflammation. There is an inherited tendency to
autoimmune disease, marked by specific HLA (human
lymphocyte antigen) in some cases.
The most common types of skin disease in which this
autoimmune mechanism occurs are the blistering disorders,
pemphigoid and pemphigus, as well as dermatitis
herpetiformis.

Pemphigoid Blistering disorder as a result of an Split at dermo-epidermal junction

In this condition large, tense blisters develop in which there are autoimmune response
antibodies attached to the upper layer of the basement
membrane at the dermo-epidermal junction, with an
underlying inflammatory reaction producing a split above the
basement membrane. Lysosomal enzymes are released
damaging the basement membrane, resulting in separation of
the epidermis and blister formation. The presence of

83
ABC of Dermatology

antibodies, usually IgG, can be shown by an antihuman IgG

antibody labelled with fluorescein. When viewed under the
microscope with ultraviolet light illumination, the presence of
the IgG antibody is shown by fluorescence. The presence of Fluorescein labelled antibody
circulating antibasement membrane antibodies in the serum to human immunoglobulin
can be shown either by direct immunofluorescence using a
specimen of the patient’s skin or by incubation by attachment
Antibody (immunoglobulin) in situ
to skin which has been incubated in serum from the patient.
The clinical features are described in chapter 8. The blisters Normal antigen
develop, frequently with an erythematous background, on the Skin section from patient
limbs, trunk, and flexures. It is mainly seen in the elderly and is
slightly more common in women.
Direct immunofluorescence

Fluorescein labelled antibody

to human immunoglobulin

Antibody in patient's serum,

placed on section

Antigen similar to human Indirect immunofluorescence Pemphigus

Substrate (usually animal tissue)

Indirect immunofluorescence

Pemphigus
In this condition, antibodies are found to have developed
against the epidermis above the basement membrane.
The main antibody is IgG, but IgM and IgA may also be
found. As a result of this reaction, there is separation of the
epidermal cells with the formation of a superficial blister. A row
of basal cells remains attached to the basement membrane.
Direct immunofluorescence of the skin from affected patients
shows that antibodies are deposited on the intercellular
substance of the epidermis. Circulating antibodies are often
present. Oral lesions are much more common than in Intraepidermal split Direct immunofluorescence
pemphigoid.

Other organ-specific autoimmune diseases of the skin Range of autoimmune disease

Vitiligo
Organ specific Hashimoto's thyroiditis
In this condition there is a loss of pigment as a result of
Pernicious anaemia
antibodies developing against melanocytes in the skin in a
Addison's disease
limited area. However, the areas affected tend to gradually
Myasthenia gravis
increase. There may be other autoimmune diseases in the
Pemphigus
same patient, causing, for example, pernicious anaemia, and
thyroid disease. Pemphigoid
Vitiligo

Alopecia areata Primary biliary cirrhosis

There is evidence that this condition may be associated with Rheumatoid arthritis
an immune reaction against the hair follicle. The increased Dermatomyositis
incidence of antibodies to the thyroid gland and gastric parietal Systemic sclerosis
cells in patients with alopecia areata provides circumstantial Non-organ specific Lupus erythematosus
support for an autoimmune aetiology.
Range of autoimmune disease
Non-organ-specific skin autoimmune disease
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)
The hallmark of this condition is the presence of antibodies
against various components of the cell nucleus. Although a Clinical variants of lupus erythematosus
wide range of organs may be affected, in three quarters of the
• Systemic
patients the skin is involved, generally with an erythematous • Subacute cutaneous
eruption occurring bilaterally on the face in a “butterfly” • Discoid
distribution. There may also be photosensitivity, hair loss, and • (Neonatal)
areas of vasculitis in the skin. There is often intolerance of

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 Cutaneous immunology—Autoimmune disease and the skin

sunlight. Subacute lupus erythmatosus is a variant that presents

with an erythematous eruption in the skin and anticytoplasmic
RNA molecules.

Discoid lupus erythematosus (DLE)

This is a condition in which circulating antinuclear antibodies
are very rare. There are quite well defined inflammatory
lesions, with some degree of atrophy occurring on the face and Subacute lupus erythematosus
occasionally on the arms as well.

Treatment of SLE with the threatened or actual

involvement of organs is important. Prednisolone is usually
required and sometimes immunosuppressant drugs such as
azathioprine as well. Treatment of DLE is generally with topical
steroids. Hydroxychloroquine by mouth is also used, generally
in a dose of 200 mg daily. This drug can diminish visual
acuity and this should be checked every few months. A simple
chart, the Amsler Chart, is available for patients to use,
consisting of a central dot with a grid which becomes blurred
Subacute lupus erythematosus Discoid lupus erythematosus
when held at arm’s length when there is any impairment of
acuity.

Systemic sclerosis
This is a condition in which there is extensive sclerosis of the
subcutaneous tissues in the fingers and toes as well as around
the mouth (scleroderma), with similar changes affecting the
internal organs, particularly the lung and kidneys. There are
vascular changes producing Raynaud’s phenomenon and
telangiectasia around the mouth and fingers. It is associated
with antinuclear antibodies (speckled or nucleolar), and in
about 50% of cases circulating immune complexes may be
present. Endothelial cell damage in the capillaries results in Systemic sclerosis
fibrosis and sclerosis of the organs concerned. There is
considerable tethering of the skin on the fingers and toes,
which becomes very tight with a waxy appearance and
considerable limitation of movement. A variant is the CREST
syndrome.
Morphoea is a benign form of localised systemic sclerosis
in which there is localised sclerosis with very slight
inflammation. There is atrophy of the overlying epidermis.
The early changes often consisit of a dusky appearance to
the skin. Morphoea
The clinical features are described in chapter 16.

Dermatomyositis
This condition is described in chapter 16, but the main
immunological features are deposition of IgG, IgM, and C3 at
the dermo-epidermal junction in about half the cases in the
early stages, as well as a lymphocytic infiltrate with CD4 cells
and macrophages. There are reports of autoantibodies in some
patients. Dermatomyositis may represent an immune reaction
to an underlying mechanism or derangement of the normal
immune response.
Dermatomyositis

Lichen sclerosus
This condition is also described in chapter 16 and is
characterised by atrophic patches of skin. It occurs mainly in
females and predominantly involves the genitals and perineum.
The cause is unknown but in early lesions there is a band of
lymphocytes, mainly CD3, CD4, and CD8. Immunoglobulins
and complement accumulate in the affected areas. There is an
association with vitiligo, morphoea, alopecia, and pernicious
anaemia, suggesting an autoimmune association. Lichen sclerosus

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ABC of Dermatology

Graft versus host disease

This reaction occurs following bone marrow transplantation in
immunosuppressed patients. T lymphocytes produced by the
graft react against the body’s own tissues, producing a skin
eruption which may resemble measles. There is lysis of the
basement membrane with shedding of the skin and sometimes
lichen planus-like eruption. In the more chronic form,
localised lesions develop, with immunoglobulins deposited in
the walls of blood vessels with the activation of complement.
Graft versus host disease

Further reading
Roitt IM, Brostoff J, Male D. Immunology, 6th ed. St Louis: Mosby,
2001

86
18 Bacterial infection
RJ Hay

The process of infection involves the interaction between two

organisms—the host and the invader. The clinical changes Cardinal signs of infection
result from mechanisms involved in this process, notably the • Erythema
micro-organism, its virulence, and the patient’s immune • Swelling and oedema
• Heat or warmth
defenses. The lesions produced often have a well defined • Pain and discomfort
appearance, such as impetigo or tinea cruris, but the changes
may be less specific.
Several features enable us to recognise that infection is a
possible cause of the patient’s condition. Acute bacterial
infections generally produce some or all of the classical
characteristics of acute inflammation.

Erythema of the face

Usually Usually
unilateral bilateral Photosensitive
Acute
(1) Allergic reactions Allergic reactions to cosmetics Photodermatitis
Cosmetics   or 
Plants  or   or 
Drugs   or 
(2) Urticaria  
Reactions to light
(3) Photodermatitis  
Solar urticaria  
(4) Infection
Erysipelas  
Fifth disease  
(“slapped cheek”)
(5) Rosacea   or 
Chronic—recurrent
(6) Lupus erythematosus Rosacea
Erysipelas
Systemic  
Discoid  or  
(7) Seborrhoeic dermatitis  
(8) Acne  
(9) Perioral dermatitis  
(10) Vascular naevus   

Systemic lupus erythematosus

Fifth disease (“slapped cheek”)

Perioral dermatitis
Discoid lupus erythematosus Seborrhoeic dermatitis
Vascular naevus

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ABC of Dermatology

Clinical presentation
The woman shown in the photographs had acute erysipelas
due to streptococcal infection, and all four features of
inflammation were present. She was referred to the clinic with
a diagnosis of an acute allergic response, which, from the
appearance alone, was understandable. However, malaise and
fever were also present and the lesions were warm and tender.
Acute erysipelas: presentation
The condition responded well to antibiotic treatment.
The point of entry in such cases is thought to be a small
erosion on the face. Erysipelas of the leg or foot may
follow the development of a small fissure between the
toes, but often there is no discernible portal
of entry.
Erysipelas is the local manifestation of a Group A
streptococcal infection, in the case illustrated the infection is
confined to deep dermis as a form of cellulitis. However the
same organism at distal sites, through the production of
toxins or superantigens, can cause other skin lesions
such as: (a) the rash of scarlet fever; (b) erythema
nodosum; (c) guttate psoriasis; and (d) an acute generalised Acute erysipelas: patient shown in
vasculitis. same patient two weeks later
Other forms of local bacterial infection include impetigo,
folliculitis, and furuncles (boils). These conditions are caused by
Staphylococcus aureus and in the case of folliculitis or boils the
infection is associated with a local abscess. Staph. aureus
colonises the anterior nares or perineum of normal people; it
also commonly colonises eczema and may cause an acute
exacerbation of atopic dermatitis.
Impetigo is a superficial infection of the skin of which there
are two forms. In the non-bullous form the affected skin is
covered with crusts. Both staphylococci and streptococci are
responsible. However the bullous form which presents with Clinical presentation—points to note
blisters is due to staphylococci. Folliculitis, an inflammation • In any patient with a localised area of acute erythema,
of the hair follicle, is commonly caused by Staph. aureus. swelling, and fever—consider infection
Infection of the scalp or beard hair (sycosis barbae) is • Remember that a generalised erythematous rash may be the
uncommon but may become chronic. Abscess formation manifestation of a localised infection. Scarlet fever arises from
streptococcal sore throat, and herpes simplex of the lip may
around the hair follicles may result in furuncles or boils; be associated with erythema multiforme
where several furuncles coalesce the lesion is known as a • The common pathogens are also commensals—recent studies
carbuncle. showed that 69% of individuals are nasal carriers of
Ecthyma, which is most common on the leg, is due Staphylococcus aureus and some may carry Group A
to bacterial infection penetrating through the epidermis streptococci in the throat
to the dermis causing a necrotic lesion with a superficial
crust and surrounding inflammation. Both streptococci and
staphylococci are responsible.

Mycobacterial disease
The clinical presentation of infections due to mycobacteria,
a specific group of organisms that includes the causes of
tuberculosis and leprosy, reflects the success of the host’s
response in eradicating organisms. There are clear differences,
for instance, between disseminated miliary tuberculosis and Lupus vulgaris
lupus vulgaris or, for example, tuberculoid and lepromatous
leprosy. These are discussed in chapter 23. As these infections
are not common only lupus vulgaris and non-tuberculous or
“atypical” mycobacterial infection are described.

Tuberculous mycobacterial infections

Lupus vulgaris presents as a very slowly growing indolent
plaque. It usually represents a localised skin infection
disseminated from a deep focus of infection. Squamous
carcinomas may develop in long standing cases.
Mycobacterial disease—histology

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 Bacterial infection

Non-tuberculous mycobacterial infections

The most common is “fishtank” or “swimming pool”
granuloma, acquired from tropical fish or rarely swimming
pools, respectively, and caused by Mycobacterium marinum.
Nodular lesions develop slowly with ulceration and may spread
along local lymphatics to give a chain of nodules (sporotrichoid
spread). Injection abscesses may be caused by mycobacteria
such as M. chelonei. Buruli ulcer, an extensive ulcerating
condition due to M. ulcerans, is confined to the tropics. Swimming pool granuloma

Other infections
Rochalimea infections include bacillary angiomatosis, which
presents in AIDS patients with small haemangioma-like papules,
and cat scratch disease where crusted nodules appear at the site
of the scratch associated with the development of regional
lymphadenopathy one or two months later. A maculopapular
eruption on the face and limbs or erythema multiforme may
occur.
Psittacosis and ornithosis may be associated with a rash. Secondary syphilis
Rickettsial infections, including typhus, Rocky Mountain
spotted fever, and rickettsial pox, are all associated with rashes,
often purpuric.

Syphilis
There is a disseminated erythematous rash in secondary
syphilis that is followed by a papulosquamous eruption, which Further reading
affects the trunk, limbs, and mucous membranes. The palms Carnwres O, Harman RM. Clinical tropical dermatology. 2nd ed.
and soles may be involved. There are also small clustered Oxford: Blackwell Scientific, 1992
Noble WC. The skin: microflora and microbial skin disease. Cambridge:
mouth ulcers. In patients with AIDS the rash of secondary
Cambridge University Press
syphilis is florid and often crusted or scaly.

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ABC of Dermatology

Common patterns of cutaneous bacterial infection

Infected eczema Impetigo (nonbullous) Impetigo (bullous)

Appearance Exudate Transient vesicles Erythema and bullae which

Crusts Exuding lesions with yellow rupture leaving
Inflammation crusts superficial crusts
Erythema Affects mainly face and
Affects mainly face and limbs, limbs in children and
commonly in children adults

Cause Persistent scratching Toxic reaction between organisms and epidermis

Topical steroids resulting in superficial epidermal split in bullous lesions

Organisms Staphylococcus aureus Staphylococcus aureus Staphylococcus aureus

Streptococcus pyogenes Streptococcus pyogenes in some
outbreaks

Treatment (1) Weaker topical steroids Topical antibiotics Topical and systemic
(for the eczema) with Systemic antibiotics antibiotics
topical antibiotics against both streptococcal
(2) Systemic antibiotics if and staphylococcal infection
necessary
(3) Soaks with potassium
permanganate

Notes • Avoid prolonged use of topical • Staphylococcal infection can cause generalised superficial
antibiotics shedding of the epidermis—“scalded skin syndrome” (Lyell’s
• Return to using weaker steroid disease)
• It is wise to send a specimen for • It is wise to send specimens for culture in an outbreak to
bacteriology: when infection has identify presence of Group A streptococci potentially
healed implicated in glomerulonephritis
• Even without clinical evidence
of infection most lesions of
atopic eczema are colonised by
Staphylococcus aureus

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 Bacterial infection

Boils (furuncles) Folliculitis Ecthyma Erysipelas

Inflammatory nodule affecting Various forms: Small bullae may be present Well defined areas of
the hair follicles develops (1) Scalp initially erythema—very tender,
into a pustule Children—“Follicular An adherent crust is followed not oedematous
Tender induration with impetigo” by a purulent ulcerated Vesicles may form
severe inflammation, Adults— lesion with surrounding Common sites—abdominal
followed by necrosis (a) Keloidal folliculitis erythema and induration, wall in infants; in adults
Heals with scarring Back of neck which slowly heals the lower leg and face
Affects all ages (b) Acne necrotica Usually on legs An area of broken skin,
Several boils may coalesce to Forehead/hairline forming a portal of entry,
form a carbuncle (2) Face—“Sycosis barbae” may be found
(3) Legs—Chronic folliculitis

Underlying disease— (1) Underlying disease— Hot climate, occlusion Lymphoedema and severe
for example, atopy for example, eczema More common in debilitated inflammation due to
Mechanical damage from (2) Infection may be individuals bacterial toxins
clothing, occlusion by mechanical precipitated May follow secondary infection
injury, greasy emollients, of chicken pox
and occlusive dressings

Staphylococcus aureus, usually Staphylococcus aureus Both Streptococci and Strep. pyogenes (group A,
of same strain as in nose Propionibacterium acnes Staph. aureus but may be B, C, or G)
and perineum Malassezia spp. Staphylococcus aureus
Pseudomonas spp. and other Klebsiella pneumoniae
Gram negative organisms Haemophilus influenzae

(1) Antibiotic (penicillinase Topical and long term Improve nutrition Penicillin or erythromycin
resistant) systemically systemic antibiotics— Use antibiotic effective against
(2) Cleaning of skin with for example, erythromycin both staphylococci and
weak chlorhexedine Topical antifungal for streptococci
solution or a similar Malassezia infection
preparation
• Nasal and perineal swabs • Gram negative folliculitis • Check for debilitating diseases, • Cellulitis affects the deeper
should be taken to identify occurs on the face—a reticuloses, diabetes tissues and has more diverse
carriers complication of long causes, being essentially
• Remember unusual causes— term treatment for acne inflammation of the connective
a bricklayer presented with • Gram negative folliculitis on tissue
a boil on the arm with necrosis the body is associated with • Streptococcus, Staphylococcus,
due to anthrax (malignant exposure to contaminated Haemophilus, and other
pustule) acquired from the baths or whirlpools organisms may be found
packing straw used for the • One of the complications of
bricks erysipelas of the face is
thrombosis of the
cavernous sinus

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19 Viral infections

Like the pyogenic bacteria, viruses produce local lesions and

may also cause a widespread reaction to the infection such as
erythema multiforme. However, the clinical manifestations of
common viral infections of the skin are easily recognised.
Local infective lesions caused by DNA viruses which can be
isolated from the lesions themselves include the herpes and
pox virus groups. In patients with AIDS chronic and
widespread viral infections of the skin occur. Molluscum inclusion bodies
(a pox virus)

Herpes
Herpes simplex
The herpes simplex virus consists of two viral subtypes. Type I
is associated with lesions on the face and fingers and sometimes
genital lesions. Type II is associated almost entirely with genital
infections. Recurrent episodes of infection are common, with
both due to latent infection of sensory nerve ganglia.
Primary herpes simplex (type I) infection usually occurs in Herpes of lips Inoculation herpes
or around the mouth, with variable involvement of the face.
Lesions are small vesicles which crust over and heal but there
may be considerable malaise. Type II infection affects the
external genitalia and waist area.
Recurrent infections are shorter lived (three to five days),
occur in the distribution of a sensory nerve on the face or
genitalia, and may be triggered by a variety of stimuli from
sunlight to febrile illness.

Eczema herpeticum
Herpes simplex—points to note
• The initial vesicular stage may not be seen in genital lesions,
which present as painful ulcers or erosions
• There is usually a history of preceding itching and tenderness
• The most rapid methods of detecting virus from scrapings
from the base of the ulcer are electronmicroscopy,
immunofluorescence, or PCR
• Genital herpes in a pregnant woman carries a great risk of
ophthalmic infection of the infant. Caesarean section may be Herpes simplex
indicated
• “Eczema herpeticum” or “Kaposi’s varicelliform eruption” are
terms applied to severe cutaneous and, less commonly,
systemic, infection with herpes virus in patients with atopic
eczema and some other skin conditions. Treatment is with
oral or parenteral aciclovir

Herpes zoster
Varicella zoster virus (VZV) causes both chickenpox, the primary
illness, and herpes zoster, which follows reactivation of the virus
in the nerve ganglia. In zoster, pain, fever, and malaise may
occur before erythematous papules develop in the area of the
affected dermatome—most commonly in the thoracic area.
Vesicles develop over several days, crusting over as they resolve.
Secondary bacterial infection is common. Some patients develop
episodes of pain in the affected area—postherpetic neuralgia
after clearance of the rash. Skin lesions and nasopharyngeal
secretions can transmit chickenpox. Herpes zoster Herpes zoster

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 Viral infections

Herpes zoster—points to note

• Trigeminal zoster may affect:
the ophthalmic nerve (causing severe conjunctivitis)
the maxillary nerve (causing vesicles on the uvula or
tonsils)
the mandibular nerve (causing vesicles on the floor of the Mandibular zoster
mouth and on the tongue)
• Disseminated zoster is a severe illness presenting with
widespread lesions. Visceral lesions may present with pleuritic
or abdominal pain
• Extensive and haemorrhagic vesicles may develop in patients
with AIDS

Treatment
Localised lesions of herpes simplex have been treated with
a variety of medications from zinc sulphate to iodoxuridine.
Topical acyclovir—a drug that inhibits herpes virus DNA
polymerase—is effective but only shortens the duration of
illness by a day or so. It is useful in primary infection but
should be used as soon as the patient is aware of symptoms.
Severe, recurrent, herpes simplex, or herpes zoster can be
treated with oral or intravenous aciclovir as early in the course
of the illness as possible. Ganciclovir is an alternative.
Secondary infection may require antiseptic soaks, such as
Ophthalmic zoster
1/1000 potassium permanganate, or topical or systemic
antibiotics.
Steroids (prednisolone 40–60 mg/day) given during the
acute stage of herpes zoster may diminish pain and
postherpetic neuralgia.
Rest and analgesics are recommended treatment for
extensive herpes simplex or herpes zoster infections.

Pox viruses Steroids may cause disseminated

The pox viruses are large DNA viruses, with a predilection for infection in immunodeficient
the epidermis. Variola (smallpox), once a disease with high patients
mortality, has been eliminated by vaccination with modified
vaccinia (cowpox) virus.

Molluscum contagiosum
The commonest skin infection due to a pox virus is molluscum
contagiosum, a skin infection seen particularly in children.
Despite its name it is not very contagious, but can occur in
families.
In adults florid molluscum contagiosum may be an
indication of underlying immunodeficiency, as in AIDS
patients.

Clinical features
The white, umbilicated papules of molluscum contagiosum are
characteristic. Large solitary lesions may cause confusion as can
secondarily infected, excoriated lesions. These lesions often
itch, particularly in patients with atopy. Resolving lesions may Molluscum contagiosum
be surrounded by a small patch of eczema.

Diagnosis
Diagnosis is usually based on clinical appearances or
microscopy of the contents of papules. Sometimes there is
confusion with viral warts.

Treatment
Most treatments result in discomfort and may not be tolerated
by young children. An antibiotic–hydrocortisone ointment
can be used for excoriated lesions. Treatment with liquid

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ABC of Dermatology

nitrogen is probably the simplest treatment. Other methods

include superficial curettage and carefully rotating a sharpened
orange stick moistened with phenol in the centre of each
lesion.

Other pox virus infections

The other pox infections are of incidental interest.
Cowpox only sporadically infects cows from its natural
reservoir, probably small mammals, and may affect humans. Cowpox, early stage
Papules on the hands enlarge and develop necrosis and
crusting.
Milkers’ nodules are due to a virus that causes superficial
ulcers in cows’ udders and calves’ mouths. In humans papules
form on the hands and develop into grey nodules with a
necrotic centre, surrounding inflammation, and lymphangitis.
A more generalised papular eruption can occur.
Orf is often recognised in rural areas. It is seen mainly in
early spring as a result of contact with lambs. A single papule or
group of lesions develops on the fingers or hands with purple
papules developing into bulla. This ruptures to leave an Milker’s nodule
annular lesion 1–3 cm in diameter with a necrotic centre.
There is surrounding inflammation. The incubation period is
a few days and the lesions last two to three weeks with
spontaneous healing. Associated erythema multiforme and
widespread rashes are occasionally seen.

Wart viruses
A growing recognition that there is an association between
human papilloma viruses (HPV), which cause warts, and cancer
has led to a renewed interest in these infections. The wart is
one of the few tumours in which a virus can be seen to
proliferate in the cell nucleus. The different clinical forms of
wart are caused by range of HPV, currently divided into over
Orf
80 major types. These viruses are also responsible for cervical
cancer and have been associated with squamous carcinomas in
the immunosuppressed. Warts are classed as cutaneous or
mucocutaneous. Epidermodysplasia verruciformis is a rare
condition associated with a defect of specific immunity to wart
virus. The following aspects should be remembered:

• Genital warts (due to HPV) very rarely undergo malignant

change but HPV infection of the cervix, caused by type 16,
frequently leads to dysplasia or in some cases malignant
changes. Cervical smears must be taken.
• Very extensive proliferation of warts occurs in patients
receiving immunosuppressive therapy, such as renal
transplant recipients—in whom wart-like lesions can develop
into squamous carcinomas—and in patients with AIDS.
• There is an association between HPV infections of the skin in
immunosuppressed patients and the subsequent
development of atypical-looking squamous carcinomas. Common warts
• Epidermodysplasia verruciformis, an unusual widespread
eruption of flat erythematous warty plaques, can also develop
into carcinoma.

Treatment
Warts commonly occur in children and resolve spontaneously
without treatment or with very simple measures. These include
paints or lotions containing salicylic and lactic acids in various
proportions, which should be applied daily. Salicylic acid (40%)
plasters are useful for plantar warts; they are cut to shape and
held in place with sticking plaster for two or three days.
Glutaraldehyde solution is also used.

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 Viral infections

For large or painful warts other measures can be used:

• Liquid nitrogen is effective but has to be stored in special
containers and replaced frequently. It can be applied with
cotton wool or discharged from a special spray with a focused
nozzle. Freezing is continued until there is a rim of frozen
tissue around the wart but not for more than 30 seconds.
Subsequent blistering may occur. Scarring is unusual.
Carbon dioxide is more readily available and can be
transported in cylinders that produce solid carbon dioxide
“snow”. The temperature (about 64 C) is not as low as
liquid N2 (196 C)
• Heat cautery causes more scarring and requires local
Treatment of warts with
anaesthesia. The diathermy loop is effective for perianal liquid nitrogen
warts.
• Curettage and cautery together are effective but leave scars
and the warts may recur.
• Podophyllin, 15–25% in tincture of benzoin compound or
alcoholic solution, is effective for genital warts when
applied each week. It is, however, toxic when ingested or
absorbed, may cause burns, and must never be used in
pregnancy.
Other treatments include laser therapy, immune enhancement
(for example interferon
), and bleomycin injections. Virus diseases with rashes
However, relapse is common whatever the remedy. • Measles
• Rubella
• Infectious mononucleosis
• Erythema infectiosum
Virus diseases with rashes • Roseola infantum
• Gianotti–Crosti syndrome
Measles and rubella are much less common than previously as • Hand, foot, and mouth disease
a result of widespread immunisation. However, measles is • Primary HIV infection
probably the best known example of an exanthem (a fever
characterised by a skin eruption. In an enanthem the mucous
surfaces are affected.) Other common clinical patterns can
then be compared with it. All exanthems, except fifth disease
(erythema infectiosum), due to RNA viruses.

Measles
• Age. Measles usually affects children, particularly those aged
over five years.
• Incubation lasts seven to 14 days. Prodromal symptoms
include: fever, malaise, upper respiratory symptoms;
conjunctivitis; and photophobia.
• Initial rash. Early on Koplik’s spots (white spots with
surrounding erythema) appear on the oral mucosa. After two
days a macular rash appears on the face, trunk, and limbs.
Look behind the ears for early lesions.
• Development and resolution. The rash becomes papular, with Measles
coalescence. There may be haemorrhagic lesions and bullae
which fade to leave brown patches.
• Complications are encephalitis, otitis media, and
bronchopneumonia.
• Diagnosis. Specific antibodies may be detected; they are at
their maximum at two to four weeks.

Rubella
• Age. Rubella affects children and young adults.
• Incubation lasts 14–21 days.
• Prodromal symptoms. There are none in young children.
Otherwise fever, malaise, and upper respiratory symptoms
occur.
• Initial rash. Initially some patients develop erythema of Rubella
the soft palate and lymphadenopathy. Later pink macules
appear on the face, spreading to trunk and limbs over one
to two days.

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ABC of Dermatology

• Development and resolution. The rash then clears over the next
two days, and sometimes no rash develops at all.
• Complications. The most important complications are
congenital defects in babies of women infected during
pregnancy. The risk is greatest in the first month of
pregnancy.
• Diagnosis. The diagnosis is made from the clinical signs
above. Serum should be taken for antibodies and the test
repeated at seven to 10 days.
• Prophylaxis. Active immunisation is routinely available for all
schoolgirls.

Erythema infectiosum (fifth disease)

• Age. Erythema infectiosum affects children aged two to
10 years, mainly girls.
• Incubation lasts five to 20 days.
• Prodromal symptoms. There are usually none, but there may be
a slight fever with initial rash.
• Initial rash. The initial rash is a hot, erythematous eruption
on the cheeks—hence the “slapped cheek syndrome”. Over Erythema infectiosum
two to four days a maculopapular eruption develops on the
arms, legs, and trunk.
• Development and resolution. The rash extends to affect hands,
feet, and mucous membranes, then fades over one to two
weeks.
• Diagnosis is made by finding a specific IgM antibody to
parvovirus B19.
• Complications. There are no reported dermatological
complications but haematological disorders such as
thrombocytopenia, arthropathy, and fetal abnormalities may
be associated.

Roseola infantum
• Age. Roseola infantum affects infants aged under two years.
• Incubation lasts 10–15 days.
• Prodromal symptoms. There is fever for a few days.
• Initial rash. A rose pink maculopapular eruption appears on
the neck and trunk.
• Development and resolution. The rash may affect the face and
limbs before clearing over one to two days.
• Diagnosis. The condition is diagnosed from its clinical
features.
• Complications include febrile convulsions.

Gianotti–Crosti syndrome
• Age. The Gianotti–Crosti syndrome affects children, usually
those aged under 14 years. Gianotti–Crosti syndrome
• Incubation period is unknown.
• Prodromal symptoms. Lymphadenopathy and malaise
accompany the eruption.
• Initial rash. Red papules rapidly develop on the face, neck,
limbs, buttocks, palms, and soles.
• Development and resolution. Over two to three weeks the lesions
become purpuric then slowly fade.
• Diagnosis. The syndrome may be due to a number of virus
infections such as hepatitis B.
• Complications. Lymphadenopathy and hepatomegaly always
occur and may persist for many months.

Hand, foot, and mouth disease

• Age. Hand, foot, and mouth disease (Coxsackie virus A)
affects both children and adults.
• Incubation period is unknown.
• Prodromal symptoms. Fever, headache, and malaise may
accompany the rash. Hand, foot, and mouth disease

96
 Viral infections

• Initial rash. Initially there may be intense erythema Further reading

surrounding yellow-grey vesicles 1–1·5 mm in diameter. These
Joklik WK. Virology, 3rd ed. Norwalk: Appleton and Lange, 1988
are mainly distributed on the palms and soles and in the
Mandell GL, Douglas RG, Bennett JF. Principles and practice of
mouth. Sometimes a more generalised eruption may infectious diseases, 3rd ed. New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1990
develop. Timbury MC. Notes on medical virology, 9th ed. Edinburgh: Churchill
• Development and resolution. Over three to five days the rash Livingstone, 1991
fades. White DO, Fenner FJ. Medical virology, 4th ed. New York: Academic
• Diagnosis. Coxsackie A (usually A16) virus is isolated from Press, 1994
lesions and stools. A specific antibody may be found in the
serum.
• Complications are rare but include widespread vesicular rashes
and erythema multiforme.

Other infections
Infectious mononucleosis
As well as the erythematous lesions on the palate a
maculopapular rash affecting the face and limbs can occur.

97
20 AIDS and the skin
MA Waugh

AIDS was first described in 1981 and since then 22 million

people have died of the disease. The World Health
Organisation estimates that in December 2000, 36 million
people were infected with HIV. Of these, 1·5 million were
children under the age of fifteen. It is estimated that
5·3 million people were newly infected with HIV in the year
2000 and 3 million have died in the same year. A total of Skin lesions in patients with AIDS
nearly 22 million people have died of AIDS since the start of • Skin lesions can develop as a
the epidemic. In the United Kingdom the prevalence of manifestation of primary HIV infection
HIV infection is about 30 000. Over 65 000 in Europe are • Skin lesions can develop as a
infected. consequence of immunosuppression
The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is the cause of (AIDS)
the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). This virus
was first isolated in 1983 in Paris and a second retrovirus, Between these two events there is a latent
HIV2, was isolated from West Africa in 1986. The virus contains period that can last from a few months to
an enzyme that copies viral RNA into the DNA of the host cell several years
in which the HIV virus then persists in the host cells,
particularly monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells.

Stages of AIDS
Primary HIV infection
In 80% of cases there are initial symptoms and signs—
“seroconversion illness”. There are a variety of symptoms
including fever, malaise, headache, nausea, vomiting, and
diarrhoea. There is often lymphadenopathy. The skin signs
consist of a transient maculopapular eruption associated with
erythema and erosions in the mouth in some patients.

Early stages
In the early stages 50% of patients have antibiotics to
HIV and the p24 antigen can be detected. The proportion
of CD4 lymphocytes decreases, and this is associated with the Flexural candidiasis
development of secondary changes in the skin. There is
also an increase in HIV antibodies so a test for this should be
repeated six to eight weeks after the initial illness. Counselling
should take place before testing is carried out.

Late stage HIV disease

The skin changes are many and variable. Common inflammatory
skin diseases such as psoriasis and seborrhoeic dermatitis will
be much more florid. Cutaneous infections are more severe due
to the impaired immune response and opportunistic infections
also develop. In addition, Kaposi’s sarcoma occurs in 34% of
homosexual men and in 5% of other cases.

AIDS should therefore be considered in any patient with

Kaposi’s sarcoma
a florid inflammatory skin disease that is resistant to treatment
or severe and extensive infection of the skin.

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 AIDS and the skin

Skin changes in AIDS

Seborrhoeic eczema
This is common and may be the only evidence of HIV infection
initially. It is more extensive and inflamed than usual. The role
of Pityrosporum organisms is indicated by the response to Seborrhoeic dermatitis
imidazole antifungal drugs.

Psoriasis
Psoriasis is more widespread, severe, and resistant to treatment
in patients with late HIV disease. The use of ultraviolet light Skin changes in AIDS
may lead to an increased risk of Kaposi’s sarcoma.
• Seborrhoeic eczema
• Psoriasis
Infections • Fungal infections
Any type of opportunistic infection is more likely in patients • Bacterial infections
with AIDS and will generally be more severe. An itching, • Viral infections
inflammatory folliculitis occurs in many cases. The cause is
• Kaposi’s sarcoma
• Drug rashes
unknown, but it is possible that Demodex spp. play a part. • Oral hairy leukoplakia

Fungal infections
Superficial fungal infections are often much more extensive
and invade more deeply into the dermis than usual. There may
also be granuloma formation.
Deep fungal infections that are not normally seen in
healthy individuals occur in AIDS patients as opportunistic
infections. Cryptococcus neoformans and Histoplasma capsulatum
may cause inflammatory papular and necrotic lesions,
particularly in the later stages of the disease.
Candidiasis is common and often associated with bacterial
infections. It occurs particularly in and around the mouth, on
the palate, and in the pharynx. It commonly causes severe
vulvovaginitis in infected women.
Pityrosporum organisms occur more frequently and may Pseudomembranous
produce widespread pityriasis versicolor on the trunk or candida
extensive folliculitis.

Bacterial infections
Impetigo may be severe, with particularly large bullous lesions
occurring.
Mycobacteria may produce widespread cutaneous and
systemic lesions. Varieties of mycobacteria that do not normally
infect the skin may cause persistent necrotic papules or
ulcers.

Viral infections
Both herpes simplex and herpes zoster infections may be
unusually extensive, with large individual lesions. In the
case of herpes zoster the affected area may extend beyond
individual dermatomes. Sometimes persisting ulcerated lesions
occur.
Molluscum contagiosum lesions are frequently seen.
They are much larger than usual and develop over quite
large areas of skin. They are readily identified as small, firm
papules with an umbilicated centre. When very large
individual molluscum lesions occur they may be due to
localised fungal infection, particularly cryptococcus and
histoplasmosis.
Viral warts may be large and extensive. Perianal and genital
warts due to the human papilloma virus (HPV) are common
and may be associated with intraepithelial neoplasia of the
cervix and sometimes invasive perianal squamous cell
carcinoma. The warts tend to become smaller as the
immune status of the patient improves with the treatment.
It is not unusual for florid viral warts to develop in the
mouth. Aciclovir–resistant perianal herpes simplex infection

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ABC of Dermatology

Other manifestions
Oral hairy leukoplakia occurs in 30–50% of patients with AIDS.
It is characterised by an overgrowth of epithelial plaques on the
sides of the tongue with a verrucous surface and a grey/white
colour. It is believed to be due to a proliferation of the
Epstein–Barr virus.
Infestations with various organisms is not uncommon and
the severe widespread crusted lesions of Norwegian scabies may
occur. Oral hairy leukoplakia

Kaposi’s sarcoma
Kaposi’s sarcoma is associated with the later stages of AIDS but
can occur earlier. It is associated with herpes virus type 8. It
often presents with small polychromic macules on the face,
palate, trunk or groin which vary from red and purple to
brown. They then develop into larger livid plaques, involving
the trunk, limbs, and face, and also the oral mucosa. They are
most common on the palate and nose. Sometimes the lesions
are very aggressive. Kaposi’s sarcoma of the
B cell lymphoma may occur in the skin in 10% of AIDS hard palate
patients. There is also an increased incidence of basal cell and
squamous carcinomas.

Drug rashes
Further reading
Reactions to sulphonamides and antibiotics are not
uncommon, usually presenting as a maculopapular eruption. Adler MW. ABC of AIDS, 4th ed. London: BMJ Publishing Group,
1997
Occasionally this can be severe and associated with Penneys NS. Skin manifestations of AIDS, 2nd ed. St Louis: Mosby,
Stevens–Johnson syndrome. Myopathy may occur as a reaction 1995
to zidovudine.

All the above manifestions of AIDS become less marked as the

CD4 count improves with treatment.
AIDS may thus present with a wide variety of skin
conditions, commonly with several present at the same time.
Any unusually florid skin condition that is resistant to treatment
should raise the suspicion that HIV infection may be present.

100
21 Fungal and yeast infections
RJ Hay

Fungal infections
The common fungal infections of the skin are dermatophytosis
or “ringworm”, superficial candidiasis, and Malassezia
infections. There are two growth forms of fungi, moulds, and
yeasts. Mould fungi produce thread-like hyphae that comprise
chains of cells. In dermatophyte fungal infection of the skin,
hair, and nails these hyphae invade keratin and are seen on
microscopic examination of skin, hair, or nails from infected Tricophyton rubrum infection
tissues. Vegetative spores (conidia) develop in culture, and of the neck
their distinctive shape helps to identify the different species.
Skin scrapings or clippings from infected nails can be easily
taken and should always be sent to the laboratory for
mycological examination and culture in any patient suspected
of having a fungal infection.
In yeast infections such as those due to candida, the fungal
cells are individual and separate after cell division by a process
called budding. In systemic, or deep, fungal infections
subcutaneous on deep visceral structures are attacked. However
skin involvement can also occur following blood stream
dissemination and such lesions may provide a clue to the
diagnosis.

Why should one suspect

a lesion to be due to
a fungus?
Animal ringworm
Clinical presentation
Fungal infections usually itch. Those due to
zoophilic (animal) fungi generally produce a more intense
inflammatory response with deeper indurated lesions than
fungal infections due to anthropophilic (human) species.
Some lesions, usually those on the trunk, have a prominent
scaling margin with apparent clearing in the centre. Hence the
name “ringworm”.
Children below the age of puberty are susceptible to scalp
ringworm and anthropophilic fungi (from humans) have become
common in some inner city areas. They can also be infected with
zoophilic fungi (from animals), particularly cattle, dogs, and cats.
Cattle ringworm can cause an intense inflammatory response in
children, producing a “kerion” described below. They rarely
develop anthropophilic fungal infection.
Adults. From adolescence onwards infection of the feet is a
common occurrence. Tinea cruris in the groin is seen mainly
in men and fungal nail infections (onychomycosis) have Tinea cruris
become particularly common.
Infection from dogs and cats with a zoophilic fungus
(Microsporum canis) to which humans have little immunity can
occur at any age. A patient returned from a skiing holiday with
intensely itchy “eczema”, which refused to clear. A stray kitten,
mewing outside in the dark, had been taken indoors, warmed
in their sleeping bags, and infected the whole party with
M. canis.

Nail infections
These occur mainly in adults, usually in their toenails,
especially when traumatised—for example the big toes of Microsporum canis Fungal infection of nail

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ABC of Dermatology

footballers. The nails become thickened and yellow and

crumble, usually asymmetrically. The changes occur distally and
move back to the nailfold. In psoriasis of the nail the changes
occur proximally and tend to be symmetrical and are associated
with pitting and other evidence of psoriasis elsewhere.
Chronic paronychia occurs in the fingers of individuals
whose work demands repeated wetting of the hands:
housewives, barmen, dentists, nurses, and mushroom growers,
for example. Other predisposing factors include diabetes, poor
peripheral circulation, and removal of the cuticle. There is
Chronic paronychia
erythema and swelling of the nail fold, often on one side with
brownish discoloration of the nail. Pus may be exuded. The
cause is Candida albicans (a yeast) together with secondary
bacterial infection.
Pushing back the cuticles should be avoided—this is
commonly a long term condition, lasting for years. The hands
should be kept as dry as possible, an azole lotion applied
regularly around the nail fold, and in acute flares a course of
erythromycin prescribed.

Feet
Tinea pedis, or athletes foot, is a common disease and its
prevalence increases with age. It is easily acquired in public
swimming pools or showers and industrial workers appear to be
particularly predisposed to this infection. The hands may be
affected.
In interdigital tinea pedis the itching, macerated skin Tinea pedis
beneath the toes is familiar, but when a dry, scaling rash
extends across the sole and dorsal surface of the foot
(dry type tinea pedis) the diagnosis may be missed. The
condition needs to be differentiated from psoriasis and eczema.

Hands
Dermatophyte infections often produce a dry rash on one
palm. There may be a well defined lesion with a scaling edge.

Trunk
Tinea corporis presents with erythema and itching and a well
defined scaling edge. In the groin, tinea cruris, the infection
may spread to the adjacent skin on the thighs and abdomen.
Intense erythema and satellite lesions suggest a candida
infection. In the axillae erythrasma due to Corynebacterium
minutissimum is more likely. It does not respond to antifungal
treatment but clears with tetracycline by mouth.
Tinea versicolor affects the trunk, usually of fair skinned
individuals exposed to the sun. It affects mainly the upper back,
chest, and arms. Well defined macular lesions with fine scales Tinea corporis Erythrasma
develop, which tend to be white in suntanned areas and brown
on pale skin. It may be confused with seborrhoeic dermatitis,
pityriasis rosea, and vitiligo. In skin scrapings the causative

Tinea versicolor Pityrosporum organisms

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 Fungal and yeast infections

organisms, Malassezia spp., normally found in hair follicles,

can be readily seen.

Scalp and face

Scalp ringworm in children may be caused by anthropophilic
fungi such as Trichophyton tonsurans, which is spreading in cities
in the United Kingdom, or Microsporum audouinii. Sporadic
cases are caused by M.canis which is acquired from cats or dogs.
In all cases there is itching, hair loss, and some degree of
inflammation which is worse with M. canis infections.
Kerion, an inflamed, boggy, pustular lesion, is often due to
cattle ringworm and is fairly common in rural areas. It is often
seen in children in the autumn when the cows are brought
inside for the winter. Microsporum ringworm
Tinea incognito is the term used for unrecognised fungal
infection in patients treated with steroids (topical or systemic).
The normal response to infection (leading to erythema,
scaling, a raised margin, and itching) is diminished, particularly
with local steroid creams or ointments. The infecting organism
flourishes, however, because of the host’s impaired immune
response—shown by the enlarging, persistent skin lesions.
The groins, hands, and face are sites where this is most
likely to occur.
Seborrhoeic dermatitis of adults may also be caused by
Malassezia.

Yeast infections Microsporum—Wood’s light Tinea incognito

Candida infection may occur in the flexures of infants and

elderly or immobilised patients, especially below the breasts
and folds of abdominal skin. It needs to be differentiated from:
(a) psoriasis, which does not itch; (b) seborrhoeic dermatitis, a
common cause of a flexural rash in infants; and (c) contact
dermatitis and discoid eczema, which do not have the scaling
margin. Candida intertrigo is symmetrical and “satellite”
pustules or papules outside the outer rim of the rash are
typical. Yeasts, including Candida albicans, may be found in the
mouth and vagina of healthy individuals. Clinical lesions in the
mouth—white buccal plaques or erythema—may develop.
Predisposing factors include: general debility, impaired
immunity (including AIDS), diabetes mellitus, endocrine
disorders, such as Cushing’s syndrome, and corticosteroid
treatment. Vaginal candidosis or thrush is a common infection
of healthy young women; an underlying predisposition is rarely Candida albicans
found. The infection presents with itching, soreness, and a mild
discharge.

Deep fungal infection

Fungal infections of the deeper tissues are only rarely
associated with skin lesions in the United Kingdom, except in
patients with AIDS. Some infections that involve deep tissue,
histoplasmosis, cryptococcosis, and infections due to Penicillium
marneffei, can present with skin lesions. In an HIV positive
patient lesions resembling molluscum contagiosum may be the
earliest feature of deep fungal infections.
In tropical countries deep fungal infections are more
common. These are described in chapter 23. They should be
considered in any patient from a tropical country with chronic
indurated and ulcerating lesions.

Treatment
Topical treatment
The most commonly used treatments are the imidazole
preparations, such as clotrimazole and miconazole (two to Candida organisms

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ABC of Dermatology

four weeks) and also topical terbinafine (one to two weeks).

The polyenes, nystatin, and amphotericin B are also effective
Principles of diagnosis and treatment
against yeast infection. For damp macerated skin dusting • Consider a fungal infection in any patient where isolated,
powders may be helpful. In toe web infections a mixture of itching, dry, and scaling lesions occur without any apparent
reason—for example, if there is no previous history of eczema.
micro-organisms including dermatophytes and Gram negative Lesions due to fungal infection are often asymmetrical
bacteria may be present and both require treatment. • Skin scrapings or clippings should be sent to the laboratory
from lesions, nails, or hair. The skin scales should be removed
Systemic treatment by scraping the edge of the lesion with a scalpel held at right
It is important to confirm the diagnosis from skin scrapings angles to the skin on to a piece of dark paper—transport
before starting treatment. Terbinafine is a very effective packs are available commercially. Clippings can be taken from
the nails and as much material as possible should be taken
fungicidal drug. It is taken in a dosage of 250 mg once daily for from the nail including subungual debris. Laboratories will
two to six weeks for skin infections, six weeks for finger nail or report first on the direct microscopy of the material
three months for toenail infections. It is only approved for use examined after treatment with 10% potassium hydroxide but
in children in some countries. Blood monitoring is only advised culture results take at least two weeks
in patients with liver disease or impaired renal function. • Lesions to which steroids have been applied are often quite
Pregnancy and lactation are relative contraindications. There atypical because the normal inflammatory response is
suppressed—tinea incognito. The patient often states that the
have been reports of headaches, taste disturbances and, very
treatment controls the itch but the rash persists and may
rarely, liver dysfunction. change into a tender form of folliculitis. In such cases
Triazole preparations such as itraconazole are effective in microscopy of lesions is usually strongly positive
both dermatophyte and yeast infections. Cases of liver damage • Wood’s light (ultraviolet light filtered through special glass)
have rarely been reported. Fluconazole is effective in yeast can be used to show Microsporum infections of hair, as they
infections. Some drugs interact with azole drugs, the main ones produce a green-blue fluorescence
being terfenadine, astemizole, digoxin, midazolam, cyclosporin,
tacrolimus, and anticoagulants.
Griseofulvin is mainly used for tinea capitis. The duration
of treatment is six to eight weeks for infections of the scalp. Further reading
The dose is 10–20 mg/kg for children, taken with food. Midgley G, Clayton Y, Hay RJ. Medical mycology. London and
Contraindications to griseofulvin are severe liver disease St Louis: Mosby-Wolfe, 1997
and porphyrias. The drug interacts with the coumarin Elewski BE. Cutaneous fungal infections. New York: lgaku-Shoin, 1992
Evans EG, Richardson MD. Medical mycology: A practical approach.
anticoagulants.
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989
In countries without access to these drugs simple measures
such as antiseptic paints—Neutral Red or Castellan’s paint—
can be used. Whitfield’s ointment (benzoic acid ointment) is
easily prepared and is reasonably effective for fungal infections.

104
22 Insect bites and infestations

So, naturalists observe, a flea

Hath smaller fleas that on him prey;
And these have smaller fleas to bite ‘em.
And so proceeds “Ad infinitum”
Jonathan Swift

It is, of course, the internal parasites of biting insects that

cause trouble for humans, rather than “smaller fleas” on their
surface.
An ornithologist went bird watching in Guyana, where he Body louse
sustained widespread “midge bites” on the arms. He was
referred on account of nodules that developed a few weeks
later, then enlarged and ulcerated. Other lesions occurred
further up the arms with regional lymphadenopathy. A biopsy
specimen showed histiocytic inflammatory changes, and
Leishmania braziliensis was isolated from smears; the midges
(phlebotomus or sand fly) had acquired the protozoon while
feeding on local rodents and transferred it into the
ornithologist’s skin.
Serious disease from insect vectors is rare in residents of
most Western countries but, as in the patient described above,
must be considered in those returning from tropical and Sand fly Leishmaniasis
subtropical countries.

Some diseases with skin lesions resulting from insect bites

Condition Appearance Organism Vector
Cutaneous Chronic enlarging Leishmania Sand fly
leishmaniasis nodules with protozoon
ulceration (L. braziliensis)
Oriental sore Ulcerating nodules Leishmania Sand fly
(L. tropica)
Kala-azar Hypopigmented, Leishmania Insect vectors
erythematous, and (L. donovani)
nodular lesions
Onchocerciasis Pruritic nodules Filaria Black fly
(Onchocerca (Simuliidae)
volvulus)
Typhus, human Erythematous rash and Rickettsia Human louse
systemic illness (R. prowazekii)
Typhus, murine (R. mooseri) Rat flea
Rocky Mountain Maculopapular rash Rickettsia Ticks
spotted fever and fever (R. rickettsii)
Rickettsial pox Vesicular eruption like Rickettsia House mouse,
chickenpox (R. akari) louse
Tick typhus Necrotic lesions, Various rickettsias Ticks
maculopapular rash,
and fever
Scrub typhus Fever, Rickettsia Mites
lymphadenopathy, (R. tsutsugamushi)
maculopapular rash
Relapsing fever Widespread Borrelia Lice, ticks
maculopapular recurrentis
lesions
Lyme disease May be annular Borrelia Ticks, black fly
burgdorferi
Yellow fever Flushing of face, Arbovirus Aedes
and dengue scarlatiniform rash mosquito

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ABC of Dermatology

Most cases of bites from fleas, midges, and mosquitoes are

readily recognised and cause few symptoms apart from
discomfort. Occasionally an allergic reaction confuses the
picture, particularly the large bullae that can occur from bites
on the arms and legs. It may be difficult to persuade patients
that their recurrent itching spots are simply due to flea bites
and the suggestion may be angrily rejected.
Nevertheless, some patients are convinced that they have
an infestation when they do not. Often they will bring small
packets containing “insects”. Examination shows these to be
small screws of wool, pickings of keratin, thread, and so on.
Sympathy and tact will win patients’ confidence; derision and Bullae caused by insect bites
disbelief will merely send them elsewhere for a further
medical opinion. Antipsychotic drugs may help to dispel the
delusion of parasitic infestation (delusional parasitosis) and
should be used in conjunction with advice from a psychiatrist if
possible. These drugs should be used with care and with full
awareness of their side effects, particularly in patients with
cardiovascular disease and a history of epilepsy. Pimozide has
been used in the past but because of its side effects risperidone
is preferred.

Parasitophobia specimens
• Flea bites, including those from Cheyletiella mites in dogs and
cats, occur in clusters, often in areas of close contact with
clothing, for example, around the waist.
• Grain mites (Pyemotes) and harvest mites (Trombiculidae) can
cause severe reactions.
• Tick, and possibly mosquito, bites can produce infection with
Borrelia burgdorferi, causing arthropathy, fever, and a
distinctive rash (erythema chronicum migrans)—Lyme
disease. The condition responds rapidly to treatment with
penicillin. Increasing numbers of cases are being reported in
the United Kingdom.

Bites on ankles
Papular urticaria
Persistent pruritic (itching) papules in groups on the trunk and
legs may be due to bites from fleas, bed bugs, or mites.
A seasonal incidence suggests bites from outdoor insects, while
recurrence of the papules in a particular house or room
suggests infestations with fleas. The term is sometimes used for
other causes of itchy skin. Erythema chronicum migrans

Spider bites
In Europe spider bites rarely cause problems, but sometimes
noxious species arrive in consignments of tropical fruit.
The patient shown had been bitten by a spider the day Harvest mites
before leaving Nigeria and developed a painful
necrotic lesion.
Bites from the European tarantula are painful but otherwise
harmless.
In tropical and subtropical countries venomous spiders
inject neurotoxins that can be fatal. The “black widow”
(Latrodectus mactans), “fiddleback” (Loxosceles veclusa), and
Atrax species of Australia are better known examples. Scorpions Spider bite (Nigeria)
cause severe local and systemic symptoms as a result of stings Papular urticaria
(not bites).

Infestations
Scabies
The commonest infestation encountered is scabies, and it is easily
missed or misdiagnosed. Scabies is due to a small mite, Sarcoptes
scabiei. The female mite burrows into the stratum corneum to lay Persistent papules in scabies

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 Insect bites and infestations

her eggs; the male dies after completing his role of fertilisation,
and the developing eggs hatch into larvae within a few days.
Intense itching occurs some two weeks later, during which
time extensive colonisation may have occurred. The infestation is
acquired only by close contact with infected people.

Diagnosis
Finding a burrow—the small (5–10 mm long) ridge, often S
shaped—can be difficult as it is often obscured by excoriation
from scratching. Without finding a burrow, however, the
diagnosis remains uncertain. Isolation of an acarus with a
needle or scalpel blade and its demonstration under the
microscope convinces the most sceptical patient. Always ask
whether there are others in the patient’s household and if any Burrows of scabies
of them are itching.

Treatment
10% sulphur in yellow soft paraffin is traditional, effective, and
safe. There are several more modern treatments, including
25% benzyl benzoate emulsion, 0·5% malathion cream, 1%
gamma benzene hexachloride (lindane) lotion, and 1%
permethrin. In children benzyl benzoate should be diluted to
10% and used with care as toxicity results from absorption. In
infants over two months old permethrin or 2·5% sulphur Scabies—points to note
ointment can be used. Gamma benzene hexachloride should • There may be very few burrows, though the patient has
not be given to children under 10 years or pregnant women in widespread itching
the first trimester. Important points are: • The distribution of the infestation is characteristically the
fingers, wrists, nipples, abdomen, genitalia, buttocks, and
(1) The patient should wash well: a hot bath was formerly ankles
advocated but it is now known that this may increase • Close personal contact is required for infestation to occur,
for example, within a family, through infants in playgroups,
absorption through the skin.
and through regular nursing of elderly patients
(2) The lotion should be applied from the neck down, • Itching may persist even after all mites have been eliminated;
concentrating on affected areas and making sure that the itching papules on the scrotum and penis are particularly
axillae, wrists, ankles, and pubic areas are included. If there persistent
is any doubt about the thoroughness of application the
process should be repeated in a few days.
(3) All contacts and members of the patient’s household
should be treated at the same time.
(4) Residual papules may persist for many weeks. Topical
steroids can be used to relieve the itching.
(5) Secondary infection as a result of scratching may need to
be treated.

Demodex
Demodex folliculorum is a small mite that inhabits the human
hair follicle, the eggs being deposited in the sebaceous gland.
It is found on the central area of the face, chest, and neck
of adults. It may have a role in the pathogenesis of rosacea,
in which it may be found in large numbers. It may be
associated with a pustular eruption round the mouth and
blepharitis.

Larva migrans
The patient in the illustration had been on holiday at a tropical
coastal town and regularly visited a beach frequented by dogs.
Two weeks after returning to Britain he started itching on the
buttocks and subsequently noticed a linear, raised area—a
condition known as larva migrans, due to the larvae of the Larva migrans
hookworm of dogs and cats, Ancylostoma caninum. The
ova are shed in the faeces and in a warm moist
environment hatch into larvae that invade “dead end”
hosts. They do not develop any further, so systemic disease
does not occur.

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Treatment
This is either by freezing the advancing end of the lesion with
liquid nitrogen or by applying thiabendazole (10%)
suspension. Similar lesions in patients returning from tropical
countries raise the possibility of larva migrans from
strongyloides infestation, myiasis from the larvae of flies, or
gnathostomiasis.
Visceral larva migrans caused by Toxocara canis and Ascaris
lumbricoides may produce a transient rash. Pediculosis capitis

Pediculosts (lice)
Infestation with lice became less common in the postwar years,
but the incidence has recently increased.
There are three areas of the body usually affected by two
species of wingless insects—Pediculus humanus, infecting the
head and body, and Phthirus pubis, the pubic louse. The
wingless insects feed on blood aspirated at the site of the bite,
and each female lays 60–80 encapsulated eggs attached to
hairs—”nits” in common parlance.
Head lice are transmitted via combs, brushes, and hats, Head lice and nits
being more common in girls than boys. The infestation is
heaviest behind the ears and over the occiput. If the eyelashes
of children are affected this is with “crab lice” (Phthlrus pubis);
it is not pediculosis.
Body lice are less common in western Europe. Transmission
is by clothing and bedding, on which both lice and their eggs
may be found in the seams. Poor hygiene favours infestation.
Pubic lice infestation occurs worldwide and is generally
transmitted by sexual contact. Infestation of eyelashes may
occur with poor hygiene.
As a result of scratching there may be marked secondary Phthirus pubis on eyelashes
infection that obscures the underlying infestation.

Treatment
Gamma benzene hexachloride 1% is usually effective as a single Further reading
application. Permethrin can also be used. Alexander JO. Arthropods and human skin. Berlin: Springer-Verlag,
1984
Busvine JR. Insects and hygiene, 3rd ed. London: Chapman and Hall,
1980
Marshall AG. The ecology of ectoparasitic insects. New York: Academic
Press, 1981
Parish CL, Nutting WB, Schwartzman RM. Cutaneous infestation of
man and animal. New York: Greenwood, 1983

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23 Tropical dermatology
B Leppard

The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of

tropical diseases that most commonly affect the skin.
This will be useful for health workers who may not be
familiar with tropical diseases and also as a guide to help those
who are already working in the tropics and who see them all
the time.
Skin disease is extemely common in the tropics, affecting
up to 50% of the population. Most are infections or
infestations such as impetigo, ringworm, and scabies. These
can easily be treated but continue to be common because of
overcrowding, poverty, and the lack of resources given to
health care (training of health personnel and lack of basic
medicines). To a large extent such diseases can be controlled
with very simple measure suitable for use by those with Albino with squamous cell carcinoma
minimal training. Atopic eczema is just as common in urban
areas in the tropics as in the west. Skin cancers are uncommon
in those with a black skin because of the protective effect of
melanin, but are common in albinos.
No of bacilli

The spectrum of tropical +++

Resistance (cell mediated immunity) to M. Leprae

dermatology
All the common inflammatory dermatoses occur in the tropics
but may have a different appearance in pigmented skin. ++

Erythema, readily visible in Caucasians, will not be so apparent

in black skin.
Infections and infestations occurring in the tropics produce +
distinctive skin changes These may be due to the presence of
the organism, ova, or larvae in the skin. In other diseases a
reaction to the organism produces a rash. 0
LL BL BB BT TT
Clinical spectrum of disease
Bacterial infections
Spectrum of clinical disease in leprosy. (BB  borderline leprosy,
Impetigo is particularly prone to occur in the tropics and BL  borderline lepromatous leprosy, BT  borderline tuberculoid leprosy,
may complicate any area of minor trauma to the skin. LL  lepromatous leprosy, TT  tuberculoid leprosy)
It is characterised by erythema, and exudative lesions
forming crusts.
Bullae may develop. If possible swabs should be taken for
bacteriology and the appropriate antibiotics given.
Erysipelas is a localised streptococcal infection with
erythema and tenderness accompanied by fever and malaise.
Treatment is with penicillin.

Leprosy
Leprosy is a chronic infection of the skin and nerves by
Mycobacterium leprae. It is spread by droplet infection and has
a long incubation period (anything from two months to Tuberculoid leprosy
40 years). There is a spectrum of clinical disease depending
on the patient’s cell mediated immunity to the organism.

Diagnosis
• Typical clinical findings:
(a) In tuberculoid leprosy (TT) there is a single anaesthetic
patch or plaque with a raised border. Tuberculoid leprosy

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ABC of Dermatology

(b) In lepromatous leprosy (LL) there are widespread

symmetrical shiny papules, nodules, and plaques which
are not anaesthetic.
(c) In borderline leprosy (BT, BB, BL) there are varying
numbers of lesions, few in BT and numerous in BL.
They may be widespread but are asymmetrical.
(d) Palpably enlarged cutaneous nerves (great auricular
nerve in the neck, the superficial branch of the radial Lepromatous leprosy Borderline leprosy
nerve at the wrist, the ulnar nerve at the elbow, the
lateral popliteal nerve at the knee, and the sural nerve
on the lower leg).
(e) Glove and stocking sensory loss causing blisters, ulcers or
both on anaesthetic fingers or toes.
(f) Deformity due to invasion of the peripheral nerves with
leprosy bacilli, a leprosy reaction or recurrent trauma to
anaesthetic limbs.
• Slit skin smears measure the numbers of bacilli in the skin
(Bacterial Index (BI)) and the % of these that are living
(Morphological Index (MI)).
Borderline tuberculoid leprosy
Treatment
Paucibacillary leprosy (BI of 0 or 1):
Rifampicin 600 mg once a month (supervised) for
Dapsone 100 mg daily six months
Multibacillary leprosy (BI of 2 or more):
Rifampicin 600 mg once a month (supervised)
Clofazamine 300 mg once a month
(supervised) for two years
Clofazamine 50 mg/day
Dapsone 100 mg/day

Cutaneous leishmaniasis
Cutaneous leishmaniasis is due to the protozoa Leishmania
tropica, and is transmitted by the bite of a sandfly. There is
a spectrum of disease depending on the patient’s immunity.

Acute leishmaniasis Acute leishmaniasis Chronic leishmaniasis

A red nodule like a boil occurs at the site of the bite.
It enlarges, may or may not ulcerate, and heals spontaneously
after about one year leaving a cribriform scar.

Chronic leishmaniasis
In a patient with good cell mediated immunity, after the acute
leishmaniasis has healed, new granulomata appear at the edge
of the scar; these do not heal spontaneously.

Diffuse cutaneous leishmaniasis

This is leishmaniasis in a patient with no immunity to the
organism (equivalent to lepromatous leprosy). Extensive skin
nodules occur that are full of organisms. Diffuse cutaneous leishmaniasis

Treatment
Intramuscular injections of sodium stibogluconate 10 mg/kg
body weight daily until healing occurs.

Superficial fungal infections Bacterial Index (BI)

The same fungal infections of the epidermis occur in the tropics 0  No bacilli seen
as in temperate climates only more so—heat and occlusion of 1  1–10 bacilli in 100 oil immersion fields
clothing leading to maceration of the skin in which fungi thrive, 2  1–10 bacilli in 10 oil immersion fields
so expect to see more florid lesions. There are also many 3  1–10 bacilli in 1 oil immersion field
4  10–100 bacilli in an average oil immersion field
fungal infections that are specifically found in the tropics. 5  100–1000 bacilli in an average oil immersion field
These include tinea imbricata, tinea nigra, piedra, and 6  1000 bacilli in an average oil immersion field
favus.

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 Tropical dermatology

Suspect a dermatophyte fungal infection in any chronic,

itching, scaling, slowly developing lesion with epidermal
changes.
Tinea imbricata due to Tricophyton concentricum is
characterised by superficial concentric scaling rings spreading
across the trunk. It occurs mainly in Asia but also in other
tropical areas.
Tinea nigra occurs in the tropical areas of America, Asia,
and Australia. Brown or black macules are seen on the palms
and soles. It is due to Cladosporium werneckii.
Piedra is a fungal infection of the hair producing hard
nodular lesions on the hair shaft. The lesions may be black
(due to Piedra hortai) or white piedra (due to Trichosporum
beigelii). Superficial fungal infection
Favus is widespread throughout the Mediterranean, the
Middle East, and tropics, but is rare in Africa. It is due to an
endothrix fungus—Trichophyton schoenleinii—which causes a
thick yellow crust with an unpleasant odour. Erythematous
areas of scarring occur that must be differentiated
from lichen planus and other causes of scarring
alopecia.

Deep fungal infections

In these conditions there is chronic inflammation in the
subcutaneous tissues leading to granulomatous and necrotic
nodules.

Mycetoma (Madura foot)

This is a chronic infection of the dermis and subcutaneous fat
caused by various species of fungus (eumycetoma) or bacteria Tinea imbricata
(actinomycetoma). Both types look the same with a swollen foot
and multiple discharging sinuses, but it is important to
differentiate between them because the treatment is
different.

Diagnosis
• Examination of the discharging grains (colour will give a clue
as to the cause).
• Culture of the grains to identify the causative fungus or
bacteria.
• If no grains can be found a skin biopsy will show them.

Treatment
Eumycetoma:
• Itraconazole 200 mg twice daily for at least 12 months if it is
affordable.
If not Madura foot
• Surgical excision of affected tissue if disease is limited.
• Amputation if extensive.
Actinomycetoma:
• Sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim mixture 960 mg twice daily
for up to two years.

Blastomycosis
This condition is caused by the invasion of lymphatic
system, lungs, and skin by Paracoccioddes brasiliensis. The
widespread cutaneous lesions, which vary in appearance
and distribution, must be differentiated from tuberculosis
and other mycoses such as sporotrichosis, chromomycodis,
and coccidiomycosis. It occurs in central and
south America.

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Chromomycosis
This chronic granulomatous condition mainly affects the legs
and results from infestation by a variety of parasitic fungi.
Large verrucous plaques may require surgical removal.

Histoplasmosis
This occurs in West Africa with nodules, ulcers, and bone
lesions developing due to infection with Histoplasma duboisii.
Treatment is with aphotericin B. Chromomycosis

Infestations
Tungiasis
Invasion of the skin by sand fleas (Tunga penetrans) causes
tungiasis in tropical areas of Africa, America, and India.
It is most common on the feet, especially under the toes
and toenails. The condition looks a bit like plantar warts,
but if you watch for a while you will see the eggs being
squirted out.
Histoplasmosis in HIV infection
Prevention
Wear shoes.

Treatment
• Carefully winkle the fleas out with a pin (most patients know
how to do this themselves).
• If the fleas are very extensive, soak the feet in kerosene or
treat with a single dose of ivermectin 200 micrograms/kg
body weight.

Subcutaneous myiasis
Invasion of the skin by the larvae of the tumbu (mango) fly Tungiasis
(Cordylobia anthropophaga) in central and southern Africa
causes this condition. The fly lays her eggs on clothes layed out
to dry on the ground. The eggs hatch out two days later on
contact with the warm skin when the clothes are put on.
The larvae burrow into the skin causing a red painful or
itchy papule or nodule, predominantly on the trunk, buttocks,
and thighs.
Other flies that cause miyasis are:
• Dermatobia hominis—tropical bot fly, in Mexico, central, and
south America with tender nodules developing on the scalp,
legs, forearms, and face.
• Aucheronia sp.—Congo floor maggot, in central and southern
Myiasis—larvae
Africa. Bites of the larvae cause intense irritation.
• Callitroga sp. in central America causing inflamed lesions with
necrosis.

Prevention
Iron the clothes before wearing them.

Treatment
Cover the nodule with petroleum jelly or other grease; the larva
will be unable to breath and will crawl out.

Filariasis
This is an infestation with thread-like helminths (Latin Myiasis—papule
“Filum”—a thread). They are widely distributed in many species
and live in the lymphatics and connective tissue. Fertilised eggs
develop into embryonic worms—microfilariae. These are taken
up by insect vectors that act as intermediate hosts in which
further development occurs. They are then inoculated into
a human host when next bitten by the insect.

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Three diseases are caused by filarial worms:

• Lymphatic filariasis due to Wuchereria bancrofti, which liberate
microfilariae into the blood stream.
• Onchocerciasis due to Onchocera volvulus. The microfilariae
are liberated into the skin and subcutaneous tissues.
• Loiasis due to Loa loa, in which microfilariae are found in the
blood.
Lymphatic filariasis affects 120 million people in 73 countries
(34% in sub-Saharan Africa). It causes lymphoedema of the
legs, genitalia, and breasts. It may be asyptomatic for a long
period and the adult worms live for four to six years in the
lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes producing thousands of
microfilaria each day. These are picked up by mosquitoes when
they take a blood meal and are passed on to the next victim
when they feed again.
Lymphoema of the legs in filariasis

Treatment
• In endemic areas the whole community should be treated
with a single dose of two of the following three drugs once a Diagnosis
year for four to six years: • Find the microfilaria on a thick blood smear taken at
(a) Ivermectin 400 micrograms/kg body weight midnight. This is not a very convenient method of diagnosis.
(b) Diethylcarbamazine (DEC) 6 mg/kg body weight • Immuno-chromatographic filariasis card test using finger prick
blood, which takes less than five minutes to complete. It detects
(c) Albendazole 600 mg.
circulating W. bancrofti antigens so it can be done at any time of
• The chronic lymphoedema can be improved by keeping the the day or night.
legs moving, raising the legs when sitting, and prevention of • Polymerase chain reaction to detect parasitic DNA. This is
secondary bacterial infection by regular washing and very sensitive and can detect as little as one microfilaria in
moisturising of the skin. 1 ml blood.

Onchocerciasis
Onchocerciasis (river blindness) occurs in Africa south of the
Sahara and in Central America. It is due to Onchocerca volvulus
transmitted by the bite of black flies Simuliidae which breed by
fast flowing rivers. The inoculation of microfilariae by the bite
of a black fly causes intense local inflammation and is followed
by an incubation period of many months. The adult worms live
in nodules around the hips and cause no harm in themselves.
They produce thousands of microfilaria each day which travel
to the skin and eyes. In the skin they produce a very itchy rash Onchocerciasis
which looks like lichenified eczema. On the lower legs there is
often spotty depigmentation. Involvement of the eyes causes
blindness.

Risk factors for being infected

• Living, working, or playing near fast flowing rivers.
• Not wearing enough clothes so that the skin is exposed to
insect bites.
• The construction of dams leads to less breeding of black
flies in the dam itself but increased breeding in the dam
spillways.

Diagnosis
• Demonstrate the microfilaria in the skin by skin snips.
• Remove a skin nodule and see the adult worms inside it.
• Polymerase chain reaction to show parasite DNA—not much
use in the field. “Leopard skin” in onchocerciasis

Treatment
• Spray the breeding areas with insecticides.
• Annual dose of ivermectin 400 micrograms/kg body weight
for four to six years. This stops the release of microfilaria
from the adult worms.

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Loiasis
Diagnosis of loiasis
Loiasis occurs in the rain forests of central and west Africa. It is
transmitted by mango flies (Chrysops). The adult worms live in • Find the microfilaria in the peripheral blood between 10 am
and 2 pm
the subcutaneous tissues where they can be seen in the skin
• Find the adult worms by ultrasound examination
and under the conjunctiva. The microfilaria are only found in • High blood eosinophilia
the blood. A hypersensitivity to the worms shows itself as
swelling of the skin, particularly of the wrists and ankles
(calabar swellings).
Treatment of loiasis
Dracontiasis • A single dose of ivermectin 400 micrograms/kg body weight
This condition is due to infestation by Draculus medinensis in the or a three week course of albendazole 400 mg/kg body
connective tissue. It is acquired from drinking water containing weight/bd
• Do not use diethylcarbamazine citrate (DEC) as this can
the intermediate host, a crustacean, Cyclops. Localised papules cause death as a result of a reaction to toxins from the
develop on the lower legs containing the female worm and rapid destruction of the microfilaria.
numerous microfilariae. Treatment consists of very carefully
extracting the worm by winding it onto a stick over several
weeks. Symptomatic treatment of secondary infection and
allergic reactions is also required.

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24 Practical procedures and where to use them
DWS Harris

Skin lesions are easily accessible for removal or biopsy. The

procedure used needs to be appropriate to the site and type of
lesion involved. It is important also to keep scarring to a
minimum.
Destruction of skin lesions is carried out with:
• Electrocautery
• Cryotherapy
• Laser treatment
This is suitable for lesions where the diagnosis is certain, as no
specimen is available or histology.
Removal of skin lesions results in a specimen for the Cryotherapy—applying the liquid
pathologist to examine. The techniques used are: nitrogen

• Curettage and cautery

• Surgical excision
• Incisional biopsy which provides a specimen for histology to
supplement the clinical diagnosis.

Cryotherapy
This involves the destruction of tissues by extreme cold.
Current methods used are:

Carbon dioxide
Solid carbon dioxide (temperature 64 C) is produced by
allowing rapid expansion of the compressed gas from a Cryotherapy—the frozen wart
cylinder. This can be mixed with acetone to form a slush that
can be applied with a cotton wool bud. A solid carbon dioxide
stick, for direct application to lesions, is produced by an
apparatus using “sparklet” bulbs.
The lesion must be frozen solid with a 1–2 mm margin of
surrounding tissue. After thawing the freezing cycle should be
repeated.

Liquid nitrogen (196 C)

This can be simply applied using a cotton wool bud dipped in
the vacuum flask of liquid nitrogen. Freezing takes a little
longer than using spray apparatus. Various types of such
apparatus are available with different sizes of nozzle. The larger Cryotherapy—subsequent slight
ones are used for seborrheoic keratoses on the back, for blistering
example, and the smaller sizes for small lesions on the face.
Freezing takes a few seconds and after thawing a further
application can be made if necessary.

Ethyl chloride
This is sprayed directly on the skin, producing lowering of the
temperature and temporary analgesia. It is not generally used
for treatment.

Nitrous oxide
A cylinder of compressed gas is used to cool a probe to
approximately 80 C. It is usually used for the treatment of
warts and requires a 30 second freezing cycle.

Precautions
• Cryotherapy produces pain and inflammation. Blistering and
haematoma may occur. This can be diminished by the Cryotherapy—liquid nitrogen containers

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ABC of Dermatology

application of a strong steroid cream immediately after

freezing, except when treating viral warts as it tends to
Cryotherapy—practical points
encourage proliferation of the warts. • Be sure of the diagnosis before cryotherapy, taking a biosy
• Damage to deeper structures is rare but may occur when if necessary
• Explain to the patient that inflammation, blistering, or
freezing the deeper tissues—for example, treating basal cell haematoma formation may occur
carcinoma. • Use freezing with care in children and on areas where the
• It is possible for adjacent structures to be damaged skin is thin, such as below the eyelids. In pigmented skin
accidentally, especially with the liquid nitrogen spray. This postinflammatory hyperpigmentation can occur
applies particularly when treating lesions on the face, when
it is essential to screen the eyes adequately.

Skin lesions suitable for freezing

Viral warts
These may require several treatments at two to three week
intervals. Freezing very small plane warts can result in small
depigmented areas, so they may be better treated with wart
paint.
Cryotherapy—freezing a lesion
Seborrhoeic keratoses
These respond well to cryotherapy, but as they are superficial
lesions care must be taken to avoid excessive freezing with
resultant scars.

Papillomata and skin tags

These can be easily and permanently treated by compression
with artery forceps dipped in liquid nitrogen. Surprisingly, this
is generally a painless procedure.

Dysplastic lesions
Early lesions, which are potentially neoplastic or of low grade
malignancy, can be effectively treated. This includes solar
keratoses, if early and superficial, but follow up is essential.
The lesions can progress to squamous carcinoma, and if not
responding to cryotherapy they should be excised or removed Electrocautery—pinpoint Electrocautery—pinpoint cautery
with curettage and cautery for histological examination. cautery attachment attachment

Bowen’s disease
An intraepidermal carcinoma, if confirmed by incisional biopsy,
can respond to repeated cryotherapy. Follow up is essential
since progression to an invasive squamous carcinoma can occur.

Basal cell carcinoma

The superficial spreading type can be treated with liquid
nitrogen, but repeated and often prolonged freezing is
required. To be certain of effective treatment a thermocouple
probe to record the temperature at the base of the tumour is
Electrocautery—spider naevus
used. This is not usually a routine procedure in general
practice or hospital outpatients. Excision or radiotherapy are
more effective methods of treatment. Electrocautery—hyfrecator

Electrocautery
There are two forms of treatment:
(1) Heat from an electrically heated element, which is
used for removal of skin tags and for treatment of
the surface after curettage of warts, also seborrhoeic
keratoses.
(2) High energy, low current “electrodesiccation” equipment
which produces a high energy spark that can coagulate
blood vessels or destroy some more papillomata. A fine
needle point should be used for small telangiectatic naevi
or milia. A larger needle is used for larger surfaces, for Electrocautery—blanch the lesion to identify feeding vessels, then insert the
example after curettage. needle into feeding vessels in the cold state

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 Practical procedures and where to use them

Laser treatment Treatment of vascular lesions

Laser—Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of • Port wine stains
Argon and carbon dioxide lasers cause scarring, so yellow
Radiation—produces high energy radiation. The first laser
light emitting types such as Krypton, Flashlamp Powered Dye
apparatus was developed from microwave technology in 1960 Laser (FIPDL), or Copper Laser are used
by the nobel prize winner TH Mamian. It was initially used as • Telangiectasia
a destructive tool to ablate tumours, but now different This is also treated with the FIPDL, although this can cause
wavelengths can be directed at specific targets. Blood vessels, transient purpura, or Copper Laser
for example, take up the blue/green light of the argon laser • Cavernous haemangioma
and the red light of a ruby laser is well absorbed by the green These can be treated by yellow dye laser followed by surgical
excision
dye of tattoos. Modern developments have resulted in laser
equipment that produces minimal scarring and maximum
specificity.
Although smaller portable units are available, laser
treatment should still only be undertaken by those with
appropriate training. The skin lesions most commonly treated
by laser are described below.

Tattoos
Tattoos contain a variety of pigments so that more than one
type of laser may be necessary for complete removal. The same
pigment may vary in response in different patients. Superficial
dark pigment usually responds to the Q switch ruby laser, Curettage—seborrhoeic keratosis
but deeper pigment may require the Nd : YAG laser or
Alexandrite laser. Green pigment is usually removed with
a Q switch ruby laser and red pigment with a green light
laser such as the Q switched Nd : YAG. It is found that
professional tattoos are usually more easily removed than
the amateur type.

Pigmented lesions
Melanin absorbs light over a wide range of wavelengths, which
can result in undesirable loss of skin colour following laser
treatment. This can be put to good use in the treatment of
benign lentigines and café au lait patches or deeply seated
pigmented naevi. A wide range of laser types can be used, Curettage—actinic keratosis
including Q switch ruby and Nd : YAG lasers. Congenital
pigmented naevi should not be treated unless the biopsy has
confirmed that they are benign.

Hair follicles
Laser equipment is available for removing excess hair and is a
very effective cosmetic tool.

Laser surgery
Lasers can be used as a cutting tool and recent studies have
shown them to be a very effective means of producing incisions
in the skin. Curettage

Curettage
This is a simple way of removing epidermal lesions. A curette
has a metal spoon shaped end with a sharp cutting edge. Lesions suitable for curetting
There are a variety of shapes and sizes suitable for different • Seborrhoeic keratoses
lesions, from large seborrhoeic keratoses or papillomata to • Solitary viral warts
• Solar keratoses
smaller ones for minute keratin cysts. A specimen is provided • Cutaneous horns
for histology but completeness of removal cannot be accurately • Small basal cell carcinomas
assessed.

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ABC of Dermatology

Local anaesthetic is used and, with the skin stretched, the

curette is applied at the edge of the lesion which is then
Curettage and cautery
scooped off. It is advisable to work around the edges of larger • Use a sharp curette of appropriate size
or more firmly attached lesions. The dermis normally feels firm • Very firm control of the curette prevents it from suddenly
skidding onto normal skin
but when curetting off a keratotic horn or solar keratoses; a soft • Repeat curettage and cautery for neoplastic lesions such as
consistency may indicate dysplastic change. The base can be basal cell carcinoma and solar keratoses
lightly cauterised to control bleeding, sterilise the site, and • Send the specimen for pathological examination
prevent recurrence.
Various types of disposable curettes are available and are
easy to use.

Incisional biopsy and punch biopsy

It is essential to have a working clinical diagnosis, but wherever
there is doubt the pathologists can provide much more precise
information regarding the nature and extent of the lesion.
For example, a patch of Bowen’s disease (intraepidermal
carcinoma) may resemble sclerosing superficial basal cell Biopsy—equipment needed
carcinoma and a biopsy will usually distinguish them. Similarly,
what seems to be a dysplastic pigmented naevus clinically may,
on the one hand, prove to be benign or, on the other hand,
turn out to be a malignant melanoma requiring wide
excision.
Immunofluorescent staining of a blistering lesion
differentiates dermatitis herpetiformis, which is treated
with a gluten free diet, from pemphigoid, which requires
corticosteroids and often immunosuppressant drugs.

Incisional biopsy—marking lesion Incisional biopsy—histology

Incisional biopsy
This is suitable for larger lesions and is taken across the margin
of the lesion in the form of an elipse. It is essential to include
deeper dermis, as the significant changes in, for example,
granuloma or lymphoid infiltrate may not be near the surface.
An adequate amount of normal tissue should be included, so
this could be compared with the pathological area and this also
means there is enough normal skin to suture the incision
together.

Abnormal
Abnormal
Normal
Punch biopsy Normal
The biopsy tool consists of a small cylinder with a cutting rim
which is used to penetrate the epidermis by rotation between
the operator’s finger and thumb. There is minimal danger of
damaging deeper structures as the elastic subcutaneous
tissues merely rotate with the tool without being cut. The
resulting plug of skin is lifted out with forceps and cut off as
deeply as possible.

Incisional biopsy—amount of tissue that should be taken

Punch biopsy—injecting local Punch biopsy—examples of

anaesthetic punches

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 Practical procedures and where to use them

With the smaller sized punches the resulting defect can be

treated with electrocautery or left to heal spontaneously. With
a punch larger than 3 or 4 mm a single suture can be used.
The main disadvantage of a punch biopsy is that it only provides
a single small piece of tissue. It may not be representative or
may miss an area of substantial change. It tends to leave a more
prominent scar than the incisional biopsy.
Punch biopsy—tool inserted Punch biopsy—plug of skin

Punch biopsy—raising plug of skin Punch biopsy—treating defect with Punch biopsy—specimen taken
to cut electrocautery

Excision of skin lesions is both curative and diagnostic. It

may be the best way of making a diagnosis if there are multiple
small papules or vesicles, one of which can be excised intact.
Incisions should follow tension or wrinkle lines.
In the case of malignant lesions it is particularly important
that the whole lesion is adequately excised. The pathologist can
report on the adequacy of excision, but not in multifocal basal
cell carcinoma where this cannot be assessed. If there is likely
to be any doubt about the excision being complete it is helpful
to attach a suture to one end of the excised specimen so the
pathologist can describe which border, if any, extends over the
excision margin.

Surgical excision—“wrinkle lines” of skin

Surgical excision—“wrinkle lines” of skin

Surgical excision—“wrinkle lines” of skin

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ABC of Dermatology

Technique
The basic technique consists of making an elliptical incision
with the length three times the width. This enables suturing
without the formation of “dog ears” at the end. The long axis
of the excision should follow the “wrinkle lines” of the skin,
which are parallel to the collagen bundle in the dermis. This
produces stronger, narrower scars. They are not the same as the
Surgical excision—elliptical Surgical excision—raising skin
deeper lines or fasical attachment or “Lange lines”. Lesions on incision
the sternal area, upper chest, and shoulders, where keloid scars
often form, should only be excised when it is essential and may
be best referred to a plastic surgeon.
Local anaesthetic is injected subcutaneously but close to the
skin. The incision should be vertical rather than wedge shaped.
Monofilament sutures cause less inflammation and trapping of
serum than the braided variety, but are harder to tie securely.
Methods of suturing and the more specialised techniques of
flaps and grafts are outside the scope of this book. It is an asset
for the dermatologist to be able to carry out surgical procedures
Surgical excision—appearance
on the skin and suitable courses are generally available. of lesions under skin

Surgical excision
• After initially inserting the needle, withdraw the plunger of
the syringe to check the needle has not entered the blood
vessels. Raising a small “bleb” of local anaesthetic ahead of
30˚ 1
the needle point helps to prevent this
• It is important to learn appropriate suturing techniques for
different sites of the body and size of lesion
• Warn the patient that a scar will result and make sure that
3 this is minimal and does not produce any deformity such as
displacement of the eyelid
• Always send an excised lesion for histology. A significant
Surgical excision—guidance for making elliptical incision number of lesions diagnosed as being benign clinically have
been shown to be malignant. This would of course be missed
if they had not been sent to a laboratory

Further reading
Lawrence C. Introduction to dermatological surgery. Oxford: Blackwell
Science, 1997
Tromovitch TA, Stegman SJ, Glogau RG. Flaps and grafts in
dermatologic surgery. Chicago: Year Book Medical, 1989
Zachary CB. Basic cutaneous surgery: a primer in technique. New York:
Churchill Livingstone, 1991

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25 Dermatology in general practice
R Balfour, E Crawford

In common with other aspects of general practice the

Dermatology in general practice
management of dermatological problems has changed
considerably in recent years. In particular: • In a study of one area of London 55% of adults examined
had some form of skin disease*
• There is an increased expectation from patients, who want • Of those with moderate or severe conditions only 24% had
an accurate diagnosis and prompt treatment but also expect made use of medical facilities in the previous six months
treatment for even the smallest lesion. • In the same study 30% of patients with skin conditions
medicated themselves
• The management of inflammatory skin conditions no longer • Eight per cent of patients attending a general practitioner for
requires many weeks of inpatient treatment. “Daily dressing a skin condition are referred to a dermatologist†
clinics” in hospital dermatology departments enable patients • A large reservoir of people in the community with skin
to continue their daily lives while being treated, but still conditions do not seek medical attention but can be expected
require visits to hospital. In many practices facilities for to do so as awareness of skin conditions increases‡
carrying out dressings by the practice nurse have been • General practitioners with postgraduate training in
dermatology and dermatology liaison nurses linked to
developed. specialist centres are needed so that the increasing demand
• The demand for specialist services far outstrips supply. for dermatology services can be met
Consequently the majority of patients with skin conditions • In countries with specialist care, basic training in the
have to be treated by general practitioners. One positive essentials of daignosis and treatment of skin conditions
outcome is that there is a greater emphasis on shared care enables health officers to make a considerable impact on
between general practice and hospital specialist departments. these conditions in the community
This is facilitated by the appointment of dermatology liaison *Rea JN, Newhouse ML, Halil T. Skin disease in Lambeth: a
nurses who are able to supervise patient’s treatment in the community study of prevalence and use of medical care.
community and, as the name suggests, liaise with both Br J Prev Soc Med 1976;30:107-14
†Carmichael AJ. Achieving an accessible dermatology service.
general practice and hospital departments using the Dermatol Pract 1995;3:13-16
resources of each as appropriate. ‡Savin J. The hidden face of dermatology. Clin Exp Dermatol
• General practitioners are increasingly developing special 1999;18:393-5
interests and many have part-time posts in specialist
departments. In the case of dermatology this enhances their
clinical knowledge, which they can bring to bear on the
problems in general practice.
Between 10% and 15% of consultations in general practice are
for skin related problems, although the actual number of skin
conditions seen is probably much higher than this. In one
general practice an analysis of 100 consecutive consultations
showed that 38 involved some aspect of dermatology.
Increasing knowledge of dermatology enables conditions to be
diagnosed and treated. Even if the diagnosis is not known it is
important to be able to assess the probable importance of
dermatological conditions and differentiate those for whom an
urgent referral to hospital is required from those needing
a specialist opinion to confirm the diagnosis and treatment
but for whom there is no great urgency. This is important with
the large demands being made on hospital departments with
diminished funding and increasing waiting times. In this
respect a good working relationship with the local hospital
department is a great asset.

Diagnosis of skin conditions in

general practice
As in all aspects of medicine, knowing how the more common
conditions present will provide a basis for recognising the
unusual variants or less common lesions. Psoriasis, eczema, and
other forms of dermatitis usually present no problems. Where
they do a review of the history often gives valuable clues.
Atopic eczema in childhood may explain the development of
a widespread itching rash in a young adult and an otherwise
unexplained rash may well be accounted for after a review of Hospital consultation

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ABC of Dermatology

current drugs the patient is taking. Knowledge of the

dermatological conditions associated with systemic disease, and
conditions that may mimic them, is clearly important. A
bilateral malar rash with photosensitivity in a woman should
suggest the possibility of lupus erythematosus and appropriate
investigations instituted. However, a completely typical case of
rosacea does not require extensive investigation. The most
useful diagnostic aids in general practice are:
• Skin scrapings and a sellotape strip should be sent for
mycology whenever there is an area of itching inflammatory
change, particularly in the flexures, that is not responding to
treatment.
• A swab for bacteriology should be sent from any area of
dermatitis that develops crusting and exudate.
• An incisional biopsy can be carried out to confirm a
significant diagnosis, for example in a patch of Bowen’s Demonstration of dressings by liaison nurse
disease This is not usually needed to make a diagnosis of
granuloma annulare, which has a very characteristic
presentation. All lesions removed by excision or curettage or
cautery should be sent for histology.
• Patch testing is not practicable in general practice as a rule
because of the large number of reagents and specialised
nursing skills required. Patients suspected of having contact
dermatitis should be referred to the appropriate unit.

The management of skin conditions

in general practice
One great advantage of general practice is that there is
continuity of care and the family doctor has a much more
complete overall picture of the patient, their family and social
circumstances than can be acquired in a hospital consultation.
Increasingly dressings and other treatments are being used by
practice nurses in conjunction with the dermatology liaison
nurse when necessary. This applies to inflammatory skin
conditions such as psoriasis and eczema as well as leg ulcers,
but also to conditions such as Darier’s disease, dermatitis
herpetiformis, and lupus erythematosus where regular
supervision and blood tests may be required. There is no Dressings being applied at home by mother
reason why continuing treatment with drugs such as ciclosporin
and methotrexate cannot be carried out in general practice
once the diagnosis and treatment regime have been
established. Regular blood tests are mandatory when these
drugs are being used.

Procedures in general practice

The details of techniques decribed in chapter 24.
• Excisions and other forms of minor surgery are probably best
undertaken by a member of the practice who has developed
expertise in this area, and received some level of training. It
is particularly important to be aware of which lesions and
anatomical sites are the most difficult for minor surgery. It is
probably wise not to attempt excisions over the sternum and
shoulders, particularly in young people, where keloid scars
will probably result. In general it is best to refer any
malignant lesion to a hospital department for excision.
• Curettage and cautery is a straightforward procedure for the
removal of superficial and well defined lesions such as
seborrhoeic keratoses and viral warts. It is as well to send all
specimens for histology—to confirm the diagnosis and make
sure that an unsuspected malignancy is not missed. It is
important that a clinical probable diagnosis is made so as to Mother, liaison nurse, and health visitor discuss treatment

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 Dermatology in general practice

avoid excising lesions where such treatment is not required

or when it is inappropriate.
• Cryotherapy is suitable for the treatment of warts, seborrheoic
keratoses, solar keratoses, and conditions such as Bowen’s
disease. If there is doubt as to the diagnosis or the condition
fails to respond to treatment a specialist opinion should be
sought. It usually most satisfactory to have a cryotherapy
clinic for which liquid nitrogen is regularly supplied and a
suitably trained nurse is available to carry out the treatment.
It is important that all patients are seen by by a doctor before
treatment is started so that the diagnosis and suitability for
treatment can be confirmed.

Self-help groups
Mother applying wet wraps at home
There are now groups that provide an invaluable source of
information and advice for a wide range of conditions.
A number of these are listed in the appendix.

Further reading
Barker DJ, Millard LG. Essentials of skin disease management. Oxford:
Blackwell Scientific, 1979
Lamberg SI. Dermatology in primary care: a problem oriented guide.
Philadelphia: Saunders, 1986
Stone LA, Lindfield EM, Robertson SJ. A colour atlas of nursing
procedures in skin disorders. London and St. Louis: Mosby–Wolfe,
1989

Assessment of circulation in leg ulcers by liaison nurse

123
26 Formulary

The zinc topped tables used for many years to prepare tar Emollients
“spreads” in a teaching hospital dermatology department were There are numerous preparations for softening dry scaling skin
recently thrown out—a sign of the times and an indication of and it is largely a matter of personal preference as to which one
both the increasing use of systemic treatment and much more is used.
effective forms of phototherapy. There is still an important
place for topical treatment and “dressing clinics” to play a vital Official preparations
role in the treatment of skin diseases and enabling affected • Soft white paraffin—greasy; protects skin and is long lasting.
individuals to continue their daily lives as far as possible. • Emulsifying ointment—less greasy; mixes with water and can
The link between hospital departments and community be used for washing.
services has been greatly increased by the development of the • Aqueous cream—oil in water emulsion; useful as a vehicle, as
role of “liaison nurses”. These nurses, with experience and an emollient, and for washing.
training in the treatment of skin disease, visit patients in their • Liquid paraffin: white soft paraffin, equal parts—spreads
homes to supervise treatment in conjuction with the general easily and is less greasy than white soft paraffin.
practitioner and the practice nurse. As they are based in the • Hydrophilic ointment—contains propylene glycol; mixes with
hospital they can call on any specialist opinion or treatment water and spreads easily.
needed. • Lanolin (hydrous wool fat)—the natural emollient from
A great variety of preparations is available for the treatment sheep; mixes with water and greases, softens the epidermis,
of skin conditions, and those most commonly used are but can also cause allergic reactions.
described. There are numerous effective alternatives.
The techniques for the treatment of specific conditions are Proprietary preparations
described in the appropriate chapters. Proprietary preparations are numerous, varied, and more
expensive than the standard preparations. They may also
contain sensitisers—lanolin and preservatives (hydroxybenzoate,
Topical treatment chlorocresol, sorbic acid)—and can cause allergies. Some
examples are E45 cream (Crookes), Oilatum cream (Stiefel),
General treatments and Lacticare (Stiefel), Unguentum Merck (Merck), Aquadrate
The epidermis is capable of absorbing both greasy and aqueous (Norwich Eaton), and Diprobase (Schering-Plough).
preparations or a mixture of the two. The type of lesion
influences which type is used. Bath additives
• Dry, scaling skin—greasy ointments. Bath additives comprise dispersible oils such as Oilatum
• Crusted, weeping lesions—creams which are an emulsion of (Westwood, United States), Aveeno (Bioglan), Balneum
greases in water. (Merck), Alpha Keri (Westwood, United States), Emulsiderm,
• For occlusion or long action—pastes which are powder and Dermol (Dermal).
(for example, zinc oxide) in an ointment.
• For the face and scalp—gels Topical steroids
Topical steroids provide effective anti-inflammatory treatment
Composition of bases but have the disadvantage of causing atrophy (due to decreased
The consistency and properties of ointment and cream depend fibrin formation) and telangiectasis. They are readily absorbed
on the ratio of oil or grease to water (that is, whether they are by thin skin around the eyes and in flexures. On the face the
oil in water or water in oil) and the emulsifying agents used. halogenated steroids produce considerable telangiectasia,
For example, emulsifying ointment contains soft white paraffin, so nothing stronger than hydrocortisone should be used
emulsifying ointment, and liquid paraffin. (except in lupus erythematosus). They can cause hirsutism
The oils and greases range from mineral oil through and folliculitis or acne. Infection of the skin may be
soft paraffin to solid waxes. Some are naturally occurring, concealed (tinea incognita, for example) or made worse.
such as lanolin and beeswax. Creams or ointments may be Side effects can be avoided by observing the following
used on their own as emollients or as vehicles for active guidelines:
ingredients.
• Avoid long term use of strong steroids.
• Potent or very potent steroids should be applied sparingly
and often for a short time, then a less potent preparation less
often as the condition improves.
Creams Grease Paste
fats • Use only mildly potent steroids (that is, hydrocortisone) on
the face.
• Use preparations combined with antibiotics or antifungals for
the flexures.
Water Lotion/ Powder
suspension Topical steroids come in various strengths and a wide variety of
bases—ointments, creams, oily creams, lotions, and gels—which
Composition of bases can be used according to the type of lesion being treated.

124
 Formulary

Their pharmacological activity varies and they are classified Tar has an anti-inflammatory effect and seems to suppress
according to their potency, the synthetic halogenated steroids the epidermal turnover in lesions of psoriasis. The various tar
being much stronger than hydrocortisone: pastes are generally too messy to use at home and are most
suitable for dermatology treatment centres. Standard tar paste
• Mildly potent—hydrocortisone 0·5%, 1%, and 2·5%
contains a strong solution of coal tar 7·5% in 25 g of zinc oxide,
• Moderately potent—Eumovate (GSK), Stiedex LP (Stiefel)
25 g of starch, and 50 g of white soft paraffin.
• Potent—Betnovate (GSK), Cutivate (GSK), Locoid
There are numerous proprietary preparations that are less
(Brocades), Synalar (Zeneca)
messy and do not stain but are not so effective. They are useful
• Very potent—Dermovate (GSK).
for treating less severe psoriasis at home. Examples are:
In Britain a full list showing relative potencies appears Alphosyl cream (Stafford-Miller), Pragmatar (Bioglan),
in MIMS. Combinations with antiseptics and antifungals, are Psoriderm (Dermal); alphosyl HC (Stafford-Miller) and
listed below: Carbo-Cort (Lagap) contain hydrocortisone as well.
Dithranol can be used in a paste containing salicylic acid, zinc
Mildly potent oxide starch, and soft white paraffin. It has to be applied
• Vioform HC (Zyma) carefully avoiding contact with the surrounding skin, as it
• Terra-Cortril ointment (Pfizer), containing oxytetracycline can cause severe irritation. It is best to start with a low
and hydrocortisone concentration.
• Fucidin H cream or ointment (Leo), containing fucidic acid For short contact treatment relatively clean preparations in
and hydrocortisone a range of concentrations are available, such as Dithrocream
• Canesten HC (Baypharm) (Dermal), Anthranol (Stiefel), and Psoradrate cream
• Daktacort cream (Janssen) (Stafford-Miller).
Ichthammol is a useful soothing extract of shale tar. It can be
Moderately potent
made up as a 1% paste in yellow soft paraffin with 15% zinc
• Betnovate N (betamethasone and neomycin) (GSK)
oxide.
• Synalar N (neomycin; Zeneca)
Bath preparations are useful for dry skin and widespread
• Trimovate cream (clobetasone butyrate, nystatin, and
psoriasis. Coal tar solution (20%) can be used or Polytar
oxytetracyclin; GSK)
Emollient (Stiefel) or Psoriderm.
• Fucibet (betamethasone, fucidic acid; Leo)
Tar shampoos are useful for treating psoriasis of the scalp.
Very potent Polytar (Stiefel), T-Gel (Neutrogena), Capasal (Dermal), and
• Dermovate-NN (clobetasone, with neomycin and nystatin; Alphosyl (Stafford-Miller) are some examples.
GSK).
Keratolytics
These can be used for hyperkeratotic lesions. They soften and
Antiseptics and cleaning lotions help remove excess keratin. If used for extensive areas or in
Simple antiseptics are very useful for cleaning infected, infants systemic absorption can occur. A useful preparation is
weeping lesions and leg ulcers. salicylic acid 2–4% in aqueous cream. Salicylic acid with
Potassium permanganate can be used by dropping four or five betamethasone ointment (Diprosalic ointment, Schering-
crystals in a litre of water or in an 0·1% solution that is diluted Plough) can be used for hyperkeratotic lesions where
to 0·01% for use as a soak. It will stain the skin temporarily and inflammation is present.
plastic containers permanently.
Silver nitrate 0·25% is a simple, safe antiseptic solution that, Antipruritics
applied as a wet compress, is useful for cleaning ulcers. Useful anti-pruritics for persistent itching include menthol
Flamazine (Smith and Nephew) is silver sulfadiazine cream, (0·5%) or phenol 1% in aqueous cream, and calamine lotion,
used for leg ulcers, pressure sores, and burns. which contains arachis oil.
Hydrogen peroxide (6%) helps remove slough but tends to be
painful. Hioxyl (Quinoderm) is a proprietary cream for
Barrier and protective preparations
desloughing.
These preparations protect against softening and maceration
Iodine (2·5%) is an old fashioned, effective preparation as
from moisture in flexures, for example the groins. They
a tincture in alcohol and Betadine (Napp) is a proprietary
also have an occlusive effect. They are essentially bases with
equivalent.
zinc oxide or silicone (as dimethicone). There are many
Shampoos. Ceanel concentrate (Quinoderm) contains
preparations; some of the most commonly used are:
cetrimide 10%. Ionil T (Galderma) has benzalkonium chloride
and coal tar solution, and Betadine (SSL) contains povidone • Zinc cream BP, contains zinc oxide, arachis oil, and lanolin
iodine. Shampoos containing selenium sulphide (Selsun, • Zinc and castor oil ointment BP
Abbot) and ketokonazole (Nizoral, Janssen) can be used • Conotrane (Yamanoouchi) and Siopel (Bioglan), contain
for seborrhoeic dermatitis and also for pityriasis versicolor of dimeticone (dimethicone)
the skin. • Metanium (Roche), contains titanium dioxide
There are numerous other antiseptic, cleansing, and • Sudocrem (Forest) and Drapolene (Pfizer), contain
desloughing agents such as cetrimide, chlorhexidine, lanolin.
benzalkonium chloride, benzoic acid, and enzyme preparations
such as Varidase (Lederle), a streptokinase and streptodornase Treatment for specific situations
preparation. Sunscreens
These give a degree of protection—mainly to ultraviolet B but
Tar preparations also to ultraviolet A. They depend on their effect on a physical
These are mainly used for treating psoriasis as described in barrier (usually titanium dioxide) and chemicals that combine
chapter 3. with epidermal cells, usually esters of PABA or oxybenzone.

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ABC of Dermatology

Camouflage any infection should be treated first and it should be used with
Scars, congenital naevi and other blemishes that cannot be caution if there is a risk of viral infection or if inoculations
removed can be covered with suitable creams. Proprietary using attenuated or live organisms are being used.
preparations are available. Pimecrolimus (Elidel, Steeple Novartis) is a similar
preparation recommended for intermittent treatment of
Antiperspirants eczema can also be used as an initial treatment for any flare up
Aluminium chloride for hyperhidrosis: aluminium chloride of eczema. It diminishes cytokine activity long term relieving
20% (Driclor, Stiefel, or Anhydrol, Dermal Laboratories). both the erythema and pruritis of eczema.
In common with topical steroids any immunosuppressive
Depigmenting agents
drug should be used with caution as viral infections are likely to
2% hydroquinone cream is available without prescription as
be present or the patient is undergoing inoculation with live or
“fade-out”. Preparations containing corticosteroids are also
attenuated organisms.
prescribed but not available as proprietary preparations.

Antimitotic agents
5-Flourouracil cream is useful for treating incipient Systemic treatment
malignancies—that is, solar keratoses, but not actual Antibiotics are probably the most commonly used systemic
carcinomas. It is available as Efudix cream (Roche), which is treatment. Long term antibiotics are needed for acne and
applied daily for one to two weeks. It produces a variable cellulitis. Antifungal and antiviral drugs are indicated if
degree of inflammation that is allowed to subside before the topical treatment is ineffective, particularly in the
treatment is repeated. immunosuppressed, and when the infection has been
confirmed by laboratory tests.
Infestations
Immunosuppressant drugs have had a considerable impact
(1) Scabies. The correct procedure for treatment is more
on the treatment of autoimmune and connective tissue diseases
important than the preparation used. Benzyl benzoate 25%
and diminished the need for systemic steroids—previously the
application BP is still available and is cheap but tends to
only treatment available. They are increasingly used for
irritate the skin. Malathion is available as Derbac (SSL),
extensive and persistently inflamed dermatoses, particularly
Prioderm (SSL), and Quellada M (Stafford-Miller), and
psoriasis and eczema.
Permethrin as Lyclear cream (Kestrel) preparations are
more effective and less likely to irritate. 6% sulphur in
white soft paraffin or permethrin are recommended for Antibacterial drugs
young children and pregnant or lactating women. The All penicillins may cause allergic rashes, which may be severe,
procedures for treatment set out on page 107 should be and the broad spectrum penicillins, amoxicillin, ampicillin,
followed and clearly explained to the patient. For resistant and co-amoxiclav, are particularly likely to cause an intense
cases ivermectin (Mectizan, MSD) by mouth is available on rash in patients with glandular fever. They tend to accumulate
a named patient basis. in patients with renal failure and may reduce the excretion of
(2) Pediculosis. Preparations containing malathion, carbaryl, methotrexate which is used in the treatment of psoriasis.
and permethrin are used either as shampoos or lotions. Phenoxymethylpenicillin (penicillin V) is useful in Gram
Lotions are most effective and should be left on the skin positive infections and erysipelas.
for 12 hours before washing off. The same preparations are Flucloxacillin is used to treat infections due to
available as for treating scabies, with the addition of 0·5% penicillinase producing organisms. It is used in impetigo and
malathion lotion as Suleo-M (SSL). Recently a lotion of cellulitis.
phenothrin (Full Marks, SSL) has become available for Amoxicillin and ampicillin are broad spectrum antibiotics
treating head and pubic lice. but are destroyed by penicillinase. Co-amoxiclav is a
combination of amoxacillin and clavullinic acid. It is effective
Preparations for the mouth against a wide range of organisms and beta lactamase
Steroids—Adcortyl in Orabase (Squibb) or Corlan producing staphylococci as well.
pellets (Evans). Both these preparations contain Cephalosporins are not affected by penicillinase and are
corticosteroids. effective against both Gram positive and Gram negative
Antifungals—Daktarin (Janssen) or Fungilin lozenges infections.
(Squibb); Nystan (nystatin suspension, Squibb). Corsoidyl Ciprofloxacin is used for infections with both Gram positive
(chlorhexidine, GSK), and Difflam (3m Riker) are useful and Gram negative organisms such as pseudomonas.
mouthwashes. Erythromycin is used for the treatment of acne and is useful
in Gram positive infections. Resistant strains of staphylococcus
Topical immunosuppressants are appearing.
Tacrolimus (Protopic, Fujisawa) has recently become available Metronidazole is useful for treating anaerobic infections
as an ointment in two strengths, 0.03% and 0.1%. It has not and trichomonas infections. It is useful for rosacea that is not
been evaluated in children under the age of two or in pregnant responding to conventional treatment.
women. It is recommended that it is only used by
dermatologists or those with considerable experience in Antifungal drugs
treating eczema. Although the exact mode of action is Topical treatment is usually effective but for fungal infection
unknown it does diminish T cell stimulation by Langerhan cells of the nails and intractable infections of the skin systemic
and diminishes the production of inflammatory mediators from treatment may be required.
mast cells. It should be used in moderate to severe atopic Griseofulvin (500 mg daily) is a well established treatment
eczema that has not responded to either treatment. Skin for fungal infections of the skin, hair, and nails. Although it
irritation with burning, erythema, and pruritis are the most should not be used in pregnancy, it can be used in children. It
common side effects. In view of its immunosuppressive activity can cause lupus erythematosus to flare up.

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 Formulary

Terbinafine (250 mg daily) is an effective systemic The side effects must be borne in mind, particularly for any
antifungal drug that does not affect the liver. It is used for both long term treatment. Most important are given below.
nail and skin infections.
Imidazole and triazole drugs include itraconazole and Water and electrolytes
ketoconazole, which are effective for dermatophyte infections Sodium and water retention with loss of potassium.
of the skin and pityriasis versicolor.
Musculoskeletal
Antiviral drugs Osteoporosis, aseptic necrosis of the femoral head, growth
Discovery of drugs that inhibit viral DNA polymerase and retardation in children, and muscle wasting.
inhibit their proliferation in vivo means that effective treatment
for herpes simplex and zoster is now possible. They are Ophthalmic effect
effective at the early stages of infection and should be started as Cataract formation and increased tendency to glaucoma.
soon as symptoms appear. Aciclovir (Zovirax, GSK) is available
as a cream. Other effects
Aciclovir is effective against both herpes simplex and zoster. Increase in blood pressure, peptic ulceration and fat
The standard dose is 200 mg five times daily for five days. redistribution, and impaired glucose intolerance.
In varicella infections and herpes zoster 800 mg is given five
times daily for seven days. It can also be given by intravenous Retinoids
infusion, and should be applied as soon as symptoms appear. These vitamin A derivatives have proved very effective in the
In addition, it can be used for prophylaxis, particularly in the treatment of psoriasis and acne but are not without risk of side
immunocompromised patients and atopics who are liable to effects. The most serious is that they are teratogenic and must
fulminating infection. be discontinued for at least three months after stopping
Famciclovir and valaciclovir are similar and are recommended treatment in the case of isotretinoin and five years after taking
for treating herpes zoster. acitretin.
All patients should be warned of possible side effects and
Antihistamines women of childbearing age must be using an effective form of
These drugs are used in urticaria and acute allergic (type I contraception, which must have been used for at least a month
immediate hypersensitivity) reactions. The newer long acting before treatment has started as well as having a pregnancy test
and non-sedating antihistamines are useful for treatment carried out. Liver function tests and fasting cholesterol and
during the day and can be combined with one of the sedating triglycerides should be carried out on all patients. After
type at night if pruritus is preventing sleep. prolonged treatment in adolescence, radiological tests should
Non-sedating antihistamines only cross the blood–brain be carried out to ensure that there is no extraosseous
barrier to a slight extent. They may cause arrhythmias, calcification. The most important side effects are:
particularly terfenadine. • Abnormal liver function tests
• Acrivastine (Semprex, GSK) 8 mg three times daily • An increase in cholesterol and triglycerides
• Cetirizine (Zirtek, UCB Pharma) 10 mg once daily • Occasional increases in electron spin resonance and lowered
• Fexofenadine (Telfast, Hoechst) 120 or 180 mg once daily white count.
• Loratadine (Clarityn, Schering-Plough) 10 mg once daily.
Clinical side effects
Drying and roughening of the skin and mucous membranes,
Sedating antihistamines
particularly the lips, can occur. There may also be thinning of
There are many available and which is used is largely a matter
the hair and nails. Photosensitivity eruptions can develop.
of personal preference. The sedating effect, which is enhanced
Occasionally muscle and joint pains occur.
by alcohol, means that they are best taken at night. They also
potentiate CNS depressants and anticholinergic drugs. They
Acitretin
tend to have anticholinergic effects, causing dry mouth,
This drug is used for severe psoriasis including pustulosis of the
blurred vision, tachycardia, and urinary retention. Those
hands and feet. It has also been used in other forms of
commonly used are:
keratosis such as Darier’s disease and pityriasis rubra pilaris.
• Chlorphenamine (Piriton Stafford-Miller 4 mg daily)
• Cyproheptadine (Periactin (MSD) 4 mg up to four times Isotretinoin
daily) This drug is used for severe acne vulgaris that has not
• Hydroxyzine (Atarax (Pfizer) 10–25 mg at night; can be used responded to antibiotics or other treatments. It is therefore
during the day if drowsiness is not a problem) often used in adolescence and it is important to be aware of the
• Promethazine (10 or 25 mg at night or twice daily) musculoskeletal effects and possible mood changes.
• Trimeprazine (Vallergan (Castlemead) 10 mg two to three
times daily). Immunosuppressants
Methotrexate
Corticosteroids This drug is useful in severe psoriasis that is not responding to
In addition to topical preparations, systemic steroids may be topical treatment. The main disadvantage is its adverse effect
required for the treatment of severe inflammatory skin on the liver, which precludes its use in those who have alcoholic
conditions such as erythroderma developing from psoriasis or liver disease but who are often those most needing systemic
eczema. They are also used in vasculitis and erythema treatments. Idiopathic immunosuppression can occur so a test
multiforme as well as connective tissue diseases. They are often dose must always be given and a full blood count carried out
required for the treatment of pemphigoid and pemphigus 48 hours later before treatment has started. There may be
together with immunosuppressant drugs. gastrointestinal upsets and osteometitis as well.

127
ABC of Dermatology

Methotrexate interacts with anti-inflammatory and Other drugs

antiepileptic drugs. A full list of drug interactions should be Dapsone
consulted before treatment is started. This drug was originally developed for treating leprosy but was
After a 2·5 mg test dose and full blood count proved very effective in dermatitis pityformis and some other
48 hours later, the regular dose is 5–15 mg by mouth once conditions, such as pyoderma gangrenosum. It may cause
a week. Full blood count and liver function tests should be haemolytic anaemia, and other side effects include bone
carried out once a week for the first six weeks and thereafter marrow suppression, hepatitis, and peripheral neuropathy.
once a month during treatment. Folinic acid should be given Regular blood checks are essential.
at the same time, as this prevents bone marrow depression.
In many centres a liver biopsy is considered mandatory Hydroxychloroquine
before treatment is started since blood tests will remain This drug is used in both systemic and discoid lupus
normal for some time during the development of hepatic erythematosus as well polymorphic light eruption and
fibrosis. porphyria cutanea tarda. The most serious side effect is
retinopathy but this does not occur if the dose does not exceed
6·5 mg/kg lean body weight.
Azathioprine
This drug is used for systemic lupus erythematosus, Psoralens
pemphigus, and bullous pemphigoid. It enables the These drugs are used in conjunction with long wavelength
dosage of systemic steroids to be reduced. The most ultraviolet light as psoralen with ultraviolet A (PUVA) therapy
serious side effect is bone marrow suppression. This may described on page 67. It is used for the treatment of severe
occur quite rapidly, particularly in those with diminished ability psoriasis. It has also proved effective in some cases of atopic
to metabolise the drug. This is carried out by thiopurine eczema, T cell lymphoma of the skin, and occasionally in lichen
methyl transferase (TMT). The level of this enzyme should planus. There is a risk of cataract formation, and a full blood
therefore be determined before treatment is started and those count as well as antinuclear factor tests should be carried out.
at low levels given a lower dosage. Those who inherit high Preparations for treating acne and varicose ulcers are
activity may require higher doses. Other side effects include described in the appropriate sections.
gastrointestinal upset, liver toxicity, and an increased tendency
to infection.
Further reading
Arndt KA. Manual of dermatological therapeutics, 5th ed. NewYork:
Ciclosporin Little, 1995
This drug has proved helpful in severe psoriasis within
inflammatory lesions and, secondly, in the treatment of severe
atopic dermatitis. There are a number of drug interactions and
it is important to check renal function and monitor both blood
urea and serum creatinine.

128
Appendix: Patient support groups

Acne Support Group (0870) 870 2263

Behcet’s Syndrome Society (01488) 71116
Allergy UK (020) 8303 8583
Cancer BACUP (0808) 800 1234
British Association of Skin Camouflage (01625) 267880
British Red Cross Skin Camouflage Service (020) 7201 5172
British Leprosy Relief Association (01206) 562286
Congenital Melanocytic Naevus Support Group (0151) 281 9716
Darier’s Disease Support Group (01646) 695055
Dystrophic Epidermolysis Bullosa Research Association (01344) 771971
Ectodermal Dysplasia Society (01242) 261332
Ehlers–Danlos Support Group (01252) 690940
Hairline International (01564) 775281
Herpes Viruses Association (020) 7609 9061
Ichthyosis Support Group (020) 7461 0356
Latex Allergy Support Group (07071) 225838
Lupus UK (01708) 731251
Lymphoma Association (LA) (0808) 808 5555
Marfan Association UK (01252) 810472
Myositis Support Group (023) 8044 9708
National Eczema Society (0870) 241 3604
Neurofibromatosis Association (020) 8547 1636
Pemphigus Vulgaris Network (020) 8690 6462
Primary Immunodeficiency Association (PIA) (010) 7976 7640
Pseudoxanthoma Elasticum (PXE) Support Group (01628) 476687
Psoriatic Arthropathy Alliance (01923) 672837
Psoriasis Association (01604) 711129
Raynaud’s and Scleroderma Association Trust (01270) 872776
Scleroderma Society (020) 8961 4912
Shingles Support Society (020) 7607 9061
Telangiectasia Self Help Group (01494) 528047
Tuberous Sclerosis Association (01527) 871898
Vitiligo Society (020) 7840 0855

129
Index
Page numbers printed in italics refer to boxed material

abcesses 88 non-scarring, causes 53

acanthosis nigricans 76 treatment 53
aciclovir 93, 126 drug-induced 52
acitretin 128 lichen planus 27
adverse effects 16 localised 53–4
psoriasis treatment 16 male pattern 51, 53
acne 47–50 postfebrile 52
causes 47, 47–8 scarring 54, 54
external factors 48 traction 53
cystic 47, 49 alopecia areata 53–4
infantile 47, 48 aetiology 54
occupational 48, 49 autoimmune aetiology 84
scars 47 differential diagnosis 53
treatment 49, 49–50, 50 nail changes 58, 59, 60
types 48, 48–9 treatment 53–4
acne conglobata 48, 48 alopecia totalis 53
acne excoreé 48 alopecia universalis 53
acne fulminans 48 amelanotic melanoma 70
acne keloidalis 48 ampicillin, rashes due to 37
acne vulgaris 48, 48 Amsler Chart 73, 85
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome see AIDS amyloidosis 79
acquired melanocytic naevi 68 anagen 51
acral melanoma 70 anagen effluvium 52
acrodermatitis pustulosa 10, 58 anaphylactic reactions 72, 82
actinic keratosis see solar (actinic) keratoses Ancylostoma caninum 107
actinomycetoma 111 androgenic alopecia 51–2, 53
acute erythrodermic psoriasis 11 androgens
acute febrile neutrophilic dermatosis 36 acne association 47, 47
acyclovir 93, 126 hair growth 51
adenoma sebaceum 64 angiitis, necrotising 37
AIDS 98–100 angiomas 75
B cell lymphoma 100 cavernous 64
drug eruptions 100 congenital 75
infections 99 eruptive 75
viral 93, 94, 99 spider naevi 75
Kaposi’s sarcoma 100 angio-oedema 38
skin changes 99 animal ringworm 101, 103
stages 98 annular lesions 5, 9
syphilis with 89 anthrax 91
see also HIV infection antiandrogens 56
albinism 76 acne treatment 49
squamous cell carcinoma 109 antibiotics 126
allergic contact dermatitis 19, 19–22, 23, 83 acne treatment 49
allergic reactions 6, 24, 82 erythema due to 35
causes and process 82 rashes due to 36, 37, 72
cosmetics 87, 87 antifungal drugs 103–4, 126
dithranol 20, 21 nail infections 60
drugs 20, 72, 87 oral use 126
fish protein 82 seborrhoeic dermatitis treatment 29
latex 21, 23 antigen-antibody complex reactions 83, 83
neomycin 20, 36, 41 antihistamines 24, 127
nickel 20, 23, 41 non-sedating 127
plants 87 sedating 127
types 82–3 antimitotic agents 126
alopecia antiperspirants 126
adult pattern 52 anti-pruritics 125
aetiology and pathogenesis 52, 52 antiseptic paints 104
androgenic 51–2, 53 antiseptics 125
classification 52 antiviral drugs 126
congenital 52 aquagenic urticaria 38
diffuse 52 argyria 76

130
 Index

arterial ulcers 45–6 pemphigoid 6, 7, 40

arthropathy 11 pityriasis lichenoides varioliformis acuta 40
Ascaris lumbricoides 108 see also bullae
asteatosis 19, 78 blue naevus 68
asteatotic eczema 18 body lice 105, 108
athlete’s foot 32, 102 boils 88, 91
atopic eczema 17 borderline leprosy 110
diagnosis in general practice 121–2 Borrelia infections 75, 106
distribution 17 Bowen’s disease 34, 63
genetic basis 81 cryotherapy treatment 116
localised lesions 32 squamous cell carcinoma developing 62
scalp 54 breast, Paget’s disease 18, 63
variants 17 Breslow classification, melanoma 71
atopy, inheritance 81 bullae 3
atrophie blanche 44 insect bites 106
atrophy 4 see also blisters
Auspitz sign 8 bullous impetigo 24, 41
autoantibodies 81 bullous pemphigoid 4, 40
autoimmune disease 83–6 Buruli ulcer 89
nail involvement 58 “butterfly” rash 73, 84, 87
range 84
vitiligo association 76 “cafe au lait” patches 77
azathioprine 127 Calamine lotion 24
azole drugs 104, 126 calcipotriol 14
camouflage preparations 126
bacillary angiomatosis 89 Campbell de Morgan spots 64
Bacterial Index (BI), leprosy 110 Candida albicans 102, 103
bacterial infections 87–91 Candida intertrigo 103
AIDS-related 99 candidiasis 101, 103
clinical presentation 88, 88 AIDS-related 99
common patterns 90–1 diabetes-related 79
mycobacterial 88–9 flexural 98
signs 87 pseudomembranous 98
tropical 109–10 cantharadin 54
balanitis xerotica obliterans 74 carbon dioxide, solid 115
barrier preparations 125 wart treatment 95
basal cell(s), neoplastic 61 carbon dioxide cryotherapy 115
basal cell carcinoma 61–2 carbuncle 88, 91
cystic 61 carcinoid 74
nodular 61 carcinoma see basal cell carcinoma; squamous cell carcinoma
pigmented 62 catagen 51
sclerosing 62 cat scratch disease 89
sun exposure and 66 cautery 118
superficial 62 see also electrocautery; heat cautery
treatment 62 cavernous angioma 64
cryotherapy 116 cavernous haemangioma 117
ulcerated 46, 61, 62 cellulitis 88, 91
basal cell epithelioma 61 cervix, intraepithelial neoplasia 99
bases, topical preparations 124 champagne bottle legs 44
bath additives 124 chickenpox 39, 92
bath preparations, tar/coal tar 125 chloasma 76
Bazin’s disease 36 chloracne 49
BCC see basal cell carcinoma chlorpromazine 77
B cell lymphoma 77 cholestyramine 78
AIDS 100 cholinergic urticaria 38
Beau’s lines 58, 59 chromomycosis 112
Becker’s naevus 68 ciclosporin 127
benzoyl peroxide 49 alopecia due to 52
biliary obstruction, pruritus 24 psoriasis treatment 16
biopsy 118–20 Clark classification, melanoma 71
incisional 118, 122 cleaning lotions 125
blackheads 48 clubbing, of nails 58, 75
Blashko’s lines 81 coal tar preparations 14, 26, 125
blastomycosis 111 coeliac disease 39
blepharitis 50 “cold sores” (herpes simplex virus type I) 41, 92
blistering eruptions, drug-induced 37 cold urticaria 38
blisters 39–42 comedones 48
autoimmune response 83 compound naevi 68
development, duration and distribution 39 compression bandages, venous ulcer treatment 44
differential diagnosis 39 congenital angiomas 75
diseases presenting with 6, 39 congenital hairy naevus 69
erythema multiforme 36, 40 congenital pigmented naevus 68–9

131
Index

connective tissue diseases 72–4 diet, acne and 47

contact dermatitis 5, 6, 19–22 direct immunofluorescence 84
allergic 19, 19–22, 23, 83 discoid eczema 4, 18, 30
alopecia treatment 54 discoid lupus erythematosus 32–3, 73
drug-related 36 clinical features 32, 33, 34, 73, 87
hair dye causing 54 diagnosis 34
immunological response 19 immunology 85
irritant see irritant contact dermatitis scarring alopecia 54
localised lesions 32 treatment 73, 85
morphology 20 dithranol 125
occupational 7, 20, 22–3 allergic reactions 20, 21
causative substances 21 psoriasis treatment 14, 16
patch testing 21–2 short contact 14
pathology 20–1 dracontiasis 114
corticosteroid preparations 127 dressings, leg ulcers 44, 45
see also steroid(s) drug eruptions 28
Corynebacterium minutissimum 32, 102 AIDS-associated 100
cosmetic acne 48 bullous 42
cosmetic allergy 87, 87 fixed see fixed drug eruptions
cowpox 94 drugs
crab lice 108 acne association 48
“crazy paving” pattern 18, 78 allergic reactions 87
CREST syndrome 74, 74, 85 alopecia due to 52
Crohn’s disease 78 blistering eruptions due to 37
cryotherapy 115–16, 116 contact dermatitis association 36
in general practice 123 hirsuties due to 54
indications 115–16 hyperpigmentation due to 77
curettage 117–18 lichen planus-like reactions 37
in general practice 122–3 nail colour changes due to 58–9
suitable lesions 118 photosensitivity due to 37
warts 95 photosensitivity induced by 66
cutaneous leishmaniasis 105, 110 rashes due to 36–7
cyclosporin see ciclosporin dry skin 78
cyproterone acetate 49 treatment 25
cystic acne 47, 49 dysplastic lesions, cryotherapy 116
cystic basal cell carcinoma 61–2 dysplastic melanoma 70
cysts 64 dysplastic naevi 69
cytotoxic reactions 82, 82–3 dysplastic naevus syndrome 68, 69

dapsone 128 ecthyma 88, 91

Darier’s disease 58, 60 eczema
deep vein obstruction 43 asteatotic 18
deficiency states atopic see atopic eczema
alopecia due to 52 classification 18
hyperpigmentation association 77 clinical features 17, 29
delayed hypersensitivity 83, 83 diagnosis 34
delusional parasitosis 106 discoid 4, 30
Demodex folliculorum 107 infected 26, 90
dengue 105 intraepidermal vesicles 6
depigmentation, localised 76 itching (pruritus) 23–4
depigmenting agents 126 lichenified 26, 28
dermatitis nail changes 58
contact see contact dermatitis nummular 4, 18
hand 26, 26 pathology 17
irritant see irritant contact dermatitis seborrhoeic see seborrhoeic dermatitis
occupational see occupational dermatitis stasis 18
perioral 30, 50, 87 treatment 25–6
seborrhoeic see seborrhoeic dermatitis guidelines 25
see also eczema types 17–18
dermatitis artefacta 46 weeping 25
dermatitis herpetiformis 7, 24, 39, 78 see also dermatitis
dermatofibroma 63 eczema herpeticum 17–18, 92
dermatographism 38 Ehlers–Danlos syndrome 78
dermatomyositis 73, 85 elastic, allergic reaction 21
dermatophyte infections 101, 102 electrocautery 116
see also ringworm equipment 116
dermo-epidermal junction 83 technique 116
desquamation 5 electrodesiccation 116
diabetes mellitus 78–9 elliptical excision 119
diabetic dermopathy 79 emollients 14, 26, 124
diabetic ulcers 46, 79 eczema treatment 25
diagnosis of skin conditions 121–2 proprietary preparations 124

132
 Index

emulsifying ointment BP 25 flea bites 106

en coup de sabre pattern 54 flexural candidiasis 98
endocrine disorders flexural psoriasis 10, 13
alopecia 52 fluid retention, acne and 47
see also individual disorders 5-fluorouracil cream 63, 126
environmental factors, history-taking 7 folliculitis 88, 91
enzyme preparations, venous leg ulcers 45 Gram negative 91
ephelides 68 folliculitis decalvans 54
epidermal thickening, psoriasis 8 formulary 124–8
epidermodysplasia verruciformis 94 systemic agents 126–8
epidermoid cyst 64 topical agents 124–6
epidermolysis bullosa 80 freckles 68
genetic basis 81 fungal infections 32, 101–3
Epidermophyton spp. 57 AIDS-related 99
epithelioma, basal cell 61 clinical presentation 101
erosion 4 deep 103
erysipelas 87, 88, 91, 109 tropical 111–12
erythema 2, 7, 34, 35–6, 75 diagnosis 34, 104
acute 25 localised lesions 32
from antibiotics 35 nails 57, 101–2
desquamating stage 32 superficial 101–3
facial 87 tropical 110, 111
figurate 35, 75 treatment 34, 103–4, 104
malar 33 tropical skin disease 110–12
nailbed 75 furuncles 88, 91
in systemic disease 72
toxic, causes 35 ganciclovir 93
see also rashes gastrointestinal disease, skin lesions 78
erythema annulare 75 general practice, and skin conditions 121, 121–3
erythema chronicum migrans 75, 106 diagnosis 121–2
erythema gyratum repens 75 management 122
erythema induratum 36 procedures used 122–3
erythema infectiosum 87, 95, 96 genetics and skin disease 80–1, 81
erythema marginatum 75 complex disorders 81
erythema multiforme 35–6, 72, 75 single gene disorders 80–1
annular lesions 36 genital herpes 92
blisters 36, 40 genital warts 94, 98, 99
causes 35, 75 genodermatoses 80–1, 81
target lesions 75 German measles 95–6
erythema nodosum 36, 80 Gianotti–Crosti syndrome 96
erythrasma 32, 102 graft versus host disease 86
erythrocyanosis 74 grain mites 106
erythrodermic psoriasis 11, 52 Gram negative folliculitis 48
treatment 13, 16 granuloma
erythroplasia of Queyrat 63 “fishtank” 89
ethyl chloride, cryotherapy 115 pyogenic 64
etretinate, psoriasis treatment 16 sarcoid 80
eumycetoma 111 “swimming pool” 89
examination, clinical 7 granuloma annulare 79
excision, surgical 120 gravitational ulcers 43
in general practice 122–3 griseofulvin 104
excoriation 4 guttate psoriasis 10, 28
exostosis, subungual 60 lesions 30
eyes, blepharitis 50 treatment 13, 15

facial erythema 87 haemangioma 3

facial psoriasis, treatment 13 cavernous 117
fasciitis, necrotising 79 sclerosing 63
favus 111 haemolytic anaemia 83
fibrokeratoma, periungual 60 haemosiderin deposition 76
fifth disease 87, 95, 96 hair 51–6
figurate erythema 35, 75 excessive 55–6
filariasis 112–13 laser treatment 117
diagnosis 113 exclamation mark appearance 53
lymphoedema 113 growth pattern 51
fish protein, allergic reaction 82 loss see alopecia
“fishtank” granuloma 89 psychological significance 51
fissuring 4 shaft abnormalities 55
Fitzpatrick classification, skin types 65 hairy naevus, congenital 69
fixed drug eruptions 33, 34, 37, 37, 42, 72 halo naevus 68
diagnostic criteria 33 hand, foot and mouth disease 96–7, 97
flamazine 125 hand dermatitis, treatment 26, 26

133
Index

hands, dermatophyte infections 102 immune complexes 83, 83

harvest mites 106 circulating 83
head lice 108 immune reactions 72
heat cautery 95 cell-mediated 82
heat urticaria 38 contact dermatitis 19
heliotrope rash 73 humoral 82
helminth infestations, tropical 112–13 psoriasis pathogenesis 12
Henoch–Schönlein purpura 37 immunofluorescence 84, 84
hepatic porphyrias 79 immunology 82–6
herald lesions 30 autoimmune disease 83–6
hereditary angio-oedema 38 hypersensitivity reactions see hypersensitivity
hereditary haemorrhagic telangiectasia 75 immunosuppressants 25, 126, 127–8
herpes simplex virus infections 92, 92 impetigo 7, 88, 90
atopic eczema 17–18 bullous 24, 41, 90
blisters 41 “follicular” 91
itching 24 non-bullous 90
of lips 41, 92 in tropics 109
treatment 93 incisional biopsy 118, 122
herpes virus infections 92–3 indirect immunofluorescence 84
herpes zoster 24, 42, 92–3 induration of skin 7
disseminated 93 infantile acne 47, 48
hirsuties 55 infantile seborrhoeic dermatitis 30
causes 55 infections
histoplasmosis 112 AIDS 98
history-taking 7 bacterial see bacterial infections
HIV infection 98 diabetes mellitus 79
early stages 98 in eczema 18, 19
histoplasmosis 112 fungal see fungal infections
late stage disease 98 psoriasis pathogenesis 13
“seroconversion illness” 98 tropical see tropical skin diseases
see also AIDS viral see viral infections
Hodgkin’s disease, pruritus 24 infectious mononucleosis 97
hormones infestations 106–8
acne association 47, 47 treatments 126
hirsuties due to 54 tropical skin diseases 112–14
hypopigmentation due to 75–6 inflammation 7
vascular lesions due to 74 inflammatory skin disease, alopecia due to 52
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) see HIV infection inoculation herpes 92
human papilloma viruses (HPV) 94, 99 insect bites 3, 24, 105–6
Hutchinson’s sign 59, 60, 70 allergic reaction 42
hydrogen peroxide 125 diseases due to 105
hydroxychloroquine 128 intradermal naevus 68
lupus erythematosus treatment 33, 73, 85 intraepidermal carcinoma 34
hyperkeratosis 4 iodine solution 125
epidermolytic 81 iron deficiency 53
keratolytics for 125 anaemia 60
nail plate 59 pruritus 24
hyperlipidaemia 79 irritant contact dermatitis 5, 18, 20, 21
hyperpigmentation 76–7 acute 21
sun exposure 66 chronic 21, 23
hypersensitivity occupational 22, 23
type I (immediate) 23, 82, 82 isotretinoin 127, 128
type II (cytotoxic) 82–3 acne 49
type III (immune complex) 72, 83, 83 itching see pruritus
type IV (delayed) 83, 83 itch–scratch–itch cycle 24
hyperthyroidism 76, 80
pruritus 24 jaundice 78
hypertrichosis 55–6 junctional naevi 68
causes 56 juvenile plantar dermatosis 17, 18
treatment 56
kala-azar 105
hypoalbuminaemia 58
Kaposi’s sarcoma 46, 98, 99, 100
hypopigmentation 75–6
Kaposi’s varicelliform eruption 92
hypopituitarism 52, 75
keloid scars 49
hypothyroidism 80
keratoacanthoma 63
pruritus 24
keratolytics 125
keratoses
ice-pick scars 48 seborrhoeic see seborrhoeic keratoses
ichthammol 125 solar see solar (actinic) keratoses
eczema treatment 26 kerion 103
psoriasis treatment 14 ketoconazole shampoo 32
IgA disease, linear 39–40 Koebner’s phenomenon 5, 9, 10, 13
immediate hypersensitivity 23, 82, 82 lichen planus 27

134
 Index

koilonychia 60 venous ulcers 44

Koplik’s spots 35, 95 lymphoma 77
kwashiorkor, hair growth in 53 AIDS 100
Hodgkin’s 24
larva migrans 107–8
visceral 108 macules 2
laser treatment 117 Madura foot 111
latex, allergic reaction 21, 23 major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genes 81
legs, healthy v incompetent valves 43 malabsorption syndromes, skin changes 77, 78
leg ulcers 43–6 malar rash 73, 84, 87
arterial 45–6 Malassezia furfur 31
clinical features 44 malignancy
diagnosis 46 hyperpigmentation 76–7
incompetent valves 43 internal, skin markers 77
treatment 44–5, 45 skin see skin cancer
sensitisers 20 malignant lesions, surgical excision 119
venous see venous ulcers malignant melanoma see melanoma
leishmaniasis, cutaneous 105, 110 malnutrition, alopecia due to 52
lentigo, benign 70 mandibular zoster 93
lentigo maligna melanoma 69, 70 Martorelli’s ulcer 46
“leopard skin” 113 measles 95
lepromatous leprosy 110 melanin 2
leprosy 109–10 melanocytic naevus
Bacterial Index (BI) 110 acquired (moles) 68
spectrum of clinical disease 109 nail 59
types 110 melanoma 61, 69–71
leukonychia 58, 59 acral 70
leukoplakia, oral hairy 100 amelanotic 70
lice infestation 105, 108 diagnostic criteria 71
lichenification 3 dysplastic 70
lichenified eczema 26, 28 dysplastic naevi relationship 69
lichen planus 27–9, 28, 28 nodular 69, 70
characteristics 27 prognosis 69, 71
diagnosis 34 risk factors 69
drug reactions related to 37 subungual 59, 60
nail involvement 27, 58 sun exposure and 66, 69
pathology 29 superficial spreading 69, 70
pruritus 24 types 69–70
treatment 28 ulceration 46
lichen sclerosus 85 melasma 76
lichen sclerosus et atrophicus 74 methotrexate 127
lichen simplex 3, 18, 34 adverse effects 16, 127
linear IgA disease 39–40 psoriasis treatment 16
lipodermatosclerosis 44 microfilaria 112, 113
lipoma 62 Microsporum, ringworm 103
liquid nitrogen 95, 115 Microsporum audouinii 103
livedo reticularis 74 Microsporum canis 101
liver disease 78 milia 64
associated skin changes 78 milkers’ nodules 94
nail involvement 58 minocycline, hyperpigmentation due to 77
liver failure, skin signs 78 minor surgery, in general practice 122–3
Loa Loa 113 minoxidil, hair loss treatment 53
loiasis 113, 114 moles
lupus erythematosus 1, 72–3 benign 65, 68–9
clinical variants 73, 84 melanoma diagnosis 71, 71
discoid see discoid lupus erythematosus molluscum contagiosum 93–4, 99
hair loss 53 molluscum inclusion bodies 92
nail changes 58 Mongolian blue spot 77
dystrophy 58 monilethrix 55
pterygium formation 58 morbilliform rashes 35
neonatal 73 morphoea 74, 85
rosacea v 50 mosaics 81
scarring alopecia 54 mouth ulcers, differential diagnosis 41
subacute 33, 73, 85 Mucha–Habermann disease 40
systemic see systemic lupus erythematosus mucoid cyst 60
treatment 33, 73 mucous membrane, pemphigoid 40
lupus pernio 80 mycetoma 111
lupus vulgaris 88 mycobacterial disease 88–9
Lyme disease 75, 105 AIDS-related 99
lymphatic filariasis 113 histology 88
lymphoedema non-tuberculous 89
in filariasis 113 tuberculous 88

135
Index

Mycobacterium chelonei 89 occupational dermatitis 7, 17, 20, 22–3

Mycobacterium leprae 109 causative substances 21
Mycobacterium marinum 89 contact dermatitis see contact dermatitis
Mycobacterium ulcerans 89 irritant contact 22, 23
mycosis fungoides 77 progression 22
myeloma 79 treatment 23
myiasis 112 oedema 6
legs 43
naevus (naevi) management 44
Becker’s 68 oestrogens, acne association 47, 47
blue 68 oil folliculitis 48
compound 68 Onchocerca volvulus 113
congenital hairy 69 onchocerciasis 105, 113
congenital pigmented 68–9 onychogryphosis 57
halo 68 onycholysis 8, 9, 57, 59
junctional 68 in psoriasis 58, 59
melanocytic see melanocytic naevus onychomedesis 58
spider 64, 75 onychomycosis 101
treatment 116 ophthalmic zoster 93
strawberry 64 oral hairy leukoplakia 100
vascular 87 orf 94
verrucous epidermal 64 oriental sore 105
naevus flammeus see port wine stain ornithosis 89
naevus sebaceous 64 oxytetracycline 50
nailbed, erythema 75 acne 49
nail plate rosacea 50
changes 59–60
detachment see onycholysis
infections 57 pachyonychia congenita 59
nails 57–60 Paget’s disease of nipple 18, 63
Beau’s lines 58, 59 palmo-plantar pustulosis 9, 41
clubbing 58 papilloma 63
colour changes 58–9 cryotherapy 116
dystrophy 58, 60 papules 2–3
in eczema 60 parakeratosis 29
fungal infection 57, 101–2 parapsoriasis 77
general diseases involving 58–9 parasites 24
growth rate 57 parasitophobia 24, 106
lesions adjacent to 60 parasitosis, delusional 106
lichen planus 27, 58 paronychia 57, 60
local changes 57–8 chronic 102
melanoma under 59, 60 paste bandages, venous ulcer treatment 45
physical signs 57 patch testing 21–2, 122
pigmented streaks 59 patient assessment 7
pitting 8, 9, 58, 59 patient support groups 123, 129
psoriasis 8, 9, 10, 58, 59, 102 pediculosis 108
ridging 59–60 treatment 126
horizontal 59 pediculosis capitis 108
longitudinal 60 pellagra 77
skin diseases affecting 58 pemphigoid 24, 40
streaks 59 blisters 6, 7, 40, 83–4
structure 57 bullous 4, 40
trauma 57 chronic scarring 40
treatment 60 genetic basis 81
napkin psoriasis 10, 11 immune basis 83–4
necrobiosis lipoidica 79 mucous membrane 40
necrotising angiitis 37 nail changes 58
necrotising fasciitis 79 pemphigoid gestationis 80
neomycin, allergic reaction 20, 36, 41 pemphigus 41
neoplasms see malignancy; skin tumours acantholysis 6
neurodermatitis 18 blisters 6
neurofibromatosis 77, 78 immune basis 84
nickel allergy 20, 23, 41 nail changes 58
Nikolsky sign 41 pemphigus erythematosus 41
nitrous oxide, cryotherapy 115 pemphigus vegetans 41
“nits” 108 pemphigus vulgaris 41
nodular melanoma 69, 70 penicillin
nodular prurigo 24 allergic reaction 72
nodules 2–3 rashes due to 36, 37, 72
nummular eczema 4, 18 Penicillium marneffei 103
perianal squamous cell carcinoma 99
occupational acne 48, 49 perioral dermatitis 30, 50, 87
occupational conditions, systemic sclerosis 74 periungual fibrokeratoma 60

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permethrin 107 investigations 23

Peutz–Jeghers syndrome 77, 78 pregnancy associated 80
phaeochromocytoma 74 skin lesions absent 24
phenytoin, hyperpigmentation due to 77 skin manifestations with 23–4
photodermatitis 20, 87 systemic causes 23
photosensitivity 6, 66–7 treatment 24
causes 66 pruritus ani 24
drug-induced 20, 37, 66 pruritus vulvae 24
polymorphic light eruptions 66–7 pseudoacanthosis nigricans 76
solar urticaria 38, 67 pseudomembranous candida 98
phototherapy, psoriasis treatment 15 pseudoxanthoma elasticum 78
Phthirus pubis 108 psittacosis 89
piedra 111 psoralens 128
pigmentation changes 75–7 psoriasis treatment 15
hyperpigmentation 76–7 psoriasis
hypopigmentation 75–6 acrodermatitis pustulosa 10
postinflammatory 77 acute v chronic 11
pigmented lesions 68 AIDS 99
benign 68–9 appearance 3, 8–9
laser treatment 117 causes 7, 7, 11–12
malignant see melanoma clinical features 9–11, 29, 34
see also melanocytic naevus pruritus 24
pilar cysts 64 epidermal thickening 8
pinch grafts, venous leg ulcers 45 erythrodermic 11, 16, 52
pityriasis alba 17 treatment 13
pityriasis amiantacea 54 flexural 10, 13
pityriasis lichenoides 28, 31 genetic basis 81
characteristics 31 guttate see guttate psoriasis
distribution pattern 31 impact on patient 13
pityriasis lichenoides varioliformis acuta 40 joint disease 11
pityriasis rosea 30–1 Koebner’s phenomenon 5, 10
characteristics 30 localised lesions 32
herald lesions 30 local treatment 14
pathology 31 nails 8, 9, 10, 58, 59, 102
pityriasis versicolor 31–2 napkin 10, 11
lesions 31, 32 patient profile 9
treatment 31–2 pustular see pustular psoriasis
Pityrosporum 102 scalp 9, 16
in AIDS 98 treatment 13–16
Pityrosporum orbiculare 31 triggers 7, 12, 13
Pityrosporum ovale 29 Psoriasis Disability Index (PDI) 13
plantar dermatosis, juvenile 17, 18 pterygium formation 58
plants, allergic reactions 87 pubic lice 108
plaque 3 punch biopsy 118–19
plaque psoriasis 3, 8 PUPP syndrome 80
stable, treatment 13, 14 purpura 37, 74
unstable, treatment 13 senile 37
podophyllin 95 purpuric vasculitis 78
poikiloderma 77 pustular psoriasis 9, 10, 11, 41
polycythaemia, pruritus 24 treatment 13
polymorphic light eruptions 66–7 pustules 4, 39–42
PUPP syndrome 80 development, duration and distribution 39
polyvinyl chloride workers 74 diseases presenting with 39
pompholyx 18, 19, 41 pustulosis, palmo-plantar 9, 41
porphyria 79 PUVA therapy 128
types 79 alopecia 54
porphyria cutanea tarda 78, 79 psoriasis treatment 15
port wine stain 64, 75 pyoderma faciale 48
laser treatment 117, 117 pyoderma gangrenosum 78
postfebrile alopecia 52 conditions with 78
postherpetic neuralgia 92 pyogenic granuloma 64
postinflammatory pigmentation 77
potassium permanganate 25, 125 rashes
pox viruses 92, 93–4 diagnosis 5
pregnancy 80 distribution 6
premalignant lesions 62, 63 morbilliform 35
pressure urticaria 38 morphology 6
Propionibacterium acnes 47 scarlatiniform 35
prurigo gestationis 80 symmetry 5
pruritus 23–4 viral 95, 95–7
blisters 39 rashes arising in the dermis 35–8
dry skin 25, 78 drug-induced 36–7, 72

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rashes arising in the dermis – Continued sentinel lymph node biopsy 71

erythema induratum 36 shampoos 125
erythema multiforme see erythema multiforme tar-based 125
erythema nodosum 36 shingles see herpes zoster
rashes with epidermal changes 27–34, 34 silver nitrate solution 125
localised lesions 32–4 silver salts, in skin 76
Raynaud’s phenomenon 85 skin cancer 61–2
Reiter’s syndrome 11 basal cell carcinoma see basal cell carcinoma
relapsing fever 105 development 66
renal disease, pruritus 24 increasing incidence 65
reticulate pattern 5 prevention 65–6
retinoids 127 squamous cell carcinoma see squamous cell carcinoma
acne treatment 49 sun exposure relationship 66, 69
side effects 127 skin disease
rhinophyma 50 community studies 1
rickettsial infections 89, 105 diagnosis 7
ringworm 32, 101, 102 occupational/environmental factors 7
animal 101, 103 significance 1–2
scalp 103 tropical see tropical skin diseases
see also entries beginning tinea skin grafts, venous leg ulcers 45
river blindness see onchocerciasis skin tags 63
Rochalimea infections 89 cryotherapy 116
Rocky Mountain spotted fever 105 skin tumours
rodent ulcer see basal cell carcinoma benign 63–4
rosacea 50, 50, 87 malignant see skin cancer
differential diagnosis 50 skin types 65
treatment 50 “slapped cheek” disease (fifth disease) 87, 95, 96
roseola infantum 96 smallpox 93
rubella 95–6 Solarcaine, allergic response 20
rupioid lesions 9 solar elastosis 66
solar (actinic) keratoses 62–3, 66
salicylic acid 14, 16, 26 curettage 117
wart treatment 94 squamous cell carcinoma development 62, 63
sand fly 105 solar lentigo 66
saphenous vein insufficiency 43 solar urticaria 38, 67
sarcoid granuloma 80 spider bites 106
sarcoidosis 80 spider naevi 64, 75
scabies 24, 106–7 electrocautery treatment 116
diagnosis and treatment 34, 107, 107 Spitz naevus 68
Norwegian (crusted) 100 splinter haemorrhage 74
treatment 126 spongiosus 17
scales, mica-like, pityriasis lichenoides 31 squamous cell carcinoma 62, 109
scalp, skin diseases involving 54–5, 55 albinism 109
psoriasis 9, 16 histology 62
ringworm 103 perianal 99
scarlatiniform rashes 35 sun exposure and 66
scarring alopecia 54, 54 treatment 62
scars, keloid 49 in venous ulcer 46
scar sarcoidosis 80 squamous cells 62
Schamberg’s disease 37, 76 staphylococcal infections 88, 90
scleroderma see systemic sclerosis stasis eczema 18
sclerosing haemangioma 63 steroid(s) 126, 127
Scopulariopsis brevicaulis 58 disseminated viral infections associated 93
scrub typhus 105 lichen planus 28
scurvy 77 oral use 126
sebaceous cyst 64 seborrhoeic dermatitis treatment 29
sebaceous gland 47 topical 124–5
histology 47 guidelines 124
seborrhoeic dermatitis (eczema) 87 ointments, for eczema 25
adult 29 potency categories 124, 125
AIDS 99 psoriasis treatment 14, 16
flexural 32 Stevens–Johnson syndrome 36, 40, 75, 100
infantile 30 stinging nettles, weals 38
localised lesions 32 strawberry naevi 64
treatment 29, 30 streptococcal infections 88, 90
seborrhoeic keratoses stress 13
cryotherapy 116 Sturge–Weber syndrome 64
curettage 117 subacute lupus erythematosus 73
seborrhoeic warts 61 subcutaneous myiasis 112
selenium sulphide shampoo 31–2 subungual exostosis 60
self-help groups 123, 129 subungual melanoma 59, 60
senile purpura 37 sulfapyridine

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adverse reaction 42 triamcinolone, alopecia areata treatment 53

allergic reaction 20 Trichophyton, nail infections 57
sun damage 65–7 Trichophyton concentricum 111
prevention 65–6 Trichophyton rubrum infection 101
skin features 66 Trichophyton schoenleinii 111
sun exposure, skin cancer relationship 66, 69 Trichophyton tonsurans 103
sunscreens 65–6, 125 trichotillomania 53
superficial spreading melanoma 69, 70 trigeminal zoster 93
surgery, in general practice 122–3 tropical skin diseases 109–10
surgical excision 120 bacterial 109–10
Sweet’s syndrome 36 fungal 110–12
“swimming pool” granuloma 89 infestations 112–14
sycosis barbae 88, 91 tropical ulcers 4
syphilis, secondary 89 tuberculoid leprosy 109
syringoma 63 tuberculous mycobacterial infections 88–9
systemic corticosteroids 14 tuberous sclerosis 76
systemic disease 72–81 tumours see malignancy; skin tumours
conditions involving skin and organs 72–5 tungiasis 112
cutaneous signs 72 typhus 105
diabetes mellitus 78–9
gastrointestinal and skin lesions 78 ulcers 4
malignant lesions 77 arterial 45–6
pigmentation changes 75–7 diabetic 46, 79
systemic lupus erythematosus 32–3, 73, 84–5, 87 gravitational 43
characteristics 32 leg see leg ulcers; venous ulcers
clinical features 33 mouth 41
diagnostic criteria 33, 73 secondary 46
scarring alopecia 54 tuberous 46
subacute form 33, 73, 85 ultraviolet A 65
treatment 33, 73, 85 psoriasis treatment 15
systemic sclerosis (scleroderma) 73–4, 85 ultraviolet B treatment 65
alopecia 54 narrow waveband 15
ultraviolet radiation 65
tacalcitol 14 diurnal variation 65
tache de bougie 9 effects on skin 65, 66
tacrolimus, eczema treatment 25 light spectrum 65
talon noir 70 ultraviolet treatment 65
tar paste 125 acne 49
tar preparations 14, 26, 125 adverse effects 15
tattoos, laser treatment 117 alopecia 54
T cell(s) psoriasis 15
contact dermatitis 19 urticaria 38
delayed hypersensitivity 83, 83 non-physical, causes 38, 38
graft versus host disease 86 papular 106
T cell lymphoma 77 physical 38
telangiectasia 74 solar 38, 67
hereditary haemorrhagic 75 treatment 38
laser treatment 117 urticarial vasculitis 38
telogen 51
telogen effluvium 52 varicella zoster virus (VZV) 92
teratogenic drugs 16 varicose veins 43
terbinafine 104, 126 variola 93
thrush, vaginal 103 vascular lesions 64, 74–5
thyroid disease 80 diabetes mellitus 79
clinical signs 80 naevus 87
pruritus 24 vasculitis 37, 37, 74, 82
tick bites 106 acute, with necrosis 37
tick typhus 105 conditions associated 37
tinea capitis 53, 54, 104 diagnosis 34
tinea corporis 102 gastrointestinal disease 78
tinea cruris 32, 101 purpuric 78
tinea imbricata 111 urticarial 38
tinea incognito 103 vellus hair 51
tinea nigra 111 venous ulcers 43–5
tinea pedis (athlete’s foot) 32, 102 clinical features 44
tinea versicolor 102 diagnosis 46
T lymphocytes see T cell(s) infections 45
topical treatments 124–6 pathology 43–4
steroids see steroid(s) secondary causes 46
toxic epidermal necrolysis 75 treatment 44–5, 45
Toxocara canis 108 venous valves, incompetence 43
traction alopecia 53 verrucous epidermal naevi 64

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vesicles 3 wen (sebaceous cyst) 64

in rashes 6 wet soaks, eczema treatment 25
see also blisters Whitfield’s ointment 104
viral infections 92–7 Wickham’s striae 27
AIDS-related 99 Willi hair syndrome 55
see also HIV infection “wrinkle lines,” surgical excision 119
herpes viruses 92–3 Wuchereria bancrofti 113
pox viruses 92, 93–4
with rashes 95, 95–7
wart viruses 94–5 xanthomas 78, 79
see also individual viruses common types 79
virilising syndrome 54
vitamin A acid 49
vitamin D analogues 14 yeast infections 101, 103–4
vitiligo 76, 84 diagnosis and treatment 103–4, 104
see also candidiasis
warts, seborrhoeic 60 yellow fever 105
warts, viral 94–5 yellow nail syndrome 58
AIDS patients 99
treatment 95
cryotherapy 115, 116 zinc oxide 26

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