Lect 3

CIVE 310 - Fluid Mechanics
Lecture 3: Fluid Properties (II)
Junke (Drinker) Guo

Department of Civil Engineering
PKI 204D, 554 3873, [email protected]
Contents
Applications of Newton’s Friction Law 4
Compressibility 10
Bulk Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Compression and expansion of gases . . . . . . . 14
Speed of sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Vapor pressure 19
Surface Tension 24
Summary 27
Applications of Newton’s Friction Law
1. Newton’s friction law:

du
τ =μ (1)
dy
(a) Newton’s friction law links shear stress τ with the

shear strain du/dy.
(b) Problem Type I: Given u = u (y), find τ (y)
(c) Problem Type II: Given τ = τ (y), find u (y)

2. Problem 1.28 on p.24 Determine the shear stress
on the wall.
(a) The rate of shear strain:

( µ ¶2 µ ¶) ½ µ ¶¾
du 3 3 y 1 3U 3 y
=U − = 1−
dy 2δ 2 δ δ 2δ 2 δ
(b) The shear stress:
µ ¶
du 3μU 3y
τ =μ = 1−
dy δ 2δ
(c) At the wall, the shear stress is

3μU
τ (y = 0) =
δ
(d) Direction:
• For the fluid, the direction is towards right.
• For the wall, it is towards left.

3. Problem 1.35 on p.25
(a) Given: the weight W and the bottom area A of

the tank, and the oil viscosity μ.
(b) Find: the angle θ when the tank slides down with
a constant velocity V .
P
(c) Solution: F = 0 along the slope.
• The gravity component along the slope = the
shear force on the bottom of the tank.
• The gravity component: W sin θ
• The shear stress τ on the bottom: τ = μV /δ

where δ = the thickness of the oil.
— Tip: For any thin flow, we assume the velocity

distribution is linear.
• The shear force: τ A = μV A/δ

• Thus, we have
μV A
W sin θ = μV A/δ, sin θ =
Wδ
−1 μV A −1 (0.2) (0.1) (0.16π)

θ = sin = sin
Wδ (40) (0.002)
= 0.126 rad = 7.22 ◦
Compressibility
Bulk Modulus
1. For a given mass of fluid, the change of volume, ∆V,

with the change of pressure, ∆p, is defined as com-
pressibility.
2. The change of volume with the change of pressure is

expressed by dV/dp since dy/dx = the change of y
with the change of x.
3. If the initial volume is large, the rate of change is large,
dV
∝ −V
dp
• The negative sign means the volume decreases as

pressure increases.
4. For a specific fluid, we can write the above relation as

dV V
=− (2)
dp Ev
in which Ev is a constant and has the same dimension
as pressure p. We call it bulk modulus that character-
izes compressibility.
(a) The value of Ev can be found from Tables 1.4 and

1.5.
(b) When the bulk modulus Ev tends to very large,

dV → 0. This means the fluid is incompressible.
(c) Liquids can be considered as incompressible for most

engineering applications.
5. In the textbook, it directly defines the bulk modulus
as
∆p dp
Ev = − or Ev = − (3)
∆V/V dV/V
which is from (2). For a given mass, for example, the
air within a basket ball,
dV dρ
M = ρV = const; dM = ρdV+Vdρ = 0; − =
V ρ
Thus, the bulk modulus Ev can also be written as
dp
Ev = ρ (4)
dρ
Compression and expansion of gases
1. When gases are compressed or expanded, the relation-

ship between pressure and density depends on the na-
ture of the process.
2. For ideal gases under isothermal process (constant tem-

perature), the ideal gas law p = ρT R reduces to
p
= constant (5)
ρ
since both R and T are constant.
3. For ideal gases under isentropic process (frictionless
and adiabatic), we have
p
k
= constant (6)
ρ
in which k is the ratio of the specific heat at constant
pressure. For air, k = 1.4.
• The derivation of the above needs the knowledge

of the 1st and 2nd thermodynamic laws, which is
beyond the scope of this course.
4. Study Example 1.5 on page 17.

Speed of sound
1. Cause of sound - vibration of fluids.
2. Speed of sound is the propagation speed of a pressure

wave (change). Its derivation is beyondqthe scope of
this course. We simply define it as c = dp/dρ.
q
(a) In terms of the bulk modulus, we have c = Ev /ρ.
(b) For gases under isentropic process, we have
p k (constant)
= constant, p = ρ
ρk
Ã !
dp k−1 k−1 p kp
= kρ (constant) = kρ =
dρ ρk ρ
s s
dp kp
c= =
dρ ρ
Applying the ideal gas law, we get
s
kp √
c= = kRT (7)
ρ
3. Example: The sound speed at standard atm. pressure.
• From Table 1.7, k = 1.4, R = 286.9 J/kg·K, T =

273.15 + 15 = 288. 15 ◦C. Thus,
q
c= (1.4) (286.9) (288.15) = 340 m/ s
• The ratio of an aircraft velocity to the speed of

sound is called Mach number, i.e. Ma = V /c where
V = aircraft velocity.
• If Ma < 1, the aircraft is flying at subsonic speeds;

if Ma > 1, it is called supersonic flow; if Ma >>
1, we call it hypersonic flow.
• The Oﬀutt Air Shows: When you see a plane com-
ing to you, you say, “hey, no sound!” But just you
said, huge noises appeared. Why?
Vapor pressure
1. Vapor : The gas state of water is called vapor.

2. Evaporation: The process of water converting into va-
por on the free surface is called evaporation.
(a) Example: If we place a bowl of water in air, after

one or two days, the water surface lowers. This is
due to evaporation.
(b) Physically, this is because some water molecules

have suﬃcient momentum to overcome the inter-
molecular cohesive forces and escape into the air.
3. When the number of molecules leaving the surface is

equal to the number entering, the water surface keeps
constant. This condition is called an equilibrium con-
dition or we say the vapor is saturated.
4. Vapor pressure.
(a) Suppose we have a closed container, a part of it

is filled with water; and the rest room is a perfect
vacuum.
Perfect vacuum
pv
p=0
Initial state Equilibrium/saturated state

(b) After the evaporation reaches its equilibrium state,
the air pressure is vapor pressure that is in terms
of absolute pressure. The value can be found in
Tables B.1 and B.2 on p497.
5. Boiling :
(a) The process of water converting into vapor within

a fluid is called boiling.
(b) When the absolute pressure within a fluid reaches

the vapor pressure, a boiling occurs.
6. Cavitation: Boiling creates vapor bubbles. When the
bubbles move to a high pressure region, they collapse.
This process is called cavitation. Cavitation is a major
cause of damage in high speed pipes and hydropower
station.
• Remark 1: It is an important topic in CIVE 416:

Flow Systems Design
• Remark 2: It is the limitation that the continuum

assumption is valid.
Surface Tension
1. Surface is like a skin; tension is the molecular force of

water on/along the surface.
2. Surface tension is molecular forces between fluid molecules

on liquid surface , or between two immiscible fluids, or
between a fluid and a solid surface.
(a) Why can a dragonfly stay on water surface?

Surface tension
(Look into the paper) Surface tension for

nonwetting liquid
(b) Surface tension is a line force and denoted as σ,

force per unit length. Its dimension is FL−1.
(c) Surface tension is normal to the line (interface) and

tangential to the liquid surface. See the above fig-
ure.
3. Determination of surface tension σ in a lab study.
The force balance in the vertical is

γRh
γπR2h = 2πRσ cos θ ⇒ σ= (8)
2 cos θ
4. Internet Explore: Find examples of surface tension.

Summary
1. Compressibility is expressed by the bulk modulus Ev ,

dp dp
Ev = −V or Ev = ρ
dV dρ
The dimension of Ev is the same as p.
2. The relationship between pressure and density for gases

depends on the nature of process.
(a) Isothermal process: p/ρ = constant

(b) Isentropic process: p/ρk = constant
3. The sound speed is defined as

s s
dp Ev
c= or c=
dρ ρ
√
• Isentropic process: c = kRT
4. Concepts: vapor, evaporation, vapor pressure, boiling,

cavitation.
5. Surface tension - molecular force at a liquid-solid in-
terface or liquid-air interface.
• It is a line force and has dimension of FL−1.

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CIVE 310 - Fluid Mechanics

Lecture 3: Fluid Properties (II)

Junke (Drinker) Guo

Applications of Newton’s Friction Law 4

Compression and expansion of gases . . . . . . . 14

1. Newton’s friction law:

(a) Newton’s friction law links shear stress τ with the

(b) Problem Type I: Given u = u (y), find τ (y)

(c) Problem Type II: Given τ = τ (y), find u (y)

(a) The rate of shear strain:

(c) At the wall, the shear stress is

• For the fluid, the direction is towards right.

• For the wall, it is towards left.

(a) Given: the weight W and the bottom area A of

• The gravity component: W sin θ

• The shear stress τ on the bottom: τ = μV /δ

— Tip: For any thin flow, we assume the velocity

• The shear force: τ A = μV A/δ

−1 μV A −1 (0.2) (0.1) (0.16π)

1. For a given mass of fluid, the change of volume, ∆V,

2. The change of volume with the change of pressure is

• The negative sign means the volume decreases as

4. For a specific fluid, we can write the above relation as

(a) The value of Ev can be found from Tables 1.4 and

(b) When the bulk modulus Ev tends to very large,

(c) Liquids can be considered as incompressible for most

1. When gases are compressed or expanded, the relation-

2. For ideal gases under isothermal process (constant tem-

• The derivation of the above needs the knowledge

4. Study Example 1.5 on page 17.

1. Cause of sound - vibration of fluids.

2. Speed of sound is the propagation speed of a pressure

• From Table 1.7, k = 1.4, R = 286.9 J/kg·K, T =

• The ratio of an aircraft velocity to the speed of

• If Ma < 1, the aircraft is flying at subsonic speeds;

1. Vapor : The gas state of water is called vapor.

(a) Example: If we place a bowl of water in air, after

(b) Physically, this is because some water molecules

3. When the number of molecules leaving the surface is

(a) Suppose we have a closed container, a part of it

Initial state Equilibrium/saturated state

(a) The process of water converting into vapor within

(b) When the absolute pressure within a fluid reaches

• Remark 1: It is an important topic in CIVE 416:

• Remark 2: It is the limitation that the continuum

1. Surface is like a skin; tension is the molecular force of

2. Surface tension is molecular forces between fluid molecules

(a) Why can a dragonfly stay on water surface?

(Look into the paper) Surface tension for

(b) Surface tension is a line force and denoted as σ,

(c) Surface tension is normal to the line (interface) and

The force balance in the vertical is

4. Internet Explore: Find examples of surface tension.

1. Compressibility is expressed by the bulk modulus Ev ,

2. The relationship between pressure and density for gases

(a) Isothermal process: p/ρ = constant

3. The sound speed is defined as

4. Concepts: vapor, evaporation, vapor pressure, boiling,

• It is a line force and has dimension of FL−1.

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