Generalidades Del Queso

Chapter 26
General Aspects of Cheese Technology

Andrew K. Legg*, Alistair J. Carr**, Rodney J. Bennett**, Keith A. Johnston*
*Fonterra Research and Development Centre (Formerly known as New Zealand Dairy Research Institute),
Palmerston North, New Zealand
**Institute of Food, Nutrition and Human Health, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
INTRODUCTION viewpoint is based on cheese firmness (effectively moisture
content) and the salting technology involved. This is
Cheesemaking involves the conversion of liquid milk (an
illustrated in Table 26.1 and forms the basis of the
unstable, bulky but highly nutritious raw material) into
discussion of the manufacturing processes for the major
cheese (a stable, flavorsome, and concentrated product that
cheese varieties outlined in Fig. 26.1. The initial focus is on
provides eating pleasure and has an extended shelf life).
common steps to the end of the vat stage of manufacture.
Cheesemaking has been practiced for thousands of years,
This is followed by discussion of the technology used for
for most of the time as a cottage industry. Toward the end of
hard, dry-salted varieties, such as Cheddar, with that used
the 19th century as industrialization progressed, cheese
for other types being discussed in later sections.
manufacture moved to the factory; since then, there has been
a progressive development of the technology, especially
equipment, to the situation today with large, highly CHEESE MANUFACTURE IN THE VAT Milk
automated modern factories employing minimal staff. This
Preparation
FABRICACIÓN DE QUESO EN EL IVA
move has been driven by several factors: scale, cost,
Preparación
The milk used fordecheesemaking
leche comes from cows, sheep,
availability of labor, increased hygiene, and the need for
goats,Laandleche utilizada
buffaloes. Aspara la fabricación
the key ingredient, de queso proviene
its quality and de
product uniformity and consistency. This development has
vacas, ovejas,
preparation arecabras y búfalos.
of vital importance.Como Asingrediente
the equipmentclave,and
su calidad
been at the cost of some individuality and variety; therefore,
y preparación
processes son standard
used are de vital dairy
importancia.
operations,Comotheyelare
equipo
not y los
in parallel with the increased mechanization of manufacture,
there has been a resurgence of many small boutique cheese described in detail. Excellent explanations are provided by no se
procesos utilizados son operaciones lácteas estándar,
describen
Bylund en detalle.
(1995a) Bylund
and Muir and (1995a)
Tamimey (2001).
Muir y Hygienic
Tamime (2001)
makers. The impact of computers and automation on the
proporcionan excelentes explicaciones. La
milk harvesting, refrigeration, and gentle handling are recolección higiénica
cheesemaking process has been dramatic, with many of the
de la leche, la refrigeración y el manejo
essential components of milk harvesting and transport to the cuidadoso son
previously manual controlling, programming, analysis, and
componentes esenciales de la recolección
factory. The absence of inhibitory substances, such asy el transporte de la leche
data-logging operations being replaced by computers.
a la fábrica.is La
antibiotics, alsoausencia de sustancias
necessary inhibitorias,
for satisfactory como los
cheese
Greater uniformity of production has been made possible.
antibióticos, también es necesaria para la fabricación
manufacture. Removal of foreign matter is a necessary first satisfactoria
This chapter aims to introduce the steps involved in the
de queso.
step La eliminación
of factory processing, andde materias extrañasbyesfiltration
this is achieved un primer paso
cheesemaking process, explaining their purpose, and then
necesario del procesamiento en fábrica, y esto
through an appropriate mesh or by centrifugal clarification. se logra mediante
describing the equipment and processes that have been
filtración a través de una malla apropiada o
Compositional adjustment of the milk is often requiredmediante clarificación
developed to facilitate large-scale manufacture. Not all
centrífuga.
to achieve the desired final product specifications. This
equipment types are included in detail, but rather the major
El ajuste
commonly de la composición
involves centrifugal de la leche of
separation a menudo
part of setherequiere
types to illustrate their purpose. Cheeses may be classified
para lograr las especificaciones deseadas del
milk stream into skim milk and cream, followed by blending producto final. Esto
in various ways. The diversity of cheese types arises from
composition (the manufacturing process) and from the of the skim milk with the whole milk to achieve the desired flujo de
comúnmente implica la separación centrífuga de parte del
leche
fat en leche
content. For descremada
some products, y crema, seguido
a higher de lamay
fat level mezcla
be de la
cultures or microflora involved (Johnson and Law, 2010).
leche descremada con la leche entera para
necessary, and this is achieved by the incorporation of lograr el contenido de
This chapter focuses on the manufacturing process. A useful
grasa deseado.
additional cream. Para algunos productos, puede ser necesario un
primary classification from a manufacturing technology
mayor nivel de grasa, y esto se logra mediante la incorporación de
crema adicional
644 SECTION | I Cheese Technology
MANUF DE QUESO Más recientemente, se ha vuelto

factible ajustar también el contenido de proteína de la leche.
More recently, it has become feasible to also adjust the The organisms whose primary role is postinitial
Esto normalmente se logra mediante el uso de la tecnología
protein content of the milk. This is normally achieved manufacture are known as starter adjuncts. Both groups of
de ultrafiltración (discutida en el Capítulo 27). La leche
through the use of ultrafiltration technology (discussed in cultures are commonly incorporated into the milk in the
descremada se concentra y luego se mezcla con otros
Chapter 27). Skim milk is concentrated and then blended cheese vat; although for some varieties, such as smear-
componentes para lograr la composición final deseada. En
with other components to achieve the desired final ripened cheeses, the culture may be added to the formed
algunos casos, concentrado de proteína de leche
composition. In some cases, specialized milk protein cheese.
especializado.
concentrate Cheese starters used for hard varieties, such as Cheddar,
are commonly derived from Lactococcus lactis subsp.
TABLE 26.1 Cheese Classification Based on Hardness and
cremoris species. The quantity of culture required for a
Salting Technology
controlled, rapid acid development in the vat means that a
Hardness Salting Technology Examples substantial inoculation is necessary. This may be provided
Hard/semihard Dry Cheddar, Cheshire in a variety of ways, such as a direct addition of powdered
concentrated culture provided by a culture manufacturer.
Hard/semihard Brine Emmental, Gouda
This may be frozen or freeze-dried and may need to be
Soft/semisoft Brine Camembert, Blue reconstituted before addition to the vat. The very successful
vein system used in New Zealand described by Heap (1998)
depends on the use of frozen single-strain cultures, which
powders are used to “extend” the protein in the cheese milk. are then grown in heat-treated, reconstituted skim milk in a
Advantages include a more uniform starting material, pH-controlled environment, to produce a concentrated
profitable use of a lactose stream, and greater throughput of culture that is then metered into the milk at a level, such as
milk solids through the cheese vat, as the milk is effectively 0.3% (v/v), as the vat is being filled. A simple fermentation
partially concentrated. vessel is used for the bulk culture production. The greatest
Control of the microbiology of the cheese milk is a vital hazard to the production of starter and satisfactory acid
issue affecting the final product, and there is ongoing development in the vat is the presence of bacteriophages.
vociferous debate of the merits of raw milk cheese versus Multiple vat filling throughout the day in large plants
cheese in which heat treatment, normally pasteurization, has increases the potential for phage build-up. Stringent hygiene
been employed (Johnson and Law, 2010). Pasteurization precautions, the use of several carefully selected phage-
through the use of plate heat exchangers and holding tubes unrelated strains, and the use of phage-inhibitory growth
with typical time/temperature relations of 72°C/15 s is medium for starter preparation are all techniques that are
standard practice to remove pathogenic organisms. If the available to minimize this risk.
raw milk is to be stored refrigerated for long periods before The starter adjunct cultures can be added directly to the
pasteurization, thermization (66°C/15 s) is recommended to vat, usually from pottles or suspensions of culture
prevent the growth of psychrotrophic organisms and their especially prepared by a culture manufacturer. As they are
associated lipases. Alternative processes for the reduction of adjuncts, the quantities required are much smaller than the
bacterial load include the use of specially designed quantities of acid-producing starters.
centrifuges (bactofuges) or microfiltration (Maubois, 2002).
These avoid some of the perceived detrimental effects of
thermal processes and are especially useful for the reduction Coagulant Addition
of spores, such as Clostridia, that survive pasteurization and The most fundamental step in the cheesemaking process
can cause problems in the final product. Following thermal involves the conversion of the liquid milk into a semisolid
or other treatment, the milk then enters the cheese vat at gel. Subsequent syneresis, or shrinkage and loss of whey
typically 32°C. from this gel, results in the formation of cheese curd.
Detailed discussion of coagulants and syneresis is provided
Starter Culture Preparation and Addition in Chapters 3–6. Coagulation involves the precipitation of
The use of cultures of microorganisms, including bacteria, the casein and is normally achieved by the addition of a
yeasts, and molds, is an integral component of cheese coagulant to the milk at the vat stage of manufacture;
manufacture. Chapters 8–12 are devoted to a detailed although, it can also be accomplished by pH reduction
discussion of these cultures. The microorganisms have two through acidification for some varieties, such as Cottage
primary roles: the reduction in pH during manufacture due cheese.
to the production of lactic acid from lactose, and the Traditionally, the coagulant of choice has been rennet,
biochemical and physical changes during the curing or derived from the abomasum of young milk-fed calves, with
ripening phases after manufacture of the initial cheese. The the primary active ingredient, chymosin. For reasons of
cultures responsible for acid development are typically supply, economy, and ethics, alternatives are now also
lactic acid bacteria and are commonly referred to as cheese frequently used, derived from fungal sources, such as Mucor
starters, although they are also involved during ripening. meihei or a nature-identical chymosin produced by genetic
engineering technology. The coagulants are normally
General Aspects of Cheese Technology Chapter | 26 645
supplied by the manufacturer as stable liquid concentrates, is a highly concentrated enzyme system, the quantities
which can be metered directly into the cheese vat at the required are much lower than the quantities of cheese
appropriate stage via a distribution system. As the coagulant starters, with typical addition rates of 0.01% (v/v) for rennet.
FIGURE 26.1 Basic steps in traditional cheese manufacture (see Color Plate Section).
As the enzymes are also involved in the ripening process, amalgamation of a number of smaller plants. This vat stage
the level of addition and the enzyme characteristics are of of cheese production is a batch process, and, for continuous
vital importance to the cheese being produced. throughput, a factory must have a number of vats, usually at
least six to eight, to enable production to be sequenced to
produce a continuous output.
Vat Stage The majority of the enclosed vat systems available
The cheese vat or cheese tank is the part of the contain:
cheesemaking process where milk is converted from a

standardized liquid to a semisolid gel. This part of the one or two revolving knife panels of various designs,
process concentrates the nutrients contained in the milk by which are used for both cutting and stirring operations
excluding moisture (whey). The first part of the process depending on their direction of rotation;

involves the addition of the coagulant to the vat, this is a fully surrounding or partially surrounding (steam or
known as setting the vat. The coagulant is added and mixed hot water) heating jacket;
in, as already described, and the vat contents are then left 
undisturbed. Determination of the appropriate coagulum whey removal systems for predraw and in-vat curd
strength for the next stage can be made by an experienced washing; and
operator observing the curd or by using instruments, such as 
automated rennet addition, cleaning-in-place (CIP), and
the Tetra Scherping CoAguLite or Stoelting Optiset sensors computer-controlled options for cutting/stirring speeds
and others discussed by Law (2001). Once satisfactory and cooking recipes (later models only).
coagulation has been achieved, usually after about 40 min,
the gel is cut into cubes of 6–10 mm size, to encourage The choice of equipment for the vat stage of the
moisture expulsion (syneresis). In most cheesemaking cheesemaking process depends on many external factors,
processes, the curd/ whey mixture is then cooked to a higher including type of cheese to be made, downstream curd
temperature, while lactose is fermented by the starters and processing, flexibility, cost, and throughput, to name but a
acid is developed. Acid development is an important step in few. Internal vat factors are also important. For example, the
most cheesemaking processes and controls the rate and configuration of the vat and its cutting and stirring
extent of syneresis, the composition, the final cheese pH, mechanism, how the tank is heated and emptied, rennet
and, perhaps of most importance, the degree of mineral addition, and CIP configurations are also important.
solubilization that takes place during the process. The How the curd is cut is of particular significance. The
cooking process has a fundamental role in controlling cutting operation, together with the speed of stirring
syneresis by influencing curd shrinkage and acid following cutting, influences how large the particles will be
development. Following cooking, the curd/whey mixture is at draining and how much of the original milk components
stirred until the drain pH target is reached and curd/whey (fat and protein) are lost to the whey.
separation (draining) or dewheying is initiated. Johnston et al. (1991) showed that the speed and duration
For some varieties, a reduction in the lactose content of of cutting in Damrow vats determined the curd particle size
the curd and whey in the vat may be accomplished by the at draining and hence the moisture content in the final
partial removal of the whey followed by the addition of cheese, and that whey fat losses could be minimized
water, which may be heated to also assist with cooking. This depending on the cutting program used. They also proposed
operation can be described as washing. a model for cutting that explains how variation in cutting
Historically, curd was produced in large, open, jacketed, speed and duration of cutting, followed by a constant stirring
square-ended, stainless steel vats. The cutting and stirring speed, determines the curd particle size distribution in a
mechanisms were mounted above the vat and often both Damrow cheese vat. A similar study (Johnston et al., 1998)
curd processing (e.g., cutting, cooking, and stirring) and using OST vats (30,000 L) gave similar trends. However,
curd conditioning (e.g., cheddaring) were carried out in the the OST vat study also showed that, although similar, the
vat. Labor costs were high, and quality was often variable. trends were sufficiently different from those from Damrow
However, although this system is still used successfully vats to warrant characterization of each vat type as to the
in some small plants, more exacting hygiene standards, effect of the speed and duration of cutting, before
coupled with the demand for higher throughputs at reduced implementing a specific cutting regime.
costs, resulted in the introduction of the enclosed vat system There are numerous suppliers of industrial closed cheese
in the late 1960s. Since then, the enclosed vat system has vats, and the various designs can be categorized most simply
been further refined to meet the needs of an increasingly by the axis of rotation of the cutting/stirring shafts (vertical
mechanized and automated industry, an industry that in or horizontal) and by the number of cutting/stirring shafts
some countries also has to deal with processing increasingly (single or double). Some common vats are described here.
larger milk volumes because of extensive and rapid
There is a similar discussion of vats and their design in Law exclusively in the New Zealand cheese industry in the early
(2001). days of mechanization, to produce Cheddar and other dry
FIGURE 26.2 Traditional open style vats in a Belgian dairy, late 1950s (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Tetra Pak, Switzerland.)
Single Axis, Vertical Vats salted cheeses. Easily recognized with its “double OO”
This style of a closed vat is no longer common in configuration, the vertical Damrow vat has two vertical
industrialscale cheesemaking, and is more typically used as knife arrangements that are used to both cut and stir the curd.
an open vat in smaller-scale operations where manual access The latest Double-O Vat 8 model features a significantly
to the vat is required. Vats are typically square or circular in improved knife design, which reduces fines losses and fat
shape and common sizes range from 300 to 2000 L. Long, losses compared to previous models. Vertical knives may
open, rectangular vats up to 5000 L with multiple overhead also be removed for easy resharpening, and an option is
stirrers are also common (Fig. 26.2). available for a flexible knife configuration to suit different
cheese styles and recipes. Capacities range between 2,000
and 30,000 L (530–8,000 US gal.).
Double Axis, Vertical Vats
Examples of this vat configuration are the Tetra Damrow
APV CurdMaster Vat
Double-O Vat, the APV CurdMaster Vat, and the ALPMA
Cheese Vat. All use a similar design with two knife panels The first APV CurdMaster was produced in 1993 and its
hung off a centrally located axis within each “barrel.” This design was based on the Protech CurdMaster and the
is commonly referred to as the “Double-O design,” and it Damrow Double-O Vat design. APV modified the
offers a number of advantages: attachment of the bottom of the vat to its support frame
(floating bottom) to avoid welds cracking during heating
 and cooling. A 5-degree incline and two outlets, instead of
It allows a variable filling volume, ranging from 40% to
100%, without loss of performance.  The shaft seals one outlet, for more rapid and efficient emptying, staggered
stay-sharp knives, polypropylene agitators for gentle
are above the product level.  It ensures efficient stirring, and whey predraw during agitation are other
horizontal and vertical mixing. modifications that APV made.

In the first 10 years after launching the CurdMaster vat,
There is minimal air entrapment after predraw or at re- APV Denmark sold over 146 of the vats to 56 customers
duced fill levels. mainly throughout Europe and Latin America. APV is now
part of the SPX group of companies. The vat capacity ranges
Tetra Damrow Double-O Vat from 3,000 to 30,000 L.
The vertical Damrow vat (Fig. 26.3) was developed in 1972 A wide range of cheese types can be made using the APV
and has had numerous updates since then. This was to CurdMaster, with a moisture between 35% and 60% and up
become Damrow’s “proven standard” and to date over 900 to 60% fat in dry matter. Commonly, types made include
are in use worldwide. Although used to make a range of Danbo, Raclette, Mozzarella, Gouda, Edam, Emmental,
cheese types, the vertical Damrow vats were used almost Tilsit, Blue, Feta, Maasdam, Cagliata, Provolone, Norvegia,
Manchego, Camembert, Pecorino, Grana, Cheddar, cases, an operator was still required to add the coagulant.
Cheshire, Havarti, Port Salut, and Parmesan. It is interesting The last delivery of these models was made in 1977.
to note that many of the cheeses listed are curd-washed The OST III vat was the first horizontally mounted vat
varieties. of the OST series and its design was driven by a demand to
FIGURE 26.3 Tetra Damrow Double-O cheese vat (see Color Plate Section). CIP, Cleaning in place. (Courtesy of Tetra Pak, Switzerland.)
Single Axis, Horizontal Vats
Examples of this vat configuration are the Tetra Tebel OST process larger (>20,000 L) volumes of milk. The operating
vat, the Stoelting Horizon II vat, and the Advanced Cheese principles of the design are illustrated in Fig. 26.4.
Vat by Advanced Process Technologies (APT). Switching from the vertical to horizontally mounted vats
simplified the construction required to process the larger
milk volumes. The essential difference between the first
Tetra Tebel OST Vat three horizontal OST models (III–V) is in the design of their
One of the first and most popular choices of enclosed cutting/stirring mechanisms. The knife material in the OST
cheesemaking vat was the Tetra Tebel OST (or Ost Sanitary III vat is thicker, and its cutting/stirring speed is limited to 6
Tank) vat. To date, six models have been produced and there rpm. In comparison, the knife material in the OST IV vat is
are two versions for each model: with and without predraw thinner and has “stay-sharp” qualities that reputedly reduced
capability. fat and fines losses to the whey. The revised construction
Both the OST I vat and the OST II vat were upright, and design of the OST V knife frames were carried out to
single, silo-shaped tanks with one (OST I) or two or more meet more stringent hygiene requirements and to improve
(OST II) knife panels that were vertically mounted. The tank cheesemaking performance.
volume ranged from 2,000 to 20,000 L and these two models The main improvement in the OST 6 vat is the
were first made in mid to late 1969. Manual, semiautomatic, replacement of the steam jacket with a dimple jacket
and fully automatic versions were available; however, in all supplied with hot water. The use of water for heating gives
improved heat transfer and control over heating rate, and
also reduces the surface temperatures of the vat wall, which speeds required by the two counter-rotating agitators, in
reduces the amount of protein denaturation occurring there. both cutting and stirring modes, together are claimed to
The OST 6 is available in volumes from 15,000–30,000 L reduce losses and to give a more uniform curd particle size
(in steps of 2,500 L). distribution. A cutting study similar to that of Johnston et al.
FIGURE 26.4 OST IV cheese vat. (1) Combined cutting and stirring tools; (2) strainer for whey drainage; (3) frequency-controlled motor drive; (4) jacket
for heating; (5) manhole; (6) CIP nozzle (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Tetra Pak, Switzerland.)
Tetra Pak has delivered over 1400 vats in the OST series. (1991) was also carried out on the Scherping HCV by
Sales of the OST vat have been made in at least 35 countries McLeavey (1995). Improvements in the fully automated
and this vat type is used to make a range of cheese types, third-generation Scherping HCV included incorporating
including semihard (Edam, Gouda, St. Paulin, and Havarti), counter-rotating agitators, dual outlets for more effective
hard (Cheddar, Emmental, Romano, Monterey Jack, emptying, and changes to the knife configuration of
Egmont, etc.), and low-moisture Mozzarella (Pizza type). previous HCVs.
The patented HCVs have been built for US customers
mainly, but they have been installed in one plant in New
Double Axis, Horizontal Vats Zealand. The most popular capacity is 25,000 or 30,000 L.
Tetra Scherping Horizontal Cheese Vat To date, 423 Scherping HCVs have been produced.
The first dual-barreled horizontal cheese vat (HCV) was As would be expected in a mostly American market,
developed by Scherping Systems in 1988. Of interest are the consumer cheeses made using HCVs are the American-style
unique designs of the vats: “counter-rotation,” dual agitator, Cheddar, Colby, Swiss, Cojack, and Monterey Jack cheeses
the cutting and stirring system, and the staggered design of and the Italian-style Mozzarella, Asiago, and Parmesan
the knife arrangement of the third-generation model (Fig. cheeses. Cheeses for further processing, such as the fat-free,
26.5). The unique “interlocking” action and the lower
reduced-fat, low-moisture barrel Cheddar and Swiss barrel Continuous Processes

cheeses are also made in HCVs.
FIGURE 26.5 Tetra Scherping horizontal cheese vat (HCV) (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Tetra Pak, Switzerland.)
The Damrow Horizontal Vat There have been various attempts to replace the batch vat
The horizontal Double-O Damrow (DOH) was Damrow’s process with continuous systems. Three systems are briefly
second-generation vat. The design was patented in 1994 and mentioned. An innovative system using ultrafiltration
improved upon in 1997, 1999, and 2000. Superior draining technology and a sequential coagulation system was
capability, improved yield, and a dimple jacket for heating developed jointly by the CSIRO in Australia and APV, the
are characteristics of this vat type. DOH vats between process being named Sirocurd. Two commercial plants were
16,000 and 30,000 L are mainly in service in Canada, USA, developed and these successfully produced Cheddar types
and New Zealand, but are no longer manufactured. of cheese, with the benefits of increased yield from the
ultrafiltration stage (Jameson, 1987). However, neither plant
is still in use.
Tetra Scherping Yield Master Vat
As Scherping and Damrow have been owned by Tetra Pak,
a similar but more advanced vat design has been created: the
Tetra Yield Master Vat (YMV). The vat includes a new
knife configuration to improve fat retention and reduce fines
losses, and a hot water dimple jacket for optimized cooking.
Further improved performance is claimed through ease of
rinse out, sanitation, mechanical durability, initial capital
investment, and ongoing maintenance expense. The YMV is
only available in the US market, and to date 66 have been
sold.
The second system, which is still widely used, is the Coagulator. The Bassine line is available in capacities of
ALPMA continuous coagulator. A diagram of this 3,000–12,000 L/h and so is, therefore, suitable for smaller-
equipment is shown in Fig. 26.6. The system incorporates production volumes than the Coagulator, or where the
the use of a continuous belt, which is formed into a trough building is not suitable for the length of a Coagulator.
to hold the milk. This trough is then subdivided by a series
of plates to effectively form mini-vats. As the belt moves,
the vats also move along, and the same processes that occur POSTVAT STAGES—DRY-SALT TYPES
in a batch vessel are carried out on the belt, via the use of
cutting tools, stirrers, and other tools that are incorporated Postvat processing options depend largely on whether the
along the length of the belt. Whey can be drained from the curd undergoes further development and handling as curd
individual sections, and can be replaced with an exact particles, followed by dry salting, and block formation, or
amount of hot water or hot whey. This allows the production whether the final cheese block is formed immediately,
of cheeses that require a curd washing and/or cooking step, followed by subsequent brining for salt uptake. As shown in
such as Gouda, Maasdam, and Edam. However, the Fig. 28.1, distinctive processes are involved.
equipment is not suitable for cheeses with a greater need for The processes described here apply to hard cheese
cooking time and temperature, such as Cheddar. Gentle varieties, such as Cheddar, Colby, Egmont, and stirred curd.
FIGURE 26.6 ALPMA coagulator (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of ALPMA, Germany.)
treatment of the curd and evenness of particle size help to Dewheying
minimize variability in cheese weight and quality. There are
The vats are emptied by pumping out their contents of curd
over 100 coagulators in operation worldwide, producing a
and whey. This process is commonly described as running
wide range of cheese varieties from fresh curd to those
or draining the vat. Correct pump selection is of vital
cooked-curd varieties mentioned earlier. The most popular
importance, as the curd can potentially be damaged,
size based on milk consumption is 15,000 L/h, but the range
generating large quantities of fine particles that are lost into
varies from 5,000 to 40,000 L/h.
the whey stream. Large, slowly revolving, positive rotary
A third system is known as the ALPMA Bassine line
lobe pumps are a common option, with the Sine pump,
(Fig. 26.7). The original bassine system was developed by
which uses a specially formed impeller, being popular
the French company Servi Doryl, which became part of the
because of its gentle operation and low curd damage. During
ALPMA Group in 2009. The system operates in a similar
emptying of the vats, the stirrers remain in operation to
way to the ALPMA Coagulator but instead of creating
ensure mixing of the vat contents.
“mini-vats” using a belt, many small “bassines” move along
For the whole cheesemaking process to be effectively
a track system. The milk is coagulated in the bassines and
continuous despite the batch vat stage, it is necessary for a
then cut by a robotic system with a patented cutting harp.
number of vats to be present, for example, eight operating
Curd treatment then takes place using different stirring units
and emptying in sequence to provide a continuous flow of
depending on the cheese type being made. Cooking and
curd. Even with this system, there is variation in acidity and
washing of curd is achieved in a similar manner to the
composition between the curd that first leaves the vat and
the curd that leaves toward the end. This effect can be Drying (Draining) the Curd
minimized on multivat plants by overlapping vat emptying
Commercial plants almost universally use a belt system for
using dual pumps. The ratio of curd to whey also varies as
this next part of the process. Specially designed slotted
the vat is emptied, with a higher proportion of curd at the
plastic or stainless steel conveyor belts are used. These are
beginning. The pump speed is controlled to increase during
usually fitted with peg-stirring devices mounted above the
vat emptying to provide a uniform flow of curd to the next
belts to agitate the curd to facilitate whey drainage and to
stage of the process. Alternatively, some manufacturers use
prevent clumping of the curd. As a residence times of 10 min
a curd-finishing tank between the vat and separation of the
are common. This belt often forms the first part of a cheese-
curds and whey. These tanks can provide gentle final
texturing belt system. An example of these is the Alfomatic
agitation, and allow some whey removal that helps provide
shown in Fig. 26.8.
a uniform feed to the next stage.
Primary separation of the curd and whey is achieved by
pumping the curd/whey mixture from the cheese vat or Texturing (Cheddaring) or Stirring
finishing tank over a specially designed dewheying screen.
For varieties, such as Cheddar, a traditional step in
FIGURE 26.7 ALPMA Bassine line (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of ALPMA, Germany.)
This is normally parabolic in shape, fitted with horizontally manufacture has included a cheddaring stage, during which
oriented wedge wires, to maximize the efficiency of the the curd is allowed to knit together, to flow and stretch, and
separation process with minimal curd damage. The whey to develop a cooked chicken–type structure. In the small
passes through the screen and the curd is transported to the open-vat process, cheddaring is achieved by heaping the
next stage. The feed to the screen is designed to provide an drained curd along the sides of the vat and allowing it to fuse
even, gentle flow across its width; this is often achieved by together. The fused mass is then cut into blocks of 10–20 kg,
the use of a weir feed arrangement. An example of the and these are turned every 15–39 min over a period of 90–
system used is illustrated at the top of Fig. 26.8, the 120 min to encourage flow and stretch to develop the desired
Alfomatic cheesemaker. The whey that is removed through structure. There have been numerous attempts to replace this
the screen is collected and pumped to a tank prior to separate highly manual, labor-intensive process with a fully
processing operations to produce a wide range of products. mechanized system. One such system is the cheddaring
Initial processing operations include clarification for the tower, a version of which was originally developed in New
removal of casein fines, centrifugal separation for the Zealand. An example of such a system is shown in Fig. 26.9.
recovery of fat, and pasteurization or thermization to reduce Essentially the towers are cylindrical holding tubes,
the microbiological activity. changing to a rectangular discharge section. Incorporated
into their structure is a whey drainage system. Holding times
of 1–2 h can be achieved with a capacity of up to 9000 kg/h.
Large blocks are guillotined from the base of the tower and This is achieved by the use of curd mills, of which there are
fed into a curd mill. a number of varieties. Most operate by using a rotating
For newer plants, a belt system has become very popular, cutting tool, which cuts the curd mass in two directions
typically with two belts running at different speeds to using a blade and a comb. Prevention of fine particle
provide stretch, flow, and inversion of the curd mass, and generation is an important feature of the design. For stirred-
also to provide the desired holding time. These belt systems curd varieties, where little curd fusion has occurred, the mill
are totally enclosed in stainless steel housings. This provides still operates to break up any lumps that have formed. The
a hygienic environment, and also the facility for inplace mill is located at the base of the tower in a cheddaring tower
cleaning and maintenance of temperature. The belts are system, or at the end of a conveyor belt in the more common
made of plastic or stainless steel and are generally not belt systems.
perforated, unlike the draining belts described earlier. The
belts used for the cheddaring holding stage can also be fitted
with peg stirrers above to facilitate the manufacture of Salting and Mellowing
stirred-curd varieties, for example, Cheshire and Egmont, The incorporation of salt into the curd is a vital part of the
on the same equipment. Similarly, the speed of the cheesemaking process. Salt has a very important role in
conveyors can be adjusted to provide the desired residence flavor enhancement and in the control of microbiology, final
times. cheese pH, and moisture content. A detailed discussion on
FIGURE 26.8 Alfomatic cheesemaker operating principles. (1) Whey screen; (2) whey sump; (3) agitator; (4) conveyors (variable speed); (5)
agitators (optional) for stirred curd; (6) chip mill; (7) dry-salting system (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Tetra Pak, Switzerland.)
A capacity of 16,000 kg/h is possible. Examples of such salting is given in Chapter 13. Critical factors include the
equipment are the Alfomatic (Fig. 26.8), the Cheddarmaster application of the correct ratio of salt to curd, even uptake
(Fig. 26.10), the Tetra Scherping cheese curd-draining of the salt, and controlled loss of moisture. The level of salt
conveyor (Fig. 26.11), and the EZ Whey draining matting required varies according to the cheese type manufactured.
conveyor (DR Tech Inc., Wisconsin, USA). SPX also offer There are two components to the salting process: the
variations on the belt system specifically for the application of the salt (salting) and then the subsequent
manufacture of soft Mozzarella curd, pizza cheese curd, and mixing, uptake, and associated moisture loss (mellowing).
dry-salt versions of European cheeses, such as Gouda, There has been a range of equipment designs to achieve
Edam, and Grana. satisfactory salting, with variable success. Simpler styles
have included belt systems in which the quantity of curd
being conveyed is measured by means of a fork sensing curd
Milling (Size Reduction) depth, with dry salt then being air conveyed and distributed
Following the texturing or cheddaring stage, the curd mass across the belt by a reciprocating boom. The quantity of salt
fuses into a solid structure. For the incorporation of salt to is provided in proportion to the curd flow and is metered by
occur in the next stage, it is necessary to reduce the solid a funnel and salt wheel device in a dry area of the plant.
Better control can be achieved by using load cells on the belt
mass to curd fingers of approximately 1.5 × 1.5 × 8 cm. to weigh the curd flow. The use of twin-salting booms is
another alternative, each applying a proportion of the salt. A absorbed by the curd, at the same time as moisture is
widely used system is the trommel or drum salter, in which expelled. The belts are equipped with peg stirrers to
the curd flow is directed over a weighing belt and then into encourage mixing and moisture loss, and they are also
a rotating drum into which the salt stream is directed. This enclosed to maintain temperature.
provides an accurate measurement and good mixing.
However, for this system to be used in conjunction with a
belt plant, the curd has to be conveyed from the belt to the Finishing Vats
salter and returned to the next belt. An example of such a An alternative to the continuous belt/tower systems is the
system is shown in Fig. 26.12. use of finishing/salting vats or tables, which are suitable for
A variation in this concept involves the use of an auger stirred-curd varieties. The curd/whey mixture is pumped
conveyor instead of the rotating drum to provide mixing of from the vat into these batch tanks, which allow whey
the salt and curd as it is conveyed back on to the mellowing drainage, holding time and pH drop, salt addition, and
belt. mellowing all in one vessel. An example is the Damrow
The mellowing belt provides a holding time of 10– 20 enclosed finishing vat (EFV) shown in Fig. 26.13. Although
min to allow the applied dry salt to be mixed, dissolved, and no longer manufactured by Tetra Damrow, the image gives
a good example of the design principle. A number of other
FIGURE 26.9 Cheddaring tower with guillotine and mill at base (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Fonterra, New Zealand.)
suppliers in the US market, such as Kusel Equipment Co. according to the cheese type. For example, close-textured
(Wisconsin, USA), manufacture EFVs, which are designed hard cheeses, such as Cheddar, require the application of
for full CIP washing. considerable pressure and air removal to form appropriate
blocks. Other varieties, such as Blue, require minimum
Pressing/Block Formation—General Discussion compression and pressure conditions to produce an open
texture, enabling air penetration and mold growth. Varieties,
This process is common to most cheese varieties, the such as Gouda and Edam, require preliminary block
exceptions being particulate cheeses, such as cottage cheese.
FIGURE 26.10 Cheddarmaster belt system (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Fonterra, New Zealand.)
FIGURE 26.11 Tetra Scherping cheese curd draining conveyor (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Tetra Pak, Switzerland.)
Block formation involves the conversion of granular, formation while submerged below the whey prior to further
particulate curd into a solid block of cheese. The degree of compression. A vital component of block formation during
compression required and the techniques used vary the history of cheesemaking has been the cheese hoop or
mold. Although its use has been superseded by blockformers salt plants. Therefore, selection and design of modern block
in large-scale, dry-salt cheese production, it is still a vital molds is critical to the quality of the final cheese produced.
component of many other plants and also small-scale, dry-
FIGURE 26.12 Trommel salting system (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Fonterra, New Zealand.)
FIGURE 26.13 Damrow enclosed finishing vat (EFV) (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Tetra Pak, Switzerland.)
FIGURE 26.14 Laude block molds (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Laude bv, The Netherlands.)
The cheese hoop or mold is a specialized container the mold material (polypropylene or polyethylene).
designed to hold and form the curd into the desired shape, ALPMA/Servi has developed cheese molds that can be
permitting the further loss of whey and the application of detected if pieces break off into the cheese (L. Wagner,
pressure and vacuum, if so desired. The molds were personal communication, September 17, 2014).
originally made of wood, with the inner shape being that of
the final cheese. They were cylindrical or rectangular and
had holes drilled through the sides, base, and lid to permit Pressing/Block-forming for Dry-Salted Cheese
whey drainage. They were often lined with cloth (hence the For dry-salted cheeses, the next stage of the process is the
term cheesecloth) to provide a porous barrier between the conversion of the salted chips of curd into a solid block. The
curd and the walls to allow whey drainage. An early option traditional process involved the use of hoops or molds into
was the use of metal, especially for rectangular blocks; which the curd was weighed and then compressed, often
telescopic lids; and bases to permit compression of the overnight, by externally applied pressure using hydraulic
blocks under applied external pressure. This system is still rams, commonly in horizontal gang presses. This system is
used by some smaller-scale operations, with stainless steel still in use in smaller-scale plants, and developments in this
molds and synthetic cloths providing improved hygiene. A area are discussed in more detail under the section, Postvat
major technological development was the introduction of Stages-Hard/Semihard Brine Salted Types. The universal
the plastic mold. These may range from a simple plastic tube system adopted in large-scale dry-salt plants involves the
with appropriate perforations, which may be suitable for a use of blockformers, of which there are a number of
variety, such as Camembert, where no external pressure is varieties. Wincanton Engineering in the United Kingdom
applied, to a highly sophisticated microperforated, grooved patented the original development over 35 years ago.
multimold for pressed varieties, such as Gouda. This
technology has eliminated the need for cheesecloths, as
drainage is via the grooves and the microporous holes.
Hygiene is maintained through an appropriate cleaning
process, which may include ultrasonics. The desired cheese
surface effect may be achieved by selecting an appropriate
surface grooving.
Fig. 26.14 shows an example of modern block molds
commonly used for pressed cheeses, such as Gouda. The
appropriate pressing regime to be applied to the curd
contained in the mold is dependent on the cheese type. There
is a risk in the application of too much pressure initially,
which results in surface closure and poor subsequent whey
removal.
A major advance in block mold design was the
introduction of welded plastic molds, eliminating the use of
metal screws as in earlier types. Laude bv (The Netherlands)
and Servi Doryl (now owned by ALPMA, Germany) have
been at the forefront of developments in this field and are
continually improving the performance of their molds or
developing molds for new applications. Laude bv produces
a wide range of single- and multimolds, of various shapes
and sizes, for the production of pressed cheeses. ALPMA/
Servi Doryl produces molds for different types of cheese, for
example, fresh, soft, semihard, and hard cheese. Many
cheeses with AOC or PDO status are now manufactured
with these modern plastic molds, which have been
developed with the specific cheese process and draining
characteristics in mind. A recent development by
ALPMA/Servi Doryl is the use of “detectable material” in
cheese molds. Previously, any material that broke off a mold
through mechanical influence was not easily detected in the
cheese due to the similarity in density between cheese and
Plant capacity requirements usually mean that several

blockformers are necessary and it is, therefore, important for
product uniformity reasons that even feed is supplied to each
blockformer. This may be achieved by using devices, such
as curd distribution tanks, which provide mixing of the curd
from the mellowing belt and an even distribution of the curd
to the suction tubes feeding the blockformers. An example
of these is shown in Fig. 26.15.
FIGURE 26.15 Curd distribution tank (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Fonterra, New Zealand.)
All blockforming towers operate on a similar principle sized blocks from 10-kg cylinders to 290-kg blocks. The
of using vacuum to draw curd into the top of the tower. The type used depends on the product end-use.
curd is then subjected to further vacuum as it progresses Recent developments in blockformers have focused
down the tower. The internal sidewalls are perforated to mainly on improved reliability, accuracy, energy efficiency,
facilitate whey and air removal, and the height of the towers and cleaning efficiency. For example, the integrated
(6–10 m) provides compression by gravity. As the curd interceptor and improved tower construction in the Tetra
travels down the tower, it is converted from individual curd Tebel Blockfomer 6 reduces the amount of cleaning and
particles into a fused column. At the base of the column, the maintenance required. Smart control of vacuum pumps (e.g.,
curd is cut by a guillotine into blocks of cheese of a uniform using frequency controllers) can also be used to optimize
shape and weight, typically 18–20 kg. Upward pressure is energy usage.
applied to the block by an elevator platform for a short Packing of the cheese is important, as it plays a role
period of time before it is ejected from the column. The during curing and storage, in final cheese shape and
operation of such a tower is illustrated in Fig. 26.16. An appearance, and in protection from the environment. The
entire system is shown in Fig. 26.17. The typical residence formed cheese blocks are discharged from the pressing
time in the towers is 30 min. Weight control is affected by towers into multilayered plastic bags. These are conveyed to
adjustments to the platform height in the guillotine section. a vacuumsealing chamber where air is removed from the bag
A major improvement over the original designs was the and a heat seal is applied. The gas and water transport
provision of two different vacuum stages as in the Tetra properties of the bag and the level of vacuum applied vary
TwinVac models. This permits the use of a higher vacuum according to the cheese type. Prevention of moisture loss
in the lower column, which is effectively separated from the and prevention of mold growth are key factors for Cheddar-
upper column by a plug of curd. This permits the use of a type cheeses.
lower transport vacuum in the upper section and a higher A recent innovation by Tetra Pak is the introduction of
throughput. the Formloada automated bag loader, which forms bags
Many major equipment suppliers produce blockformers from a roll of material at the base of each tower and presents
with variations in detail, producing different shaped and them to receive the cheese blocks. The use of material in a
roll format reduces the amount of material handling
FIGURE 26.16 Blockformer operating principles (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Tetra Pak, Switzerland.)
FIGURE 26.17 Blockformer system, including curd distribution tank, curd towers, vacuum supply, Formloada bag loaders, and vacuum sealer
(see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Tetra Pak, Switzerland.) glycolysis. The primary objective of the cheesemaking
process is to produce a material with the desired
characteristics for ongoing changes during curing and
and storage space required, and is claimed to give a storage. Factors, such as salt content, pH, and moisture
lowerfailure rate and reduced operator attendance. Cryovac content are of critical importance. The primary controllable
had earlier introduced bag loaders at the base of towers, factors after the young cheese has been made are the time
which automatically fit cheese bags to the discharge and the temperature of storage. Ripening produces
channels to receive the cheese blocks from the towers. The developments in flavor and changes in texture. From a
same company also supplies gusset stretchers to help present technology point of view, several stages can be identified:
the bagged cheese in the appropriate form to the vacuum- initial cooling, curing or ripening, and controlled storage.
sealing stage. These advancements have removed another The particular regime used depends on the cheese type and
repetitive manual operation from the cheesemaking process. its destination.
The curd is still warm (typically 33°C) as it exits the
blockformers and is quite plastic. Therefore, the
Initial Cooling
vacuumsealed block requires the support of a carton while
cooling to maintain its desired shape and finish. Cartoning This serves two purposes. First, a reduction in the
operations are normally fully automated with a variety of temperature of the cheese solidifies the fat and the cheese
carton styles in use, ranging from a shoebox style with a becomes firm and maintains its shape. Second, a rapid drop
separate base and lid to a wrap-around, one-piece type. in temperature prevents the rapid growth of undesirable
nonstarter lactic acid bacteria, which could otherwise use
residual lactose and produce undesirable gas and flavor
Ripening and Storage defects. A rapid reduction in temperature to 16°C within 12–
16 h of manufacture is achieved by the use of open rack
This is a highly complex topic, which is the subject of stacking of the cheese blocks, which are then conveyed into
chapters 14–21 in this book (see volume 1 section IV on a blast chiller, using air at 2–8°C. Open rack stacking is
Cheese Ripening). Cheese is essentially a complex matrix of necessary to permit good air flow and heat transfer. The
protein, fat, and carbohydrate containing a range of enzymes rapid chillers operate on a first-in/first-out basis. An
and microorganisms. Their activities produce the changes example is shown in Fig. 26.18.
that convert the young or “green” cheese into the desired
final product, primarily through proteolysis, lipolysis and
FIGURE 26.18 Rapid-cooling tunnel (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Fonterra, New Zealand.)
Following the rapid-cooling operation, the cheeses are the temperature may be elevated to 15°C for 1 month. If a
stacked into the form required for their long-term curing and slower rate is required, a temperature of 2°C may be used.
storage. This may be a cartonless pallet where 40 or more Once the desired degree of ripening has been achieved,
blocks are stacked onto a pallet and shrink wrapped. This transferring the product to reduced-temperature storage can
format is suitable if the cheese is to be used for manufacture reduce further change.
into processed cheese. Alternatively, the cartons may be
stacked on to a pallet, or just the cheeses in carton bases may Storage
be placed in bulk bins. These are strapped and tension is In this stage, the objective is for minimal change in product
applied to help maintain shape and finish. This format is characteristics with time. This is primarily achieved by
suitable for end-use in the cheese-cutting trade, where the controlling the temperature. Freezing of the product is an
large blocks are cut and repacked into consumer packs. option if the end-use for the product is the process kettle.
Robots are normally used for these assembly operations. A
typical assembly is shown in Fig. 26.19.
Ripening (Curing)
This involves the transfer of the palletized product to
controlled-temperature storage rooms where the pallets are
assembled onto racks. Typical temperatures are 8–10°C for
the initial period of 35 days or so. Temperature and time
after this stage will depend on the desired end-use for the
product. For example, if a more rapid maturation is required,
Dispatch Dewheying
The process described thus far is for the production of bulk For many varieties, partial whey removal occurs during the
blocks of cheese, typically 20 kg in size. This product has vat stage of processing, when the agitators are stopped for a
FIGURE 26.19 Robotic stacking of cheese blocks (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Fonterra, New Zealand.)
many end-uses, such as being an ingredient for many food period, allowing the curd to sink, and a whey removal
products containing cheese, conversion into grated cheese or screen, probe, or arm is lowered into the vat and the required
processed cheese, or cutting natural cheese into consumer- amount of whey is drawn off. This may be replaced by hot
size blocks. The uses of cheese as a food ingredient and as water, which serves to cook the curds and also to dilute the
processed cheese are the subject of separate chapters lactose and lactic acid content of the remaining whey.
(Chapters 29 and 46). Further whey removal may also occur in the same fashion
The preparation and packaging of cheese for domestic before the curd/whey mixture is pumped from the vat.
consumers involves the use of a wide range of sophisticated Alternatively, some manufacturers use a curd-finishing tank
equipment and packaging technology, the detail of which is after the cheese vat. These tanks are used for a second whey
beyond the scope of this chapter. Typical steps involve the removal step and provide gentle stirring of the curds and
cutting of cheese blocks into the appropriately sized smaller whey to ensure a consistent feed to the prepress step.
blocks, followed by packaging in appropriate laminated
material, under either vacuum or a modified atmosphere.
Prepressing/Block Formation
The presence of eyes or holes in the cheese is an important
POSTVAT STAGES—HARD/SEMIHARD BRINE– characteristic of several major cheese types, such as Gouda,
SALTED TYPES Edam, and Emmental.
Postvat processing of the cheese curd differs considerably An important feature of the curd block formed for such
for cheeses that are essentially formed into their final block cheese is the absence of air from within the block, and
shape on leaving the vat, as these generally require instead the presence of microscopic whey-filled cavities in
immersion in brine to achieve salt uptake. There are also which microorganisms can grow and produce gas, in
processing differences depending on whether the cheeses particular carbon dioxide, which can ultimately form the
are hard, semihard, or soft and possibly mold ripened. These characteristic round eyes (Kosikowski and Mistry, 1997;
differences are summarized in Fig. 28.1. Martley and Crow, 1996). For the appropriate curd
characteristics, the curd is formed into blocks below the
surface of the whey prior to curd/whey separation, in
contrast to the procedure with dry-salted cheeses, such as
Cheddar. This process is known as prepressing. As block hoop for further pressing and formation. Several variations
formation occurs prior to salting, an alternative salting using the same operating principle are available to produce
technique, brine salting, also becomes necessary. To reduce blocks of various shapes and sizes from 1 to 20 kg, with
the volume of material to be handled during block discharge of multiple blocks from one column being
formation, partial whey removal using the vat sieve or possible. Exchangeable perforated drainage columns within
strainer takes place prior to pumping out a common jacket can be used, as in the Casomatic MC
FIGURE 26.20 Prepressing vat. (1) Prepressing vat; (2) curd distributors, or (2a) CIP nozzle; (3) unloading device; (4) conveyor (see Color Plate
Section). (Courtesy of Tetra Pak, Switzerland.) models.
An alternative way of forming a block under whey was
the curd/whey mixture to the pressing stage. An earlier introduced by ALPMA in 2004. The Formatic filler system
development of a mechanized system to achieve the (Figs. 26.22 and 26.23) fills and prepresses individual
objective of pressing under the whey involved the use of cheese molds. As the mold is filled, a combined filling/
prepressing vats, as illustrated in Fig. 26.20. The curd/whey pressing head moves upward from the bottom of the mold to
mixture is pumped into a rectangular vat and perforated make room for the curds and whey. Once the mold is full,
metal or plastic plates are placed above the vat contents, and the filling/pressing head then applies downward pressure,
then lowered below the whey to the curd layer, which is while also removing excess whey. A prepressed block is
supported by a woven plastic belt at the base of the vat. This created in the mold, which is now ready to move to the
layer is then compressed by the application of hydraulic pressing stage. Some advantages of this equipment include:
pressure to the plates and a solid curd mass is formed. The 
whey is then removed, and the curd layer is conveyed from Flexibility in cheese weight, shape, and speed
the base of the vat through the now-open end and is cut into of changing between formats.  Filling equipment is
appropriate-sized curd blocks by cutting tools prior to being compact, and does not require a large vertical space for
placed in a mold for further pressing and formation.
a column.
More advanced systems use a semicontinuous,

prepressing, block-forming system of which the Casomatic High filling accuracy.  No mechanical cutting
equipment produced by Tetra Pak is a widely used example. of pressed curd.  Easy separation of cheeses with
A diagram illustrating the working principles is shown in
Fig. 26.21. Buffer tanks are used to store the curd/whey inclusions/flavors.
mixture pumped from the cheese vat. They are essential to
provide an evenly mixed feed to the pressing system. The Cheese types with irregular holes or eyes, also known as
curd/whey mixture in the ratio of about 1:4 is then pumped granular, for example, Parmesan, can also be handled with
to the top of the column, which is about 3 m in height. The equipment, such as the Casomatic. Pressing under the whey
column is filled, and the curd settles below the whey to a is not required, and curd/whey separation can be achieved
height of about 2 m. Whey is removed from the column via by the use of screens or rotating sieves discharging curd into
three whey drainage bands, with a controlled rate of removal the column for an initial block formation. Some equipment
being critical to the formation of a block of the correct can operate using both a drained curd and a curd/whey
density at the base of the column. The curd block is formed mixture. The “EZ Whey” Vertical Filler manufactured by
in a dosing chamber and is cut from the column above by DR Tech Inc. (Wisconsin, USA) was designed originally for
means of a guillotine. The dosing chamber then moves the production of hard Italian-style cheeses. The units can
forward and discharges the formed block into a mold or be fed with either predrained curd or curds and whey directly
from the vat, and the level of whey above the column of block is necessary. This provides a further period for
cheese can be controlled by the operator. In this way, a ongoing acid development and pH and texture change, and
variety of different cheeses, some with partly open texture, assists final whey expulsion, shape formation, and also
can be manufactured. surface texture for subsequent rind formation, where
appropriate. Simple vertical pressing systems are suitable
for small-scale operations, where the cheese molds are
Pressing loaded into the press and the appropriate pressure regime is
Having formed the curd into the final cheese block by applied by lowering hydraulic rams. For larger-scale
molding in the prepressing stage, further pressing of the
FIGURE 26.21 Casomatic operating principles. (1) Curd/whey mixture inlet; (2) column with sight glass; (3) perforated whey discharge; (4) interceptor;
(5) whey balance tank; (6) cutting and discharge system; (7) mold; (8) pawl conveyor; (9) whey-collecting chute (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy
of Tetra Pak, Switzerland.) operations, trolley presses, tunnel presses, and conveyor
presses are used. With trolley presses, the cheese molds are
placed on a trolley, which is then fed into a tunnel equipped
with a series of individual vertical rams. These are gradual increase in pressure, as the application of too much
subsequently lowered to apply the appropriate pressure to pressure at the start can cause closure of the surface and can
the batch of cheese. Automatically fed tunnel presses prevent whey removal. A typical program for 10-kg Gouda
operate by automatically loading cheese into the tunnel, cheese is 1 bar (0.1 MPa) for 20 min followed by 2 bar for
followed by the pressing program for the whole batch. 40 min.
Simultaneous loading and unloading is possible and the For cheeses, such as Emmental, where blocks of 30– 100
enclosed systems are usually CIP-able. kg are common, specialized systems are used that
FIGURE 26.22 Formatic operating principles (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of ALPMA, Germany.)
FIGURE 26.23 A typical Formatic filling line layout (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of ALPMA, Germany.)
The conveyor press is another option, with the cheese incorporate a mold-filling system that can also complete
molds being loaded onto a conveyor system, where the pressing, with further external pressing and turning
blocks are assembled into groups. Each block or pair of equipment available to help with cheese quality and
blocks has an individual hydraulic ram and each group has uniformity. In the USA, Cheddar block sizes up to 2000 lb
its own individual pressing program. Again, simultaneous are produced. In each market, the equipment required is
loading and unloading of the pressing bays is practiced. An supplied by local manufacturers.
example of a conveyor pressing system is shown in Fig. Once the required pressing operation is completed and
26.24. Pressing times and pressures vary with the cheese the desired pH drop has been achieved, the cheese blocks
variety and the block size. It is important that there is a are ejected from the molds and are conveyed to the next
stage of brining. The used molds and lids are returned to the require only a few hours, whereas a 10-kg Gouda may
system via a cleaning process. require 2 days.
FIGURE 26.24 Conveyor pressing system, with Casomatics in foreground (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Fonterra, New Zealand.)
Brining Brining systems can be a simple tank in which the cheese
is placed once it has been removed from its mold.
Cheeses that have been formed into blocks under the whey
Alternatively, a more continuous system known as the
have not had the opportunity for salt incorporation. The
serpentine or surface-brining system may be used, where the
application of dry salt to the cheese surface is one technique
cheeses are floated in brine channels to holding pens for the
that is used for some cheeses, such as Blue, but for many
required period. As the surface of the cheese is above the
cheeses, brine salting is simpler, provides greater
brine, periodic spraying of the surface with brine or forced
uniformity, and is less labor intensive. Many cheeses that
dipping of the cheese below the surface is required to
have traditionally been made using brine salting can in fact
achieve an even salt uptake. Another option for brine
be made using the simpler and cheaper dry-salting
application is the APV TrayBrine System from SPX. Here
technology described already for Cheddar-type cheeses.
the cheeses are placed on plastic trays, which are stacked
However, eye development is not usually attempted, with
and connected to a brine distribution system. The brine
the major objective being to produce the appropriate typical
flows down over the cheese surface, is recirculated for the
flavor and texture. There is a detailed discussion of salting
required period, and is then recovered.
in Chapter 13.
A common method of brining for large-scale operations
Brine salting basically involves the immersion of the
is the deep-brining technique, where the cheeses are floated
cheese block into a brine bath. The brine is a solution about
onto shelves on racks, which are then progressively
19%–21% (w/w) of NaCl. It should also contain an
submerged below the brine surface. Ideally, the racks should
appropriate level of CaCl2, for example, 0.2% w/w, to
be emptied and the loading sequence reversed midway
prevent leaching of calcium from the cheese. Its pH should
through the brining process to ensure the first-in/first-out
be close to the cheese pH (typically 5.2–5.3) and its
principle for consistent salt uptake. An example of a deep-
temperature should be 10–14°C. As the brine is used, its salt
brining system is shown in Fig. 26.25.
concentration must be maintained as salt moves into the
In addition to the vital effect of providing salt uptake for
cheese and water/whey moves out, causing dilution. Also
control of the microbiology and flavor of the cheese, brining
the brine will become contaminated with cheese particles,
also provides a rapid-cooling effect, reducing the cheese
whey proteins, and undesirable bacteria. Filtration
temperature to near the brine temperature within several
(including membrane filtration), centrifugal clarification,
hours. This helps control the growth of undesirable bacteria
and pasteurization can be used to maintain brine quality. If
in a similar fashion to the rapid-cooling step used with
properly cared for, the same brine can be used for many
Cheddar production.
years (Bylund, 1995b; Kristensen, 1999).
The time required for adequate salt uptake in the brine
depends on the size of the cheese block and the desired final
salt level. For example, a small 250-g Camembert may
FIGURE 26.25 Deep-brining system (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Fonterra, New Zealand.)
Ripening brinesalting systems tend to be more expensive, these
products are more typically directed at the retail consumer
Once the cheese has been brined for the required period, it
market, requiring appropriate cutting and packaging.
is floated to the discharge point and removed from the brine
via a conveyor. Its surface may be rinsed with a brine
solution to remove any foreign matter and is then air dried POSTVAT STAGES—BRINE SALTED, SOFT, MOLD
with a blower or air knife. Thereafter, packing and curing RIPENED
depend on the intended market. Rindless cheeses, which are
very commonly produced for bulk markets, especially if Cheeses, such as Camembert and Blue fall into this
they are to be used subsequently as ingredients, are packed category. Technological advances and automation have
into appropriate laminated plastics bags under vacuum. been applied to these varieties and ultrafiltration has also
They are then put into cartons, stacked on pallets, and had a major impact, as numerous advantages, including
transported to the appropriate curing and storage conditions. yield improvement, can be obtained. The use of
If eye development is required, several stages of temperature ultrafiltration is discussed in detail in Chapter 27.
change will be used, for example, for Emmental, 3–4 weeks Discussion of these cheeses commences at the vat stage
at 10°C, followed by 6–7 weeks at 22–25°C for eye in Fig. 28.1. Uniformity of milk, starter, and coagulant
development, and storage/curing at 8°C for several months. activity is of critical importance for the uniformity of
For Gouda, conditions may be several weeks at 10–12°C, syneresis, which is essential for these varieties (Pointurier
followed by 3–4 weeks at 12–18°C, then several months at and Law, 2001). The normal operations of coagulation,
10–12°C (Bylund, 1995b). If eye development is desired, as cutting, stirring, and acid development occur in the vat. The
gas production is necessary, appropriate-permeable milk entering the vat may have been preripened with starter
laminated bags must be used to permit gas transport. If culture and is likely to include the mold spores for later
rinded cheeses are being produced, control of the humidity development. However, because of the high-moisture
in the curing rooms is important (usually about 85%–90%) content, which changes rapidly with time due to syneresis,
to prevent undue moisture loss. Colored wax coatings may it is not practical or desirable to use large vats for the
also be applied to provide protection for the cheese. Some production of Camembert types in particular, as the curd
varieties, such as Parmesan and Emmental, require frequent composition of the material discharged first would be very
turning during curing to maintain the desired shape. different from that 30-min later. Hence, curd formation in a
Mechanized systems, such as revolving shelf rails, are continuous process or in small batches is necessary, so that
available for all the material-handling operations applied to the contents may be discharged rapidly into multimolds
the final cheeses. where curd/whey separation (dewheying) occurs. The
development of various systems, such as the Guerin process,
Dispatch is described in more detail by Bertrand (1987) and Pointurier
The cheeses have the same multiple end-uses as already and Law (2001). Some earlier systems included the use of
described for dry-salted varieties. However, as the micropans, which produced just enough curd for one mold.
The ALPMA Continuous Coagulator and Bassine systems Variations such as dry salting the cheese by surface
described earlier in this chapter under the section, application may be used for some cheese styles.
Continuous Processes are commonly used for these soft, A feature of these mold-ripened cheeses is that a very
mold-ripened cheeses. open texture may be necessary to allow oxygen penetration
Molding can be achieved by tipping the vats directly into for mold growth. Hence the cheeses are not pressed by the
the molds, often with special chutes used to divide curd application of any external pressure, just gravity is used. For
evenly between trays, or by using specialized filling and cheese, such as Blue, where internal mold growth is desired,
portioning systems. Smaller-scale systems are available as the passage of air is facilitated by spiking holes through the
manual, semiautomatic, or fully automatic fillers, typically cheese with special needles.
used for 20,000–80,000 L/day, A common example of this Smear-ripened cheeses are another type within both the
type of system is the ALPMA AFE filler (Fig. 26.26), which semihard and the soft categories. The key process is the
is used for filling fresh cheeses (such as Twarog), soft application and growth of a smear culture, predominantly
cheeses (Camembert, Brie, and Feta), and semihard cheese Brevibacterium linens, on the surface of the cheese during
(such as Tilsiter). Over 100 AFE fillers are in operation ripening. Various mechanized brushing systems are
around the world. Much larger industrial-size fillers are also available for smear application, which is usually repeated
available, such as the ALPMA “MR” fillers. The ALPMA several times during ripening, where control of humidity and
fillers all use rotating perforated drums to predrain whey temperature is critical.
immediately before filling into molds.
The multimolds that are used to form the cheese may be
in two sections to provide sufficient volume for the initial
fill.
The upper layer can be removed once the initial block
formation has occurred. The filled molds can be
automatically stacked and conveyed to the initial ripening
rooms for further acid development, followed by brining in
tanks for about 30 min, and then ripening for 10 days or so
in high-humidity rooms for mold development. Frequent
turning of the cheese is necessary during the first few days
to ensure an even cheese shape. This can be automated in
larger plants. Final wrapping is done in air-permeable
material before dispatch.
FIGURE 26.26 Manual AFE filler for soft cheese (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of ALPMA, Germany.)
POSTVAT STAGES—FRESH CHEESES Equipment designed to carry out the stretching operation
incorporates two essential components: cooking and
Cottage cheese falls into the soft/fresh category, but is
stretching (the mechanical treatment of the curd following
unusual in that the final product consists of curd particles
cooking). Most cooking/stretching equipment is sold as a
packed in the final container with the appropriate dressing.
combined solution from a supplier. However, different
Specialized equipment has been developed to mechanize
methods can be used for each of the two operations, and are
and automate the production of this highly popular product,
explained below.
and is available from many suppliers. An example is the
Traditionally, the cooking step involved the transfer of
Tetra Damrow Enclosed Cottage Cheese Vat (ECCV3).
curd through a hot-water section of a cooker/stretcher. At
Quark, cream cheese, and similar products also fit here
this point, the curd is immersed, heated, and worked by
but their manufacture is very different and is not described
single- or twin-screw augers. The temperature of the water
in detail (see Chapters 43 and 44). Following the formation
is determined by the temperature of the curd entering the
of the coagulum in special ripening vats, the whey is
stretcher, the curd flow rate, and the target temperature of
separated using a specially designed centrifugal separator.
the cooked curd. Typical water temperatures vary between
The product is then blended with appropriate additional
60 and 75°C with cooked curd temperatures varying
components, for example, cream, and then filled directly
between 55 and 65°C.
into the final container.
Mechanical conditioning of the cooked curd is usually
achieved by further working by single- or twin-screw augers
or by the “dipping” arms. The mechanical treatment of the
POSTVAT STAGES—PASTA FILATA cooked curd influences the final cheese structure,
Pasta filata cheeses are those cheeses for which the curd has composition, and functionality. Moisture can be expelled or
been worked or stretched and molded at an elevated further incorporated. Salt and other ingredients can also be
temperature before cooling. This process imparts a unique added at this point.
and characteristic fibrous structure that influences both the More recently, “dry” or “waterless” cooker/stretchers
ripening and the functional profile of the final cheese. have been developed by a number of manufacturers. These
Mozzarella is probably the best known of the Pasta Filata work in a similar manner to traditional cooking/stretching
cheeses, which are mainly Italian in origin. However, the equipment; however, in these machines the curd is not
category also includes cheeses, such as Provolone, heated using cooking water. Instead, heating may be
Scamorza, Caciocavallo, Kashkaval, and Pizza cheese. provided by direct steam injection (DSI), electromagnetic
Composition, particularly moisture level, and fresh versus energy, heated auger bodies, or a combination of these.
ripened textures are characteristics that define the different “Dry” cooker/stretchers can provide a number of advantages
varieties. The increase in popularity of the pizza in its over traditional equipment as listed here:
various forms (from the thin-based traditional Italian pizza,

with few or no toppings except Mozzarella and cooked in a Better temperature control (Nelles et al., 2014).
wood-fired oven, to the American-style thick pan-based 
Reduced losses/increased yield (Nelles et al., 2014;
pizza, with a myriad of toppings and cooked rapidly in an
Smith et al., 2009).
impinger-type oven) has focused attention on low-moisture

Mozzarella or Pizza cheese (see Chapter 40). del Prato No used cooking water to deal with (Smith et al., 2009).
(2001) discusses the different varieties of Pasta Filata 
Easy addition of ingredients, inclusions or flavors from
cheeses and the traditional processes and purposebuilt
equipment to make them. However, another manufacturing the start of the process.
option is to use existing equipment and to add on a Following mechanical working, the curd may be
cooker/stretcher and a cooling operation at the end of the extruded into a mold and immersed in chilled brine for
curd-making part of the existing process. This was the case cooling and salt uptake. Addition of dry salt between the
in the development of New Zealand’s low-moisture part stretching and molding steps is also an option. Packaging
skim (LMPS) Mozzarella industry. The New Zealand and dispatch follow, with shredding being a common option
industry adapted its Mozzarella-make procedure so that the for pizza use.
existing cheese vats and curd-handling systems could be Another common use is String cheese, which is
adapted to produce Mozzarella curd for stretching and essentially a thin stick of Mozzarella. This is a popular snack
subsequent cooling. Hence the Pasta Filata process is simply food within the United States and is also used by some pizza
added onto the end of the more conventional semihard makers to fill the crusts of their “stuffed-crust” pizzas. Each
cheese process and is, therefore, included as a branch of the stick is characterized by the fibrous nature of its texture and
dry salt Cheddar-type process in Fig. 28.1. Dry salting can more specifically the lengthwise alignment of the protein
also partially or completely replace brining. fibers. The sticks are either cut from a continuous “rope” of
extruded mozzarella, or are formed by extruding Mozzarella nonstick agent. A minimum quantity of water is used during
into a mold or forming head. the cooking phase to ensure high yields, and an air double
Almac s.r.l. (Modena, Italy), Johnson Industries jacket is used to insulate the cooking water section to give
International (Wisconsin, USA), Construzioni Meccaniche an improved temperature control.
E Technologia S.p.A. (Italy, and Gold Peg International Almac s.r.l. supplies Mozzarella cooker/stretchers to
(Australia) are examples of companies that manufacture a customers extensively throughout Europe and also distribute
range of Pasta Filata equipment including cooker/stretchers. through North, Central, and South America, Turkey, and the
Their equipment is described in the following sections. Middle East.
Almac s.r.l. Johnson Industries International, Inc.

Almac s.r.l. has been producing systems for making Pasta Johnson Industries International (Johnson) was formed in
Filata cheese since the 1980s. They manufacture essentially 1999 from the merger of two companies with experience
three standard systems: for the production of high-moisture dating back to the 1960s, and manufactures
Mozzarella, for the production of Pizza cheese (lowmoisture cooker/stretchers, molders, salting systems, and string
Mozzarella), and for the production of the ripened Pasta cheese machines.
Filata cheeses (Provolone, Kashkaval, and Kasseri). Johnson produces “dry” cooker stretchers under the
Turnkey design starts at curd draining and each system Aridus range. This includes a cooker that uses
includes cheddaring (curd ripening), cooking/stretching, electromagnetic energy (microwaves) to accurately heat the
molding, cooling (including prehardening and hardening), curd on a moving belt before stretching. Heated augers in
brining, and packaging. the stretching section can provide further temperature
Almac s.r.l. has an extensive range of cooker/stretchers control, and DSI can also be used for temperature and
with various capacities, built to handle a range of curd moisture adjustment. It is claimed that the increased solids
textures depending on the type of Pasta Filata cheese to be retention in this type of system can give a product yield of
made. An example is shown in Fig. 26.27. All the 0.05%–2% by weight, higher than that of traditional
largercapacity cooker/stretchers use twin screws to convey cooking/stretching systems (Nelles et al., 2014).
the cut curd through the wet cooking section and all use the Johnson also produces traditional single- and dualauger
“dipping arm” technology to condition the curd following cooker/stretchers up to 12,000 lb/h (5,443 kg/h). The
cooking. All product contact surfaces are coated with a
FIGURE 26.27 Almac cooker/stretcher (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Almac s.r.l., Italy.)
FIGURE 26.28 Supreme dual-auger cooker/stretcher (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Johnson Industries International Inc., USA.)
Supreme range of cooker/stretchers was developed Gold Peg International Pty Ltd.
originally by Stainless Steel Fabricating Inc., which was
Based in Australia, Gold Peg specializes in DSI continuous
purchased by Johnson in 2011. An example is shown in Fig.
cooking systems. A significant amount of development
26.28. In comparison with the Almac design, the Supreme
work has been carried out with the help of the CSIRO. Two
cooker/ stretchers use twin augers on an incline to cook and
different cooking systems allow Gold Peg to cover the
condition the Pasta Filata curd. At the base of the incline,
whole range of Mozzarella production from 100% curd,
curd is cooked in circulating hot water. Curd conditioning
high-moisture Mozzarella, to fully analogue cheeses.
takes place at the top of the incline, where the cooking water
The GPiCs system (Fig. 26.29) is a fully enclosed dry
is encouraged to drain back to the base.
cooker/stretcher, where the heating and stretching steps are
Johnson also manufactures two types of String cheese
carried out in a series of variable speed twin-screw mixing
machine with improved accuracy over the traditional
chambers. This enables the steam condensate to be gently
equipment. The Continuous String machine uses the
mixed into the cheese without overworking and with
“extruded rope” method, with cheese cut to length by knives
minimum losses. An inclined secondary worker is
controlled by photoelectric sensors. The Exact Weight
connected down-stream of the heating and mixing step to
String Cheese Machine uses extrusion and a forming head
complete stretching prior to filling. The equipment is fully
to produce a string with a claimed weight variation of less
CIP-able in 25% less time than a traditional wet cooker, and
than 1 g per 28-g piece of cheese.
start-up and shutdown losses are claimed to be 10% of a
traditional wet cooker (A. Sorley, personal communication,
Construzioni Meccaniche E July 23, 2014). GPiCS units can process from 150 to 5000
kg/h and are in operation in Australia, USA, and Europe.
Technologia S.p.A. Gold Peg also produces the RotaTherm continuous
Construzioni Meccaniche E Technologia S.p.A. (CMT), like cookers, which are combined with other processing
Almac, is an Italian-based company and also produces a equipment to create hybrid systems that enable the
range of Mozzarella equipment including cooker/stretchers production of natural Mozzarella or blends where the fresh
similar to those supplied by Almac. Recently, CMT has curd is replaced partly or fully by dry and/or liquid
introduced a number of innovations, including a novel ingredients. Using this equipment, it is possible to
system for curd draining and maturation prior to cooking, manufacture fully analogue Mozzarella with a cook
and a range of continuous steam cooker/stretchers. These temperature up to 95°C.
cooker/ stretchers feature steam injection in the lateral walls
of the cooking section, as well as inside the “dipping arm”
mixing chamber. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
CMT also produces a wide range of molding equipment
and equipment to make String cheese. In the CMT machine,
the String cheese is molded rather than extruded. CMT
claims certain advantages, including the same fibrous
structures as those obtained by extrusion, but also a more
consistent weight and dimension control.
AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS Customer-Focused cheese manufacturing process, from milk pasteurization to
shipping, can be conducted in 8 h.
Innovation IQF processing of cheese shreds by itself, although
In line with the modern quality management thinking, enabling the cheese per se to reach the consumer in the
cheese manufacturing has progressed from simply optimal state, does not enable the cheese to be fully
manufacturing a cheese to be packaged to manufacturing a functional in a pizza application. The act of freezing results
FIGURE 26.29 GPiCS Natural Mozzarella Cooking System (see Color Plate Section). (Courtesy of Gold Peg International Pty Ltd.)
cheese in a form that will facilitate use by the final consumer in a slight drying of the outer surface of each shred, which
and be of optimal quality when that consumer wishes to use in turn results in excessive blistering during baking, unless
the product. Therefore, in addition to new manufacturing the cheese is allowed to thaw prior to use. This problem has
processes that replicate traditional operations, recent been addressed by the addition of a further manufacturing
innovations have been developed that add to the step in Mozzarella production. Kielsmeier et al. (1991)
functionality of the cheese. reported that a cheese that can be baked directly from being
One of the most significant additions to cheese frozen could be manufactured through the application of an
manufacturing is that of individually quick frozen (IQF) aqueous coating to the cheese shreds immediately prior to or
technologies. Paralleling the increasing worldwide trend post the IQF operation. To ensure that an aqueous coating is
toward the consumption of pizza has been the demand for uniformly distributed on the shreds, it is preferable that the
frozen, shredded Mozzarella. Traditionally Mozzarella coating is sprayed onto the shreds while they are agitated.
requires a maturation period of between 7 and 21 days to A second functional use of cheese that has increased in
develop optimal organoleptic and baking qualities. importance over recent years has been the manufacture of
Following maturation, the Mozzarella is then comminuted cheese for the sole use as an ingredient for processed cheese.
and frozen to prevent further ripening. Barz and Cremer Manufacturers of young cheese specifically destined for
(1993), however, developed a cheese process wherein, by processed cheese end-use have developed a variety of
controlling the final moisture and milk fat content, a additional manufacturing steps to increase the acceptable
Mozzarella could be produced with optimal characteristics shelf life of their product. The standard cheese for
on the day of manufacture. They report that aging of the manufacture format has been in the form of barrel cheese,
cheese manufactured by their process is actually detrimental wherein the curd was pressed while still warm into 500-lb
to the baking quality and, therefore, the cheese requires to (227-kg) barrels. The result was a product that took 3–5 days
either be used within 48 h or more commonly to be IQF to cool and necessitated a milling operation by the processed
directly following forming. Typically freezing is carried out cheese manufacturer. Meibach et al. (1998) modified this
via fluidized bed freezing and subsequently packaged and process by adding a curd cooling (to 4–10°C) and a partial
distributed. Barz and Cremer (1993) state that their entire drying step (to reduce the curd moisture to a range similar to
that of pressed cheese, i.e., 33%–36% w/w) prior to packing.
The result of this process is that the curd particles can be example, in addition to being effective in reducing enzyme
packed without knitting together and, thus, can be used activity, HPP can also be used to reduce the microbial
directly by process cheese manufacturers without the need loading in cheese and, thus, has potential for improving shelf
for a milling operation. The ability to pack curd directly has life. This trait is of particular importance in fresh milk
also enabled the simplification of supply chains through cheeses, which due to their high-moisture content and pH,
bulk packing of curd into very large containers (450–1100 have a shelf life similar to liquid milk (approximately 7
kg). Meibach et al. (1998) also state that it is desirable to days). Evert-Arriagada et al. (2014) reported that by treating
flush the packaging with inert gas to minimize mold growth, packaged fresh cheese using an industrial-scale HPP unit at
presumably due to the presence of intercurd void spaces, 500 MPa, the shelf life could be extended to 21 days. Recent
which are absent in traditional barrel-formed cheese. research (Calzada et al., 2014) into the maturation of Brie
Processed cheese formulations generally include young has shown that HPP can be used to modify the flavor profile
cheese (for bulk and texture) and mature cheese via an effect on lipolysis and volatile compound production
(predominantly for flavor), in addition to other ingredients. during maturation.
To be acceptable for processed cheese manufacture, the
young cheese ideally should have a high intact to nonintact
casein ratio. However, due to residual proteolytic enzymes Reenvisioning Cheese Manufacture
from both starter culture and coagulating enzymes, the While most innovation has focused on improvements to
amount of nonintact casein gradually increases over time. existing cheese equipment or addition of unit operations for
The problem of young cheese shelf life has been addressed the purpose of customizing cheese functionality, there have
in several ways. The process of Meibach et al. (1998), also been some innovations that take a holistic view of
described earlier, reduces the rate of maturation through the cheese manufacture. Perhaps the most significant innovation
ability to rapidly cool the curd, but such a process requires that reenvisions cheese manufacture is that of Johnston et al.
cold storage throughout the product shelf life. Honoré et al. (2010). This process benefits from a cross-fertilization of
(2005) developed a process that resulted in an ambient stable unit operations traditionally found in the manufacture of
young cheese by drying the cheese to around 22%–23% other dairy products. The process of Johnston et al. (2010)
moisture. The drying process of Honoré et al. (2005) is replaces traditional cheese curd formation and whey
preferably conducted with reduced humidity air at a separation with in-line curd formation coupled with
temperature between 20 and 50°C using a multistage continuous in-line cooking for increasing curd firmness and
fluidized bed dryer with an interstage milling. High-pressure facilitating whey loss. This is followed by options for
processing (HPP) has also been reported (Johnston et al., washing the curd followed by dewheying/dewatering by
2006) to be useful in retarding casein breakdown in cheese; screening and mechanical separation techniques, such as
thus enabling manufacturers to maintain a specific intact to decanter centrifugation. A blending step then combines the
nonintact casein ratio throughout the shelf life. The curd into a hot (50–75°C) molten mass prior to being
effectiveness of HPP on decreasing enzyme activity is extruded into molds. The blending operation allows for the
highly dependent on the process temperature (Huppertz et incorporation of optional GRAS ingredients, and this point
al., 2004) and process pressure (Huppertz et al., 2004; in the process is also where the fat content of the final cheese
Johnston et al., 2006). While it seems there is a general may be adjusted through the addition of cream. An
effect, the exact impact is cheese specific and is dependent advantage of this process is that it results in a cleaner whey
on all enzymes present from the coagulant, starter culture, stream in terms of fat losses and cost savings due to reduced
nonstarter lactic acid bacteria, and endogenous to the cheese preblending equipment sizing costs, particularly for volume
milk itself. Huppertz et al. (2004) reported that a pressure of constrained equipment, such as the decanter centrifuge.
400 MPa resulted in a minimal loss (0%–5%) in chymosin A key feature that enables the in-line curd formation of
activity; whereas, cheese subjected to a pressure of 600 MPa this process is that the cheese milk is cold renneted, so that
had residual chymosin activity of around 6%. In contrast, curd formation is uncoupled from renneting and will occur
Huppertz et al. (2004) found that plasmin was highly only when the milk is heated. An added advantage of
resistant to HPP at temperatures of 8 and 20°C. Johnston et starting with cold milk is that the pH of the system can be
al. (2006) studied the impact of HPP on proteolysis patterns adjusted, readily without the risk of incipient precipitation,
over time, due to all enzyme systems active in the cheese by direct acid addition or via the addition of a lactic acid
under study, and found that HPP was more effective in ferment, thus providing a means of controlling the final
reducing the rate of proteolysis of αs1 casein compared to β- calcium content of the cheese through pH-mediated calcium
casein. solubilization. The final cheese calcium content can also be
The incorporation of additional unit operations to cheese controlled through the use of acidified wash water, if that
manufacturing looks likely to spread beyond commodity option can be used. Overall, this process reduces
cheeses to the higher-end, value-added cheese market. For
cheesemanufacturing time and offers cheese manufacturers Also, ALPMA Alpenland Maschinenbau GmbH, Germany, in
the benefits of continuous processing. particular Mr. Lars Wagner, for supplying technical information and
A different approach to cheese manufacturing was taken images.
The following are also gratefully thanked for the supply and use
by Carr et al. (2010), wherein a fully renneted
of technical sales information and/or personal communication: Almac
noncoagulated milk powder is manufactured followed by
s.r.l., Italy; Construzioni Meccaniche E Technologia S.p.A., Italy; DR
reconstitution and cheese formation at a place and point in Tech Inc., USA; Gold Peg International Pty Ltd., Australia; Invensys
time that is convenient to the cheese manufacturer. The key APV Ltd., Denmark, United Kingdom, and New Zealand (prior to
step in this process is that the ionic calcium concentration of becoming part of SPX); Johnson Industries International Inc., USA;
the process milk stream is reduced to such a level that the Laude bv, The Netherlands; Tetra Pak (New Zealand) Ltd.
residual charge on the casein micelle, postrenneting, is Permission to use photographs from numerous sites of Fonterra
sufficient to render the casein micelle colloidally stable Cooperative Group Ltd., New Zealand, is gratefully acknowledged, as
under both industrial evaporator and spray drying is the assistance given by P. Jeffery from Massey University, New
conditions. An intermediate powdered product is thus Zealand, with the preparation of the figures.
produced that is ambient stable throughout global supply
chains. The cheese manufacturer can then make a cheese
merely by blending the powder with sufficient water and REFERENCES
calcium under appropriate thermal conditions to form a Barz, R.L., Cremer, C.P., 1993. Process of making acceptable mozzarella
molten cheese mass. The cheese mass can then be placed in cheese without aging. US Patent S5,234,700.
an appropriate mold, cooled, and packed. A major advantage Bertrand, F., 1987. The main steps in manufacture. In: Eck, A. (Ed.),
of this process is that many variations can be easily Cheesemaking, Science and Technology. second ed. Technique et
incorporated by the powder manufacturer on the wet side of Documentation—Lavoisier, France, pp. 413–443.
the process prior to drying, and also by the cheese Bylund, G., 1995a. Collection and reception of milk. Dairy Processing
manufacturer in the blending operation. Handbook. Tetra Pak Processing Systems, Sweden, pp. 65–71.
Bylund, G., 1995b. Cheese. Dairy Processing Handbook. Tetra Pak
Processing Systems, Sweden, pp. 287–329.
CONCLUSIONS Calzada, J., del Olmo, A., Picon, A., Nuñez, M., 2014. Effect of
highpressure-processing on lipolysis and volatile compounds of Brie
Cheesemaking is a centuries-old process that has developed
cheese during ripening and refrigerated storage. Int. Dairy J. 39, 232–
from an art into a science, as the demand for the product and
239.
the scale of production have increased. Conversion from a Carr, A.J., Coker, C., Kells, B., Elston, P., Ferreira, L., 2010. Process for
cottage industry to the highly complex automated factories preparing concentrated milk protein ingredient and processed cheese made
in use today has demanded major developments in therefrom. US Patent S7,854,952. del Prato, O.S., 2001. Pasta filata
technology. There have been many ingenious approaches to cheeses. In: Tamime, A.Y., Law, B.A. (Eds.), Mechanisation and
the technology requirements and the consumer has benefited Automation in Dairy Technology. Sheffield Academic Press, England, pp.
by receiving very consistent, safe, nutritious, and palatable 266–295.
products. More recent technological developments have Evert-Arriagada, K., Hernández-Herrero, M.M., Guamis, B., Trujillo, A.J.,
focused on removing barriers to product acceptance, by both 2014. Commercial application of high-pressure processing for
the traditional end-use consumer and by intermediate increasing starter-free fresh cheese shelf-life. LWT Food Sci. Technol.
55, 498–505.
consumers (application manufacturers). These innovation
Heap, H.A., 1998. Optimising starter culture performance in New Zealand
drivers have challenged cheese manufacturers to identify all
cheese plants. Aust. J. Dairy Technol. 53, 74–78.
the consumers/stakeholders throughout the product value Honoré, C., Fletcher, A., White, N., Archer, R., Mulligan P., 2005.
chain, and to fully understand how and why these consumers Particulate cheese curd product. US Patent 20,050,084,564.
use their product. This focus coupled with increases in our Huppertz, T., Fox, P.F., Kelly, A.L., 2004. Susceptibility of plasmin and
understanding of cheese, our ability to take milk apart into chymosin in Cheddar cheese to inactivation by high pressure. J Dairy
its various components, and to reassemble them into desired Res. 71, 496–499.
products will pave the way for future developments. Jameson, G.W., 1987. Manufacture of Cheddar cheese from milk
concentrated by ultrafiltration: the development and evaluation of a
process.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Food Technol. Aust. 39, 560–564.
Johnson, M., Law, B.A., 2010. The origins, development and basic
The authors are grateful to Tetra Pak International S.A., Switzerland,
operations of cheesemaking technology. In: Law, B.A., Tamime, A.Y.
for permission to use illustrations from the Dairy Processing
(Eds.), Technology of Cheesemaking. Wiley-Blackwell, England, pp.
Handbook and other sales literature. In particular, Mr. Vally Hoogland
68–95.
at Tetra Pak CPS, The Netherlands, who was helpful in identifying
Johnston, K., Carroll, T., Honoré, C., Crow, V., White, N., Chen, P., 2006.
recent improvements in Tetra Pak equipment and supplying images.
Dairy product and process. US Patent 20,060,134,298.
Johnston, K.A., Dunlop, F.P., Lawson, M.F., 1991. Effects of speed and
duration of cutting in mechanized Cheddar cheesemaking on curd
particle size and yield. J. Dairy Res. 58, 345–354.
Johnston, K.A., Luckman, M.S., Lilley, H.G., Smale, B.M., 1998. Effect of
various cutting and stirring conditions on curd particle size and losses
of fat to the whey during Cheddar cheese manufacture in OST vats. Int.
Dairy J. 8, 281–288.
Johnston, K., Main, A., Elston, P.D., Munro, P.A., Buwalda, R.J., 2010.
Dairy product and process. US Patent 7,695,745.
Kielsmeier, L.O., Barz, R.L., Allen, W.J., 1991. Method of baking pizza
from coated frozen cheese granules. US Patent 4,997,670.
Kosikowski, F.V., Mistry, V.V., 1997. Cheese with eyes. In: Kosikowski,
F.V. (Ed.), Cheese and Fermented Milk Foods. third ed. LLC, USA,
pp. 226–251.
Kristensen, J.M.B., 1999. Salting of the cheese. Cheese Technology—A
Northern European Approach. International Dairy Books, Denmark,
pp. 137–139.
Law, B.A., 2001. Cheddar cheese production. In: Tamime, A.Y., Law, B.A.
(Eds.), Mechanisation and Automation in Dairy Technology. Sheffield
Academic Press, England, pp. 204–224.
McLeavey, L.J., 1995. Setting and Cutting of Curd in Scherping Cheese
Vats. Dip. Dairy Sci. Tech Thesis, Massey University, Palmerston
North, New Zealand.
Martley, F.G., Crow, V.L., 1996. Open texture in cheese: the contributions
of gas production by microorganisms and cheese manufacturing
practices. J. Dairy Res. 63, 489–507.
Maubois, J.L., 2002. Membrane microfiltration: a tool for a new approach
in dairy technology. Aust. J. Dairy Technol. 57, 92–96.
Meibach, R.L., Kyser, D.A., Smith, G.F., Kaganoff, D., Gee, R.D., Nosek,
T.A., Silver, R.S., 1998. Manufacture of particulate natural cheese
without block formation. US Patent 5,773,054.
Muir, D.D., Tamime, A.Y., 2001. Liquid milk. In: Tamime, A.Y., Law,
B.A. (Eds.), Mechanisation and Automation in Dairy Technology.
Sheffield Academic Press, England, pp. 53–93.
Nelles, P.F., Nesheim, G.L., Nesheim, G.L., 2014. Methods and
apparatuses for making pasta filata. US Patent 20,140,170,276.
Pointurier, H., Law, B.A., 2001. Soft fresh cheese and soft ripened cheese.
In: Tamime, A.Y., Law, B.A. (Eds.), Mechanisation and Automation
in Dairy Technology. Sheffield Academic Press, England, pp. 250–
265.
Smith, R.M., Sorley, A.G., Kirkby, M.W., 2009. Method and apparatus to
produce a pasta filata cheese. US Patent 20,090,117,248.

Generalidades Del Queso

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Generalidades Del Queso

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Generalidades Del Queso

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 26

General Aspects of Cheese Technology

MANUF DE QUESO Más recientemente, se ha vuelto

reduced-fat, low-moisture barrel Cheddar and Swiss barrel Continuous Processes

Plant capacity requirements usually mean that several

Almac s.r.l. Johnson Industries International, Inc.

You might also like