Preface

The term ‘Panchayati Raj’ is the product of modern democracy. Panchayati

Raj is a system of local self-government wherein the people take upon themselves
responsibility of governance. Panchayati Raj involves a three-tier structure of rural
self-government at District, Block, and Village levels, namely Zila Parishad,
Panchayat Samiti, and Village Panchayat respectively. Historically, this term came
into usage after the acceptance of the recommendations on Democratic
Decentralisation of the Balwant Rai Mehta Committee. Previously the terms used
were ‘Village Panchayat’, ‘District Board’, or ‘sub-District Board’ which were the
self-governing bodies at the village level. The Village Panchayats have been linked to
Panchayat Samiti at the Block level and to the Zila Parishad at the District level. This
has been evolved out of the Community Development Programme (CDP) introduced
in 1952. This institution has to perform various functions and undertake activities
relating to almost all the spheres of village life and has assumed well-defined shape
and is vested with jurisdiction clearly laid down according to the laws. Indeed,
Panchayati Raj is the system of rural communities more or less self- sufficient in the
matters of their basic needs. These communities composed of simple manageable
units which are cordially knit together. They are autonomous in all purposes including
the administration of justice and are responsible for keeping peace in the locality for
the unity of the state. If one looks into the socio-economic history of India one shall
notice that it has been a country of villages whose occupation has been mainly
agriculture. The network of villages has been the backbone of India’s economy and
was thus regarded the most honourable and respected profession and a source of all
prosperity. The tillers of the soil, for instance, had a status higher than that of other
vocations, for they were considered to be the feeder and sustainer of millions
including the kings and the emperors. The village was a self-sufficient little republic
which functioned through the institutions of Panchayat.

Objective of the Study

All human institutions in their functioning pose certain problems. It is upon
the effective and timely solution of these problems that the overall success of every
institution depends. Panchayati Raj too has been facing multi-dimensional nature of
problems since its very inception. The vital academic import of the subject and multi-

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dimensional nature of its problems have necessitated a scientific probe into it. Hence
this micro-study of ‘Panchayati Raj Institutions in India: A study of the Aligarh
District since 1992’ was undertaken.
Panchayati Raj being a comprehensive subject is not amenable to enquiry in
all its different dimensions within a short spell of time and a single piece of work. It
was therefore, proposed to limit this study to the operational aspect of three tier
Panchayati Raj Institutions, Panchayati Raj administration, Panchayati Raj politics,
planning by these bodies and their finance and the relationship of one tier with other
tiers and these tiers with various agencies of State Government. I have made it my
objective to study intensively and in depth the eight Gram Panchayats, four Kshetra
Panchayats and the Zila Panchayat of Aligarh District, so as to focus the attention on
the emerging pattern of three tier and the inherent problems that are being faced by
them in the process of achieving their objectives.
Through this perspective, the underlying objectives of this study are:
1. To examine the problems and obstacles faced by elected representatives in
discharging their given responsibilities and to record their perception in this
respect.
2. To assess the role of Aligarh local bodies in the socio-economic development
of the District under study.
3. To gain knowledge about the socio-economic and political background of the
elected leaders and assessing their participation in the Panchayati Raj System.
4. To study the role of various factors such as age, caste, level of education,
family background and religion in determining the extent of political
orientation and participation of village people towards Panchayati Raj system.
5. To give suggestions to the academicians and policy makers in order to ensure
good governance at panchayat levels and administrative efficiency of the
representatives of panchayats.
Hypothesis
A hypothesis is an assumption about relations between variables. It is a tentative
explanation of the research problem or a guess about the research outcome. Webster
has defined hypothesis as “a tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test
its logical or empirical consequences’’. In other words, a hypothesis carries clear
implications for testing the stated relationship. i.e., it contains variables that are

ii
measurable and specifying how they are related. A statement that lacks variables or
that does not explain how the variables are related to each other is no hypothesis in
scientific sense. Viewed in this perspective, the present study has progressed on the
following hypothesis:
1. Panchayati Raj Institutions can play a very pivotal role in the socio-economic
development of the area under their jurisdiction but in the situation of sound
financial position only.
2. The problems and obstacles which are faced by the officials and non-officials
working in the Panchayati Raj Institutions in India with special reference to
Aligarh District.
3. Introduction of the 73rd Constitutional Amendment of Panchayati Raj in India
did make a change in Panchayati Raj leadership pattern.
4. Panchayati Raj as an institution of local self-government can play an
important role in promoting people’s participation in the democratic process.
The present study highlights the patterns of Panchayati Raj leadership and
terms of high and low socio-economic and political background and their role in the
decision –making process.
Chapter Outline
The present work has been divided into five chapters, including one
introductory chapter dealing with historical development of Panchayati Raj
Institutions in India before Independence.
The second chapter deals with the Panchayati Raj Institutions in India since
Independence. It traces the growth of earlier ideas and efforts towards rural uplift,
specially after Independence when the Panchayati Raj Institutions were included in
the Directive Principles of the Indian Constitution. Various aspects of 73rd
Constitutionl Amendment Acts have been highlighted. This chapter also makes an
attempt to examine the nature of Panchayati Raj in U.P. before and after 73rd
Constitutional Amendemnt Acts.
The third chapter deals with the organizational structure and working of
Panchayati Raj in Aligarh District. In this study I have undertaken the field study of
selected Kshetra Panchayats and Village Panchayats. This chapter also deals with
administrative problems at the district level with particular references to official and
non-official relationship.

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 The fourth chapter deals with emerging patterns of Panchayati Raj Leadership
in reference to socio-economic and political background and their orientation and role
performance.

And in the fifth chapter conclusion, summary of the findings, overall impact of
the working of three tiers Panchayati Raj Institutions have been discussed and
conclusions drawn.

Methodology
The methodology of this study is empirical as well as historical and
descriptive and the method of presentation is analytical exposition of the facts and
figures followed with critical assessment. However, this study is mainly based on
primary data collection from the field interviews and discussions with officials, non-
officials and citizens. The tools used for the primary data collection were interview
schedule, group discussion, and field observation. Some of the basic information was
also obtained through personal discussions with the elected representatives of the
random sample of four Kshetra Panchayats of the Aligarh District. The main source of
primary data has been obtained on the basis of variables and traits like age, caste,
occupation, education, awareness about new Panchayati Raj Acts and impact of 73rd
Constitutional Amendment Act. The idea behind field survey was to collect
information regarding the motive perception and orientation of the respondents. The
secondary source of data have also been collected from Government of India Census
Reports, Annual Reports of various Ministries, Statistical abstracts, relevant District
official records , articles, books, research journals, Government documents, Panchayat
Acts and research reports etc.
In order to obtain the picture of Aligarh District as a whole, efforts were made
to select the sample for the study which could represent the whole district as far as
possible. Since there are 5 Tehsils, consisting of 1750 Villages spread over 12 Kshetra
Panchayats in Aligarh, 4 Kshetra Panchayats out of 12 have been selected. Selection
of Gram Panchayats, two from each of these selected Kshetra Panchayats have been
pin- pointed as representative models. One way to evaluate the effect of Panchayati
Raj on our village societies is to listen to the people expressing their opinion about
these institutions. Since the programmes are intended for the people, their own
evaluation is of prime importance. Therefore, to know their opinions an interview
schedule of 39 questions were prepared with the help of officials and non-officials. In

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all, 444 respondents comprising of 197 citizens, 196 non-official leaders and 51
officials were interviewed. The researcher himself interviewed the respondents. The
responses were calculated and objectively analysed. Some questions were not
answered by the respondents; hence the numbers of respondents for some questions
show variations. Moreover, all the questions were not addressed to all respondents-
citizens, non-officials leaders and officials. It is difficult to highlight all aspects of
elected representative’s role, position, participation and representation in the
Panchayati Raj through interview method. Findings of the study and the conclusion
drawn are based on the researcher’s understanding of the subject. This study does not
make my ambitions claims but an effort has been made to reach somewhere near the
truth through sustained objectivity
Literature Review
The literature review is one of the most important part of any research as it
provides a sound base on which a research study can be founded. A literature review
is a systematic examination of knowledge available on a specific topic. As the
literature review is an examination of the research that has been conducted in a
particular field of study, it is a critical analysis of a portion of the published body of
knowledge available through the use of summary, classification, and comparison of
previous research studies, and journal articles. Moreover, it may consists of simple
summary of key sources but it usually has an organizational pattern and combines
both summary and synthesis within specific conceptual categories. The literature
review is an internal part of the research process and makes a valuable contribution to
almost every operational step. In the initial stages of research it helps us to establish
the theoretical roots of the study undertaken, clarifying ideas and developing our
research methodology. In addition to it, the literature review serves two important
functions: (i) it provides theoretical background to our study, and (ii) it helps us to
contextualize our findings by comparing them with what others have found out in
relation to the area of enquiry.
In this study an attempt has been made to review the available literature on
“Panchayati Raj Institutions in India: A Case Study of the Aligarh District since
1992”. The studies reviewed are useful and relevant in their own context based on
their focal areas. Analyzing and examining all these studies in diverse contexts have
indeed broadened the conceptual understanding regarding various issues and areas of

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the topic under study. Here a summary of the reviews of existing literature on the
topic of the research is being provided.
Lot of material/literature was searched before and during the study to
correspond with the research topic under deliberation but few of them were found
relevant to the topic which are presented in the following pages.
R.L. Panigrahy in his book entitled “Panchayati Raj Institutions: Issues and
Challenges”, (New Delhi, 2007) argued that Panchayati Raj Institutions are the grass
root level governance of democratic form set up. The democratic system of
governance starts at rural level and through Panchayat it marches to parliaments at
higher level. Panchayati Raj Institutions are the foundation of the three tier system of
Panchayati Raj governance. If the Panchayati Raj Institutions run smoothly the state
and national governance will be good and socio-economic condition will be sound.
This book consists of articles on rural development, rural houses, family discipline,
employment, finance, etc. This study is descriptive and does not offer anything new to
the vast literature available on the subject.
Yagnesh M. Joshi in his book entitled “Women Leadership and Panchayati
Raj System”, (Jaipur, 2007) analyses issues of women leadership and its essential
characteristics in Panchayati Raj Institutions, which seek to enable all women to
develop their leadership potential. The study focuses on the problem of women
leadership in Panchayati Raj System.
V. Venkata Rao and Niru Hazarika in their book entitled “Local Self
Government in India”, (Delhi, 1969) have examined the local self government in
India with special references to Assam and North East India. This study is not
relevant to my research but it provided a broad understanding of the history of
Panchayati Raj in India.
M. Aslam in his book entitled, “Panchayati Raj in India”, (New Delhi, 2011)
focuses on history of Panchayati Raj in India. The local self government as a system
has existed in India since long. He highlights the importance of Panchayati Raj
during Ancient, medieval and British Period. In this book author has also discussed
about nature of Panchayati Raj in India since Independence The scope of this study is
limited as it deals with only historical background of Panchayati Raj in India.
Bishnu C. Barik and Umesh C. Sahoo in their book entitled “Panchayati
Raj Institutions and rural Development”, (Jaipur, 2008) observes that the 73rd
Constitutional Amendment provided space for the first time to the invisible and
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excluded categories in the society to participate in the decentralized democratic
institutions like Panchayati Raj, which works at the grassroot level for the
development of the rural people. The papers presented in this volume review, through
narratives, the micro- macro ground realities on a broad canvas of interdisciplinary
approach. It also offers a comprehensive account of development dynamics,
participatory governance and empowerment of excluded categories. Lack of relevant
data to support the hypothesis makes this study descriptive and analytical rather than
empirical.
M.V. Rao and E. Venkatesu in their book entitled “Panchayats and Building
of Model Villages”, (Jaipur, 2013) examine various models of Gram Panchayats,
operating in different parts of the country, which can be used as an excellent guide for
spreading the message to build further such model Panchayats in the country. He also
made a detailed study of the Panchayati Raj Institutions as constitutional bodies not
only for the participation of the community, identification of their needs, resources,
planning, implementation, and conducting social audit, but also for political
empowerment of the lower castes, tribes and women. The book makes useful
comparison of Gram Panchayats in different parts of the country. This study is useful
for my research.
Manoj Sharma in his book entitled “Local Government: Rural and Urban”,
(New Delhi, 2004) examines various dimensions, meaning, nature and scope of Local
Government, major features and structure of Local Governments in India, U.K.,
U.S.A. and France; 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments in India; Functional
role of Local Government in India; State Local relations in India etc. Although the
study does not provide useful insight into problems and challenges faced by the
Panchayati Raj in India, it helps in making a comparative study of the Local
Governments. The study is not relevant to my research but it helps in providing a
broad understanding of local government.
P. Palanithurai in his book entitled, “Dynamics of New Panchayati Raj in
India”, (New Delhi, 2004) deals with the Panchayati Raj experience in the States of
Bihar and Maharashtra, and in the Union Territories of Lakshadweep and
Pondicherry. Taking stock of devolution of powers, functions and finance on
Panchayati Raj Institutions, the contributors analyse the various issues pertaining to
rural development, decentralisation, local e-governance and participatory governance
at grassroot level. This study is descriptive and analytical in nature and has relied
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heavily on the data and statistics presented in other studies of similar nature and
therefore nothing new can be explored in it.
Dr. Shriram Maheshwari in his book entitled “Local Government in India”,
(New Delhi, 1972) discussed the rural and the urban arms of local government in
India. After tracing the history of local government, it attempts to describe the
structure, personnel, finance and functioning of rural as well as urban local
governments and finally suggests ways and means of improving the system of local
government in India. In attempting to do so, attention has been focused on local
government as an operating institution within the larger system of government in the
country. This book does not offer anything new in this field. It has just arranged the
earlier studies in a more systematic manner. This study too is not based on empirical
study conducted specifically for the purpose of writing the work.
Vijendra Singh in his book entitled “Panchayati Raj and Village
Development”, (New Delhi, 2004) observes that India has now acquired the status of
a reasonably matured democracy. It has conducted more than ten general elections
successfully to Parliament after the promulgation of the constitution of India. Its
democratic traditions and institutions have taken roots. In order to strengthen the
grass-root democracy the institution of Panchayati Raj system has been evolved.
Panchayati Raj system is rooted in the history and culture of India.
It is expected that for the political, economic and social development of the
villages, the Institutions of Panchayati Raj will go a long way in achieving these
objectives. The study is not relevant to my research but it helps in providing a broad
understanding of socio-economic and political development of Panchayati Raj in
India.
K.K. Singh and S. Ali in their book entitled “Role of Panchayati Raj
Institutions for Rural Development”, (New Delhi, 2001) examines that success always
has its cost and the green revolution has no exception. We are facing with the second
generation problems of the first green revolution. In order to address these issues,
there is a need to change the way research should be done to harness synergies
between institutions, development of networks to assess challenges and opportunities
associated with globalization, intellectual property rights, technology revolutions in
the field of molecular etc. The present book covers the multidimensional aspects of
rural challenges and strategies. Lack of empirical evidences makes this study weak.

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 Anil Datta Mishra and Mahadev Shivappa Dadage in their book entitled
“Panchayati Raj: Gandhian Perspective”, (New Delhi, 2002) deal with different
aspects of Panchayati Raj Institutions from Gandhian perspective. This book is both
ideal and theoretical exploration in the broad field of village Swaraj. The scope of this
study is limited as it deals only with Gandhan view on Village Panchayat.
K.K. Sinha in his book entitled “Panchayat Dilemma: People’s Power and
Poverty” (New Delhi, 2007) tries to examine people, power and poverty which lie at
the bottom of democracy. But the system operates from the top. This creates
Panchayat dilemma. Panchayat is said to be the God that failed but remains the last
hope of the poor in villages. Will Indian democracy take a U-turn to reach to the
poors? This remains a a big question.
The book tries to solve some of the riddles related to Panchayats and throws
light on issues which the policy-makers have so far by-passed or over-looked.
Panchayats should not be looked at from above; on the contrary the top governance
should be looked at from the Panchayat levels. This may solve most of the problems
faced by the top echelons of the democratic system today. The book may open new
doors for the success of Panchayats and more realistic approach to Village Panchayats
as vibrant units of development for the poor. This study is useful in the sense that it
identifies several problems related to Panchayati Raj Institutions in India which has
been mostly ignored by other researchers. Lack of collection of relevant data to
support the hypothesis makes this study descriptive and analytical rather than
empirical.
P. Palanithurai in his book entitled, “Dynamics of New Panchayati Raj in
India”, (New Delhi, 2004) examines the process and practice of development
planning at grassroots level in India with the participation of the people. Touching
upon the basics of devolution, namely transfer of powers, functions and finance in the
states, it addresses the bottlenecks involved in the process. The study is important
from the point of view of the impact of sociological, political and economic
perspective in the light of 73rd Constitutional amendment. Giving in-depth
understanding of the status of panchayati Raj in different states, it is too limited in
approach to understand the problems of Panchayati Raj Institutions its right
perspectives.
A perspicacious review of existing literature reveals that a plethora of
literature is available on the Panchayati Raj in India. It is found in the beginning that
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 the Panchayati Raj Institution showed successful results, perhaps due to the initial
enthusiasm, but soon it was realized that the progress was slow and halting. In this
study, therefore, an attempt has been made to analyse the factors which have retarded
the progress and inhibited the working of panchayati raj institution in Aligarh district.

Findings and Suggestions of the Study

On the basis of the findings made on Panchayati Raj Institutions working in
Aligarh district, the following observation has been made.
i. The village people find it more advantageous to be engaged with their own affairs
or even to enjoy leisurely at home, rather than to attend the Gram Sabha meetings,
which are of no direct interest to them.
ii. It has been observed that votes in Panchayat elections are generally casted in
favour or against individual personalities without taking into account the policies,
programme or ideologies. After electing their particular leader, they feel that their
duties have ended and the leader would now set for them and think that there is no
need of attending meetings.
iii. The meetings of Gram Sabhas are held at a time when villagers are not free.
Regard should be given to the seasonal and normal busy periods of the villagers,
who are mostly all-time agriculturists and they cannot just leave their work and
spare time to attend these meetings.
iv. Unwillingness on the part of Pradhan and members of the Panchayat to hold
regular meetings of Gram Sabha is another factor which is responsible for
unsatisfactory work of Gram Sabha.
v. Lack of education is one of the serious causes of ineffectiveness of Panchayati Raj
and due to this illiteracy; rural people are unable to understand Panchayati Raj
Acts, rules and regulation
vi. The experience during these years of working of the panchayats reveals that
generally the meetings of panchayats were irregular and attendance, scanty. Even
when all the members were present, the discussions, more often, centered around
only a few of them, because others were more interested in finishing the meeting
and engaging themselves in the domestic affairs rather than the affairs related to
panchayats.
vii. The panchayats seem to depend much upon their higher structural tiers and the
State Government for innumerable reason e.g. for finance, technical assistance,

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 guidance etc. Reluctance to part with powers and constant interference of the
officials, even in petty matters has retarded (delayed) the growth of these
institutions. Therefore, Panchayats are unable to solve their manifold problems
themselves.
viii. The officials and non-officials are like the two wheels of a chariot of Panchayati
Raj. The progress would be smooth and rapid, if these two are harnessed well and
march in harmony with each other.
ix. Communal and caste factor play a very important role in the village community
life. Even though theoretically India is a secular state and discrimination on
grounds of caste, religion and community is legally banned, yet the prejudices exist
and reflect the approach of the villagers in diverse fields.
x. The elected leaders do not think in terms of the welfare of the community as a
whole but of their own individual interest, or of their own community.
xi. The new leadership mostly belongs to the younger age group. These young men
are inexperienced, easily provoked and act impulsively. They are guided mostly by
whims and caprices. There is not even a single, nationally respected patriarch type
leader who might take care of the whole community.
Factors like lack of education and sound leadership, indulgence of political
parties, inefficient officials, and lack of villagers share in the administration and
organization of these Institutions, poor secretarial assistance, shortage of
accommodations, paucity of funds etc. have inhibited the sound working of
Panchayati Raj Institutions. Most problems discussed above, cannot be solved
overnight. It will take long to overcome these weaknesses and draw backs. Going
through structural functional aspect of Panchayati Raj System, in the opinion of the
researcher certain measures can improve the working of Panchayati Raj
Institutions, which are as follow;
i. For the success of Panchayati Raj Institution, there should be clarity in its aims and
objectives. Moreover, the past glory attributed to it should be seen in historical
perspective only and not as mythological truths.
ii. A truely democratic theory of Panchayati Raj would necessarily mean that it is
treated as units of self government, possessing freedom to plan and execute the
developmental programmes. For this purpose members of Panchayat Raj have to
be guided and trained, mentally and materially be equipped. It will naturally

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 develop democratic outlook at the lower levels too, which is the essence of
democratic decentralization.
iii. The ideas underlying the institution of Gram Sabha are to be explained to the adult
members of the village community. They should know the purpose, powers and
responsibility of the Gram Sabha. The Gram Sabha will itself inspire attendance,
once its members know what they are supposed to discuss. In the beginning of
every Gram Sabha meeting, the Pradhan or the Punches should acquaint the
villagers with developments and explain to them the programmes and activities of
the Panchayat, so that people may be able to put questions and know solution to
their problems.
iv. The agenda for Gram Sabha meetings should also include considerations of the
annual report. Accompanied by the audit report of the Panchayat, review of the
progress of works of the village panchayats and their resource etc. should also be
highlighted. And advice in the meeting should be accepted as far as possible.
v. Official and non-official members of the Panchayat should also attend its meetings
regularly. At least one officer should attend each meeting in order to stimulate
interest of the members and provide opportunities for the villagers to discuss their
difficulties.
vi. Meetings of the Gram Sabha and the Panchayat should be held by rotation in each
of the constituent village. The Gram Sabha should compulsorily meet twice a year,
generally when the members are not busy in their fields.
vii. At the end of the meeting, some documentaries and interesting films should be
shown to the members.
viii. The executive body at the village level may become effective if the size of the
Panchayat is reduced.
ix. Educational qualification should be prescribed for Pradhan, Up-Pradhan, members
of Panchayats and Pramukh of Kshetra Panchayat. The minimum qualification for
the post of Pramukh should also be the same. The minimum qualification for the
other members of Panchayat should also be laid down, they should be at least
eighth class pass out, so that they may be able to read and write easily, follow the
Panchayat discussions, could go through the budget and accounts and so on.
x. The place, time and agenda of monthly meetings should be fixed, so that members
may easily attend the meetings with preliminary preparation.

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 xi. The Adhyaksha of the Zila Panchayat should be elected by an ‘Electoral College’
consisting of all the Kshetra Panchayat members in the Zila Panchayat within 15
days of the election of Zila Panchayat. These Electoral Colleges of the Kshetra
Panchayat taken together can provide a suitable electorate for the election of the
President of the Zila Panchayat. It should be done without much canvassing or the
exercise of undue influence. This will automatically raise the prestige of the Zila
Panchayat. The District Planning Officer may not be its Chief-Executive Officer,
but should be made Chairman of the Niyojan Samiti and Vitta Samiti of the Zila
Panchayat.
xii. Finally, for keeping records, and to maintain accounts properly and collectively a
Village Level Worker will be better than a Panchayat Secretary at present. The
minimum qualification for the post of Panchayat Secretary should be matriculation.
xiii. It is also suggested that every district should have a training centre. Both officials
and non-officials should be trained in the theoretical and practical aspects with a
view to have cordial and harmonious relationship between them.
xiv. The curriculum should be such as to include Acts, rules and regulations of
respective Panchayati Raj Institutions, rights, and duties of both officials and non-
officials and their respective roles and relationship, maintenance of accounts etc.
Specialists in public administration and local self government may also be invited
to assist this large scale programme of training. Attendance in the training course
should be made compulsory and the absentees should be disqualified from
functioning.
xv. There should be a regular system of periodical inspection of the Panchayati Raj
Institution and the progress of work. In the event of failure of an institution, to
ensure proper maintenance, the State government may appoint any other person or
body to execute the work at the expense of the defaulting body.
Last but not the least, collecting material on the said topic was an uphill task;
field survey of different parts of Aligarh, and acquiring data was exhausting for a
fresh research scholar like me. To the best of my knowledge and efforts, I have
collected and interpreted data empirically. In my interpretation, I might have made
some over statements, for which nobody except myself is responsible. Considering
me as a young and fresh research scholar, readers, viewers and critics are requested
to overlook shortcomings and error in the thesis.

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