Metamorphism, mineralogical and structural adjustments of solid rocks to physical and chemical conditions

differing from those under which the rocks originally formed. Changes produced by surface conditions such
as compaction are usually excluded. The most important agents of metamorphism include temperature, pressure, and
fluids. Equally as significant are changes in chemical environment that result in two metamorphic processes: (1)
mechanical dislocation where a rock is deformed, especially as a consequence of differential stress; and (2) chemical
recrystallization where a mineral assemblage becomes out of equilibrium due to temperature and pressure changes
and a new mineral assemblage forms.
Three types of metamorphism may occur depending on the relative effect of mechanical and chemical
changes. Dynamic metamorphism, or cataclasis, results mainly from mechanical deformation with little long-term
temperature change. Textures produced by such adjustments range from breccias composed of angular, shattered
rock fragments to very fine-grained, granulated or powdered rocks with obvious foliation and lineation. Large, pre-
existing mineral grains may be deformed as a result of stress. Contact metamorphism occurs primarily as a
consequence of increases in temperature when differential stress is minor. A common phenomenon is the effect
produced adjacent to igneous intrusions where several metamorphic zones represented by changing mineral
assemblages reflect the temperature gradient from the high-temperature intrusion to the low-temperature host rocks;
these zones are concentric to the intrusion. Because the volume affected is small, the pressure is near constant.
Resulting rocks have equidimensional grains because of a lack of stress and are usually fine-grained due to the short
duration of metamorphism. Regional metamorphismresults from the general increase, usually correlated, of
temperature and pressure over a large area. Grades or intensities of metamorphism are represented by different
mineral assemblages that either give relative values of temperature or absolute values when calibrated against
laboratory experiments. Regional metamorphism can be subdivided into different pressure-temperature conditions
based on observed sequences of mineral assemblages. It may include an extreme condition, where
partial melting occurs, called anatexis.
Other types of metamorphism can occur. They are retrograde metamorphism, the response of mineral assemblages
to decreasing temperature and pressure; metasomatism, the metamorphism that includes the addition or subtraction
of components from the original assemblage; poly-metamorphism, the effect of more than one metamorphic event;
and hydrothermal metamorphism, the changes that occur in the presence of water at high temperature and pressure
which affect the resulting mineralogy and rate of reaction.
This article was most recently revised and updated by John P. Rafferty, Editor.

Metamorphism is the change of minerals or geologic texture (distinct arrangement of minerals) in pre-existing
rocks (protoliths), without the protolith melting into liquid magma (a solid-state change).[1] The change occurs
primarily due to heat, pressure, and the introduction of chemically active fluids. The chemical components and
crystal structures of the minerals making up the rock may change even though the rock remains a solid. Changes at
or just beneath Earth's surface due to weathering or diagenesis are not classified as metamorphism.[2]
Metamorphism typically occurs between diagenesis (maximum 200°C), and melting (~850°C).

The geologists who study metamorphism are known as "metamorphic petrologists."

Three types of metamorphism exist: contact, dynamic, and regional.

Metamorphism produced with increasing pressure and temperature conditions is known as prograde
metamorphism.

Conversely, decreasing temperatures and pressure characterize retrograde metamorphism.

Solid state recrystallization and neocrystalization

Metamorphic rocks can change without melting. Heat causes atomic bonds to break, and the atoms move and
form new bonds with other atoms, creating new minerals with different chemical components or crystalline
structures (neocrystallization), or enabling recrystallization.
Limits

The temperature lower limit on what is considered to be a metamorphic process is generally considered to be 100
– 200 °C. This excludes diagenetic changes due to compaction and the formation of sedimentary rocks.

The upper boundary of metamorphic conditions is related to the onset of melting processes in the rock. The
maximum temperature for metamorphism is typically 700 – 900 °C, depending on the pressure and on the
composition of the rock. Migmatites are rocks formed at this upper limit, which contains pods and veins of
material that has started to melt but has not fully segregated from the refractory residue. Since the 1980s it has
been recognized that rocks are rarely dry enough and of a refractory enough composition to record without
melting "ultra-high" metamorphic temperatures of 900 – 1100 °C. The metamorphic process usually has to be over
pressure of at least 100 mega pascals but below 300 mega pascals, the depth of 100 mega pascals varies
depending on what type of rock is applying pressure.[5]

Types

Regional

Regional or Barrovian metamorphism covers large areas of continental crust typically associated with mountain
ranges, particularly those associated with convergent tectonic plates or the roots of previously eroded mountains.
Conditions producing widespread regionally metamorphosed rocks occur during an orogenic event. The collision of
two continental plates or island arcs with continental plates produce the extreme compressional forces required
for the metamorphic changes typical of regional metamorphism. These orogenic mountains are later eroded,
exposing the intensely deformed rocks typical of their cores. The conditions within the subducting slab as it
plunges toward the mantle in a subduction zone also produce regional metamorphic effects, characterized by
paired metamorphic belts. The techniques of structural geology are used to unravel the collisional history and
determine the forces involved. Regional metamorphism can be described and classified into metamorphic facies or
metamorphic zones of temperature/pressure conditions throughout the orogenic terrane.

Contact (thermal)

A metamorphic aureole in the Henry Mountains, Utah. The greyish rock on top is the igneous intrusion, consisting
of porphyritic granodiorite from the Henry Mountains laccolith, and the pinkish rock on the bottom is the
sedimentary country rock, a siltstone. In between, the metamorphosed siltstone is visible as both the dark layer
(~5 cm thick) and the pale layer below it.

Rock contact metamorphism eng big text.jpg

Contact metamorphism occurs typically around intrusive igneous rocks as a result of the temperature increase
caused by the intrusion of magma into cooler country rock. The area surrounding the intrusion where the contact
metamorphism effects are present is called the metamorphic aureole.[6] Contact metamorphic rocks are usually
known as hornfels. Rocks formed by contact metamorphism may not present signs of strong deformation and are
often fine-grained.

Contact metamorphism is greater adjacent to the intrusion and dissipates with distance from the contact. The size
of the aureole depends on the heat of the intrusion, its size, and the temperature difference with the wall rocks.
Dikes generally have small aureoles with minimal metamorphism whereas large ultramafic intrusions can have
significantly thick and well-developed contact metamorphism.

The metamorphic grade of an aureole is measured by the peak metamorphic mineral which forms in the aureole.
This is usually related to the metamorphic temperatures of pelitic or aluminosilicate rocks and the minerals they
form.The metamorphic grades of aureoles are andalusite hornfels, sillimanite hornfels, pyroxene hornfels.
Magmatic fluids coming from the intrusive rock may also take part in the metamorphic reactions. An extensive
addition of magmatic fluids can significantly modify the chemistry of the affected rocks. In this case the
metamorphism grades into metasomatism. If the intruded rock is rich in carbonate the result is a skarn. Fluorine-
rich magmatic waters which leave a cooling granite may often form greisens within and adjacent to the contact of
the granite. Metasomatic altered aureoles can localize the deposition of metallic ore minerals and thus are of
economic interest.

A special type of contact metamorphism, associated with fossil fuel fires, is known as pyrometamorphism.

Hydrothermal

Hydrothermal metamorphism is the result of the interaction of a rock with a high-temperature fluid of variable
composition. The difference in composition between an existing rock and the invading fluid triggers a set of
metamorphic and metasomatic reactions. The hydrothermal fluid may be magmatic (originate in an intruding
magma), circulating groundwater, or ocean water. Convective circulation of hydrothermal fluids in the ocean floor
basalts produces extensive hydrothermal metamorphism adjacent to spreading centers and other submarine
volcanic areas. The fluids eventually escape through vents on the ocean floor known as black smokers.[9] The
patterns of this hydrothermal alteration are used as a guide in the search for deposits of valuable metal ores.

Shock

Main article: Shock metamorphism

This kind of metamorphism occurs when either an extraterrestrial object (a meteorite for instance) collides with
the Earth's surface or during an extremely violent volcanic eruption. Impact metamorphism is, therefore,
characterized by ultrahigh pressure conditions and low temperature. The resulting minerals (such as SiO2
polymorphs coesite and stishovite) and textures are characteristic of these conditions.

Dynamic

The textures of dynamic metamorphic zones are dependent on the depth at which they were formed, as the
temperature and confining pressure determine the deformation mechanisms which predominate. Within depths
less than 5 km, dynamic metamorphism is not often produced because the confining pressure is too low to
produce frictional heat. Instead, a zone of breccia or cataclasite is formed, with the rock milled and broken into
random fragments. This generally forms a mélange. At depth, the angular breccias transit into a ductile shear
texture and into mylonite zones.

Within the depth range of 5–10 km pseudotachylite is formed, as the confining pressure is enough to prevent
brecciation and milling and thus energy is focused on discrete fault planes. Frictional heating, in this case, may
melt the rock to form pseudotachylite glass.

Within the depth range of 10–20 km, deformation is governed by ductile deformation conditions and hence
frictional heating is dispersed throughout shear zones, resulting in a weaker thermal imprint and distributed
deformation. Here, deformation forms mylonite, with dynamothermal metamorphism observed rarely as the
growth of porphyroblasts in mylonite zones.

Overthrusting may juxtapose hot lower crustal rocks against cooler mid and upper crust blocks, resulting in
conductive heat transfer and localised contact metamorphism of the cooler blocks adjacent to the hotter blocks,
and often retrograde metamorphism in the hotter blocks. The metamorphic assemblages in this case are
diagnostic of the depth and temperature and the throw of the fault and can also be dated to give an age of the
thrusting.

Classification of metamorphic rocks

Metamorphic rocks are classified by their mineral composition, the source rock, also known as a protolith, and the
context (pressure, temperature, hydrological features, etc.) of its formation.

Metamorphic processes

(Left) Randomly-orientated grains in a rock before metamorphism. (Right) Grains align orthogonal to the applied
stress if a rock is subjected to stress during metamorphism

Recrystallization

During recrystallization, the grains making up the protolith change shape and size. The identity of the mineral does
not change during this process, only the texture. Recrystallization occurs due to heating of the protolith. The
temperature at which this occurs can vary depending on the minerals present. Recrystallization generally begins
when temperatures reach above half the melting point of the mineral on the Kelvin scale.

Phase change

Phase change metamorphism is the creating of new minerals with the same chemical formula as the protolith. This
involves a rearrangement of the atoms in the crystals.

Neocrystallization

Neocrystallization involves the creation of new mineral crystals different from the protolith. Chemical reactions
digest the minerals of the protolith which yields new minerals. This is a very slow process as it can also involve the
diffusion of atoms through solid crystals.

Pressure solution

Main article: Pressure solution

Pressure solution is a metamorphic process that requires a rock to be under strong pressure from one direction
and in the presence of hot water. During this process mineral of the protolith partially dissolve, diffuse through the
water and precipitate elsewhere.

Plastic deformation

In plastic deformation pressure is applied to the protolith, which causes it to shear or bend, but not break. In order
for this to happen temperatures must be high enough that brittle fractures do not occur, but not so high that
diffusion of crystals takes place.[12]

Prograde and retrograde

Metamorphism is further divided into prograde and retrograde metamorphism. Prograde metamorphism involves
the change of mineral assemblages (paragenesis) with increasing temperature and (usually) pressure conditions.
These are solid state dehydration reactions, and involve the loss of volatiles such as water or carbon dioxide.
Prograde metamorphism results in rock characteristic of the maximum pressure and temperature experienced.
Metamorphic rocks usually do not undergo further change when they are brought back to the surface.

Retrograde metamorphism involves the reconstitution of a rock via revolatisation under decreasing temperatures
(and usually pressures), allowing the mineral assemblages formed in prograde metamorphism to revert to those
more stable at less extreme conditions. This is a relatively uncommon process, because volatiles must be present.

The word "Metamorphism" comes from the Greek: meta = after, morph = form, so metamorphism means the
after form. In geology this refers to the changes in mineral assemblage and texture that result from subjecting a
rock to pressures and temperatures different from those under which the rock originally formed.
Temperature increases with depth in the Earth along the Geothermal Gradient. Thus higher temperature can
occur by burial of rock.

Pressure increases with depth of burial, thus, both pressure and temperature will vary with depth in the
Earth. Pressure is defined as a force acting equally from all directions. It is a type of stress, called hydrostatic
stress, or uniform stress.

Fluid Phase.- Any existing open space between mineral grains in a rock can potentially contain a fluid. This fluid is
mostly H2O, but contains dissolved ions. The fluid phase is important because chemical reactions that involve
changing a solid mineral into a new solid mineral can be greatly speeded up by having dissolved ions transported
by the fluid. If chemical alteration of the rock takes place as a result of these fluids, the process is
called metasomatism.

Metamorphic Rock Types

There are two major subdivisions of metamorphic rocks.

1. Foliated – These have a planar foliation caused by the preferred orientation (alignment) of minerals and
formed under differential stress.
They have a significant amount of sheet silicate (platy minerals and are classified by composition, grain
size, and foliation type.

2. Non-foliated – These have no evident planar fabric or foliation, crystallized under conditions where there
was no differential stress, and are comprised of equant minerals only. These are classified mainly by the
minerals present or the chemical composition of the protolith.

Foliated Metamorphic Rocks

 Slate - Slates form at low metamorphic grade by the growth of fine grained chlorite and clay
minerals. The preferred orientation of these sheet silicates causes the rock to easily break along the
planes parallel to the sheet silicates, causing a slatey cleavage. Note that in the case shown here, the
maximum stress is applied at an angle to the original bedding planes, so that the slatey cleavage has
developed at an angle to the original bedding.

Because of the nearly perfect breakage along planes, slates are useful for blackboards and shingles.

 Phyllite - Fine mica-rich rock, formed by low – medium grade metamorphism. In a phyllite, the clay
minerals have recrystallized into tiny micas (biotite and muscovite which reflect a satiny luster. Phyllite is
between slate and schist.

 Schist - The size of the mineral grains tends to enlarge with increasing grade of
metamorphism. Eventually the rock develops a near planar foliation caused by the preferred orientation
of sheet silicates (mainly biotite and muscovite). Quartz and Feldspar grains, however show no preferred
orientation. The irregular planar foliation at this stage is called schistosity.

Schist often has other minerals besides micas. These include minerals like - Quartz, Feldspars, Kyanite, Garnet,
Staurolite, and Sillimanite.

When these non-mica minerals occur with a grain size greater than the rest of the rock, they are
called pophyroblasts.
  Gneiss As metamorphic grade increases, the sheet silicates become unstable and dark colored minerals
like hornblende and pyroxene start to grow. These dark colored minerals tend to become segregated in
distinct bands through the rock, giving the rock a gneissic banding. Because the dark colored minerals
tend to form elongated crystals, rather than sheet- like crystals, they still have a preferred orientation
with their long directions perpendicular to the maximum differential stress.

 Granulite - At the highest grades of metamorphism all of the hydrous minerals and sheet silicates become
unstable and thus there are few minerals present that would show a preferred orientation. The resulting
rock will have a granulitic texture that is similar to a phaneritic texture in igneous rocks.

 Migmatites – If the temperature reaches the solidus temperature (first melting temperature), the rock may
begin to melt and start to co-mingle with the solids. Usually these melts are felsic with the mafic material
remaining metamorphic.

Non-foliated Metamorphic Rocks

Non-foliated rocks lack a planar fabric . Absence of foliation possible for several reasons:

 Rock not subjected to differential stress.

 Dominance of equant minerals (like quartz, feldspar, and garnet).

 Absence of platy minerals (sheet silicates).

Non-foliated rocks are given specific names based on their mineralogy and composition:
Amphibolite - These rocks are dark colored rocks with amphibole (usually hornblende) as their major
mineral. They are usually poorly foliated and form at intermediate to high grades of metamorphism of basaltic or
gabbroic protoliths.

Hornfels - These are very fine grained rocks that usually form as a result of magma intruding into fined grained
igneous rocks or shales. The magma causes a type of metamorphism called contact metamorphism (to be
discussed later).

Quartzite - A rock made up almost entirely of quartz. They are formed by metamorphism of quartz arenites
(sandstones). Since quartz is stable over a large range of temperatures and pressures, no new minerals are formed
during metamorphism, and the only metamorphic effect that occurs is recrystallization of the quartz resulting in
interlocking crystals that make up a very hard rock.

Marble - A limestone or dolostone made up only of calcite or dolomite will metamorphose to a marble which is
made mostly recrystallized calcite or dolomite. The Recrystallization usually obliterates all fossils. Marbles have
a variety of colors and are often complexly banded. They are commonly used as a decorative stone.
Protolith Composition

Although textures and structures of the protolith are usually destroyed by metamorphism, we can still get an idea
about the original rock from the minerals present in the metamorphic rock.

Minerals that form, do so because the chemical elements necessary to form them are present in the protolith.

General terms used to describe the chemical composition of both the protolith and the resulting metamorphic rock
are:
Pelitic Alumina rich rocks, usually shales or mudstones. These start out originally with clay minerals and as a
result of metamorphism, Alumina rich minerals like micas, chlorite, garnet, kyanite, sillimanite and
andalusite form. Because of the abundance of sheet silicates, pelitic rocks commonly form slates, phyllites,
schists, and gneisses during metamorphism.

Mafic - These are Mg and Fe rich rocks with low amounts of Si. Minerals like biotite, hornblende and
plagioclase form during metamorphism and commonly produce amphibolites.

Calcareous - These are calcium-rich rocks usually derived from limestones or dolostones, and thus contain an
abundance of Calcite. Marbles are the type of metamorphic rock that results.

Quartzo-Feldspathic - Rocks that contain an abundance of quartz and feldspar fall into this category. Protoliths
are usually granites, rhyolites, or arkose sandstones and metamorphism results in gneisses containing an
abundance of quartz, feldspar, and biotite.

Metamorphic Minerals

All rocks are composed of minerals, and each mineral is only stable over a particular range of
temperatures and pressures. Outwith that range it will tend to break down or combine with a
neighbouring mineral to form a new mineral.

The process of metamorphism is associated with the formation of particular metamorphic minerals.
Some silicate minerals are so diagnostic of metamorphism that their presence indicates that the rock
is metamorphic. These mineral are known as index minerals and include andalusite, kyanite,
staurolite and sillimanite. Some other minerals, such as garnet, muscovite, feldspar, quartz and
micas, are also present in metamorphic rocks, but these may also be found in igneous and
sedimentary rocks.

Metamorphic textures

Just as a metamorphic rock can be defined by its mineral assemblage, it can also be defined by
its texture. This may be a more useful method of categorizing metamorphic rocks when in the field.
The term “texture” describes the size, shape and arrangement of grains within a rock. During
regional metamorphism, pressure causes crystals to align until they are at right angles to the
direction of maximum compression. This occurs through the gradual rotation of existing crystals and
the growth of new crystals in a pressure-controlled orientation. Alignment of minerals into planes is
called foliation. As a general rule, the coarser the grain size of the rock (excluding porphyroblasts -
see below), the higher its metamorphic grade. For example, it may be impossible to identify
individual minerals in a slate with a hand lens; in schist it may be possible to differentiate minerals
even with the naked eye, and certainly with a hand lens.

etamorphic rocks are formed through the transformation of pre-existing rocks in a process known as
metamorphism (meaning “change in form”). The original rock, or protolith, is subjected to heat and
pressure which cause physical, chemical and mineralogical changes to the rock. Protoliths may be
igneous, sedimentary or pre-existing metamorphic rocks.

Metamorphic rocks are formed within the Earth’s crust. Changing temperature and pressure
conditions may result in changes to the mineral assemblage of the protolith. Metamorphic rocks are
eventually exposed at the surface by uplift and erosion of the overlying rock.
There are two main types of metamorphism: regional metamorphism and contact, or thermal,
metamorphism. Metamorphic rocks are categorised by texture and mineralogy. Specific zones of
temperature and pressure define different metamorphic facies. Rocks containing minerals diagnostic
of each facies can be linked to the temperature and pressure that characterise that facies. For
example, blueschist and eclogite facies rocks form under low to medium temperatures and high
pressures. Such conditions as usually associated with subduction zones. Hornfels faciesrocks typically
occur under the medium to high temperature and low pressure conditions associated with contact
aureoles.Each metamorphic facies is associated with a group of index minerals from which it can be
identified. The exact set of indicator minerals from each group that is present in a particular instance
depends on the chemical composition of the protolith. Information about the mineralogy of each
metamorphic facies may be found in Grotzinger and Jordan.

Heat as a Metamorphic Agent - The most important agent of metamorphism is

heat because it provides the energy to drive the chemical changes that result in
the recrystallization of minerals. Heat my derived from intrusion of molten
material rising from below. The effects of this contact metamorphism are most
apparent when it occurs at or near the surface where the temperature contrast
between the magma and the host rock is most pronounced.

Pressure and Stress as Metamorphic Agents - Pressure, like temperatures, also

increases with depth. Buried rocks are subjected to the force, or stress, Pressure
(stress)as metamorphic agent exerted by the load above. This confining pressure
is analogous to water pressure where the force is applied equally in all directions.
The deeper you go in the ocean, the greater the pressure on all sides. The same is
true for rocks at depth. These forces, which are unequal in different directions,
are called differential stresses. Most often these differential forces are
compressional and act to shorten a rock body. In some environments, however,
the stresses are tensional and tend to elongate, or pull apart, the rock mass.
Stretched pebble conglomerate as a result of differential stress Differential stress
can also cause a rock to shear.

Chemical Activity as a Metamorphic Agent - Chemically active fluids also enhance

the metamorphic process. Most commonly, the fluid is water containing ions in
solution. Water is plentiful, because some water is contained in the pore spaces
of virtually every rock. In addition, many minerals are hydrated (have water
bound chemically) and thus contain water within their crystalline structures. How
Metamorphism Alters Rocks The metamorphic process causes many changes in
rocks, including increased density, growth of larger crystals, reorientation of the
mineral grains into a layered or banded texture, and the transformation of low
temperature minerals into high-temperature minerals.