Vehicle Electrification: Statues and Issues

INVITED
PAPER
Vehicle Electrification:
Status and Issues
Current development and the challenges and opportunities for global adoption
of electric vehicles are explored in this paper; these vehicles empower
people to effect change.
By Albert G. Boulanger, Andrew C. Chu, Suzanne Maxx, and
David L. Waltz, Senior Member IEEE
ABSTRACT | Concern for the environment and energy security I . INTRODUCTION

is changing the way we think about energy. Grid-enabled pas- There are numerous factors which are coming together to
senger vehicles, like electric vehicles (EV) and plug-in hybrid
change the way we think about energy [1]–[4]. There are
electric vehicles (PHEV) can help address environmental and
growing concerns over energy security [5], and our de-
energy issues. Automakers have recognized that electric drive
pendence on foreign oil/petroleum [6]. The worldwide use
vehicles are critical to the future of the industry. However, of energy is growing, creating greater demand, but the
some challenges exist to greater adoption: the perception of supply is limited [7]. The oil that is available is becoming
cost, EV range, access to charging, potential impacts to the grid, harder and more dangerous to extract [8], [9] as evidenced
and lack of public awareness about the availability and by the catastrophic Deepwater Horizon oil spill [10]–[13].
practicality of these vehicles. Although the current initial price The result is that nations around the world have come to
for EV’s is higher, their operating costs are lower. Policies that
realize that action must be taken to reduce our use of oil
reduce the total cost of ownership of EVs and PHEVs, compared
and to reduce our greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions [14].
to conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, will
The mounting effects of climate change have become
lead to faster market penetration. Greater access to charging even more apparent, prompting action locally and globally
infrastructure will also accelerate public adoption. Smart grid [15], [16]. The United States has pledged to reduce green-
technology will optimize the vehicle integration with the grid, house gas emissions by approximately 17 percent by 2020
allowing intelligent and efficient use of energy. By coordinating [17], contingent upon climate change and energy legisla-
efforts and using a systems perspective, the advantages of EVs tion being passed by Congress [18], a lengthy and uncer-
and PHEVs can be achieved using the least resources. This
tain process. On national and international levels, efforts
paper analyzes these factors, their rate of acceleration and how
have begun: 188 countries have ratified the Kyoto Protocol
they may synergistically align for the electrification of vehicles.
[19] and there are many signatories with emission pledges
[20], [21] in the Copenhagen Accord [22] and the Cancun
KEYWORDS | Batteries; climate change; electric vehicle charg- Agreements are a step forward [23].
ing infrastructure; road vehicle electric propulsion In order for the U.S. and other countries to achieve the
commitments [17], [24] it made in The Copenhagen Accord,
significant steps must be taken to reduce our use of energy
from fossil fuels [25], [26]. One of the most promising ways
to do this is the electrification of transportation [27]. Up until
now, the energy to power the transportation sector has come
Manuscript received October 19, 2010; revised December 24, 2010; accepted almost exclusively from oil [28]–[30]. With the electrifica-
January 18, 2011. Date of current version May 17, 2011. tion of transportation, all sources of electricity can be used for
A. G. Boulanger and D. L. Waltz are with Columbia University, New York,
NY 10027 USA (e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]). transportation. This marks the largest disruption in the
A. C. Chu is with A123 Systems, Watertown, MA 02472 USA automotive industry since its choice of the internal combus-
(e-mail: [email protected]).
S. Maxx is with World Team Now, Malibu, CA 90265 USA tion engine [31]. Now, we can choose to use renewable
(e-mail: [email protected]). sources of energy, to Bfuel[ our nation’s vehicles. Because of
Digital Object Identifier: 10.1109/JPROC.2011.2112750 this link between EVs and electric power’s carbon footprint,
1116 Proceedings of the IEEE | Vol. 99, No. 6, June 2011 0018-9219/$26.00 2011 IEEE
Boulanger et al.: Vehicle Electrification: Status and Issues
spective. The analysis in this paper identifies certain areas

which must be addressed in order to achieve widespread
adoption. A systems approach prevents any one area from
becoming the rate-limiting step, slowing the overall adop-
tion rate. By addressing the different, interrelated ele-
ments, it is possible to maximize the functionality of the
entire system, at the minimum cost and time, while mak-
ing the most efficient use of energy.
II. GRID-ENABLED VEHICLES

Grid-enabled vehicles (GEV), such as electric vehicles
(EVs) and plug-in (PHEVs) can help address environmen-
tal and energy issues, as well as provide other benefits. By
Fig. 1. Life cycle GHG emissions from vehicles shown as a using electricity rather than petroleum, EVs and PHEVs
function of the life cycle GHG intensity of electricity used during
reduce our petroleum use. Overall, from well to wheels,
production [162]. The chart indicates which generation options
correspond to various GHG intensities to provide some insight into
GEVs reduce the energy consumption and emissions in the
generation mixes. Used with permission. transportation sector. The emissions benefit varies based
on the generation mix for that region as shown in Table 1
(projected for year 2020).
Based on this projection, even in coal-intensive regions
regulators will have a new tool to reshape the overall way we of the country, PHEVs have lower emissions compared to
generate and use energy. This will have profound and lasting conventional ICE vehicles. Life cycle assessment (LCA)
effectsVnot only our nation’s power industry, but also quantifies the environmental impacts of a product’s
beyond the transportation sector, affecting our overall use of manufacture, use, and end-of-life. One recent study from
the world’s resources [32] as shown in Fig. 1. Carnegie Mellon University [42] assessed life cycle GHG
In order to realize the cost/benefit tradeoffs of grid- emissions from PHEVs including energy use and GHG
enabled vehicles, it is important to take a systems per- emissions from battery production.
Table 1 Mix of Sources for Average Electric Generation Among Regions in the United States
Vol. 99, No. 6, June 2011 | Proceedings of the IEEE 1117

They analyzed how changes in the electricity mix, given the fact that it has the electric drive train (battery,
vehicle efficiencies, battery characteristics, and biofuel electric motors) plus a fuel-burning generator/engine.
use, affect the life cycle GHGs. These researchers found Nissan is using its vertical integration [39] and is making a
that PHEVs reduce GHG emissions by 32% compared to significant investment in EVs, in order to bring costs down
conventional vehicles. Even with coal-generated electric- faster than its competitors. Nissan has taken first mover’s
ity, the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions are lower for advantage in the U.S. with the Leaf, a reasonably priced, all
PHEVs than conventional, ICE vehicles. They also electric Bzero emissions vehicle,[ making history as the
estimated that GHGs associated with lithium-ion battery first EV voted BWorld Car of the Year 2011[ by the World
materials and production account for 2–5% of life cycle Car of the Year Awards organization.
emissions from PHEVs. Even with the average U.S. carbon BYD has less experience, but more to gain, and is
intensity for electricity generation, PHEVs have a lower pursuing EVs partly due to the simpler engineering. The
life cycle GHG than hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs). Chinese battery manufacturer and automaker also is
However, with cleaner electricity generation, the GHG taking advantage of vertical integration and is not bound
savings would become even greater. by legal enforcement and liability constraints that other
Researchers at the Electric Power Research Institute manufacturers face. The lower requirements of the
(EPRI) with the Natural Resources Defense Council domestic Chinese market, with less danger in hurting
(NRDC) came to a similar conclusion [33] when conduct- their brand, allow BYD to be more aggressive than
ing a wells-to-wheels analysis. In all cases of PHEV fleet traditional automakers.
penetration, and across all carbon intensity scenarios, Upstarts, like Fisker and Tesla, are introducing high-
emission levels were reduced as shown in Table 2. If the performance sports cars for the luxury performance mar-
electricity is generated from renewable sources, the life- ket initially, with plans to pursue the broader, mainstream
cycle GHG emisions from EVs are even lower. market in their next vehicles [40]. Although these auto-
Automakers around the world have recognized that the makers have different strategies, all share a common
market for grid enabled vehicles will grow in coming years, perspective: electric drive vehicles are critical to the future
with dozens of PHEVs and EVs, across a wide range of of the auto industry. They also realize a common critical
vehicle types, slated for production with many coming out aspect of the EV’s success is to have smart systems that
by 2012. Each automaker has different strategies on how to enable the vehicle to better communicate with their
reduce cost and other market barriers and how to get their owners, the charging stations, and the utilities. By the end
vehicles on the streets faster. Automakers’ initial vehicles of 2011, industry observers predict there will be tens of
are an indication of what architecture and product they thousands of EV on the streets, in 2012Vhundreds of
think consumers will wantVEV versus extended range thousands, and by 2020, the global Electric Vehicle Initia-
electric vehicle (E-REV) versus HEV. It is also a reflection tive has set targets of 20 million [41]. For an updated list of
of their current position and their strategies build upon grid-enabled vehicles (GEVs), see the information we have
their strengths. compiled here [42].
Toyota, for example is the leader in HEVs using nickel A locus for adoption of GEVs will be fleets. Fleet
metal hydride (NiMH) batteries, but it has been widely vehiclesVcity police, garbage, street cleaning, buses, de-
reported [34] that their engineers picked the wrong livery vehicles, etc., are likely to be an accelerator of EV
chemistry (nickel-cobalt based Li ion) which has delayed adoption broadly. For the United States, there were
their PHEV and EV development, but with the electric 16 million fleet vehicles on the road in 2009 [43]. Fleets
RAV4 and Lexus RX being developed in partnership with offer many advantages [43]:
Tesla, the situation may change [35]. • fleet operators understand total cost of ownership
GM believes that range anxiety is a key challenge, (see Section III);
perhaps based on their prior experience with the EV-1 • the cumulative effect of tax credits for EVs in a
[36], [37]. E-REV architecture is more expensive [38], fleet are attractive;
Table 2 Annual Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reductions From Phevs In the Year 2050 Courtesy of NASA
1118 Proceedings of the IEEE | Vol. 99, No. 6, June 2011

• routes are predictable and short. Utilization rates the grid, and consumers’ lack of awareness of the EV
of fleet vehicles are high; option and tradeoffs.
• fleets use centralized parking areas that also may
present the option of a renewable energy park/charge;
A. Cost
• EVs have low maintenance which is especially at-
Perception of cost is a challenge. Consumers tend to
tractive to fleet operators. Commercial power rates
focus on initial cost, not total cost of ownership, when
for fleets are lower than residential;
making purchasing decisions. Apart from sticker price and
• fleets offers access to more financial instruments
a vehicle’s gas mileage, few consider other factors, such as
to finance the initial high costs for EVs;
rebates, incentives, operating, and maintenance costs,
• EVs in fleets can help meet corporate greening goals.
when comparing vehicles. Furthermore, many consumers
GE will purchase 25 000 EVs by 2015 for its own fleet and
sell or trade-in their vehicles after a few years, which may
for others managed through its Capital Fleet Services [44].
be shorter than the payback period for an EV or PHEV.
The auto rental companies with large fleets such as
Enterprise, Avis, and Hertz adoption will help make the
1) One-Time Costs: The biggest drivers for one-time costs
GEV drive experience accessible to the public consumer with
are the cost of the battery, rebates, disposal costs, and
programs like Hertz Connect [45], [46]. Likewise, the public
resale or salvage value. The total cost of ownership is
consumer will experience the GEV drive experience with
summarized in the schematic equation in Table 3. The
taxi fleets including several cities in Japan [47], Shenzhen
equation has three partsVone-time costs and revenue,
China [48], and the San Francisco Bay Area in the U.S. [49],
recurring costs, and recurring revenue. A vehicle will have
The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009
initial costs to purchase it, onetime costs for worn parts
directs the General Services Administration (GSA) to spend
replacement and disposal, and finally resale or salvage
$300 million for hybrids, plug-in hybrids, or electric vehicles
value at the end of ownership. Grid-enabled vehicles will
by September 30, 2011 [51]. The Administration also issued
also have a cost for the charging equipment. A car will have
Executive Order 13514 signed on October 5, 2009 that sets
many recurring costs over its lifetime, shown in the middle
government-wide efficiency and emissions goals and
of the equation. Finally for grid-enabled vehicles there are
reasserts a prior Executive Order, 13423, issued in 2007 to
revenue and/or savings from vehicle-to-grid (V2G) or
purchase commercially available plug-in vehicles [52]. These
smart charging (V1G) or vehicle to building (V2B) prog-
orders state the goal of reducing petroleum consumption in
rams. See Fig. 7 for an explanation of the V2G, V1G, and
agency fleets of 20 vehicles or more by 2% annually, through
V2B dichotomy. The terms in red indicate possible ways to
fiscal year 2020, relative to a fiscal year 2005 baseline. For
incentivize the adoption of grid-enabled vehicles.
2011, the GSA plans an initial purchase of 100 PHEVs [53].
There have been comparative studies of ICE and bat-
tery hybrid electric vehicles (BHEV), and battery electric
vehicles (BEV) lifecycle costs structured like Table 3Vfor
II I. CHAL LE NGE S example the UC Davis Institute for Transportation Studies
In order for grid-enabled vehicles to achieve their poten- group analyzed census data of the different costs for EVs
tial, many challenges must be addressed including: cost, and ICEs [54], [55]. However these studies are dated and
EV range, charging access, and infrastructure, impact to an updated analysis would be timely.
Table 3 Total Cost of Ownership

Governments around the world are using rebates to

reduce the initial cost of EVs and PHEVs and to encourage
their adoption. The current federal rebate for EVs and
PHEVs in the U.S. ranges from $2500 to $7500, depending
on the size of the battery. This rebate applies to the first
200000 vehicles made by each automaker. In addition,
some states [56] have established rebates of up to $5000.
China has a pilot subsidy program [57] which reduces the
cost of EVs by 60000 RMB (US$8800) and PHEVs by
50000 RMB (US$7320).
The industry consensus is that battery costs will come
down from current costs of $1,000–1100/kWh to below
$500/kWh in the next few years (see Fig. 2.) [58]–[61]. It
should be noted that most discussions of cost use the
nameplate energy of the battery. This metric can be de- Fig. 3. ‘‘Dudley’’ Chart of projected rare earth ore demand.
ceptive, however, as many automakers only use a portion Source IMCOA, Roskill, CREIC, and rare earths industry stakeholders.
From [66] with permission.
of the battery’s total energy during vehicle usage. Thus, the
usable energy can be significantly less than the total ener-
gy. For example, GM’s Chevy Volt 16 kWh battery is prog-
rammed to use only 8 to 8.8 kWh, or 50%–55% of the total Rare earth metals are a factor contributing to electric
energy in the battery. There are several reasons why an vehicle cost. Samarium-cobalt or neodymium (terbium and
automaker might limit the usable range of the battery. dysprosium are added in smaller amounts) rare earth
Most batteries lose power as they are discharged. Thus, at magnets are used in motors of electric vehicles. In addi-
low states of charge (SOC) they are unable to meet the tion, nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries (used in the
vehicle requirements. In order to maintain vehicle Prius for example) require significant amounts of the rare
function, the automaker can set the lower limit of battery earth lanthanum, which is one of the reasons why auto-
operation, to ensure that the driver has the same power makers are moving to lithium ion batteries instead of
(acceleration) regardless of whether the battery is fully NiMH. Each electric Prius motor requires 1 kilogram
charged or mostly depleted. Automakers might limit the (2.2 lb) of neodymium, and each nickel metal-hydride
battery from being fully charged to 100% SOC in order to battery uses 10 to 15 kg (22–33 lb) of lanthanum [62]. In
enhance the battery’s safety. Some chemistries, notably the addition, a major consumer of rare earths is the wind tur-
metal oxide variants, are more likely to experience safety bine industry [63] thus exacerbating the whole supply issue.
issues when fully-charged. In addition, some chemistries Rare earths, despite their name, are not especially rare.
do not cycle as well as others. In order to extend cycle life, The problem is finding ore bodies that have enough con-
the SOC range may be reduced. As automakers gain more centration to exploit. China plays a big role in the geopolitics
experience and as technology improves, it is likely they of rare earth supply. One mine in the U.S., the Mountain
will move to batteries that allow a higher percentage of Pass Mine in California was at one time the leading supplier
usable energy, as this would allow the same range to be in the world of rare earths until 2002 when China undercut
achieved in a smaller, lighter, less expensive battery. the operation and Mountain Pass shut down operations.
Recently China, which now controls 93% of worldwide
production, has made moves to put limits on production
and export of rare earths as a strategic step by the Ministry
of Industry and Information Technology, and this is to
ensure China’s own internal supply, so it can gain an edge
in EV and other green technologies for its own internal use
and export. It has been reducing the export quotas for the
last three years [64]. In response to potential supply
disruptions, MolyCorp Minerals, LLC which now owns the
Mountain Pass Mine plans to restart operations [65].
Dudley Kingsnorth of Industrial Minerals Company of
Australia (IMCOA) has updated and produced a graph on
rare earth demand and supply, known as the BDudley
Chart[ in the rare earth commodity community, shown in
Fig. 2. Battery costs are projected to come down from current Fig. 3. The analysis behind this graph indicates that rare
costs of $1000–1100/kWh to below $500/kWh in the next few years. earth mining capacity will be tight up to 2015 [66]. This is
Used with permission, from [58]. likely to keep rare earth costs high. Perhaps most significantly,

Table 4 World Lithium Production and Reserves (2005)
the analysis forecasts the demands for neodymium, europium, reserves, and the quantity of lithium that could be recov-
terbium, and dysprosium are in ranges that could outstrip ered by recycling. They concluded: BEven by using the U.S.
supply by 2015. Geological Survey’s (USGS’s) conservative estimates of
The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) is pursuing a lithium reserves, the available material will not be de-
strategic plan for rare earths (and other important pleted in the foreseeable future.[ In addition, they added,
elements including lithium, cobalt, indium, and telluri- BBottom line: Known lithium reserves could meet world
um). This was announced in a March 17, 2010 speech, by demand to 2050.[ Furthermore, lithium is not a major
Assistant Secretary of Energy for Policy & International component of lithium ion batteries’ cost and is not a
Affairs David Sandalow [67]. Since then, there have been significant concern.
multiple testimonies to congress and the Critical Materials There are paths to harvesting lithium other than ex-
Strategy report was released on December 15, 2010 [68]. ploiting existing sources, such as salt flats. Lithium can be
The analysis in this strategy report considers a scenario extracted (at greater expense) from spodumene and other
where Neodymium is forecasted to outstrip supply by pegamatitic minerals such as, lepidolite, petalite, amblyg-
2015. Furthermore, the study’s most conservative scenario onite, and eucriptite [79]. One promising method, being
still forecasts demand to outstrip supply by 2020. explored by Simbol Mining, is extracting lithium from
Various articles and reports have discussed potential geothermal fluids [80]. Lithium could be extracted from
shortfalls in lithium production versus expected demand and salt water [81]Va method South Korea is exploringVbut
tried to navigate the future geopolitical and socioeconomic that is an expensive path [82]. There are also other sources
implications of lithium [69]–[72]. Lithium has been likened of lithium including oilfield brines and Hectorite clays and
to oil, and Chile, Bolivia, or Afghanistan [73] have all been Jaderite [83], [84].
described as the BSaudi Arabia for lithium.[ Salar de Uyuni, Given that the easily-exploitable reserves of lithium
the world largest salt flat, made Bolivia the number one pick and rare earths are finite, they have strategic value and
for the title [74] until news of a wealth of mineral reserves in thus may become resources to control in the geopolitical
Afghanistan [75]. The world’s second largest salt flat, Salar sphere, potentially causing shortages in the future. This is
de Atacama, has also given Chile the same title [76]. more than just a possibility; in September 2010, China
Although there has been much talk about lithium, temporarily cut off rare earth shipments to Japan, appa-
numerous studies indicate that concern over lithium avail- rently to apply political pressure on Japan to release a
ability is unfounded [77]. Table 4 summarizes the lithium Chinese trawler captain detained in a fishing zone dispute
reserves from the various producing countries. To compare [85]. The value of commodities shiftVregardless of the
reserves against consumption, the 24 kWh battery for the present surplusVif the demand becomes greater than the
Nissan Leaf will use 4 kg of lithium (metal equivalent) supply; this could pose a future challenge. Research and
[70]. If the entire world’s known lithium reserves were development on new battery technologies, high perfor-
used for battery production, there would be enough mance motors, and magnets that reduce or eliminate rare
lithium for hundreds of millions of Leaf-sized batteries, earths could help us hedge our bets [86], [87].
even without considering recycling and more expensive
forms of lithium extraction. 2) Recurring Costs: When comparing grid-enabled ve-
Researchers at Argonne National Labs studied the ex- hicles with conventional ICE vehicles, the differences in
pected demand for lithium, taking into account lithium ion recurring costs are largely due to operating and mainte-
batteries for transportation [78]. They compared the total nance expenses. (Rebates and incentives may be signifi-
expected demand with estimates of production, known cant for a while, but will in all likelihood be eventually

phased out.) When estimating operating costs, powering a have written extensively on this topic, projecting that the
vehicle using electricity is significantly cheaper than value of offering these services could total thousands of
powering it using fossil fuels. An EPRI study [88] esti- dollars over the life of the vehicle [92]. Federal Energy
mated the equivalent cost of powering a PHEV on elec- Regulatory Commission (FERC) Comm. J. Wellinghof has
tricity as 75 cents per gallon of gas, assuming an average also spoken in support of the Bcash back hybrid[ [93].
cost of electricity of 8.5 cents per kilowatt hour and an Nonetheless, the economics and practical viability of V2G
average fuel economy of 25 miles per gallon. services remains a topic of possibility and debate [94].
In order to improve air quality (and to be good global
citizens) many cities and local governments have offsets 4) Hidden Costs: Certain costs in vehicle ownership are
for recurring costs to incentivize the purchase of EVs. hidden. Specifically, environmental and societal costs are
Some cities exempt electric vehicles from parking charges not explicitly built into the price of fuel. Various mecha-
or fees, for example, London’s scheme that exempts nisms have been proposed to capture these hidden costs,
electric vehicles from the congestion pricing tolls [89]. particularly the costs incurred by society for carbon
Other countries have imposed large registration fees or emissions. If these costs could be explicitly factored into
taxes on purchases of traditional ICE vehicles, while the recurring costs of vehicles, the total cost of ownership
exempting electric vehicles. Israel and Denmark provide would be significantly different than today’s out-of-pocket
two notable examples. costs paid by vehicle owners.
The U.S. is critically dependent on petroleum, consum-
3) Recurring Revenue: With the possibility of vehicle ing more than any other nation in the world. In 2009, the
batteries connected to the grid, new business models are U.S. consumed 21.7% of the oil produced worldwide. Oil
beginning to emerge, with different concepts on how to provided 39% of the U.S. primary energy needs in 2009
monetize this distributed energy storage resource. Most [95]. Much of this oil is used for the transportation sector,
vehicles are used for transportation an hour or two a day. which relies on oil for 94% of the fuel used. The world
The rest of the time, that expensive asset sits idle. If the economy would be severely impacted if oil production and
battery can be used for grid services without compromising delivery were to be disrupted. In fact, every major reces-
its value to power the vehicle, it may be a potential revenue sion in the U.S. over the past 35 years has been preceded
stream. The ability to use EVs and PHEVs as a resource by, or was coincident with, an oil price spike [96]. In order
depends on appropriate support infrastructure, as well as to maintain the flow of oil, the U.S. must spend many tens
the existence of aggregators, and customers who are willing of billions of dollars each year. The Rand Corporation
to provide the service. The initial use of vehicles for grid estimated that the U.S. might be able to save between 12
services will occur in areas that require the lowest infra- and 15% of the fiscal year 2008 U.S. defense budget if all
structure investment. Aggregators will use the existing concerns for securing oil from the Persian Gulf were to
charging infrastructure, combined with communications disappear [97]. In addition, the volatility in energy prices
systems, to aggregate many vehicles and offer services. restrains economic activity, as businesses and consumers
Unidirectional (one-way) power flow can be modulated, delay purchasing decisions when oil prices increase.
the charging of the vehicle can be slowed or stopped, giving When discussing cost of electrifying transportation, it
rise to services such as demand response, and emergency may be equally valid to discuss the cost of NOT electrifying
load curtailment. The revenue from these services would transportation. As a society, if we do not substitute renew-
presumably be split between the aggregator and the vehicle able for nonrenewable sources of powerVwhich can be
owner [90]. accelerated by electrifying transportationVwe will con-
If technical and regulatory hurdles can be addressed, it tinue to spend hundreds of billions securing the flow of oil,
may also be possible to have bidirectional power flow, plus more on the oil itself. We will also continue to emit
meaning that power can flow from a vehicle to the grid. CO2 into the atmosphere, increasing the cost of carbon
V2G services that might be offered by vehicle batteries reduction strategies. Eventually, it is likely that CO2 levels
include load leveling or other forms of arbitrage, ancillary will reach a point where climate change is irreversible. In
services such as frequency regulation and spinning reserve, that instance, the cost of CO2 reduction is irrelevant be-
and backup power in the event of power outages. cause no amount of money and time can solve the problem.
One primary concern regarding the use of vehicle bat- Thus, any systems analysis regarding the cost of vehicle
teries for grid services is the impact on battery life. A study electrification should incorporate the hidden costs to tax-
from Carnegie Mellon concluded that a PHEV pack made of payers to maintain the current energy production and de-
lithium iron phosphate cells would incur little capacity loss livery system, to avert climate catastrophe, and the costs if
from combining (V2G) activities with regular driving [91]. climate catastrophe is not averted.
It is not clear whether other lithium ion chemistries would
show similarly positive results. The University of Delaware B. EV Range
has several groups working on grid-integrated vehicles and EV range is the second most significant barrier to wider
vehicle-to-grid power. Prof. W. Kempton and his group EV adoption. The fear of being stranded due to a depleted

battery has been termed Brange anxiety.[ Conventional

vehicles can be fueled at gas stations which are plentiful.
Thus, drivers need not plan their refueling far in advance.
Currently, opportunities for Level 2 charging are limited as
opposed to Level 1 charging. Efforts are underway to
change this with Level 2 and a few Level 3 charger de-
ployments in DOE sponsored programs. Although 110 V
outlets are widely available, the relatively low charging
rate at 110 V means that even after one hour of charging,
one would only have added four or five miles of driving
range [98].
The actual range required for the vast majority of trips
can be covered by most EVs. Fig. 4 is data taken from the
1995 National Personal Transportation Survey (NPTS) [99]
showing the daily driving distance distribution and the Fig. 5. Better place battery switch station. Photo courtesy of
resulting utility factor, which is the fraction of total daily Better Place.
vehicle miles traveled (VMT) that are less than or equal to
the stated distance. Half of the trips are 40 miles or less and
three quarters of them do not exceed 100 miles. A more Electric vehicles operating in cold or hot environments
recent 2005 survey confirmed this data with a similar will suffer from decreased range because some of the
estimate for commuting of 32 miles per day [100]. Although battery’s energy is used to heat or cool the vehicle, rather
the vast majority of trips can be covered by the typical EV, than only to turn the wheels. Conventional ICE vehicles
consumers often make purchase decisions based on the have an inefficient fuel-burning engine, which generates
maximum usage, not typical usage. For example, some significant waste heat. In the wintertime, this waste heat is
consumers may purchase a sports utility vehicle because they used to warm the interior air. EVs don’t have this
take an annual ski trip where they need the cargo space, inefficient fuel-burning engine, so the battery must be
despite the fact that in their daily usage they do not need used to power a heater in an EV. In addition, other loads in
such a large vehicle. From a systems perspective, this the vehicle, such as a window defroster or seat heater,
individual might be better off driving a smaller vehicle for would drain the battery more quickly in the winter.
daily use and renting a larger vehicle on the rare occasions Similarly, in hot weather, the battery must be used to run
when they need additional functionality. Similarly, EVs the air conditioner, reducing EV range. Although there is a
may meet all of the needs for typical daily driving, but may small loss of battery energy at low temperatures, it is
not be suitable in certain circumstances, such as a long recovered when the battery is warmed during usage. In
road trip, at least in the early years of large scale EV other words, the reduced driving range of EVs in cold
charging infrastructure deployment. weather is primarily due to the additional loads placed on
the battery, not the inability of the battery to store or hold
its charge at those temperatures. In extreme temperatures,
if the vehicle is plugged in, it may be possible to preheat or
precool the vehicle, to maximize EV range.
There are a few different approaches to address this
challenge of EV range.
1) Batteries With Higher Energy Density: Batteries are the

focus of considerable development efforts since higher
energy density translates to greater EV driving range.
Unfortunately, there is no Moore’s Law for batteries and
no Bsilver bullet[ is expected, despite regular announce-
ments proclaiming some new breakthrough materials
technology. Energy density and cost for consumer lithium
ion batteries have improved at a fairly consistent rate of
8%–10% per year, for many years [101]. Automotive bat-
teries should improve at a faster rate initially, due to eco-
Fig. 4. The figure shows data taken from the 1995 National Personal nomies of scale, but will reach an asymptote. Even if
Transportation Survey (NPTS) showing the daily driving distance
distribution and the resulting utility factor, which is the fraction of
energy density improves on a gravimetric or volumetric
total daily vehicle miles traveled (VMT) that are less than or equal to basis (Wh/kg or Wh/liter), cost still remains a key concern,
the stated distance. From [99], with permission. since more energy-storing active materials will be required

per battery. Part of the interest in iron phosphate and from the battery, until reaching a certain battery SOC. At
manganese spinel batteries is due to their potential for low this point, the generator or engine is turned on, to provide
cost, given their relatively inexpensive materials, while the energy to drive the vehicle and recharge that battery.
retaining good energy density. The generator could take many forms: gasoline engine,
diesel generator, fuel cell, turbine, or perhaps something
2) Battery Switching: One way to alleviate range anxiety else. If drivers do not fully deplete the battery during
is to have a network of battery switching stations. Better usage, they may never need to fill up the generator’s tank.
Place has demonstrated the capability of switching an The primary advantage is that the vehicle will never be
automotive battery in less than three minutes; the amount stranded, as long as there is fuel to supplement the battery.
of time it takes to fill up a gas tank [102]. In April 2010, The disadvantage is that the cost, weight and complexity of
Better Place demonstrated the world’s first switchable- such vehicles are higher because of the need for both the
battery electric taxi in partnership with the Japanese gov- electric drive train and the on-board generator. This might
ernment and Nihon Kotsu, Tokyo’s largest taxi operator also mean that the maintenance cost will be higher than
[103]. The battery switching solution as shown in Fig. 5 for a pure EV.
works very well for certain drivers and usages, particularly
those in dense urban areas with limited need for long C. Access to Charging
journeys into rural locations. Battery switching is also well Access to charging is another challenge that must be
suited to fleet operators of commercial vehicles, where addressed, in order to achieve wider EV penetration. One
there are often central depots for vehicle storage and of the challenges for EVs, at the system level, is to make a
maintenance. It also offers that possibility of long trips for charging infrastructure available to the largest number of
fully electric vehicles if a nationwide network of battery potential users at the minimum possible cost. In order for
switching stations can be established. This in turn would EVs and PHEVs to be successful, vehicle owners must have
require some level of standardization of batteries, so that at least one reliable place to charge their vehicle. In most
charging stations would only have to deal with a cases this will be their home, but it could be a parking
manageable inventory of different battery types. Today garage or some other location. The current network of
particular battery technologies are seen as competitive gasoline stations offers tremendous flexibility for ICE
advantages by car manufacturers, so arriving at some vehicles: filling stations are plentiful, pumps use standard
manageable number of standards will be a challenge. dispensing nozzles, and different vehicles use the same
forms of fuel. The electric vehicle charging infrastructure
3) Fast Charging: If batteries had the ability to be Bfast- must emulate the convenience and interoperability of the
charged[ without impacting their life or adding signifi- existing fueling infrastructure. Fortunately in the USA,
cantly to the system cost, then when coupled with electricity is widely available and electric vehicles will all
widespread charging infrastructure, drivers would be less use the same Bfuel.[ The challenge is delivering the
prone to range anxiety. Unfortunately, virtually all lithium electricity to a wide variety of vehicles, in many possible
ion battery chemistries suffer from significantly lower life locations, at the minimum system cost, and with an
if they are subjected to fast charge, i.e., being fully charged acceptable charging time. In order to achieve the goal, a
in less than 15 minutes. The problem is not that lithium few challenges must be addressed:
ion batteries can’t be charged in 15 minutes or less. The • interoperability of chargers and vehicles (stan-
problem is that batteries with this fast-charge property dardization of communications, plugs, interfaces,
would have the undesirable qualities of less energy (EV and power);
range), higher cost, and/or shorter life. So, fast charge • clear regulations and standards for the installation
might be a useful capability if you only drew upon it in- of chargers;
frequently. However, automakers and battery manufac- • reliable access to charging infrastructure; and
turers must assume that if they provide consumers with • availability of widespread fast charging, to permit
this option, there are some users who will use it each and long trips.
every time they charge the vehicle. This would result in a
short battery lifetime and would necessitate a costly bat- 1) Infrastructure: The rate of EV adoption will be deter-
tery replacement. In addition, designing the battery, mined by behavioral considerations concerning charging
charger, and other hardware to handle the higher power location (density), the duration of charging time, and the
would add cost to the system. current challenge of mileage range of a full chargeVa.k.a.
range anxiety.
4) On-Board Engine or Generator: An on-board generator Potential charging stations locations include: homes,
changes the vehicle from an EV to an extended-range EV or workplaces, restaurants, movie theaters, shopping centers,
BE-REV.[ This is the architecture of the Chevy Volt and highway rest stops, gas stations, and municipal facilities.
Fisker Karma, which are touted as Bno-compromise[ EVs. The National Electric Code (NEC), which covers EVs
The vehicle operates like an EV, drawing all of the power in Article 625, will have major revisions in its 2011 edition

to track the much-changed EV landscape. EVs are covered or 240 V AC to the DC voltage that actually charges their
Section 86 of the Canadian Electric Code. Historically, the batteries on-board the car and controls the charging rate.
California Air Resources Board classified levels of charging For example the charging rate of the Chevy Volt and
power in Title 13 of the California Code of Regulations Nissan Leaf is limited to 3.3 kW even at 240 V. Limiting
around 1998. This was then codified in the U.S. 1999 the charge rate to 3.3 kW minimizes the on-board
National Electrical Code Article 625. The current codifi- hardware cost. Other vehicles like the Tesla can handle
cation of these levels from the SAE J1772 revision ratified considerably more power and need to, because they have
on January 15, 2010 follows [104] the below. considerably larger batteries.
• AC Level 1: On-board either 120 VAC, 1-phase Current standards vary by country. For example,
12 A rate with a 15 A Circuit or 120 VAC, 1-phase extension cords for 240 V chargers are not allowed by
16 A rate with a 20 A Circuit (4–6 miles for every NEC 625Vthe charger must have its own dedicated cord.
hour of charging). In Canada and Europe, extension cords can be used. Also
• AC Level 2: On-board 208 to 240 VAC, 1-phase up for Europe, the EVSE input connections are three phase
to and including 80 A, per NEC 625 (18–20 miles 240 V.
for every hour of charging). Level 3 refers to DC charging, or Bfast charging.[ There
• DC Level 3: Off-board (200 miles for every hour of are currently no international standards for fast charging.
charging) Under Development: 300–600 VDC, SAE is working on a revision of SAE J1772 to include fast
240 VAC/3-Phase, or 480 VAC/3-Phase 150–400 A charging to be approved in 2012 [105], [106]. 2010 cars,
circuits. such as the Nissan Leaf, that support fast charging are
Level 1 and Level 2 are considered practical for home. using the CHdeMO Association connector, spearheaded
Level 3 (fast DC charging) will be for public or by the Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO) [107].
institutional charging situations. Levels 2 and 3 require a Fig. 6 depicts a systems diagram for charging an EV
dedicated Electrical Vehicle Supply Equipment (EVSE). [108]. The energy transfer system for electric vehicles
For Level 2, there may be a limit to charging rate due to (EV-ETS) is implemented by the coordination between
the specifications of the charging equipment on the car. charging infrastructure located on the car and the off-
Most of the plug-in vehicles scheduled for delivery in the board EVSE, The EV-ETS is covered by SAE standard
next few years have the electronics that convert from 120 V J2293/1 and J2293/2. Although the term Bcharger[ is
Fig. 6. Electric vehicle energy transfer system nomenclature and applicable standards for an electric vehicle energy transfer system [167].
Used with permission.

sometimes used to describe the stationary hardware the to approve EVSE installations. Since early adopters will be
vehicle connects to, in Level 1 and Level 2 charging, the the first to install EVSE, they may experience unwanted
charger is located on-board the vehicle. delays in getting EVSE installed and certified. Poor user
In article 625 of the NEC [109], the electric vehicle experience from otherwise enthusiastic early adopters may
supply equipment is defined as BThe conductors, including dampen desire from others.
the ungrounded, grounded, and equipment grounding For homeowners or apartment dwellers who have a
conductors, the electric vehicle connectors, attachment dedicated parking spot, the cost of installing the charger or
plugs, and all other fittings, devices, power outlets, or outlet will depend on each individual situation, but is
apparatuses installed specifically for the purpose of estimated to range from $500 to $2500 for a Level 2 EVSE
delivering energy from the premises wiring to the electric installation. To lessen the costs in the future, building
vehicle.[ codes could be modified to require that 220 V outlets or
The EVSE works with the On Board Charger (OBC) on conduits be installed in garages. This price is high, but is
the car (for Level 1 & 2 charging) The EVSE contains a expected to come down with economies of scale. Govern-
contactor and control circuitry. The OBC controls the ments around the world have funded programs to seed
charging rate and sends commands to the EVSE and the charging infrastructure deployment and these programs
OBC will tell the EVSE to stop when the battery is fully will help accelerate the realization of these economies of
charged. The EVSE also has Start/Stop buttons and status scale.
indicators. There are various flavors to charging [110]. The flavors
A multicar EVSE can be more complicated and includes follow an order of complexity as shown in Fig. 7. V0G is
Bsmart charging[ capabilities to manage peak load by the simplestVyou plug the car in and it charges. Vehicle to
rotating the charging amongst the car being charged to Grid is the most complex as it entails putting power from
limit the load to a specified level. This could also be the batteries back onto the grid. This involves net metering
applied to the neighborhood level to limit the load on and the right business models. The ability to minimize
distribution transformers. negative impact to the grid from electric vehicles is one of
In order to promote EV adoption, the user experience the reasons why utilities are anxious to integrate smart
must be streamlined from the auto dealership to the in- charging capability.
stallation of EVSE and interaction with the local utility. V1G or smart charging refers to a variety of technol-
Finding qualified installers of EVSE may be a problem, as ogies that involve grid-enabled vehicles interacting with
this is a new area. Another potential issue is the lack of the electrical grid beyond simple charging. Home area
standards for the installation of EVSE. Inspection is a local networks (HANs) generally supply the local Bsmarts[ for
issue and inspectors rightly need to ensure safety after V1G and enable the utility to use the batteries as a distri-
electrical work is done. If an inspector is not given clear buted resource via the HAN’s interface to the utility. Smart
guidelines on what is acceptable, there may be reluctance charging could involve time-of-use rates, demand response
Fig. 7. Rocky Mountain Institute’s dichotomy of charging flavors. Used with permission from [110].

programs, critical peak pricing, and charger load shaping ogies, and Clipper Creek. Infrastructure building activities
to maximize capture of renewable generation. extend beyond the U.S. to some international companies
Vehicle to Building/Home (V2B/V2H) use provides such as Eaton; RWE, E.ON, The Juice Bar, ABB,
some of the benefits of V2G, but only locally, with the Elektromotive, Epyon. These are some other examples of
building energy management system. international projects.
Interoperability is needed not only at the physical level • Denmark: The country is spending $100 million on
of connector, but also in the handshaking and communica- EV infrastructure, including charging points and
tions between the electric vehicle, EVSE, HAN, advanced battery-swap stations and the goal is to run it with
metering infrastructure (AMI), and the smart grid. There wind power [121].
are two interrelated SAE standards concerning this: • France: The French government has announced a
J2836VRecommended Practice for Communication be- ten-year, C 2.5 billion program to jump-start
tween Plug-in Vehicles and the Utility Grid and J2847V vehicle electrification in the country. The money
Information Report for Use Cases for J2836 [111]. would be disbursed for incentives for the produc-
There is also an alliance, the smart energy profile (SEP) tion and purchase of plug-in vehicles as well as
alliance [112] that created the Smart Energy Profile v2.0 upgrading infrastructure. The hope is to have one
[113]. The alliance is creating an application layer standard million charging points in place by middle decade
to specify how smart appliances, including grid-enabled and four million by 2020 [122].
vehicles, will communicate with utilities and other grid • Australia: Better Place Australia, the electric vehi-
service providers. This alliance is like the USB Alliance in cle (EV) infrastructure and services provider, will
that they will certify a deviceVin this case a grid-enabled roll out electric vehicle infrastructure city-wide in
vehicleVis compatible with products from other members Canberra [123].
in the alliance. This group grew out of the Zigbee Alliance In addition, the C40 Cities group of large cities com-
and HAN protocol work surrounding AMI. mitted to addressing climate change has started the C40
electric vehicle network which has committed to promote
2) Ramp-Up of Charging Programs: EV charging stations, electric vehicle adoption in their cities. The C40 Electric
including ones using renewable energy, do exist now in Vehicle Network includes: Bogotá, Buenos Aires, Chicago,
several major cities such as New York [114], Los Angeles, Copenhagen, Delhi, Hong Kong, Houston, London, Los
Chicago [115], and Copenhagen. The existence of these Angeles, Mexico City, Toronto, Sao Paulo, Seoul, and
stations is largely unknown to the public and one of the key Sydney along with automakers BYD Auto, Mitsubishi,
challenges for EV adoption is public awareness and per- Nissan, and Renault [124].
ception. Much like the adoption of mobile devices [116],
the adoption of EVs will be greatly accelerated as more 3) Standards: In order for a multiplicity of vehicles to
users embrace the technology. interoperate between smart grid enabled sources of charg-
Many parties are competing to develop and deploy ing, a multiplicity of standards exists. This includes the
charging infrastructure. Even with standards on charger physical connections though the communications to how
plugs, communication and security protocols, there are to pay for the charge. Unification of plug standards and
many opportunities to generate and license intellectual charging protocols will allow the EV industry to realize a
property. Since automakers, charging infrastructure com- common charging infrastructure. This will reduce the
panies, governmental agencies and organizations all have system cost and accelerate adoption.
an interest in developing the EV market, partnerships are Standardization on the charging plug is a major key
being formed to deploy hardware. From companies such as step and this was first realized in the early 1900s, with the
McDonald’s to local municipalities, there are many kinds early electric vehicles. Early EV adopters of the 1990s were
of parties interested in installing chargers. They are mak- used to bringing adaptor kits with them and the EV
ing deals with charging companies or are partners for industry wants to move away from this experience
grants [117], [118]. The SAE charge plug standard J1772 has gone through
Both Coulomb Technologies (ChargePoint America) major revisions (for example the November 2001 revision
and ECOtality, Inc (The EV Project) are part of DOE grants used the AVCON connector) and the current revision
that involve installation of charging stations. ECOtality adopted on January 14, 2010 [125] is now being widely
will deploy nearly 15 000 charging stations in 13 cities adopted.
located in five states (Oregon, Washington, California, However, Level 3 charging is not yet incorporated into
Arizona, and Tennessee) and the District of Columbia the standard and Europe has the IEC 62196 standard [126].
[119]. Coulomb Technologies plans to install more than Level 3 is being incorporated into both J1772 and IEC
4600 charging stations in nine metropolitan regions across 62196. In addition Japan’s BCHdeMO[ (stands for
the United States by October, 2011 [120]. Charge and Move) association has adapted a separate DC
Some other U.S. charging companies include: Aker fast charging connector first developed by TEPCO for
Wade AeroVironment, Plug Smart, Shorepower Technol- JARI. The CHdeMO plug is the current de facto standard

what costs are applied to the rate base and passed on to

customers. Thus, utilities need clear guidance that can lead
to cost recovery for investments designed to promote
greater EV penetration. Perhaps more problematic may be
the tendency for some utilities to favor large, costly pro-
jects rather than programs to promote efficiency or greater
utilization of existing assets. A utility gets a regulated rate
of return on capital investments required on the system.
Thus, there is little incentive to reduce peak energy use or
to shift usage to overnight hours, as this would reduce the
size or cost of projects, of which utilities earn a percentage.
Moreover, utilities may not be able to apply the cost of
chargers to the rate base and thus would have little in-
centive to create a network of chargers to help accelerate
Fig. 8. Nissan leaf fast charging JARI CHdeMO plug (left) and SAE adoption of EVs. Some utilities have progressive regulators
J1772 Level 1/2 plug right. Used with permission from Datsun.org. who recognize the value of increasing efficiency and thus
reward programs that encourage efficiency and reduce
demand. AMI or smart meters is one area where utilities
have obtained regulator approval for investments in the
for Level 3. As a result of these different standards the system that can help greater EV adoption.
Nissan Leaf will come with both the J1772 plug and the Automakers, utilities, infrastructure providers, and
CHdeMO plug (see Fig. 8.). Finally, as indicated before, battery suppliers are working in concert on the develop-
a revision of J1772 to incorporate DC fast charging is ment and deployment of grid-connected vehicles. In some
expected out in 2012 [106]. cases, cities and local governments are playing a major role
in establishing best practices to accommodate grid con-
4) Public Charging Infrastructure Cost: Public charging nected vehicles. Nissan, General Motors, Toyota, and
infrastructure and the issue of who pays is a more com- other manufacturers have established relationships with
plicated issue. Government funded programs, such as re- utilities across the country to prepare for the next gene-
cent awards from the U.S. Department of Energy, will pay ration of grid connected vehicles. Such partnerships allow
for initial installations of charging infrastructure. How- both the automakers and all the various entities that can
ever, it is unclear whether the private sector can provide EV charging to develop both sides of the vehicle/
demonstrate a viable business in installing such infra- grid equation in tandem. Such demonstration and
structure and charging users for the privilege of charging. deployment projects are critical to the success of the large
One perspective is that the price charged to users must be scale consumer roll-out of these vehicles.
significantly higher than the cost of electricity, in order to GM provided 10–12 utilities with demonstration Volts
recoup the investment cost, if the sole business is to Bsell[ for Bpractice:[ tracking and managing the load, the
the battery charging service. Of course, a significant charging experiences, the relationship with the charging
premium over the cost of retail electricity would make the equipment with utilities’ substations, transformer-type
EV less cost-effective for the vehicle owner, thus eroding regions, etc.
some of the value proposition. Nissan is also a supporter of Level 3 DC fast charging,
Another concept is that retailers or mall operators unlike most other automakers. Their strategy is to deploy
might pay for EVSEs, to encourage greater foot traffic and infrastructure across six states with multiple DC fast-
longer stays within their stores. For example, a Level 2 charging stations.
charger might cost $2000, but could result in additional
sales to the retailer, in addition to providing the Bhalo D. Education
effect[ benefit of being a Bgreen[ or environmentally Another challenge that must be addressed in order to
conscious business. Similarly, in urban environments accelerate adoption of EVs and PHEVs is consumer educa-
where drivers rent parking spaces, a parking garage owner tion. Many separate efforts are underway to spread infor-
might choose to install EVSEs and charge a premium to mation about electric drive vehicles. Significant work, for
those customers who desire that capability. example, has been done by the Electrification Coalition,
One challenge in building the grid infrastructure to which has published a roadmap for the electrification of
accommodate greater numbers of EVs and PHEVs is the transportation [96]. The Electrification Roadmap serves as
utility business model. As a regulated monopoly, utilities a policy guide, laying out the arguments for electric drive
must apply for rate recovery for investments made to be- vehicles, while identifying specific policies that could help
nefit their customers. Regulators, such as the local public accelerate the production of such vehicles and their integ-
utilities commission, have significant discretion regarding ration into the electricity and transportation systems.

There are many companies facilitating the charging infra- ness and bringing attention to the entire industry. A sequel
structure, and the EV Project [127] is one that raises public entitled BRevenge of the Electric Car[ premiered at the
awareness. The Electric Drive Transportation Association 2011 Tribeca Film Festival on Earth Day, April 22, 2011.
(EDTA) is an industry organization representing vehicle Individual automakers have conducted campaigns to
and equipment manufacturers, energy providers, com- raise awareness about their particular products. GM, for
ponents suppliers and users [128]. EDTA has been in- example, used a viral marketing campaign around the
strumental in helping to move legislation that advances number B230[ to make the point that their Chevy Volt
electric drive technology. To engage the public during could achieve 230 miles per gallon (though the assump-
Earth Week 2011, EDTA had an EV parade/motorcade to tions leading to this number are debatable). Nissan has
the Nation’s Capital with stops at the Department of also used new media, with a smart phone apps campaign
Energy, the White House, and Capitol Hill with the final around zero emissions to help spread the word about the
destination a public Ride, Drive & Charge press conference. Leaf EV.
The National Plug-In Vehicle Initiative (NPVI) is a new Demonstration programs are being initiated at na-
organization, comprised of automakers, utilities, battery tional, state, and city levels. In August 2009, the U.S. De-
and component manufacturers, associations, and govern- partment of Energy awarded millions of dollars to various
ment entities, that has the mission to provide timely and companies, universities, and organizations to institute
accurate information to policymakers, media, and con- programs designed to increase awareness of electric drive
sumers about the electric drive industry. Set America Free technology [50]. This funding was under the category,
is an organization dedicated to educating people about the BAdvanced Electric Drive Vehicle Education Program,[
danger of dependence on foreign oil and the need for fuel which was a portion of the Recovery Act Awards for Trans-
choice, including the use of plug-in hybrids [129]. portation Electrification. Recipients of funding included
Organizations are using the internet to raise awareness, programs for secondary, undergraduate and graduate
through such sites as ProjectGetReady.com [130]. students, emergency responders, and the general public.
There are many grass-roots organizations that are also The effort is not just in the United States. Around the
working to spread information about EVs and PHEVs. world, entire cities are being designed from the ground up
CalCars, [131] Plug In America, [132] World Team Now, with energy use and the integration of new technologies,
Plug-In Partners, [133], and the Electric Auto Association such as electric vehicles and the smart grid, playing a
[134] are just a few in the U.S. Worldwide, organizations central role. These demonstration projects could indeed be
like the World Electric Vehicle Association [135] (WEVA) models for future development.
and the European Association for Battery, Hybrid, and China has announced plans for a renewable energy
Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles [136] (AVERE) promote the use demonstration city in Turpan. Turpan, which is located
of electric drive vehicles. These organizations help in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous region, receives
organize and support industry events, like the Electric 3200 hours of sunshine a year, making it an ideal candidate
Vehicle Symposium (EVS), which is one of the largest and for solar energy. The city plans to use electric buses and
longest-running forums for networking and sharing of taxis, powered by this solar energy [139].
technical information about electric drive vehicles. Abu Dhabi’s ambitious Masdar Energy City project will
The state of California was the first state to adopt a zero be powered entirely by renewable energy [140], [141].
emissions policy for electric vehicles, in 1990. Since then, Instead of sharableVEVs to be shared will be provided for
the zero emissions for Vehicles (ZEV) program [137] has transportation. These and other new cities have the poten-
undergone many changes. With a technology symposium tial advantage of being designed with the entire system in
and an independent expert review panel to update all ZEV mind, from the start. This allows the various components,
technologies, they have held public meetings for all like the solar panels, electric vehicles, and charging infra-
interested parties to promote the overall program and structure, to be seamlessly integrated, optimizing the
ZEV infrastructure issues. overall system. Although a fully-integrated, clean sheet
Despite these efforts, however, the general public is approach may be ideal, most of the world will have to be
largely uninformed about electric vehicles and their ad- retrofitted, reusing many existing components.
vantages. Public awareness is an important aspect of the
whole system, since widespread adoption is difficult if E. Potential Threats to the Grid
people aren’t aware of the availability, use, and advantages Although there is already ample generating capacity to
of the vehicles. In order to reach the general public, the accommodate EVs, especially if charging is done overnight,
effort must be broadened from policy and enthusiast orga- the distribution of electricity may be a problem at the
nizations, to include mainstream media, the internet, and neighborhood level. Adoption of EVs is expected to be
high-profile events. Chris Paine’s 2006 documentary relatively gradual, thus giving utilities time to upgrade
BWho Killed the Electric Car[ explored the failed intro- their distribution systems, just as they did during the
duction of electric vehicles in the mid 1990’s [138]. The introduction of refrigerators, air conditioners, and modern
film elevated the profile of electric vehicles, raising aware- flat-screen TVs. At the same time, though, experts predict

Fig. 9. Comparison of load during a summer afternoon. The top curve assumes 10% of vehicles are PHEVs which all start charging at 6 P.M. The
bottom curve assumes 10% of vehicles are PHEVs, but the start of charging is staggered between 9 P.M. and 1 A.M. Used with permission from [147].
that the distribution of EVs will be Blumpy,[ with early Although this charging may be done overnight, if multiple
adopters clustered in certain neighborhoods, due to de- vehicles are plugged into one circuit that is close to its
mographics such as income and educational level. This limit, the additional load on the neighborhood transformer
may cause local strain on transformers and other may cause it to fail. If utilities know where EVs and PHEVs
infrastructure. are expected to be plugged in, they can perform the
EPRI has conducted many studies on GEVs on dis- necessary upgrades. The challenge is predicting where
tribution grids [142]–[147] The EPRI study [147] illus- these vehicles will be charged.
trated the potential localized impact of PHEVs on the Although there are many mechanisms by which auto
distribution system. This study picked a representative dealers, state motor vehicle departments, insurance com-
summer day and assumed 10% PHEV penetration, charg- panies, and utilities might be able to pinpoint the locations
ing at 240 V, 12 A. If the charging started at 6:00 p.m., the of such vehicles, privacy concerns and logistical hurdles
load to the substation increased as illustrated in the upper have slowed the development of systems to identify the
curve in Fig. 9. This would cause additional strain on the residential locations of these vehicles to allow utilities to
system, which could be a serious issue on a hot summer plan upgrades. In the absence of coordinated systems to
day. If the start of charging is staggered between 9:00 p.m. obtain this information, there may be other ways for
and 1:00 a.m., however, the additional load would have utilities to identify the locations of EVs and PHEVs. The
minimal impact to the distribution system, as shown in the characteristic charging profile of a new EV owner could be
lower curve of Fig. 9 [147]. relatively easy for a utility to recognize, for example by an
A vehicle being charged at 15 A at 220 V draws increase in energy usage every weekday at 6:00 p.m. In
3.3 kilowatts of power, which is roughly equivalent to the addition, utilities may develop relationships with EV
average load that a home draws from the grid. Each charger owners during the charger installation process or through
increases home current requirements by 17%–25%. incentive programs to encourage certain behaviors.

Energy storage can also be used to buffer the impact of and off-peak electricity pricing, compared to the large
the vehicle on the grid. Some companies are pursuing savings the owner achieves compared to gasoline, it re-
strategies where energy is stored in a battery built into the mains to be seen whether this economic signal will be
EVSE hardware. The advantage of such an approach is that enough to discourage peak charging.
the EVSE battery can be charged overnight, at the lowest EVs create a significant new class of demand for elec-
cost and impact to the grid. This energy then can be used to tricity generated from renewable sources. Since their bat-
charge the vehicle at any time without increasing the load teries can typically store 10–35 kWh, they can serve as a
on the grid. This strategy also allows for faster charging, flexible load for intermittent energy sources. Wind farms
while minimizing the impact to the grid. The downside of generate power even when the demand is low. In the
this strategy, of course, is the additional cost of having a overnight hours, when baseload generation is sufficient to
battery in the EVSE. The additional expense is more easily meet the load, there is little use for that wind-generated
justified in a commercial environment where multiple power. Vehicles being charged on the grid represent a
vehicles are charged per day or where high-power charging large potential overnight load, which could take advantage
is required due to the size or usage of the vehicle, or where of the excess wind power generated at that time. Photo-
there is a surplus of energy from a renewable energy voltaic solar energy has a better correlation between gene-
source. ration and load, as power is generated during the day when
Although fast charging can help alleviate range anxiety, demand is high. Solar panels on rooftops or free-standing
automakers, battery manufacturers, and utilities largely solar carports might be an excellent method of charging
prefer slower, overnight charging, when there is plenty of vehicles using a renewable resource, while minimizing the
baseload power [137]. Each has its own reasons, but they impact of daytime charging on the grid.
all relate to cost. Automakers are trying to reduce the cost Although vehicle batteries connected to the grid are
of EVs. Thus anything that adds additional cost must offer one possible method of mitigating the intermittency of
commensurate benefits or value. For many automakers, distributed solar, home energy storage and community
faster charging beyond Level 2 is not perceived to have energy storage are other possibilities. BYD’s development
sufficient value to the end user to justify the additional in Lancaster, CA is an example of a project to integrate
expense in vehicle and charger hardware. Battery manu- rooftop solar with batteries. In this project, BYD is supply-
facturers (and automakers) want to ensure that the battery ing the solar system and the home energy storage unit
lasts the life of the vehicle. Since fast charging shortens the [148]. By working with the builder, BYD offers the custo-
life of today’s batteries, the downside outweighs the ad- mer a streamlined buying experience. In the future, similar
vantages of convenience to the consumer. strategies with vehicles and home chargers might help
In summary, charging and grid infrastructure are man- accelerate adoption.
ageable challenges. Although some warn that the sudden Another example of using vehicle batteries to store
adoption of EVs and PHEVs could destabilize the grid, the renewable energy comes from Denmark, which is offering
opportunity that such vehicles present is greater than the 227 000 kr (US$40 000) in incentives for the purchase of
threat they pose. Properly managed, through smart an EV, plus a downtown parking spot. Denmark is spend-
chargers, smart grid, smart policy, and energy storage, ing over a 567 million kr (US$100 million) on EV infra-
the potential strain on the grid can be minimized. structure, including charging points and battery-swap
stations [121].
F. Opportunities for the Grid Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) can operate as renew-
EVs and PHEVs represent a significant opportunity for able energy generators when connected to the grid (V2G),
the electric power industry. If grid-integrated vehicles providing greater flexibility in the management of re-
quickly gain popularity, the growth in load could be signi- newable electricity supply to residential and commercial
ficant. From the perspective of the overall grid efficiency, consumers.
the most advantageous time to charge vehicles is off-peak
or in the overnight hours, when there is excess generating G. Safety
capacity. By charging vehicles at these times, the overall One possible issue is regarding the perceived safety of
load curve is flattened, thus increasing the utilization rates lithium ion batteries in vehicles. Concerns about safety are
of existing power plants and assets. This maximizes the use more about perception than reality, as automotive pro-
of the existing baseload generation and other transmission ducts must pass extremely stringent safety testing, far
and distribution assets. beyond those required for most consumer products. Iron
It is possible to use market signals to encourage off- phosphate and manganese oxide based chemistries cur-
peak vehicle charging. Utilities can offer time-of-use or rently being used in vehicle batteries are widely re-
dynamic pricing, in order to encourage EV owners to cognized as being safer than the cobalt-based oxide
charge overnight when prices are lower. Chargers can be chemistries used in consumer lithium ion batteries. In
programmed to take advantage of this lower price. How- addition, vehicle battery packs are engineered to protect
ever, given the relatively small difference between peak the battery from physical, electrical, and thermal abuse. As

a result of engineering design based on the failure modes provide additional incentive for consumers. Many states
and effects analysis (FMEA), abusive situations are not have offered cash incentives of up to $5000 and each state
likely to exist in a battery pack during normal operating has other varied approaches [56] to encourage consumers.
conditions. However, in the event of multiple failures in Some are working to convert tax credits into instant re-
the battery’s systems, battery packs are still designed to be bates at the time of purchase. This would lower the initial
safe. During catastrophic circumstances, such as a car ac- out-of-pocket cost to the buyer, simplify the process by
cident, most battery packs have sensors which will trigger reducing paperwork, and also ensure that all buyers,
a signal to open switches or contactors to immediately regardless of tax liability, can benefit.
disconnect or de-energize the pack. The U.S. government is also addressing the issue of
The US is prepared for the EV national roll out with cost by increasing the supply base for key components.
comprehensive safety plans with National Fire Protection The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) awarded hundreds
Association’s (NFPA) emergency responder safety training of millions of dollars to manufacturers of batteries and
program for advance electric drive vehicles. The program electric drive components to help accelerate the produc-
began in 2010 and goes through 2013 with the goal to tion of critical components in EVs and PHEVs [50]. The
implement a comprehensive Emergency Responder train- DOE Advanced Technology Vehicle Manufacturing
ing program based on NFPA codes and standards. The plan (ATVM) program has also provided conditional loan
is to reach 1.1 million fire service members, reduce fire commitments to major automakers, including Ford,
fighter and civilian EV concerns, and offer courses to EMS Nissan, Tesla, and Fisker, as well as [152]. Additional
and law enforcement with the emergency responder web incentives, or the acceleration of disbursement of funds
portal online for all EV safety training and information. from existing programs, would help manufacturers in the
The program is funded from the DOE and contractors/ electric drive industry lower the cost of vehicles and
partners with a total budget of around $5.4 million vehicle components.
dollars [149]. The Fire Protection Research Foundation, a Apart from strictly the financial costs, these programs
research arm of the NFPA, has produced a report on fire also are critical in accelerating the development of the
fighter safety and emergency response for EVs and HEVs manufacturing supply base. Thus, shortening the time
funded by the Department of Homeland Security [150]. required to create the EV Becosystem[ is also an important
Finally, the lack of noise from EVs and hybrids has goal of such programs. President Obama set the goal of one
been a safety concern with car manufactures addressing million PHEVs on the road by 2015. This ambitious target
in different ways. The Pedestrian Safety Enhancement Act can only be achieved through concerted, sustained effort
of 2010 passed by both the House and the Senate from the public and private sectors.
proposes a certain minimum amount of Falert sound_ Increased R&D funding can also help drive down the
from EVs and hybrids so that the blind or pedestrians can long-term costs of components and vehicles, while
hear the vehicle when it’s traveling at constant speed, increasing their functionality. In addressing EV range,
accelerating or decelerating. It does entertain the battery technology has been one key focus area of
possibility of a Bcross-over speed[ at which a vehicle government-funded programs. The United States Ad-
emits enough sound on its own. The bill does not specify vanced Battery Consortium (USABC) is the umbrella orga-
the minimum levels or nature of the alert sound but nization for collaborative research between Chrysler, Ford,
provides funding for the secretary of transportation, who and General Motors on electrochemical energy storage.
would set the final rules [151]. Awardees of USABC funding include all of the major U.S.
battery manufacturers, in addition to some foreign com-
panies that have significant U.S. operations. The height-
IV. POLICIES ened interest in developing better battery technology was
With the support from governments to transition the reflected by additional funding and awards made in 2010
whole system, the transportation sector could rapidly em- by USABC. In the area of long-range research, the Ad-
brace the opportunity for industry transformation with the vanced Research Projects AgencyVEnergy (ARPA-E) has
electrification of the vehicle. Numerous policies for each also awarded hundreds of millions of dollars to accelerate
area of the EV industry have begun to be adapted both innovation in energy research [153]. Policies which in-
nationally and internationally. Battery and vehicle cost are crease the operational cost of conventional ICE vehicles,
the biggest barriers to wider adoption rate. However, the but do not increase the operational cost of EVs and PHEVs,
true comparison is the total cost of ownership for EVs and would have a similar stimulative effect on the adoption of
PHEVs, and the payback period, compared to the conven- EVs and PHEVs, by shortening the payback period. The
tional ICE alternative. Clearly, policies that lower initial obvious, most straightforward approach would be to in-
cost of EVs and PHEVs will accelerate adoption. As men- crease the gas tax. Many have advocated a gradual increase
tioned previously, the current federal rebate for EVs and of the gas tax, phased in over several years to allow in-
PHEVs in the U.S. ranges from $2500 to $7500, depending dustry and consumers to adapt. However, the political will
on the size of the battery. Increasing tax credits would does not currently exist to increase the use of this policy

instrument in the U.S. Another alternative is a feed-in they will not have the same range anxiety, even if they
tariff or licensing/registration fee that provides a greater always charge at home and never use public charging
economic incentive to EVs and PHEVs. Such a program infrastructure.
can be revenue-neutral. Greater awareness of electric drive The federal government could offer warranty insur-
vehicles and the use of carbon-free energy to power trans- ance to help reduce the cost of EVs and PHEVs. In his
portation could reduce resistance toward policies like a gas book, BFreedom From Oil,[ David Sandalow proposed a
tax or feed-in tariff, in turn prompting action among the government-sponsored warranty insurance program
world’s leaders. Consumers might be more inclined to where the original equipment manufacturer (OEMs),
support a higher gas tax if alternatives were available that insurance companies, and the federal government share
lowered or eliminated their need to buy gas. the risk [158]. This would reduce the cost of EVs and
Regulations that set standards for vehicle emissions can PHEVs by limiting the possible financial exposure to
also incentivize the use of electric drive vehicles. In April automakers and insurance companies. In this case, the
2010, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and federal government only provides the backstop; OEMs and
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) insurance companies would assume the risk before the
announced [154] a joint rule establishing a program to government.
reduce GHG emission and improve fuel economy for new Local, city, and state governments have begun to offer
cars and trucks sold in the U.S. This program applies to benefits to drivers of EVs to accelerate EV adoption.
vehicles in model years 2012 through 2016. Work has California, for example, extended the carpool-lane (HOV)
already begun on developing rules for 2017 and beyond. access for EVs through 2015 [159].
The existence of electric drive vehicles and the infrastruc- Many possible incentives are available: incentive by
ture for wider adoption are critical in the future rulemak- rate, income tax or deduction; sales tax exemption; car
ing process. The rules for 2017 and beyond will depend on pool access; infrastructure purchase or upgrade rebates or
whether electric drive vehicles are widely available and tax breaks; free parking; reduced congestion charges or
have been embraced by the public. In a self-fulfilling pro- tolls. At the time of writing there are 12 states with incen-
phecy, the likelihood of such rules also encourages auto- tives in addition to the federal incentives, and six states
makers to develop electric drive vehicles, which in turn that offer infrastructure incentives [56].
makes it more likely to have regulations that favor these Various stakeholders are involved in the process of
vehicles. developing and deploying electric drive vehicles. Auto-
Bills to expand tax incentives and spur regional EV makers, components suppliers, charging infrastructure
growth are being developed and restructured to support companies, utilities, governments, and the public all con-
various aspects of the EV market such as the Electric tribute to the overall success, but sometimes do not share
Vehicle Deployment Act [155], [156]. the same perspective. Each is dependent on the other and
The economic value of EVs and PHEVs can also be the different, interrelated elements must be coordinated, in
enhanced by monetizing the reduced lifetime emissions of order to accelerate adoption. The challenge is to identify
such vehicles through carbon credits or cap-and-trade po- the points of common agreement, then to build upon that
licies. Other possible policy instruments include the sec- foundation to address the challenges that all face.
ond phase of the renewable fuels standard (RFSs) and low Other national governments have come together to
carbon fuel standard (LCFS). The method of calculating take action towards a global transition via The Clean
carbon intensity and life cycle emissions has been conten- Energy Ministerial [160]. Global initiatives most relevant
tious, particularly from constituents supporting corn- to this paper include: The electric vehicles initiative (EVI)
based ethanol. Nonetheless, these policies provide a [41], The international smart grid action network (ISGAN)
potential mechanism for incentivizing electric drive [161], and the multilateral solar and wind working Group
vehicles. [160]. Participating governments account for about 80%
Policies that lower the cost of installing charging in- of global energy consumption, and include Australia,
frastructure would also help accelerate adoption. The Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China, Denmark, the European
present tax credit on EV chargers is 30% up to $1000 for Commission, Finland, France, Germany, India, Indonesia,
consumers and $30 000 for businesses until 2012. Italy, Japan, Korea, Mexico, Norway, Russia, South Africa,
Allowing charging infrastructure costs to be applied to Spain, Sweden, the United Arab Emirates, the United
the rate base would also encourage utilities to install such Kingdom, and the United States.
equipment. In addition to charging hardware, other The public also plays a critical role in advancing elec-
infrastructure upgrades, including software and commu- tric drive vehicles. If the public were to convince its
nications systems, should be eligible for tax credits. These leaders to make binding commitments to reduce CO2
investments in infrastructure are important to address emissions, there would be tremendous pressure to accele-
consumers’ concerns regarding EV range and convenience. rate the adoption of EVs and PHEVs, as expanded use of
In many ways, perception can be just as important as electric drive vehicles offer one of the most effective ways
reality. If consumers perceive the chargers are plentiful, to reduce consumption of fossil fuels. Average consumers,

however, must be made aware of the current advantages of governments to accelerate change. The question now
these vehicles before they will feel compelled to take becomes how quickly the transition will occur [158]. In
action. order to make this transition as seamless as possible, these
A global treaty with funds, technology transfers, and a efforts must be coordinated to ensure that the benefits are
structure to commoditize and regulate GHGs could further maximized while minimizing the cost. With the support
spur development of the EV industry and support national from governments to transition the whole system, the
programs, around the world. Instituting global enforceable transportation sector could rapidly embrace the op-
energy and clean environmental policies (e.g., The Kyoto portunity for industry transformation with the vehicle
Protocol [19] and The Copenhagen Accord [22] and the electrification. All of the following are key to such trans-
Cancun Agreements [23]), could also have a large effect on formation: policies that jump-start industry sectors
the rate of EV adoption. through incentives related to all the components that
make up this whole system; electric vehicle manufactur-
ing; advanced battery research; best practices for extrac-
V. CONCLUSION tion and mining of rare earths and lithium; development
Electric drive vehicles are one of the best ways to reduce and deployment of EV technologies; standardization of
our use of petroleum-based fuel and better regulate GHGs. industry protocols of plugs and chargers; deployment of
With the electrification of transportation and utilizing the charging infrastructure; public education; and national
emergent smart grid, there is the opportunity to intelli- and global political will for the adoption of smart grid
gently integrate our transportation and energy systems: technology and renewable energy sources. h
this may provide the foundation for wiser choices for
ourselves and our world.
Governments and private industry recognize the Acknowledgment
critical role that electric drive vehicles will play in the The authors would like to thank Yini Qiu of World
future of transportation. It will require collaboration of not Team Now, Brighid Crumlish of CCLS, and Deborah
only industry sectors, but also of citizens, consumers, and Abbott for their help in preparing this paper.
REFERENCES in Deepwater at All? [Online]. Available: http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/

http://science.discovery.com/stories/week/ getdoc.cgi?dbname=111_cong_bills&
[1] M. Z. Jacobson, BReview of solutions to deepwater-drilling.html docid=f:h2454ih.txt.pdf
global warming, air pollution, and energy
[10] Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill, Times Topics, 2010. [19] Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations
security,[ Energy Environ. Sci., vol. 2, no. 2,
[Online]. Available: http://topics.nytimes. Framework Convention on Climate Change,
pp. 148–173, 2009.
com/top/reference/timestopics/subjects/ United Nations Framework Convention on
[2] R. C. Armstrong. (2007, Nov.). World o/oil_spills/gulf_of_mexico_2010/ Climate Change, 1998. [Online]. Available:
Energy Council: Addressing the Global index.html?scp=1-spot&sq=bp%20oil% http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/
Energy Challenge. [Online]. Available: 20spill&st=cse kpeng.pdf
http://www.worldenergy.org/documents/
[11] Interpreting NOAA’s Trajectory Prediction [20] Appendix IVQuantified Economy-Wide
robert_c._armstrong_mit_energy_
Maps for the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill, Emissions Targets for 2020, United Nations
initiative.pdf
Office of Response and Restoration, Framework Convention on Climate Change,
[3] F. Seymour and S. Zadek, BGoverning 2010. [Online]. Available: http://response. 2010. [Online]. Available: http://unfccc.int/
energy: The global energy challenge,[ restoration.noaa.gov/book_shelf/ home/items/5264.php
Account. Forum: Govern. Energy: Global 2056_NOAATrajectoryMaps.pdf [21] Appendix IIVNationally Appropriate
Energy Challenge, no. 9, pp. 6–15,
[12] TimeSpace-Oil Spill, Washington Post, Mitigation Actions of Developing Country
Jan. 2006.
2010. [Online]. Available: http://timespace. PartiesUnited Nations Framework
[4] C. Mandil. (2007, Jan.). Int. Energy Agency: washingtonpost.com/project/oil-spill/ Convention on Climate Change, 2010.
The Global Energy Challenge: Technology [Online]. Available: http://unfccc.int/
[13] EPA Response to BP Spill in the Gulf of Mexico,
Scenarios for a Sustainable Future. [Online]. home/items/5265.php
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Available: http://www.iea.org/speech/2007/
2010. [Online]. Available: http://www.epa. [22] United Nations Framework Convention on
mandil/dsds.pdf
gov/bpspill/ Climate Change, United Nations, Dec. 2009.
[5] A. Shah. (2009, Nov.). Global Issues: Energy [Online]. Available: http://unfccc.int/
[14] N. Hopwood and J. Cohen. University of
Security. [Online]. Available: http://www. resource/docs/2009/cop15/eng/11a01.
Michigan: Greenhouse Gases and Society.
globalissues.org/article/595/energy-security pdf#page=4
[Online]. Available: http://www.umich.edu/
[6] S. P. A. Brown and H. G. Huntington. ~gs265/society/greenhouse.htm [23] United Nations Climate Change Conference
(2010, Jun.). National Energy Policy Institute: CancunVCOP 16/CMP 6 Agreements, United
[15] Climate Change Indicators in the United States,
Estimating U.S. Oil Security Premiums. Nations Framework Convention on Climate
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
[Online]. Available: http://nepinstitute. Change, Nov. 2010. [Online]. Available:
Jun. 2010. [Online]. Available: http://www.
org/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/ http://unfccc.int/2860.php
epa.gov/climatechange/indicators.html
RFF-NEPI-BrownHuntington-OilSecurity.pdf
[16] Key Indicators, Global Climate Change: [24] President Obama Announces $2.4 Billion in
[7] International Energy Outlook Funding to Support Next Generation Electric
NASA’s Eyes on the Earth, 2010. [Online].
2010VHighlights, U.S. Energy Information Vehicles, U.S. Department of Energy,
Available: http://climate.nasa.gov/
Administration, May 2010. [Online]. Mar. 2009. [Online]. Available: http://
keyIndicators/
Available: http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ www.energy.gov/news2009/7066.htm
ieo/highlights.html [17] T. Stern. (2010, Jan.). United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change: [25] S. Payne, T. Dutzik, and E. Figdor.
[8] D. Gross. (2010, Jun.). Slate: Fracking, (2009, Jun.). Public Interest Network:
U.S. Special Envoy for Climate Change.
Oil Sands, and Deep-Water DrillingVThe The High Cost of Fossil Fuels: Why
[Online]. Available: http://unfccc.int/
Dangerous New Era of ‘Extreme Energy’. America Can’t Afford to Depend on
files/meetings/application/pdf/
[Online]. Available: http://www.slate. Dirty Energy. [Online]. Available:
unitedstatescphaccord_app.1.pdf
com/id/2255906 http://cdn.publicinterestnetwork.org/
[18] U.S. Government Printing Office: H. R.2454,
[9] P. J. Kiger. (2010). Discovery-Science Channel: assets/5AEyj6aT4Fssg0TwPGnr4w/
U.S. House, May 2009. [Online]. Available:
Risk-Benefit Analysis: Should We Be Drilling The-High-Cost-of-Fossil-Fuels.pdf

[26] 350 Science, 350.org. [Online]. Available: [Online]. Available: http://www.wired.com/ vehicles,[ Transp. Res. Part D, vol. 6, no. 6,
http://www.350.org/about/science magazine/2010/09/ff_electriccars/all/1 pp. 371–404, 2001.
[27] R. A. Feldman and P. Mazza. (2007, Jan.). [41] Fact Sheet: Electric Vehicle Initiative, Clean [56] State Incentives, Plug In America. [Online].
Plugin Center.com: Electrify Transportation Energy Ministerial of U.S Department Available: http://www.pluginamerica.org/
Briefing Book. [Online]. Available: http:// of Energy, Jul. 2010. [Online]. Available: incentives.shtm
www.plugincenter.com/files/documents/ http://www.energy.gov/news/documents/ [57] UPDATE 1-China to Subsidise Hybrid,
Electrify_Transportation_Briefing_ Electric-Vehicles-Initiative-Fact-Sheet.pdf Electric Car Purchases, Reuters, Jun. 2010.
Book.pdf [42] Updated List of Grid-Enabled Vehicles, [Online]. Available: http://www.reuters.
[28] D. Sperling and N. Lutsey. (2009, Jun.). World Team Now, Jul. 2010. [Online]. com/article/idUSTOE65007Z20100601?
Energy efficiency in passenger Available: http://worldteamnow.org/ type=marketsNews
transportation. The Bridge. [Online]. 39(2), gevs.html [58] R. Hensley, S. Knupfer, and D. Pinner.
p. 22. Available: http://www.nae.edu/ [43] Fleet Electrification Roadmap, Electification (2009, Jun.). McKinsey Quarterly: Electrifying
Publications/TheBridge/Archives/ Coalition, Nov. 2010. [Online]. Available: Cars: How Three Industries Will Evolve.
V-39-2EnergyEfficiency14874/ http://electrificationcoalition.org/ [Online]. Available: http://www.
EnergyEfficiencyinPassengerTransportation. electrification-roadmap.php mckinseyquarterly.com/Electrifying_
aspx cars_How_three_industries_will_
[44] GE Announces Largest Single Electric
[29] Oil Demand From Developed Countries Has Vehicle Commitment, Commits to Convert evolve_2370
Peaked, IHS, Oct. 2009. [Online]. Available: Half of Global Fleet by 2015, GE, [59] M. Kanellos. (2010, Aug.). Green Tech
http://press.ihs.com/press-release/ Nov. 2010. [Online]. Available: http:// Media: EV Batteries Plummet in Price:
energy-power/oil-demand-developed- www.genewscenter.com/Content/detail. Down to $400 a kwH. [Online]. Available:
countries-has-peaked aspx?NewsAreaId=2&ReleaseID=11440 http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/
[30] S. Mui, J. Alson, B. Ellies, and D. Ganss. [45] Avis, Enterprise to Roll Out Electric Car Rentals read/ev-batteries-dropping-rapidly-in-price/
(2007, Apr.). EPA: A Wedge Analysis in 2011, Gas 2.0, Jan. 2011. [Online]. [60] NRC Panel of Advocates for Dead-End
of the U.S. Transportation Sector. [Online]. Available: http://gas2.org/2010/10/13/ Hydrogen Cars Trashes Plug-In Hybrids
Available: http://www.epa.gov/oms/climate/ avis-enterprise-to-roll-out-electric-car- in Deeply Flawed Report, Part 2, Climate
420r07007.pdf rentals-in-2011/ Progress, Jan. 2010. [Online]. Available:
[31] N. Brewer. (2009, Sep.). IEEE Global [46] Hertz Puts Electric Cars on the Fast Track, http://climateprogress.org/2010/01/17/
History Network: Electric and Hybrid Vehicles. Starting in New York, AutomobilesVWheels national-research-council-hydrogen-panel-
[Online]. Available: http://www.ieeeghn. BlogVNYTimes.com, Dec. 2010. [Online]. flawed-plug-in-hybrids-report-2/
org/wiki/index.php/Electric_and_Hybrid_ Available: http://wheels.blogs.nytimes.com/ [61] H. Kamath. (2009, Sep.). California Air
Vehicles 2010/12/07/hertz-puts-electric-cars-on-the- Resources Board: Lithium Ion Batteries for
[32] How Dependent are We on Foreign Oil? fast-track-starting-in-new-york/ Electric Transportation: Costs and Markets.
U.S. Energy Information Administration, [47] Japan’s Taxi Firms Introducing All-Electric [Online]. Available: http://www.arb.ca.
Dec. 2009. [Online]. Available: http:// Fleets, The Independent, Aug. 2010. gov/msprog/zevprog/2009symposium/
www.eia.doe.gov/energy_in_brief/ [Online]. Available: http://www. presentations/kamath.pdf
foreign_oil_dependence.cfm independent.co.uk/life-style/motoring/ [62] S. Gorman. (2009, Aug.). Reuters: As Hybrid
[33] E. Knipping and M. Duvall. (2007, Jun.). japans-taxi-firms-introducing-allelectric- Cars Gobble Rare Metals, Shortage Looms.
EPRI: Environmental Assessment of fleets-2066287.html [Online]. Available: http://www.reuters.
Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles, Volume 1: [48] BYD to Deliver E6 Electric Cars to com/article/idUSTRE57U02B20090831
Nationwide Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Shenzhen Taxi Fleet, Electric Cars [63] J. Lifton. (2009, Mar.). Gerson Lehrman
[Online]. Available: http://my.epri.com/ Report, May 2010. [Online]. Available: Group: Braking Wind: Where’s the
portal/server.pt?open=514&objID= http://electriccarsreport.com/2010/ Neodymium Going to Come From? [Online].
223132&mode=2 05/byd-to-deliver-e6-electric-cars-to- Available: http://www.glgroup.com/News/
[34] N. Shirouzu. (2007, Jun.). Wall Street shenzhen-taxi-fleet/ Braking-Wind–Wheres-the-Neodymium-
Journal: Toyota Puts Off New Type [49] Electric Taxis Comin’ to California, Wired Going-To-Come-from–35041.html
of Battery for Next Prius. [Online]. Autopia, Oct. 2010. [Online]. Available: [64] K. Bradsher. (2009, Aug.). New York
Available: http://online.wsj.com/article/ http://www.wired.com/autopia/2010/ Times: China Tightens Grip on Rare Minerals.
SB118170827719833687-search.html? 10/electric-taxis-comin-to-california/ [Online]. Available: http://www.nytimes.
KEYWORDS=toyota&COLLECTION= com/2009/09/01/business/global/
[50] Recovery Act Awards for Electric Drive
wsjie/6month 01minerals.html
Vehicle Battery and Component Manufacturing
[35] A. Ohnsman. (2010, Jul.). Bloomberg Initiative, U.S. DOE Energy Efficiency and [65] K. Bradsher. (2010, Apr.). New York
Buisnessweek: Toyota, Tesla Said to Prepare Renewable Energy, Aug. 2009. [Online]. Times: Challenging China in Rare Earth
RAV4, RX Prototypes. [Online]. Available: Available: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/ Mining. [Online]. Available: http://
http://www.businessweek.com/news/ recovery/pdfs/battery_awardee_list.pdf www.nytimes.com/2010/04/22/business/
2010-07-12/toyota-tesla-said-to-prepare- energy-environment/22rare.html
[51] Economic Stimulus Act to Result in Greener
rav4-rx-prototypes.html
Federal Buildings and Fleets, U.S. DOE [66] D. Kingsnorth. (2010, Dec.). Conference
[36] Whitacre: Volt to Tour Against ‘Range Anxiety’, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Rare Earths, Europe and Australia: Trade,
MediaPost Blogs, Jul. 2010. [Online]. Feb. 2009. [Online]. Available: http://apps1. Security and Sustainability: Meeting the
Available: http://www.mediapost.com/ eere.energy.gov/news/news_detail.cfm/ Challenges of Rare Earths Supply in the Next
publications/?fa=Articles.showArticle& news_id=12245 Decade. [Online]. Available: http://www.
art_aid=131284 hcss.nl/en/news/1568/Conference-Rare-
[52] Executive Order 13514, U.S. DOE Energy
[37] GM Still Overplaying the ‘Range Anxiety’ Efficiency and Renewable Energy, 2009. Earths,-Europe-and-Australia:-Trad.html
Fear Message, Examiner.com, Nov. 2009. [Online]. Available: http://www1.eere. [67] DOE Announces RFI on Rare Earth Metals,
[Online]. Available: http://www.examiner. energy.gov/femp/regulations/eo13514.html U.S. Department of Energy, May 2010.
com/x-7226-Electric-Car-Examiner~ [Online]. Available: http://www.energy.gov/
[53] Vice President Biden Announces Plan to Put
y2009m11d7-GM-still-overplaying-the- news/8945.htm
One Million Advanced Technology Vehicles on
range-anxiety-fear-it-instills-in-the-
the Road by 2015, U.S. DOE Energy Efficiency [68] U.S. Department of Energy Critical Materials
consumer-minds
and Renewable Energy, Jan. 2011. [Online]. Strategy, U.S. Department of Energy,
[38] Volt Exec: EREV is a Hard Configuration Available: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/ Dec. 2010. [Online]. Available: http://
to Make Work, GM-Volt.com, Nov. 2010. vehiclesandfuels/news/news_detail.html? www.pi.energy.gov/documents/
[Online]. Available: http://gm-volt.com/ news_id=16685 cms_dec_17_full_web.pdf
2009/11/11/volt-exec-erev-is-a-hard-
[54] M. A. Delucchi, A. F. Burke, M. Miller, and [69] W. Tahil. (2007, Jan.). The Trouble
configuration-to-make-work/
T. E. LipmanElectric and Gasoline Vehicle With Lithium:Implications of Future PHEV
[39] M. Ramsey. (2010, Jun.). Wall Street Journal: Lifecycle Cost and Energy-Use Model,[ Production for Lithium Demand. Document.
Nissan Says Leaf Electric Will be Profitable Institute of Transportation Studies, [Online]. Available: http://www.
With U.S. Plant. [Online]. Available: University of California, Davis, CA, 2000, meridian-int-res.com/Projects/Lithium_
http://online.wsj.com/article/SB1000142405 UCD-ITS-RR-99-04. Problem_2.pdf
2748704635204575242382820806878.html
[55] M. A. Delucchi and T. E. Lipman, [70] Nissan Breaks Silence on Lithium Consumption,
[40] C. Squatriglia. (2010, Oct.). Wired Magizine: BAn analysis of the retail and lifecycle Gerson Lehrman Group, Aug. 2009.
Road Test: Four EVs You Can Drive This Year. cost of battery-powered electric [Online]. Available: http://www.glgroup.

com/News/Nissan-breaks-silence-on- http://www.tradingmarkets.com/.site/ [103] Better Place Launches Switchable-Battery

lithium-consumption-42764.html news/Stock%20News/2559360/ Electric Taxi Project in Tokyo, Better Place,
[71] J. Friedman-Rudovsky and L. Paz. [87] K. Bourzac. (2011, Jan.). Technology Review: Apr. 2010. [Online]. Available: http://www.
(2009, Jan.). Time: For Lithium Car Batteries, New Magnets Could Solve Our Rare-Earth betterplace.com/the-company-pressroom-
Bolivia is in the Driver’s Seat. [Online]. Problems. [Online]. Available: http://www. pressreleases-detail/index/id/tokyo-electric-
Available: http://www.time.com/time/ technologyreview.com/energy/27112/? taxi-project
world/article/0,8599,1872561,00.html nlid=4027 [104] E. Ornelas. (2009, Sep.). SF Environment:
[72] D. J. Rothkopf. (2009, Sep./Oct.). [88] Electric CarsVHow Much Does it Cost Basics of Electric Vehicle Charging. [Online].
Foreign Policy: Is a Green World a Safer per Charge? Scientific American, Available: http://www.sfenvironment.org/
World? [Online]. Available: http://www. Mar. 2009. [Online]. Available: http:// downloads/library/SFCCC/ABC’s%20of%
foreignpolicy.com/articles/2009/08/17/ www.scientificamerican.com/article. 20Battery%20Charging.pdf
is_a_green_world_a_safer_world_not_ cfm?id=electric-cars-cost-per-charge [105] Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure
necessarily [89] London Calling: Congestion Charge Deployment Guidelines or the Oregon I-5 Metro
[73] B. Schott. (2010, Jun.). The New York Times: Recharges Electric Cars, Climate Areas of Portland, Salem, Corvallis and Eugene,
The Saudi Arabia of Lithium. [Online]. Progress, Nov. 2007. [Online]. Available: Electric Transportation Engineering
Available: http://schott.blogs.nytimes.com/ http://climateprogress.org/2007/11/29/ Corporation, Apr. 2010. [Online]. Available:
2010/06/23/the-saudi-arabia-of-lithium/ london-calling-congestion-charge- http://www.oregon.gov/ODOT/HWY/OIPP/
recharges-electric-cars/ docs/EVDeployGuidelines3-1.pdf?ga=t
[74] S. Romero. (2009, Feb.). The Seattle
Times: Bolivia: The Saudi Arabia of Lithium? [90] Smart Grid Insights: V2G, ZigBee Alliance, [106] G. Kissel. (2010, Feb.). IEEE: SAE J1772
[Online]. Available: http://seattletimes. Jul. 2010. [Online]. Available: http:// Update For IEEE Standard 1809 Guide for
nwsource.com/html/nationworld/ zigbee.org/imwp/idms/popups/pop_ Electric-Sourced Transportation Infrastructure
2008700362_lithium03.html download.asp?contentID=18272 Meeting. [Online]. Available: http://grouper.
ieee.org/groups/earthobservationsSCC/
[75] J. Risen. (2010, Jun.). The New York [91] S. B. Peterson, BLithium-ion battery cell
IEEE_SAE_J1772_Update_10_02_08_
Times: U.S. Identifies Vast Mineral degradation resulting from realistic vehicle
Gery_Kissel.pdf
Riches in Afghanistan. [Online]. Available: and vehicle-to-grid utilization,[ J. Power
http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/14/ Source., vol. 195, no. 8, pp. 2385–2392, [107] CHAdeMO Association, CHAdeMO
world/asia/14minerals.html Apr. 2010. Association, Jul. 2010. [Online]. Available:
http://chademo.com/indexa.html
[76] B. I. Koerner. (2008, Nov.). Forbes Magazine: [92] K. Willett and T. Jasna, BVehicle-to-grid
The Saudi Arabia of Lithium. [Online]. power fundamentals: Calculating capacity [108] D. Prochaska. (2009, Sep.). International
Available: http://www.forbes.com/forbes/ and net revenue,[ J. Power Source., vol. 144, Trade Administration: NIST Smart Grid
2008/1124/034.html no. 1, pp. 268–279, Jun. 2005. Update. [Online]. Available: http://www.
ita.doc.gov/td/energy/Smart%20Grid%
[77] K. Evans. (2008, Mar.). Ionic Liquids [93] J. Wellinghoff, BThe Cash Back Car,[ in
20NIST.pdf
and Electrolytes for Energy Technologies Plug-In Electric Vehicles: What Role for
(ILEET) Laboratory: An Abundance of Lithium. Washington? Washington D.C.: Brookings [109] NFPA 70: NATIONAL ELECTRICAL CODER,
[Online]. Available: http://www.che.ncsu. Institution Press, 2009, pp. 65–88. National Fire Protection Association 2008.
edu/ILEET/phevs/lithium-availability/ [Online]. Available: http://www.nfpa.org/
[94] J. Voelcker. (2007, Oct.). IEEE Spectrum
An_Abundance_of_Lithium.pdf aboutthecodes/AboutTheCodes.asp?
Inside Technology: Can Plug-In Hybrid
DocNum=70&EditionID=238
[78] L. Gaines and P. Nelson. (2009, Jun.). Electric Vehicles Keep the Electric Grid
Lithium-Ion Batteries: Possible Material Stable? [Online]. Available: http://spectrum. [110] Smart Garage Charrette Pre-Read v2.0,
Demand Issues. Document. [Online]. ieee.org/green-tech/advanced-cars/ Rocky Mountain Institute, Oct. 2008.
Available: http://www.transportation.anl. can-plugin-hybrid-electric-vehicles-keep- [Online]. Available: http://move.rmi.org/
gov/pdfs/B/584.PDF the-electric-grid-stable files/smartgarage/PreRead_v2_Core-1.pdf
[79] A. Ebensperger, P. Maxwell, and [95] BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2010, [111] R. Scholer. (2010, Feb.). IEEE: SAE
C. Moscoso, BThe lithium industry: Its BP 2010. [Online]. Available: http://www. J2836-J2847 Task Force Status. [Online].
recent evolution and future prospects,[ bp.com/productlanding.do?categoryId= Available: http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/
Resource Policy, vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 218–231, 6929&contentId=7044622 earthobservationsSCC/J2847_Task_Force_
Sep. 2005. Status_Rich_Scholer.pdf
[96] Electrification Roadmap: Revolutionizing
[80] A. Madrigal. (2008, Aug.). Wired Science: Transportation and Achieving Energy [112] Zigbee Smart Energy, Zigbee Alliance.
Mining Company Gets Cash to Pull Lithium Security, Electrification Coalition, [Online]. Available: http://www.zigbee.org/
from Waste Water. [Online]. Available: Nov. 2009. [Online]. Available: Markets/ZigBeeSmartEnergy/Overview.aspx
http://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2008/ http://www.electrificationcoalition.org/ [113] ZigBee Smart Energy Version 2.0 Documents,
08/mining-company/ electrification-roadmap.php Zigbee Alliance. [Online]. Available: http://
[81] S. Tsuchiya, Y. Nakatani, R. Ibrahim, and [97] K. Crane et al. (2009). Rand Corporation: zigbee.org/Markets/ZigBeeSmartEnergy/
S. Ogawa, BHighly efferent separation Imported Oil and U.S. National Security. Version20Documents.aspx
lithium chloride from seawater,[ J. Amer. Document. [Online]. Available: http:// [114] Y. Yoneda. (2009, Dec.). nhabitat: New York
Chem. Soc., vol. 124, pp. 4936–4937, www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/2009/ Gets its First Solar Electric Vehicle Charging
2002. RAND_MG838.pdf Statio. [Online]. Available: http://www.
[82] A. Schwartz. (2010, Mar.). Fast Company: [98] N. Chambers. (2010, May). Gas 2.0: Nissan inhabitat.com/2009/12/15/new-york-gets-its-
Seawater: A Potential Source of Lithium LEAF Will Include Fast Charge Capability first-ever-electric-vehicle-charging-station/
for Car Batteries? [Online]. Available: and Emergency Charging Cable at Launch. [115] S. Blanco. (2010, Feb.). Autoblog Green:
http://www.fastcompany.com/1578401/ [Online]. Available: http://gas2.org/ Chicago Area Gets First Wind-Powered
seawater-a-potential- 2010/05/27/nissan-leaf-will-include-fast- Electric Vehicle Charging Station. [Online].
source-of-lithium-for-car-batteries charge-capability-and-emergency-charging- Available: http://green.autoblog.com/
[83] R. K. Evans. (2008, Mar.). Lithium cable-at-launch/ 2010/02/08/chicago-area-gets-first-wind-
Abundance. [Online]. Available: http:// [99] T. Markel and A. Simpson, BPlug-in hybrid powered-electric-vehicle-charging-s/
lithiumabundance.blogspot.com/ electric vehicle energy storage system [116] Measuring the Information Society,
[84] A. Yaksic and J. E. Tilton, BUsing the design,[ in Proc. Adv. Autom. Battery Conf., International Telecommunication Union,
cumulative availability curve to assess Baltimore, MD, 2006. 2010. [Online]. Available: http://www.
the threat of mineral depletion: The case [100] G. Langer. (2005, Feb.). ABC News: itu.int/ITU-D/ict/publications/idi/2010/
of lithium,[ Resources Policy, vol. 34, no. 4, Poll: Traffic in the United States. [Online]. index.html
pp. 185–194, Dec. 2009. Available: http://abcnews.go.com/ [117] McDonald’s and NovaCharge Deploy
[85] China Moves to Resume Rare Earths Exports Technology/Traffic/story?id=485098& ChargePoint Network EV Charging Stations,
to Japan, Asia One, Sep. 2010. [Online]. page=1 Nova Charge, Jul. 2009. [Online]. Available:
Available: http://www.asiaone.com/ [101] I. Buchmann. (2003). BatteryUniversity.com. http://www.novacharge.net/nc_press_
Business/News/Story/A1Story20100929- [Online]. Available: http://www. McDpr.html
239672.html batteryuniversity.com/partone-5A.htm [118] Coulomb Technologies: Nashville is the
[86] Daikin’s New Motor Design Enables Higher [102] Battery Switch Stations, Better Place, 2010. Latest City to Install EV Charging Stations,
Output From Weaker Magnets, Trading [Online]. Available: http://www.betterplace. Green Energy News, Aug. 2009. [Online].
Markets, Oct. 2009. [Online]. Available: com/the-solution-switch-stations Available: http://www.green-energy-news.
com/nwslnks/clips809/aug09026.html

[119] The EV Project Expands to Los Angeles, [139] China to Build New-Energy Demonstration City [152] DOE-Loan Programs Office, U.S. Department
Washington, D.C., ECOtality, Inc., Jun. 2010. in Xinjiang, People’s Daily Online, Jul. 2010. of Energy, Our Projects. [Online]. Available:
[Online]. Available: http://www.ecotality. [Online]. Available: http://english. http://lpo.energy.gov/?page_id=45
com/newsletter/06172010_LA_DC_DOE_ peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90778/ [153] Advanced Research Projects Agency.Energy,
Project_Expansion.html 90862/7052711.html Advanced Research Projects Agency.Energy,
[120] Coulomb Technologies to Provide 4,600 Free [140] A. DiPaola. (2010, Jun.). Bloomberg: 2010. [Online]. Available: http://
Home and Public Charging Stations Through Abu Dhabi Proceeds With Masdar Energy City arpa-e.energy.gov/Home.aspx
ChargePoint America Program, Green Car Plan, Jaber Tells Emirates News. [Online]. [154] Transportation and Climate-Regulations and
Congress, Jun. 2010. [Online]. Available: Available: http://www.bloomberg.com/ Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection
http://www.greencarcongress.com/2010/06/ news/2010-06-30/abu-dhabi-proceeds- Agency. [Online]. Available: http://www.
coulomb-20100602.html with-masdar-energy-city-plan-jaber-tells- epa.gov/oms/climate/regulations.htm
[121] E. Niedermeyer. (2009, Dec.). The Truth emirates-news.html
[155] S. 3442: Electric Vehicle Deployment Act of 201,
About Cars: Denmark EV Incentive: $40 k and [141] S. Inskeep and J. Palca. (2008, Mar.). NPR: U.S. Senate, May 2010. [Online]. Available:
a Parking Spot. [Online]. Available: http:// Oil-Rich Abu Dhabi Builds Renewable-Energy http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?
www.thetruthaboutcars.com/denmark-ev- City. [Online]. Available: http://www.npr. bill=s111-3442
incentive-40k-and-a-parking-spot/ org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=
[156] H.R. 5442: Electric Drive Vehicle Deployment
[122] H. Massy-Beresford. (2009, Oct.). Reuters: 90180158
Act of 2010, U.S. House, May 2010. [Online].
France to Invest 2.5 bln eur for Electric Car [142] J. Taylor, A. Maitra, M. Alexander, Available: http://www.govtrack.us/
Launch. [Online]. Available: http://www. D. Brooks, and M. Duvall, BEvaluation of congress/bill.xpd?bill=h111-5442
reuters.com/article/idUSL163661420091001 Plug-in Electric Vehicle Distribution System
[157] Other Credits, Internal Revenue Service of
[123] Canberra Starting Point of Electric Vehicle Impacts,[ in Proc. IEEE PES-GM, Minneapolis,
United States Department of the Treasur.
Recharge Network, Sustainability Matters, Minnesota, Jul. 2010.
[Online]. Available: http://www.irs.gov/
Jul. 2009. [Online]. Available: http:// [143] J. Taylor, A. Maitra, M. Alexander, publications/p17/ch37.html#en_US_
www.sustainabilitymatters.net.au/news/ D. Brooks, and M. Duvall, BIntegrating publink1000174923
34179-Canberra-starting-point-of-electric- plug-in electric vehicles with the distribution
[158] D. B. Sandalow. (2007). Bookings:
vehicle-recharge-network system,[ presented at the CIRED 20th
Freedom from Oil. [Online]. Available:
[124] Cities Join Forces on Electric Vehicles, International Conference on Electricity
http://www.brookings.edu/press/Books/
C40 Cities, Dec. 2009. [Online]. Distribution, Prague, Czech Republic, 2009,
2007/freedomfromoil.aspx
Available: http://www.c40cities.org/ Paper 1029.
[159] Governor Schwarzenegger Signs Legislation
news/news-20091216.jsp [144] J. Taylor, A. Maitra, M. Alexander,
to Expedite Funding for Transportation and
[125] SAE Standard on EV Charging Connector D. Brooks, and M. Duvall, BEvaluation
Housing Projects, State of California, Office
Approved, SAE Automotive Engineering of the impact of plug-in electric vehicle
of Governor, Jun. 2008. [Online]. Available:
Online, Jan. 2010. [Online]. Available: loading on distribution system operations,[
http://gov.ca.gov/press-release/10047/
http://www.sae.org/mags/aei/rgstd/ presented at the Power & Energy Society
General Meeting, Calgary, AB, Canada, [160] Fact Sheet: Multilateral Solar and Wind
7479
2009, pp. 1–6. Working Group, Clean Energy Ministerial
[126] Elektromotive Debuts Tool for Monitoring of U.S. Department of Energy, Jul. 2010.
and Invoicing Electricity Drawn From [145] A. Maitra et al., BEvaluation of PEV
[Online]. Available: http://www.energy.gov/
Charging Stations; Three-Phase Fast Charge loading characteristics on hydro Quebec’s
news/documents/Renewables-Fact-Sheet.pdf
Prototype With Mennekes Coupler, Green Car distribution system operations,[ in EVS24,
Stavanger, Norway, 2009, pp. 1–11. [161] Fact Sheet: International Smart Grid
Congress, May 2009. [Online]. Available:
Action Network, Clean Energy
http://www.greencarcongress.com/2009/ [146] A. Maitra, W. Kook, J. Taylor, and
Ministerial of U.S. Department of Energy,
05/elektromotive-mennekes-20090515.html A. Giumento, BGrid impacts of PEVs on
Jul. 2010. [Online]. Available: http://
[127] The EV Project, The EV Project. [Online]. hydro Quebec’s distribution system,[ in
www.energy.gov/news/documents/
Available: http://www.theevproject.com/ Proc. Transmiss. Distribut. Confer. Exposit.
Electric-Vehicles-Initiative-Fact-Sheet.pdf
index.php (2010 IEEE PES), New Orleans, LA,
Apr. 2010, pp. 1–7. [162] C. Samaras and K. Meisterling, BLife cycle
[128] Electric Drive Transportation Association, assessment of greenhouse gas emissions from
Electric Drive Transportation Association. [147] J. Halliwell. (2010, Mar.). Nebraska Power
plug-in hybrid vehicles: Implications for
[Online]. Available: http://www. Association: The (Near) Future of Electric
policy,[ Environ. Sci. Technol., vol. 42, no. 9,
electricdrive.org/ Transportation-Utility Challenges and
pp. 3170–3176, Apr. 2008.
Opportunities. [Online]. Available: http://
[129] The Coalition, Set America Free. [Online]. [163] A. Elgowainy, A. Burnham, M. Wang,
www.nepower.org/NPA_presentations/
Available: http://www.setamericafree.org/ J. Molburg, and A. Rousseau,
John_Halliwell.pdf
coalition.html BWell-to-wheels analysis of energy use and
[148] City of Lancaster, BYD and KB Home Announce
[130] Project Get Ready. [Online]. Available: http:// greenhouse gas emissions of plug-in hybrid
Partnership to Demonstrate New Green
projectgetready.com/ electric vehicles,[ 2010, ANL/ESD/10-1.
Technology, City of Lancaster, Mar. 2010.
[131] CalCars, California Cars Initiative. [Online]. [Online]. Available: http://www. [164] J. Chegwidden and D. Kingsworth.
Available: http://www.calcars.org/ cityoflancasterca.org/index.aspx?recordid= (2010, Nov.). Rare Earths: Facing the
[132] Plug in America, Plug In America, 2010. 1595&page=20 Uncertainties of Supply. [Online]. Available:
[Online]. Available: http://www. http://www.slideshare.net/Tehama/
[149] A. Klock. (2010, Jun.). 2010 DOE Hydrogen
pluginamerica.org/index.shtml rare-earths-facing-the-uncertaintys-of-supply
Program and Vehicle Technologies Program
[133] Plug-In Partners, 2010. [Online]. Available: Annual Merit Review and Peer Evaluation [165] J. Lifton. (2009, Sep.). Gerson Lehrman
http://www.pluginpartners.org/ Meeting: U.S. Emergency Responder Safety Group: Is the Rare Earth Supply Crisis Due
Training for Advanced Electric Drive Vehicles. to Peak Production Capability or Capacity.
[134] Electric Auto Association, 2010. [Online].
[Online]. Available: http://www1.eere. [Online]. Available: http://www.glgroup.
Available: http://www.eaaev.org/
energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/pdfs/merit_ com/News/Is-The-Rare-Earth-Supply-
[135] World Electric Vehicle Association, 2010. Crisis-Due-to-Peak-Production-Capability-
review_2010/technology_integration/
[Online]. Available: http://www. or-Capacity-43057.html
tiarravt036_klock_2010_o.pdf
electricdrive.org/sites/weva/
[150] C. C. Grant. (2010, May). The Fire Protection [166] D. J. Kingsnorth, Proc. Doc. 2010, The Society
[136] AVERE. [Online]. Available: http://www. for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration: SME
Research Foundation: Fire Fighter Safety
avere.org Annual Meeting 2010-Rare Earths: Facing New
and Emergency Response for Electric
[137] Zero-Emission Vehicle Legal and Regulatory Drive and Hybrid Electric Vehicles, Final Challenges in the New Decade. [Online].
ActivitiesVBackground, California Air Report. [Online]. Available: http://www. Available: http://www.smenet.org/
Resource Board, Mar. 2010. [Online]. nfpa.org/assets/files/PDF/Research/ rareEarthsProject/SME_2010_Kingsnorth.pdf.
Available: http://www.arb.ca.gov/msprog/ FFTacticsElecVeh.pdf [167] J. Pokrzywa. (2010, Jul.). SAE Taipei:
zevprog/background.htm SAE Ground Vehicle Standards SmartGrid.
[151] S.841: Pedestrian Safety Enhancement Act
[138] Who Killed the Electric Car, Papercut Films, of 2010, U.S. Senate, Dec. 2010. [Online]. [Online]. Available: http://sae-taipei.org.tw/
2007. [Online]. Available: http://www. Available: http://www.govtrack.us/congress/ image/1283265726.pdf
whokilledtheelectriccar.com/ bill.xpd?bill=s111-841

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Albert G. Boulanger received a B.S. degree in Suzanne Maxx received the B.A. degree from
physics from the University of Florida, Gainesville, Sarah Lawrence College, Bronxville, NY, in 1986.
in 1979 and a M.S. degree in computer science at She is the Founder and President of the social
the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, in and environmental nonprofit, World Team Now,
1984. the CEO of World Team-Building, LLC, and the
He is a co-founder of CALM Energy, Inc., and a leader of the emergent World Team multimedia
member of the board at the not-for-profit envi- project. She has produced global Boutside of the
ronmental and social organization World Team box[ projects since her first multimedia produc-
Now and founding member of World-Team Build- tion, which was part of the Asia Pacific Expo
ing, LLC. He is a Senior Staff Associate at Columbia sponsored by Coca-Cola, in Japan 1989. Suzanne’s
University_s Center for Computational Learning Systems, and before that, global policy journey began in 1992 at the Earth Summit/Global Forum in
at the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory. For the past 12 years at Rio. She initially was invited to film Presidential candidate Jerry Brown
Columbia University, has been involved in far reaching energy research and a team of global icons’ journey. From there, she was involved with
and development; particularly in oil, gas, and electricity He is currently a the United Nation’s Earth Summit/Global Forum in Rio and has continued
member of a team of 15 scientists and graduate students in Computer to participate in the UN conferences around the world. Suzanne’s
Sciences at Columbia University who are jointly developing with Con published writing includes articles on the Solar Expo, COP15, Copenhagen’s
Edison, and others, the next-generation Smart Grid for intelligent control E-Race plus the Sacred and Extreme on the 8 Islands of Hawaii. Suzanne has
of the electric grid of New York City. He held the CTO position of vPatch been involved with the EVs for two decades with events ranging from EVS21
Technologies, Inc., a startup company commercializing a computational in Monaco to World Team Now’s Malibu EV charger initiative to speaking on
approach to efficient production of oil from reservoirs based on time- a panel about EVs at Columbia University. As a journalist, she wrote about
lapse 4-D seismic technologies. Prior to coming to Lamont, he spent film, sports, and travel for a local Malibu paper, and as a public speaker she
12 years doing contract R&D at Bolt, Beranek, and Newman (now has addressed many international audiences. The World Team development
Raytheon BBN Technologies). His specialties are complex systems journey has included collaborations and support from academic organiza-
integration and intelligent computational reasoning that interacts with tions such as Columbia University’s Computational Learning Systems, CCLS;
humans within large scale systems. Pepperdine University’s Graduate School of Public Policy, and the
International University of Monaco’s Business School, which all gave her
the framework to acquire knowledge and inspired her global travels that
wove an adventure for an experiential education.
David L. Waltz (Senior Member, IEEE) received

EE SB, EE SM, SB Ph.D. from MIT, in 1965, 1968,
and 1973, respectively.
He is currently Director of the Center for Com-
Andrew C. Chu received B.Sc. degrees in Materials putational Learning Systems at Columbia University,
Science and Engineering and Engineering Science New York City, NY. Before coming to Columbia in
from the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor in 2003, he spent 10 years at NEC Research Institute,
1991, and the MSE Degree in Bioengineering and where he was President from 2000–2002. From
Ph.D. degree in Materials Science and Engineering 1984–1993 he directed data mining and text ret-
from the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, rieval R&D at Thinking Machines Corporation and
in 1993 and 1999, respectively. was at the same time Professor of Computer Science at Brandeis University.
He is Vice President of Marketing and Commu- From 1973–1984, he was on the EE faculty at the University of Illinois at
nications at A123 Systems, Watertown, MA. In this Urbana-Champaign. His thesis on computer vision originated the field of
role, he leads A123’s corporate marketing organi- constraint propagation and, with Craig Stanfill, he originated the field of
zation. Since joining A123 in early 2003, he has served in multiple roles, memory-based reasoning. His research interests have also included
including R&D, manufacturing support, applications engineering, pro- machine learning and applications, especially to the smart grid, information
gram management, and marketing and business development. More retrieval, data mining, protein structure prediction, and natural language
recently, he led the proposal team that resulted in a $249 million award processing.
from the U.S. Department of Energy to support the company’s U.S. Dr. Waltz is a Past President of the American association for artificial
battery manufacturing. He has spent the last 15 years working on lithium intelligence (AAAI), a Fellow of the association for computing machinery
ion batteries. Prior to joining A123 Systems, he was the Department (ACM), and a Fellow of AAAI. He was a Board member of the computing
Manager of the Energy Technologies Department at HRL (formerly research association (CRA), and former Chairman of the ACM Special
Hughes Research Lab.). Interest Group on Artificial Intelligence (SIGART).

Vehicle Electrification: Statues and Issues

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Vehicle Electrification: Statues and Issues

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Vehicle Electrification: Statues and Issues

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

INVITED

ABSTRACT | Concern for the environment and energy security I . INTRODUCTION

spective. The analysis in this paper identifies certain areas

II. GRID-ENABLED VEHICLES

Vol. 99, No. 6, June 2011 | Proceedings of the IEEE 1117

1118 Proceedings of the IEEE | Vol. 99, No. 6, June 2011

Table 3 Total Cost of Ownership

Vol. 99, No. 6, June 2011 | Proceedings of the IEEE 1119

Governments around the world are using rebates to

1120 Proceedings of the IEEE | Vol. 99, No. 6, June 2011

Table 4 World Lithium Production and Reserves (2005)

Vol. 99, No. 6, June 2011 | Proceedings of the IEEE 1121

1122 Proceedings of the IEEE | Vol. 99, No. 6, June 2011

battery has been termed Brange anxiety.[ Conventional

1) Batteries With Higher Energy Density: Batteries are the

Vol. 99, No. 6, June 2011 | Proceedings of the IEEE 1123

1124 Proceedings of the IEEE | Vol. 99, No. 6, June 2011

Vol. 99, No. 6, June 2011 | Proceedings of the IEEE 1125

1126 Proceedings of the IEEE | Vol. 99, No. 6, June 2011

Vol. 99, No. 6, June 2011 | Proceedings of the IEEE 1127

what costs are applied to the rate base and passed on to

1128 Proceedings of the IEEE | Vol. 99, No. 6, June 2011

Vol. 99, No. 6, June 2011 | Proceedings of the IEEE 1129

1130 Proceedings of the IEEE | Vol. 99, No. 6, June 2011

Vol. 99, No. 6, June 2011 | Proceedings of the IEEE 1131

1132 Proceedings of the IEEE | Vol. 99, No. 6, June 2011

Vol. 99, No. 6, June 2011 | Proceedings of the IEEE 1133

REFERENCES in Deepwater at All? [Online]. Available: http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/

1134 Proceedings of the IEEE | Vol. 99, No. 6, June 2011

Vol. 99, No. 6, June 2011 | Proceedings of the IEEE 1135

com/News/Nissan-breaks-silence-on- http://www.tradingmarkets.com/.site/ [103] Better Place Launches Switchable-Battery

1136 Proceedings of the IEEE | Vol. 99, No. 6, June 2011

Vol. 99, No. 6, June 2011 | Proceedings of the IEEE 1137

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

David L. Waltz (Senior Member, IEEE) received

1138 Proceedings of the IEEE | Vol. 99, No. 6, June 2011

You might also like