BMC Public Health BioMed Central

Research article Open Access

Risk factors for pulmonary tuberculosis: a clinic-based case control
study in The Gambia
Philip C Hill*1, Dolly Jackson-Sillah1, Simon A Donkor1, Jacob Otu1,
Richard A Adegbola1 and Christian Lienhardt2

Address: 1Tuberculosis Division, Medical Research Council Laboratories, Banjul, The Gambia and 2Programme Tuberculose -UMR 145, Institut de
Recherche pour le Développement, Montpellier, France
Email: Philip C Hill* - [email protected]; Dolly Jackson-Sillah - [email protected]; Simon A Donkor - [email protected];
Jacob Otu - [email protected]; Richard A Adegbola - [email protected]; Christian Lienhardt - [email protected]
* Corresponding author

Published: 19 June 2006 Received: 01 February 2006

Accepted: 19 June 2006
BMC Public Health 2006, 6:156 doi:10.1186/1471-2458-6-156
This article is available from: http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/6/156
© 2006 Hill et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0),
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract
Background : The tuberculosis (TB) epidemic in Africa is on the rise, even in low-HIV prevalence
settings. Few studies have attempted to identify possible reasons for this. We aimed to identify risk
factors for pulmonary tuberculosis in those attending a general outpatients clinic in The Gambia, a
sub-Saharan African country with relatively low HIV prevalence in the community and in TB
patients.
Methods: We conducted a case control study at the Medical Research Council Outpatients' clinic
in The Gambia. Pulmonary TB cases were at least 15 years old, controls were age and sex matched
clinic attendees. Participants were interviewed using a structured questionnaire.
Results: 100 sputum smear positive TB cases and 200 clinic controls were recruited. HIV
prevalence was 6.1% in cases and 3.3% in controls. Multivariable assessment of host factors showed
that risk of TB was increased among the Jola ethnic group and smokers, and decreased in those in
a professional occupation. Assessment of environmental factors showed an increased risk with
household crowding, history of household exposure to a known TB case, and absence of a ceiling
in the house. In a combined multivariable host-environment model, the risk of TB increased with
crowding, exposure to a known TB case, as well as amongst the Jola ethnic group.
Conclusion: In The Gambia, household crowding and past household exposure to a known TB
case are the standout risk factors for TB disease. Further research is needed to identify why risk
of TB seems to differ according to ethnicity.

Background tor in this [4]. However, even in African countries with rel-
Tuberculosis (TB) causes approximately 2 million deaths atively low HIV prevalence, the TB case notification has
per year globally [1]; 98% occur in low-income countries been rising: in The Gambia (where community HIV sero-
[2]. In Africa, in contrast to many other parts of the world, prevalence is approximately 2%[5]) TB case notification
the incidence rate is rising by approximately 6% per year rose from 82/100,000 in 1994 to 140/100,000 in 2004
[3] High rates of HIV infection have been a key driving fac- [6]. New ways to tackle the epidemic are urgently needed.

Page 1 of 7
(page number not for citation purposes)
BMC Public Health 2006, 6:156 http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/6/156

Studies investigating the risk factors for TB have been con- blood test, and were counselled to have an HIV test. Those
ducted in a variety of settings, but very few in Africa [7]. found to be HIV positive were referred for post-test coun-
Recently, we published a community-based case control selling and appropriate care, according to national guide-
study of host and environmental risk factors for TB from lines.
3 West African countries [8] In a combined multivariable
model, male gender, HIV infection, smoking, history of Study participants answered a structured questionnaire
asthma, being widowed or divorced, family history of TB, administered in their own language by a trained health
increasing household size and not owning a house were worker. Information was collected on a wide range of
all identified as determinant risk factors for TB. potential host- and environment- related risk factors for
TB, focusing on those that might be amenable to an inter-
A particular aspect of conducting case control studies in vention. Host information collected included basic demo-
settings, such as many African countries, is the lack of graphic data (age, gender, ethnicity), past medical history
street address, post-code, telephone or recent reliable cen- of asthma and diabetes, history of smoking and alcohol
sus information, that has led investigators to consider var- consumption, schooling and category of occupation [11]
ious ways to select controls. One approach, as in our The presence of a BCG scar on the left or right deltoid was
previous study, is to select neighbourhood controls using checked. Environmental factors considered included the
a standard method[9]. However, as we identified, this presence of a functional electric or gas cooker, building
may lead to overmatching for environmental factors. An structure and materials, occupation of the head of the
alternative approach is to select clinic controls. We household and whether there had been another member
searched for host and environmental risk factors for pul- of the household with TB disease. We created a crowding
monary TB using a clinic based case control study in The index comprising 3 categories: (1) a household of less
Gambia, where HIV prevalence is low in both the commu- than 4 persons and less than 2 people sleeping per room
nity and in TB patients. on average; (2) either a household of less than 4 persons
and 2 or more persons per room, or a household of at
Methods least 4 persons but less than 2 persons per room; (3) a
The present case control study was conducted at the MRC household of at least 4 persons and at least 2 persons per
Laboratories general outpatients' department (OPD), was room.
approved by the joint Gambia government/MRC ethics
committee and all study participants provided written Data were double entered into an ACCESS database and
informed consent. The MRC Laboratories are located on checked for errors. Analysis was conducted using index
the edge of a large urban area in the Greater Banjul region case and control triplets. Odds ratios (OR) and their 95%
in The Gambia. The population of the area is approxi- confidence intervals (CI), were estimated using condi-
mately 500,000 people. Patients seeking healthcare at the tional logistic regression, with TB as an outcome. The like-
OPD have a wide variety of conditions, although patients lihood ratio test used to assess the association between the
with symptoms strongly suggestive of a surgical or obstet- explanatory variables and the risk of TB, and to test for
ric problem are not seen. The MRC OPD sees approxi- interaction and trend. Univariable analyses were per-
mately 250 patients per weekday and patients can be formed to examine the effect of each variable on the risk
admitted directly to an onsite ward for hospital care. of TB. Multivariable models were then constructed,
including variables that showed an effect in the prediction
Consecutive newly diagnosed sputum smear positive of TB in the univariable analyses at the p = 0.05 level of
tuberculosis patients older than 15 years were recruited significance. Finally a combined host and environment
from the OPD. Pulmonary TB was confirmed by two con- multivariable model was constructed. The analyses were
secutive sputum smears positive for acid-fast bacilli and a performed using STATA (version 7, Stata corporation,
positive culture; the smear and culture procedures were College Station, TX).
conducted as previously described [10].
Results
For each case, two controls were selected. Controls were Over a 2-year period from June 2002 to June 2004, 100
age (within 10 year age bands) and sex-matched with a sputum smear and culture positive TB cases plus 200 age
respective case. The first 'first-time' OPD attendee fitting and sex matched controls were recruited. Three eligible
the age and sex criteria was approached on a clinic day. If cases and approximately 20% of eligible controls refused
he/she refused to be involved in the study, the next eligi- participation. The median age of both cases and controls
ble clinic attendee was approached. The control was seen was 30 years (Table 1). Six (6.1%) of 98 cases tested were
by the study doctor to address their medical complaint HIV positive, compared to 2 (3.3%) of 60 controls tested
and to have a chest x-ray to exclude pulmonary TB. All (p = 0.45). The age, sex and HIV status of the cases
cases and those controls with a clinical indication, had a recruited from this clinic were similar to those we have

Page 2 of 7
(page number not for citation purposes)
BMC Public Health 2006, 6:156 http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/6/156

Table 1: Characteristics of TB cases and clinic controls

Cases (n = 100) Controls (n = 200)

Age, years
Mean (std dev) 33.6 (14.4) 33.5 (13.2)
Median (range) 30 (15–75) 30 (15–75)
Sex, n (%)
Male 65 (65) 130 (65)
Female 35 (35) 70 (35)
HIV positive, n(%) 6a (6.1) 2b (3.3)

an = 98, b n = 60

previous reported from The Gambia []. The most com- Discussion
mon diagnoses among the controls were gastrointestinal In this clinic-based case-control study we have identified
problems (51; 25.5%) and skin complaints (36; 18%). key risk factors for tuberculosis in The Gambia. Over-
Other diagnoses in at least 5% of controls were: muscu- crowding and a history of household exposure to a known
loskeletal disorders (16; 8%), cardiovascular disorders TB case are the standout risk factors in this setting, while
(12; 6%), upper respiratory tract infections (13; 6.5%), we also found that being in the Jola ethnic group was a
malaria (13; 6.5%), urinary tract infections (11; 5.5%) risk factor.
and viral illness (10; 5%).
The finding that household exposure to a known TB case
Table 2 shows the assessment of host-related risk factors is by far the most important risk factor for TB in this TB-
for TB disease. In the univariable analysis, members of the endemic setting is consistent with our previous study,
Jola ethnic group, those widowed or divorced and smok- where 24% of West African TB cases had a family history
ers were significantly more likely to have TB, while trained of TB compared to 10% of controls (OR 3.24; 95% CI
professional workers (eg. school teacher, nurse, doctor, 2.3–4.6; p < 0.001)[8]. Here, 45% of cases reported
pharmacist) had significantly lower risk. In the multivari- household exposure to a known TB case, compared to
able analysis, Jola (p = 0.028) and smoking (p = 0.032) 11% of controls. This finding is of substantial public
remained significant risk factors, while professional work- health importance. Increased household size was found
ers also remained at significantly reduced risk (p = 0.039). to be important in our previous study, and overcrowding
has been documented as a risk factor for TB from several
Table 3 shows the assessment of environmental risk fac- other studies in a variety of settings [12,13]. It is of note
tors for TB disease. In the univariable analysis, the absence that three quarters of cases and 60% of controls in this
of a ceiling, walls made of mud, the highest category of study were from households that were in the highest
household crowding, and a history of TB in another mem- crowding category-reflecting the extent of this issue in
ber of the household were all found to be associated with urban Gambia.
TB disease. In a multivariable model, the absence of a ceil-
ing (p = 0.032), household crowding (likelihood ratio test Differences in TB rates between racial groups have been
for linear trend: p = 0.0013) and a history of TB in another previously described. It is thought that a large proportion
household member (p < 0.0001) remained significant. of the differences seen can ultimately be explained by
environmental and behavioural factors [14,15]. Our find-
Table 4 shows the results of a multivariable model assess- ing in Jola remained significant despite adjustment for a
ing both host and environmental risk factors that were sig- number of host and environmental factors. However, this
nificant in their respective individual analyses. Being in finding could be due to other factors that have not been
the Jola ethnic group (p = 0.012), the highest crowding considered, such as a difference in geographical residence
category (p = 0.003) and a history of TB in another house- of the various ethnic groups covered by our clinic, leading
hold member (p < 0.0001) remained significant risk fac- to a differential distribution of the time to attend the
tors. Increasing crowding across the three categories was clinic, and thus a lower chance for Jola persons to be
significantly associated with TB by the likelihood ratio test selected as controls.
for linear trend (p = 0.0038). The absence of a ceiling
remained significant only at the p = 0.1 level of signifi- In the combined multivariate analysis smoking was not
cance, whereas smoking and occupation lost significance an independent risk factor for TB. However, in previous
in this combined model. No significant interactions case-control studies, we and others found that smoking is
between variables were found. a risk factor and that there is strong dose-response rela-

Page 3 of 7
(page number not for citation purposes)
BMC Public Health 2006, 6:156 http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/6/156

Table 2: Host-related factors for tuberculosis: comparison of TB cases and clinic controls.

Variable Controls Cases Total No. triplets OR (95% CI) p-value AdjaOR (95% CI) Adja p value

Ethnic group, n(%) 100

Mandinka 105 (52.5) 41 (41) 1.0 1.0
Wolof 25 (12.5) 8 (8) 1.25 (0.48–3.25) 0.65 1.45 (0.54–3.89) 0.42
Fula 28 (14) 11 (11) 0.94 (0.42–2.10) 0.87 1.06 (0.46–2.44) 0.89
Jola 21 (10.5) 22 (22) 2.70 (1.33–5.48) 0.006 2.41 (1.10–5.32) 0.028
Other 31 (15.5) 18 (18) 1.53 (0.75–3.10) 0.24 1.79 (0.84–3.84) 0.133
Marital status, n(%) 100
Married 118 (59) 48 (48) 1.0 1.0
Single 74 (37) 43 (43) 1.58 (0.86–2.90) 0.14 1.46 (0.68–3.12) 0.33
Widowed/ 8 (4) 9 (9) 3.19 (1.02–9.93) 0.046 3.04 (0.86–10.75 0.085
divorced
Smoker in past 6 100
months
No 167 (83.5) 72 (72) 1.0 1.0
Yes 33 (16.5) 28 (28) 2.37 (1.22–4.63) 0.011 2.22 (1.07–4.59) 0.032
Alcohol
Never 189 (94.5) 90 (90) 1.0
Current/past 11 (5.5) 10 (10) 2.05 (0.79–5.32) 0.14
BCG scar 100
No/unsure 143 (71.5) 73 (73) 1.0
Yes 57 (28,5) 27 (27) 0.93 (0.54–1.60) 0.78
History of asthma 100
No 198 (98) 99 (99) 1.0
yes 2 (1) 1 (1) 1.0 (0.09–11.03) 1.0
History of diabetes 100
No 200 (100) 97 (97) - -
Yes 0 (0) 3 (3)
Years of schooling 100
None 42 (21) 25 (25) 1.0
1–4 24 (12) 10 (10) 0.65 (0.26–1.62) 0.36
5–8 40 (20) 27 (27) 1.07 (0.52–2.22) 0.85
>8 94 (47) 38 (38) 0.60 (0.30–1.22) 0.16
Occupation 100
Unemployed 16 (8) 10 (10) 0.89 (0.35–2.28) 0.81 1.01 (0.37–2.75) 0.98
Unskilled worker 29 (14.5) 22 (22) 1.0
Skilled worker 96 (48) 41 (41) 0.51 (0.25–1.02) 0.055 0.62 (0.29–1.33) 0.22
Professional 22 (11) 3 (3) 0.15 (0.04–0.60) 0.007 0.24 (0.06–0.93) 0.039
Other 27 (18.5) 24 (24) 0.94 (0.41–2.14 0.89 1.48 (0.57–3.87) 0.42

aAdjusted through multivariable analysis

tionship between smoking and TB [8,16,17]. In this study borderline significance (OR 0.79; 0.63–1.00; p = 0.05)
we sought to identify those who were smokers only dur- [8]. There is no obvious explanation for this difference.
ing the previous 6 months. By doing so, we may have
underestimated the effect of smoking. Furthermore, while A potential weakness in our study is that less than a third
selection of clinic controls is reasonable when the source of controls had an HIV test. The study was considered to
population is difficult to define, bias can be introduced if not have the power to assess HIV infection as a risk factor
any controls are admitted because of an illness that is for disease, noting our previously reported prevalence in
related to a risk factor under study. Smoking related dis- sputum smear positive cases of 8% [18], and in the com-
eases are obvious candidates for this bias, leading to an munity of approximately 2%[5]. To address this issue we
underestimate of the effect of smoking with respect to the have re-run our analyses excluding those that are known
disease under study. While the absence of a ceiling was to be HIV positive and our findings were not significantly
only significant at the p = 0.1 level of significance in the altered. A further issue is a potential bias in this commu-
combined model, it does stand in contrast to our previous nity associated with questions about asthma and diabetes-
finding in the community based study that showed, in the certainly mild forms of these diseases may well have not
univariable analysis, a trend in the opposite direction of been diagnosed. Further, because of the unreliability of

Page 4 of 7
(page number not for citation purposes)
BMC Public Health 2006, 6:156 http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/6/156

Table 3: Environmental factors for tuberculosis: comparison of TB cases and clinic controls.

Variable Controls n (%) Cases n (%) Total No. OR (95% CI) p-value Adja OR (95% Adja p value
triplets CI)

Electric or gas 100

cooker
Absent 159 (79.5) 86 (86%) 1.0
Present 41 (20.5) 14 (14%) 0.60 (0.29–1.21) 0.15
Ceiling 100
Yes 155 (77.5) 63 (63) 1.0
No 45 (22.5) 37 (37) 2.08 (1.21–3.57) 0.008 2.27 (1.07–4.83) 0.032
Walls 100
Cement 136 (68) 56 (56) 1.0
Mud 4 (2) 11 (11) 5.92 (1.86– 0.003 4.52 (0.93– 0.062
18.81) 21.98)
Mudbrick/ 60 (30) 33 (33) 1.30 (0.77–2.19) 0.33 0.83 (0.39–1.74) 0.62
other
Floor 100
Earth 27 (13.5) 18 (18) 1.0
Concrete/tiles 170 (85) 71 (71) 0.72 (0.39–1.37) 0.32
Number of 99
windows
0–1 60 (30.3) 29 (29.3) 1.0
2–4 116 (58.5) 51 (51.5) 0.89 (0.51–1.54) 0.67
>4 24 (12.1) 18 (18.2) 1.49 (0.69–3.23) 0.32
Occupation head 74
of house
Unemployed 18 (10.2) 10 (12.5) 0.55 (0.19–1.55) 0.26
Unskilled 37 (21.0 10 (12.5) 1.0
worker
Skilled 18 (10.2) 3 (3.8) 0.96 (0.37–2.48) 0.94
worker
Professional 86 (48.8) 40 (50) 0.33 (0.07–1.46) 0.14
Other 17 (9.7) 17 (21.3) 1.95 (0.63–5.96) 0.24
Crowding index 91
1 44 (23.2) 10 (11.8) 1.0
2 31 (16.4) 11 (12.9) 1.49 (0.54–4.09) 0.44 2.39(0.71–8.02) 0.16
3 189 (60.3) 64 (75.3) 2.31 (1.05–5.12) 0.038 5.12 (1.82– 0.002
14.38)
Household 100
member had TB
No/unsure 178 (89) 55 (55)
yes 22 (11) 45 (45) 6.02 (3.23– <0.0001 7.55 (3.43–16.6) <0.0001
11.25)

aAdjusted through multivariable analysis

verbal history, we did not ask about a history of worms or have symptoms in the long term. Second, ways to avoid
worm treatment. It is also worth noting that, because of overcrowding in urban settings should be sought. There is
matching, we could not assess the importance of no easy solution to this problem, as it is inextricably
increased age and male sex, both factors having been linked to indices of wealth at a population level. Third,
shown previously to be associated with TB [7,19,20]. further studies are required to ascertain whether the Jola
ethnic group have a behavioural cause for their increased
Conclusion rate of TB, which may be amenable to intervention.
With respect to opportunities for intervention, this study Finally, while smoking was not an independent risk factor
has identified several possibilities. First of all, since a his- in a final combined model, there is ample evidence from
tory of a known TB contact inside the household is other studies to confirm it as a risk factor for TB disease
extremely common in The Gambia for those who develop and it is a known killer of its own right.
disease themselves, active tracing of TB case contacts
should be considered to identify co-prevalent cases and to
encourage early attendance at TB clinics for those who

Page 5 of 7
(page number not for citation purposes)
BMC Public Health 2006, 6:156 http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/6/156

Table 4: Combined multivariable assessment of host and Environmental factors for tuberculosis: comparison of TB cases and clinic
controls (n = 274).

Variable Adja OR (95% CI) Adja p value

Ethnic group, n(%)

Mandinka 1.0
Wolof 2.76 (0.65–2.01) 0.17
Fula 0.78 (023–2.64) 0.70
Jola 3.83 (1.35–10.86) 0.012
Other 0.94 (0.32–2.74) 0.91
Smoker in past 6 months
No 1.0
Yes 1.88 (0.83–4.26) 0.13
Occupation
Unemployed 2.70(0.56–12.94) 0.22
Unskilled worker 1.0
Skilled worker 0.65 (0.24–1.71) 0.38
Professional 0.22 (0.03–1.72) 0.15
Other 1.17 (0.38–3.61) 0.79
Ceiling
Yes 1.0
No 2.12 (0.91–4.93) 0.082
Crowding index
1 1.0
2 2.58 (0.69–9.68) 0.16
3 5.05 (1.75–14.62) 0.003
Household member had TB
No/unsure
Yes 10.17 (4.08–25.63) <0.0001

aAdjusted

Competing interests 3. Global tuberculosis control: sureveillance, planning, financ-

ing. WHO report Geneva, World Health Organisation (WHO/HTM/TB/
The author(s) declare that they have no competing inter- 2005.349) 2005.
ests. 4. Dye C, Watt CJ, Bleed DM, Hosseini SM, Raviglione MC: Evolution
of tuberculosis control and prospects for reducing tubercu-
losis incidence, prevalence and deaths globally. JAMA 2005,
Authors' contributions 293:2767-2775.
PH was involved in the design of the study, supervised the 5. Schim van der Loeff MF, Sarge-Njie R, Cessay S, Awasana AA, Jaye P,
Sam O, Jaiteh KO, Cubitt D, Milligan P, Whittle HCl: Regional dif-
field work and drafted the manuscript. DJS was involved ferences in HIV trends in The Gambia: results from sentinel
in the design of the study, conducted the field work and surveillance among pregnant women. AIDS 2003, 17:1841-46.
assisted in the data analysis and write-up. SD managed the 6. Royal Netherlands Tuberculosis Association (KNCV). The
National Leprosy and Tuberculosis Programme of The Gambia: progress
data entry and verification and quality and contributed to report no. 5. The Hague, KNCV 2004.
the write-up. RA supervised the microbiological aspects of 7. Lienhardt C: From exposure to disease: the role of environ-
the study with JO, and contributed to the write-up. CL was mental factors in susceptibility to and development of tuber-
culosis. Epidemiol Rev 2001, 23:288-301.
involved in the design of the study, analysis and write-up. 8. Lienhardt C, Fielding K, Sillah JS, Bah B, Gustafson P, Warndorff D,
All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Palayew M, Lisse I, Donkor S, Diallo S, Manneh K, Adegbola R, Aaby
P, Bah-So O, Bennett S, Mcadam K: Investigation of the risk fac-
tors for tuberculosis: a case-control study in three countries
Acknowledgements in West Africa. Int J Epidemiol 2005, 34:914-923.
We thank the field workers for their hard work, the staff of the MRC out- 9. Crampin AC, Mwinuka V, Malema SS, Glynn JR, Fine PE: Field-based
patients clinic at the MRC unit in The Gambia and the National TB control random sampling without a sampling frame: control selec-
tion for a case-control study in rural Africa. Trans R Soc Trop
Programme for their ongoing collaboration. This study was funded by the Med Hyg 2001, 95:481-483.
Medical Research Council (UK). 10. Adegbola RA, Hill P, Baldeh I, Out J, Sarr R, Sillah J, Lienhardt C, Cor-
rah T, Manneh K, Drobniewski F, McAdam KPWJ: Surveillance of
drug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis in The Gambia. Int
References J Tuberc Lung Dis 2003, 7:390-393.
1. Maher D, Raviglione M: Global epidemiology of tuberculosis. 11. British Thoracic and Tuberculosis Association. A survey of
Clin Chest Med 2005, 26:167-82. tuberculosis mortality in England and Wales in 1968. Tubercle
2. Raviglione MC, Snider D, Kochi A: Global epidemiology of tuber- 1971, 52:1-18.
culosis: morbidity and mortality of a worldwide epidemic. 12. Mangtani P, Jolley DJ, Watson JM, Rodrigues L: Socioeconomic
JAMA 1995, 273:220-26. deprivation and notification rates for tuberculosis in London
during 1982–91. BMJ 1995, 310:963-6.

Page 6 of 7
(page number not for citation purposes)
BMC Public Health 2006, 6:156 http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/6/156

13. Coker R, McKee M, Atun R, Dimitrova B, Dodonova E, Kuznetsov S,

Drobniewski F: Risk factors for pulmonary tuberculosis in Rus-
sia: a case-control study. BMJ 2006, 322:85-87.
14. Kushigemachi M, Schneiderman J, Barrett-Connor : Racial differ-
ences in susceptibility to tuberculosis: risk of disease after
infection. J Chron Dis 1984, 37:853-862.
15. Cantwell MF, McKenna MT, McGray E, Onorato IM: Tuberculosis
and race/ethnicity in the United States. Am J Resp Crit Care Med
1998, 157:1016-1020.
16. Alcaide J, Actet MV, Plans P, Parron I, Folguera L, Salto E, Dominguez
A, Pardell H, Salleros L: Cigarette smoking as a risk factor for
tuberculosis in young adults: a case control study. Tuberc Lung
Dis 1996, 77:112-116.
17. Kolappan C, Gopi PG: Tobacco smoking and pulmonary tuber-
culosis. Thorax 2002, 57:964-966.
18. Hill PC, Brookes RH, Fox A, Fielding K, Jeffries DJ, Jackson-Sillah D,
Lugos MD, Owiafe PK, Donkor SA, Hammond AS, Otu JK, Corrah T,
Adegbola RA, McAdam KPWJ: Large Scale evaluation of
Enzyme-lined immunospot assay and skin test for the diag-
nosis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection against a gradi-
ent of exposure in The Gambia. Clin Infect Dis 2004, 38:966-973.
19. Glynn JR, Warndorff DK, Malema SS: Tuberculosis: associations
with HIV and socio-economic status in rural Malawi. Trans
Royal Soc Trop Med Hyg 2000, 94:500-503.
20. Holmes C, Hausler H, Nunn P: A review of sex differences in the
epidemiology of tuberculosis. Int J Tub Lung Dis 1998, 2:96-104.

Pre-publication history
The pre-publication history for this paper can be accessed
here:

http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/6/156/pre
pub

Publish with Bio Med Central and every

scientist can read your work free of charge
"BioMed Central will be the most significant development for
disseminating the results of biomedical researc h in our lifetime."
Sir Paul Nurse, Cancer Research UK

Your research papers will be:

available free of charge to the entire biomedical community
peer reviewed and published immediately upon acceptance
cited in PubMed and archived on PubMed Central
yours — you keep the copyright

Submit your manuscript here: BioMedcentral

http://www.biomedcentral.com/info/publishing_adv.asp

Page 7 of 7
(page number not for citation purposes)