B2 LEVEL GRAMMAR REVIEW

(CUID)

PRESENT TENSES: ACTIVE AND PASSIVE

Present simple: active

We use the present simple to talk about:
• routines and habits (I play basketball every weekend)
• facts and general truths (The earth moves around the sun.)
• permanent or long-term situations (My brother lives at the coast.)

We often use adverbs and expressions of frequency (always, usually, often, every morning,
at the weekend, etc.) with the present simple to talk about how often we do something.
Adverbs of frequency usually come before the main verb. When the verb is negative or in
the question form, the adverb comes between the auxiliary verb and the main verb. When
the verb is be, the adverb comes after the verb.
My husband is German, and we often speak German at home.
My husband is German, but we don’t usually speak German at home.
Do you usually speak German at home?

We can use some adverbs of frequency (usually, often, sometimes) at the beginning of a
sentence for emphasis.
Sometimes, we speak German at home.

Other expressions of frequency usually come at the beginning or at the end of a sentence.
We use a comma after the expression at the start of the sentence.
We finish work at seven every evening.
Every morning, we get up at eight o’clock.

Present continuous: active

We use the present continuous to talk about:
• temporary situations (Tony is taking an interesting course this year.)
• activities in progress at the time of speaking (I’m playing a computer game.)
• trends and changing habits (Are part-time jobs becoming more popular?)

We often use time expressions with the present continuous: at the moment, this week, etc.
A lot of people are learning coding nowadays.
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Present simple: passive

We form the present simple passive with the present simple of be (am/is/are) + past
participle of the main verb.
Fruit is (not) sold at the neighbourhood store.
Are the notifications received by all users?

by + agent
We use the passive to focus on the action or object of the action, rather than the person
who does the action. The person may be obvious, unknown or not relevant. We can use by
to specify who or what does the action: This sweater was made by my aunt.

FUTURE FORMS AND USES

will + infinitive, going to + infinitive

We use both will and going to to talk about:
• Predictions and beliefs about future events or situations. The meaning is very similar
and when the predictions is based on the same information, either form can be used.
The choice often depends on the speaker’s personal preference. It doesn’t depend
on how sure the speaker is about the prediction.
o You will get wet if you don’t take an umbrella.
o The clouds are getting darker. It’s going to rain.
We also use will to talk about:
• A decision or an offer we think of at the time we’re speaking.
o There’s no milk. I’ll go and get some.
We also use going to to talk about:
• A decision we have already taken about a plan or an intention.
o We’re going to buy Tom a football.
• A prediction about an event which is based on evidence at the moment of speaking.
o He’s ahead of everyone else. He’s going to win the race.
We don’t use will or going to after the adverbs of future time when, until, etc. We use the
present simple even though the action is in the future.
Please, let me know when you get home.

will be + -ing (future continuous)

We use the future continuous to talk about:
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• An activity that will be in progress at a stated time in the future. (I’ll be playing tennis
between 3:00 and 5:00 this afternoon.)
• A prediction about an activity that will be in progress at a time in the future. (In twenty
years’ time, they won’t be making cars that run on petrol.)
We often use time expressions with the future continuous to say when the activity will be in
progress or the point when it will stop.
This time tomorrow, I will be taking a train to Berlin.

will have + past participle (future perfect)

We use the future perfect to talk about:
• Actions that will be completed before a stated time in the future. (By 6 p.m., I will
have finished my report.)
• Predictions about actions completed before a stated time in the future. (It’s too early
in the morning – she won’t have started working yet!)

PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE AND CONTINUOUS

Present perfect simple

We form the present perfect simple with have/has + past participle, for example changed,
listened, made, put, understood, etc.
We use the present perfect simple to talk about:
• Completed actions that have a measurable result in the present. We want to
emphasize the result of the activity. (I’ve found lots of mistakes in your essay.)
• A past action when the specific time is not stated, and we want to emphasize the
action. (The new medicine has saved thousands of lives.)
• Life experiences when the person is still living. (Our guest today has worked in his
field for over 4 decades.)
• An action or a situation in a time that continues up to the moment of speaking. (How
long have you known each other?)
• Actions with time expressions such as today, this morning, this week, this year when
the period of time is not finished at the moment of speaking. (Have you heard the
news today?)
We often use the adverbs already, yet, just with the present perfect simple to show the
connection of the action with the time of speaking:
• To emphasize that an action has happened before the time of speaking. (It’s only 11
a.m. and I’ve already had three meetings.)
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• In negative sentences to sat that something that was expected hasn’t happened. (I
can’t believe her plane hasn’t landed yet – it was supposed to be here three hours
ago!)
• In questions to ask whether something which we are expecting has happened. (My
parcel should be delivered today, has the post arrived yet?)
• To emphasize that something happened recently. (The manager has just quit.)
We often use the adverbs for and since to show the duration of the time period:
• for + a period of time (They’ve known each other for about ten years.)
• since + a point in time (They’ve been married since 2007).

Present perfect continuous

We form the present perfect continuous with have/has + been + -ing.
We use the present perfect continuous to talk about:
• a recent activity when we want to emphasize the process or the duration of the
activity. The result of the activity is less important or not mentioned at all. (What have
you been doing all morning?)
• An activity that started in the past and may or may not be in progress at the moment
of speaking. (He’s tired because he’s been studying since 10 o’clock.)
We don’t use stative verbs (believe, belong, know, seem, etc.) in the present perfect
continuous form. However, we can use have, mean, think in the present perfect continuous
form. (She’s been having all these headaches because of the stress at work. Sorry, I’ve
been meaning to tell you, but I couldn’t find the right moment. We have been thinking
about you since we got the news.)
We don’t usually use the adverbs already and yet with the present prefect continuous. We
can use adverbs such as since, this week, recently, just, for the last few days, etc. to show
when the activity started and its duration. (I’ve just been painting the house, that’s why I’m
all sweaty!).

NARRATIVE TENSES

Past simple
We use the past simple to talk about:
• An event or sequence of events in the past. The past time is stated (last month, ten
years ago, etc.) or is clear from the context. (We sold our car yesterday. / He got up,
put on his coat, and left the room.)
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Past continuous
We use the past continuous to talk about:
• Activities or states that describe the background to past actions. (The sun was
shining and the birds were singing.)
• Activities or situations that were in progress when another action took place. (She
was taking a shower when the phone rang.)
We don’t generally use be in the past continuous:
My business was going really well and I was happy (not I was being* happy)

Past perfect simple

We form the past perfect simple with had + past participle.
We use the past perfect simple to talk about:
• Actions that took place at an earlier time than the main event in a narrative,
especially when the events are not related in the sequence they happened. (I got to
the office and remembered I’d left my phone at home.)

Past perfect continuous

We form the past perfect continuous with had + been + -ing.
We use the past perfect continuous to talk about:
• An activity or state in progress before the main event took place. (We had been
waiting in line for an hour before the ticket office opened.)

USED TO AND WOULD

used to

We use used to + infinitive to talk about:

• Habits and states that took place in the past but do not happen or exist now. (My
friends and I used to meet for lunch every day, but now we get together less often. I
didn’t use to go to the gym, but now I do.)

would

We use would + infinitive to talk about:

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• Habits that took place in the past but do not happen now (similar to used to). (I used
to enjoy going to the beach in the summer, but now I prefer hiking or mountain
biking.)
We don’t use would + infinitive to talk about past states. (There would used to be a lot of
problems with the internet connection, so we changed provider.)

MODALS AND RELATED VERBS: PAST FORMS (1)

can (not) + infinitive without to, to (not) be able to + infinitive: past

We use could + infinitive without to and was/were able to to talk about:
• The possibility of doing something and the ability to do something in a general period
of time in the past. (I could play the piano already at the age of six. She was able to
speak a little French, but that’s all.)
We use could + not + infinitive without to and was/were + not + able to to talk about:
• Not succeeding at something in a general period of time in the past or at a specific
time in the past. (I couldn’t understand the lecture. I wasn’t able to finish my
language course last year.)
We use was/were able to, but not could to talk about:
• Success in achieving something at a specific time in the past. (Ian was able to
rescue that child from the sea despite the terrible weather.)

must + infinitive without to / have to + infinitive: past

The past form of must + infinitive is: had to + infinitive.
We use had to + infinitive to talk about:
• The necessity to do something at a specific time in the past. (I had to leave by five
o’clock that day.)
We use didn’t have to + infinitive to talk about:
• The lack of necessity to do something at a specific time in the past. (He didn’t have
to go to football practice yesterday because his manager called in sick.)

manage to + infinitive and succeed in + -ing: past

We use manage to and succeed in to talk about:
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• Ability and success in achieving (or not achieving) something at a specific time in the
past. (The office was closed, but we managed to contact them by phone. The
meeting went on all day, but we didn’t succeed in reaching an agreement.)

QUESTIONS
Negative questions

The negative form of the verb is contracted in negative questions.

We use negative questions to express a variety of feelings, including:

• Softening opinions or advice (Wouldn’t it be a bit risky to trust someone who you’ve
just met?)
• Showing surprise (Didn’t you receive his letter? Billy made sure everyone received
an invitation.)
• Checking information that you think is correct (Wasn’t today the deadline to submit
our reports?)

Indirect questions

Indirect questions begin with fixed expressions (I wonder / I was wondering..., Do you
know/think…, Could you tell me…, Can I ask you…, etc.) and the subject-verb order after
the fixed expression is affirmative, not interrogative. We use if or whether in indirect
questions which have yes/no answers.

We use indirect questions:

• To be more polite, especially in formal situations (May I ask you how long the test
will take, doctor?)
• To appear cautious or less direct (Could you tell me if the report will be ready by the
end of the week?)

Tag questions

Tag questions have two parts, separated by a comma. The first part is an affirmative or
negative statement. The second part is the auxiliary verb in the question form. The auxiliary
verb in the second part is negative (and contracted) when the first part is affirmative. The
auxiliary verb in the second part is affirmative when the first part is negative.

We use tag questions:

• To confirm or check information (Joyce is coming with us this evening, isn’t she?)
• To soften opinions or advice (You didn’t run the business yourself, did you?)
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ZERO, FIRST AND SECOND CONDITIONALS

Zero conditional

When the sentence begins with If, there is a comma after the if-clause. The sentence can
also begin with the main clause, in which case there is no comma.

We use the zero conditional to talk about:

• Situations or facts that are generally true (If water freezes, it turns into ice.)
• Habits and repeated actions when there is a given condition (If you leave your phone
on, the battery runs out.)
We can use when instead of if in zero conditional sentences with no change in meaning.
(When you leave your phone on, the battery runs out.)
We can also use unless to talk about possible actions and situations in the future. Unless
means ‘if not’. (Computers don’t need a large memory unless they run large programmes.)

First conditional

We don’t use when with the first conditional.

We use the first conditional to talk about:

• Something the speaker thinks is likely to happen in the future. (If you call Jenny, she
will be happy to hear from you.)
• Possible situations that are generally true. (If prices go up, a lot of people will
complain.)
We can also use the present perfect, going to and the present continuous in first conditional
sentences: the present perfect is also used to describe a specific current situation (If
they’ve left their details, we’ll be in touch); going to and the present continuous are both
used to refer to future events (If they get any news about the promotion, they’re going to tell
us. If I win the contest, I’m taking you out for dinner this weekend).

Second conditional

We use the second conditional to talk about:

• Something that is the opposite of the real situation. (If I had a bike, I’d ride to work. [I
don’t have a bike, so I can’t ride to work].)
• Something the speaker thinks is unlikely to happen in the future. (If I bought that
beach house, I would have lots of visitors in the summer.)
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We can choose the first or second conditional according to how likely the action is going to
happen in the speaker’s opinion.
We can use the contraction of would – I’d, you’d, she’d, etc. – in the main clause. When
had is in the if-clause, it is a main verb (not an auxiliary verb) and so is not contracted.

Intensifiers

We use words like very or really to emphasize the adjective. Others are: amazingly,
particularly, exceptionally, extremely, unusually, and incredibly.
We don’t normally use very with strong adjectives (appalling, awful, disgusted, excellent,
fantastic, terrible, useless, wonderful, etc.). We use other intensifiers (The seats were very
absolutely fantastic.)
We can use really with both groups of adjectives.

PASSIVES

Form

We form the passive with the verb be + the past participle of the main verb. We can use the
verb be in all tenses and with modal verbs, although the present perfect continuous and
past perfect continuous forms of the passive are not used very often. We use be in the
negative and question form to make negative passive sentences and questions with the
passive. The past participle of the main verb does not change form:

Use

We use the passive to focus on what happens: the action or process which takes place.
Information about the agent (who or what does the action) doesn’t need to appear in the
sentence. The passive is often used in formal writing contexts such as academic, business
or legal texts and also when describing processes which consist of a series of stages. The
choice between the use of the active or passive form of a verb depends on whether we
want to emphasize the action (passive) or the agent (active).

We often use the passive:

• When the agent is obvious (The burglars were finally arrested last night).
• When the agent is not known or not important (The story was published on the
internet.)
• When the agent is clear from the context (The news story was widely reported. [the
context of ‘news” makes it clear that the press and media reported the story])
• When the agent is general (Tickets can be bought online.)
• When we don’t want to say who the agent is (The story was revealed to the press
this morning.)
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We don’t use the passive for verbs without a direct object.
We can give information about when or where the action takes place using adverbs of time
and place.

by and for

Sometimes information about the agent is relevant or useful to know. We can give
information about who does the action using the preposition by (This sweater was made by
my aunt.)
We can give information about the purpose of the action or why it takes place using the
preposition for (The product was tested for faults.)

VERB PATTERNS WITH -ING AND INFINITIVE

verb + -ing

We always use the -ing form of the verb which follows these verbs. These verbs are never
followed by an infinitive. This verb + -ing pattern is used with verbs that include:

avoid consider dislike enjoy finish

imagine keep mind practise recommend
regret risk suggest

I told him you really enjoy cooking.

Would you mind helping me?
Daisy recommends trying her tiramisu.
The negative form of this pattern is not + -ing
Imagine not having pizza! I eat it all the time.

verb + to + infinitive

We use to + infinitive of the verb which follows theses verbs. These verbs are never
followed by -ing. This verb + to + infinitive patterns is used with verbs that include:

agree aim arrange choose decide

expect hope intend learn manage
need plan prepare promise want

She decided to go with Elliot.

I wanted to visit Rome.
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I planned to go to all those beautiful places.

The word order in negative form is not + to + -ing.

They decided not to throw a party.

verb + object + to + infinitive

We use to + infinitive of the verb when it follows theses verbs + object.

allow ask encourage expect force

help invite need persuade remind
teach tell want would like

My teachers always encouraged me to try new subjects.

I wouldn’t like him to go there on his own.
She didn’t allow her children to run after wild animals.

verb + object + infinitive

We use the infinitive of the verb without to when it follows theses verbs + object.

feel hear let make notice see watch

Why don’t you let it go?

I promise he made me do it, I didn’t want to!
He was always there, watching the trains leave the station when the sun went down.

verb + -ing / verb + infinitive with similar meanings

These verbs can be followed by either of the patterns without a significant change in the
meaning of the sentence.

begin continue hate like love prefer start

I don’t like eating ice cream in the summer.

I don’t like to eat ice cream in the summer
We began working for this company a couple of years ago.
We began to work for this company a couple of years ago.
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verb + -ing / verb + infinitive with different meanings

These verbs can be followed by both of the patterns, but there is a change in the meaning
of the sentence.

forget go on mean regret remember stop try

I never remember to lock the door, and my mum gets really angry! (remember + infinitive =
remember something and then do it)
I never remember locking the door, but when I go back and check I always have.
(remember + -ing = remember something you did before)
She stopped smoking three years ago. (stop + -ing = to not do something anymore)
It was hot, so we stopped to have a drink. (stop + infinitive = to not do something in order to
do something else)

RELATIVE CLAUSES

Defining relative clauses

We form defining relative clauses with the relative pronouns who, that, which, whose, where
and when. The defining relative clause gives information about the noun that precedes it in
the sentence. The information in a defining relative clause is essential for the sentence to
make sense.: it identifies exactly what is being referred to.
The children who live here go to the local school.
These are the people who saw the advert.

The relative pronouns who, which and that can be both the subject and the object in a
sentence. In the examples above the relative pronouns are the subject of the defining
relative clauses and they are followed by a verb. The relative pronouns must be included.

When the relative pronoun is followed by a subject + verb, it is the object of the defining
relative clause. It can be omitted.
The dress (which) she made for you is beautiful.

We use defining relative clauses with pronouns as follows:

• who to identify people (The children who live here go to the local school.)
• which to identify things (The idea which the team came up with was great.)
• that to identify people and things. This is less formal than who and which. (This is the
man that I told you about. The idea that the team came up with was great.)
• whose to talk about possession (The boy whose brother won the race is very proud.)
• where to identify places (The office where I work these days is near my house.)
• when to identify times (I remember the day when I got my first piano.)
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Non-defining relative clauses

Non- defining relative clauses give information about the noun which is not essential to the
sentence – the information can be omitted and the sentence will still make sense. We
separate a non-defining relative clause from the rest of the sentence with commas.

Dave Smith, who teaches swimming, lives next door.

A non-defining relative clause can also come at the end of a sentence. In this case, only
one comma is used. (This is our most recent client, who makes children’s toys.)

The same relative pronouns are used in non-defining relative clauses as in defining relative
clauses, with the exception of that. (The client, that who makes children’s toys, is keen to
see our ideas.)

Reduced relative clauses

Reduced relative clauses never include relative pronouns. We form a reduced relative
clause by replacing the relative pronoun and using an -ing form or past participle.

• We use -ing when the relative clause is in the active form (Visitors arriving by car
[or who arrive/ are arriving by car] can park for free.)
• We use a past participle when the relative clause is in the passive form (Some of the
adverts shown [or which are shown] on TV are terrible.)

We can only use reduced relative clauses when the relative pronoun would be the subject
of the relative clause.

REPORTED SPEECH AND REPORTING VERBS

We use reported speech to report someone’s words or thoughts. We can use different
verbs to express the message of the original words, which is also called direct speech.

- Billy: “I worked in the morning.” (direct speech)

- Billy said (that) he worked in the morning. (indirect speech)

Reported statements

Verb tenses, pronouns, possessive adjectives, and adverbs of time and place change when
we report people’s words. The most common reporting verb for statements is say. After the
reporting verb, that is optional.
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• Present simple becomes past simple. When the situation is still true at the moment
of reporting, the present simple doesn’t need to change (Kate: “I listen to music on
my way to work”. Kate said (that) she listens / listened to music on her way to
work.)
• Past simple usually becomes past perfect, though it may stay as past simple. (Billy:
“I asked Larry to contact me.” He said he asked /had asked Larry to contact him.)
• Present continuous becomes past continuous. (“I am watching a basketball game.”
She said she was watching a basketball game.)
• Past continuous becomes past perfect continuous. (“I was working out.” She said
she had been working out.)
• The modal verbs might, should, would and could don’t usually change. Will becomes
would. Must becomes had to. (“We will visit Frank today.” They said they would visit
Frank that day. / “I must stay home studying for my test.” She said she had to stay
home studying for her test.)

Reported questions

We don’t use auxiliary verbs or question marks when we report questions. The subject-verb
order is affirmative, not interrogative. The most common reporting verb for questions is ask.
We don’t use that after the reporting verb: we refer to the person the question was directed
to.

• We use if or whether to report yes/no questions. (“Do you know Jack’s address?”
She asked if I knew Jack’s address.)
• We use the same wh- word to report questions with who, where, what, why, etc.
(“When are you coming?”, she asked. She asked when we were coming.)

Pronouns, adjectives and adverbs changes

When the original words were spoken at a different time/place from when/where they are
reported, changes to words referring to people, time and place might be needed to be
made.

Direct speech → Reported speech

I → he/she
we → they
my → his/her
our → their
now → then
today → that day
tomorrow → the next day
yesterday → the day before
last night → the night before
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here → there
this office → that office

Reporting verbs and patterns

The most common reporting verbs are say and tell, but there are many other reporting
verbs which give more information about the speaker’s intention. The most common verb
for reporting questions is ask. Say and tell use different patterns. Some other verbs use
more than one pattern.

• verb + that (The student: “I wasn’t listening”. The student said that he wasn’t
listening.) Verbs that use this pattern include: admit, agree, deny, explain, realize,
say, warn.
• verb + object + (not) to + infinitive (Sally: “Don’t leave your bag on the table”. Sally
told me not to leave my bag on the table.) Verbs that use this pattern include:
advise, ask, convince, encourage, invite, persuade, remind, tell, warn.
• verb + object + that (Frank: “Guys, I’ve discovered something amazing.” Frank told
us that he had discovered something amazing.) Verbs that use this pattern include:
advise, persuade, tell, warn.
• verb + -ing (Saleswoman: “You should buy that TV set.” The saleswoman
recommended buying that TV set.) Verbs that use this pattern include: admit, advise,
deny, mention, propose, recommend, suggest.
• verb + (not) to + infinitive (James: “I won’t interrupt your speech”. James promised
not to interrupt my speech.) Verbs that use this pattern include: agree, offer,
promise, refuse, threaten.

ARTICLES: A, AN, THE, ZERO ARTICLE

a, an

The articles a and an come before singular countable nouns.

We use a and an before:

• something we mention for the first time (Last week I found out a new place to sell our
products.)
• something which is one of many (Could you get me a packet of crisps, please?)

the

The article the comes before specific singular or plural countable nouns and specific
uncountable nouns.
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We use the before:

• something we have already mentioned (I took photos of the birds and then I tried to
identify the birds on my book.)
• something that is unique (There’s a cloud on the horizon.)
• something which is specific in the given context (I love reading the messages my
fans send me.)
• the name of some countries, places and geographical features: oceans, seas,
deserts, rivers, mountain ranges (the United States of America, the Middle East, the
Arctic Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea, the Gobi Desert, the Amazon, the Rockies,
etc.)

no (zero) article

There is no article before general plural nouns and uncountable nouns.

We use no article before:

• plural things or people in general (I love cats, but I prefer dogs).

• an uncountable thing in general (Coffee is what wakes me up in the morning.)
• the name of most countries, states, cities, lakes, mountains, languages, people and
companies (Australia, Alaska, Frankfurt, Lake Geneva, Kilimanjaro, Russian, Volvo,
etc.)

QUANTIFIERS

each, every, the whole

We use theses expressions before singular countable nouns. They refer to the totality of
individual things or of a single thing. We use: every for three or more (not two) things; each
for two or more things; the whole for the total number of things in a defined group or set (a
team, a week, etc.).

There’s a meeting each/every month.

Decisions must be agreed by the whole committee.

few, a few, several, both, a large/small number, (not) many

We use theses expressions before plural countable nouns. They indicate approximate
numbers.
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• both = two things (Both exercise and good eating habits are important in order to be
healthy.)
• a few = a small number, but with a positive meaning (She’s fine; she’s already made
a few friends.)
• few = a small number, but with a negative meaning (She’s a bit sad, she has few
friends and feels quite lonely in her new classroom.)

little, a little, a large/small amount, (not) much

We use theses expressions before uncountable nouns. They indicate approximate quantity.

• a little = a small quantity, but with a positive meaning (I can lend you a little money if
you need it.)
• little = a small quantity, but with a negative meaning (It’s shocking – they work hard
for little money.)

either, neither, all, any, no, a lot of

• We use either and neither before singular nouns to talk about two things or options.
(I love Chinese and Italian food, so either restaurant suits me. She is trying on two
pairs of shoes, but neither pair fits her.)
• We use either with a verb in the negative form (I didn’t think either.), or neither with a
verb in the affirmative form (I thought neither solution was suitable.)
• We use all, any, no and a lot of before countable nouns and uncountable nouns. All
indicates an entire group or quantity. No indicates a lack of something. A lot of
indicates a large quantity. We use any in questions and negative forms only.
o All / No meetings are held on the weekends.
o All / No petrol sold here is unleaded.
o There were a lot of people.
o Were there any meetings?

THIRD CONDITIONAL
The third conditional pattern has two parts: the if-clause and the main clause. The if-clause
is followed by a comma. We can contract both had in the if-clause and would in the main
clause to ‘d.

The sentence can also begin with the main clause, in which case there is no comma.
 B2 LEVEL GRAMMAR REVIEW
(CUID)
We use the third conditional to talk about events that did not happen. We imagine the event
and we imagine the result. The if-clause refers to the imagined condition and the main
clause refers to the imagined result. (If I had spoken to Fred earlier, we never would have
argued.)

Questions with the third conditional are usually made by using the question form of the
main clause, not the if-clause. (If she’d asked you, would you have helped her?)

MIXED CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

Mixed third + second conditional

We use mixed third + second conditional sentences to talk about a past condition and its
result in the present or the future (not the past). (If you hadn’t helped me with this
software, I wouldn’t be able to use it.)

Mixed second + third conditional

We use mixed second + third conditional sentences to talk about a present condition and its
imagined past result. (If the fitness app didn’t exist, I wouldn’t have realized how unfit I
am.)

wish

We use wish to express regrets.

We use wish + past simple to talk about something that is the opposite of how we want it.
Its use is linked to the use of the second conditional. (I wish I were better at sports.)

We use wish + past perfect to talk about something that is the opposite of how we wanted
it. Its use is linked to the use of the third conditional. (I wish you hadn’t missed my show.)

We don’t often say don’t wish or didn’t wish. We can say both I wish I + past simple and I
wish I + past perfect.

PAST MODALS (2)

We can use the modals could (not), might (not), should (not), and must (not) instead of
would with have + past participle.
 B2 LEVEL GRAMMAR REVIEW
(CUID)
• We use could have and might have + past participle in third conditional patterns to
talk about possible actions as a result of imagined past events. (If you’d told us our
option wasn’t available, we could have chosen / might have chosen a different
product.)
• We don’t use couldn’t have + past participle with third conditional patterns. We use
couldn’t have to talk about things that were impossible. (She couldn’t have done
anything, it was too late.)
• We use should have and shouldn’t have + past participle to criticize past actions. It
can also express regret. (I should have double-checked my CV, but I was in a hurry.)
• We use must have + past participle to express a deduction about a past event. (They
didn’t call yet – their flight must have been delayed.)

Source / Adapted from: Grammar Summary “Keynote: Upper-Intermediate”