Gas Engines

Application and
Installation Guide

G3600–G3300

● Vibration

● Noise

LEKQ7253 (Supersedes LEKM2459) 7-97

Vibration
Linear Vibration
Introduction
Vibration Measuring Equipment
Isolators
Measuring Locations
Operating Conditions and Data Format
G3600–G3300 EPG Vibration Limits
G3600–G3300 Vibration Guidelines for First
Time Development Packages
Alignment and Trim Balance
Torsional Vibrations
Introduction
Torsional Analysis
Torsional Data
Engine Torsional Pickup
Generator Set Vibration Measurements
G3600 Torsional Analysis Request
Vibration Figure 1. When the weight is displaced and
released, vibration occurs. It travels through
its original position until frictional forces
Linear Vibration cause it to stop. When external forces, such
as engine combustion, continue to affect the
Introduction
system as it vibrates, forced vibration occurs.
All mechanical systems with mass and
elasticity are capable of vibration. Engines The time required for the weight to complete
produce vibration due to combustion forces, one movement is called a period, Figure 2.
torque reactions, structural mass and stiffness
combinations, and manufacturing tolerances Amplitude is the maximum displacement from
on rotating components. These forces may the mean position. A cycle is the interval for
create conditions ranging from unwanted the motion to repeat.
noise to high stress levels, and possible
ultimate failure of engine or driven If the weight completes a cycle in one second,
components. the frequency is one cycle per second. The
name of this unit is Hertz.
Other influencing factors are foundation
design, soil load characteristics, and other A system completing full motion 20 times a
machinery operating in close proximity. minute has a frequency of 20 cycles per
minute, or 20 cpm, or 0.33 cycles per second,
Vibrating stresses can reach destructive or 0.33 Hertz.
levels at engine speeds which cause
resonance. Resonance occurs when natural Total distance traveled by the weight, from
system frequencies coincide with engine one peak to the opposite peak, is peak-to-peak
excitation frequencies. Each G3600–G3300 displacement; usually expressed in mm or
Engine-Driven Equipment system must be mils. [one mil equals 0.001 in., (0.025 mm)]. It
analyzed for critical linear and torsional is a guide to vibration severity.
vibration.
Average and root-mean-square (rms)
Linear vibration is difficult to define without amplitudes are sometimes used to express
instrumentation. Human senses cannot detect vibration amplitudes. A conversion is:
relationships between the magnitude of rms = 0.707 2 0-peak values
vibration and period of occurrence. A first average = 0.636 2 0-peak values.
order (1 2 rpm) vibration of 0.254 mm
(0.010 in.) displacement may feel about the Another method of analyzing vibration is
same as third order (3 2 rpm) measurement measuring mass velocity. Note the example is
of 0.051 mm (0.002 in.). changing direction as it moves. The mass
speed is also constantly changing. At its limit,
Vibration occurs when a mass is deflected and
returned along the same path, as illustrated in

Figure 1.

5
 Figure 2.

the speed is zero. Its velocity is greatest while acceleration decreases until it reaches zero at
passing through the neutral position. the neutral point.

Velocity is important, but because of its Acceleration is dimensioned in units of “g”

changing nature, a single point has been (peak), where “g” = gravitational acceleration
chosen for measurement. This is peak 9.8 m/s2 = 32.2 ft/s2.
velocity normally expressed in mm/sec or
in./sec. The relationship between peak Acceleration measurements, or g’s, are used
velocity and peak-to-peak displacement is: to express large forces. At very high
frequencies, over 1000 Hz, it is perhaps the
V0-pk = 3.138 2 D 2 F best indicator of vibration.
Where:
Vibration acceleration is calculable from peak
V0-pk = velocity in mm/s displacement:
D = peak-to-peak displacement in mm
F = Frequency in Hz (cps). g’spk = 2.01 2 10-3 2 D 2 F2

or, Where:

V0-pk = 52.3 2 10-6 2 D 2 F D = peak-to-peak displacement in mm

F = Frequency in Hz (cps)

Where: or,

V0-pk = velocity in in/s g’spk = 1.42 2 10-8 2 D 2 F2

D = peak-to-peak displacement in mils
F = frequency in cycles per minute (cpm).
Where:
Acceleration is another characteristic of
vibration. In the example, the peak D = peak-to-peak displacement in mils
acceleration is at the extreme limit of travel F = frequency in cycles per minute (cpm)
where velocity is zero. As velocity increases,
Machinery vibration is complex, and consists
of many frequencies. Displacement, velocity,

6
and acceleration are all used to diagnose Measurement Locations
particular problems. Displacement Vibration should be measured at nine points
measurements are good indicators of dynamic on a two bearing generator set. Comparable
stresses and are commonly used. points on non-generator driven equipment
may be important. These points are illustrated
Vibration Measuring Equipment in Figure 3 and are described below.
Vibration measurements on large engine
units should be made using the Caterpillar Point 1
Vibration Analyzer, Part No. 4C-3030. If
Caterpillar measuring equipment is not Horizontal direction at the front of the engine;
available, an equivalent device capable of locate the probe on the side of the block at
measuring peak-to-peak displacement at the crankshaft centerline.
selected frequencies, overall velocity, and
Point 2
overall displacement should be used.
Vertical direction at the front of the engine;
Isolators
locate the probe on the block top deck in the
Spring-type linear vibration isolators are
plane of the crankshaft centerline.
available as attachments (not installed) for all
generator sets to be used in stationary Point 3
applications. They can effectively reduce
vibrations and noise transmitted from rotating Horizontal direction at the rear of the engine;
machinery to the foundation or mounting locate the probe on the side of the block at
surface. Conversely, isolators can absorb the crankshaft centerline.
disturbances generated by adjacent
machinery and prevent damage from being Point 4
transmitted to idle equipment. For detailed
Vertical direction at the rear of the engine;
information, see the section on mounting.
locate the probe on the block top deck (or
rear housing) in the plane of the crankshaft
centerline.

Figure 3.

7
 Point 5 2. Peak-to-peak displacement at first order
frequency = 0.13 mm (5.0 mils)
Vertical direction at the generator front
bearing; locate the probe on the bearing 3. Overall displacement = 0.22 mm (8.5 mils)
housing at the shaft centerline.
4. Overall velocity = 34.3 mm/s (1.35 in/s)
Point 6
G3600–G3300 Vibration Guidelines
Horizontal direction at the generator front for First Time Development Packages
bearing; locate the probe on the side of the When an engine is packaged in a first time
bearing housing at the shaft centerline. configuration or application, a more
comprehensive approach to vibration must be
Point 7
considered. The data collection and evaluation
Vertical direction at the generator rear should not be limited to 1/2 order, 1st order,
bearing; locate the probe on the bearing and overall. Each 1/2 order frequency up to
housing at the shaft centerline. 8th order should be considered.

Point 8 With respect to engine centerline

measurements the following vibration limit
Horizontal direction at the generator rear guidelines apply:
bearing; locate the probe on the side of the
bearing housing at the shaft centerline. 1. 0.13 mm (5.0 mils) displacement for
frequecies less than or equal to 40 Hz
Point 9
2. 16.6 mm/s (0.65 in/s) velocity for
Axial direction at the generator rear; locate frequencies greater than 40 Hz
the probe on the rear right outside edge of
the generator structure (not sheet metal) at 3. Overall displacement = 0.18 mm (7.0 mils)
the shaft centerline.
4. Overall velocity = 26.7 mm/s (1.05 in/s)
Operating Conditions and Data
Format Consult the manufacturer of the driven
Vibration measurements must be made at the equipment for any such vibration limits.
advertised driven equipment rating (100%
load). If additional data is desired, it is If the measured vibration levels exceed the
recommended that measurements be made at limits, contact your Caterpillar dealer
0% load, 50% load, and 75% load. representative or Caterpillar factory
representative for assistance.
Data must be reported in terms of peak-to-
peak displacement (mils) at half order Warning: It is not an acceptable
frequency, first order frequency, overall practice to lower the package vibration
velocity level (in/s) and overall displacement levels when operating at stable
(mils) for each of the nine measuring conditions by tightening the snubber
locations. The chart at the end of this section bolts on the Caterpillar vibration
can be used to record and report the isolators. This practice will only hide
measured vibration data. vibration problems.

G3600–G3300 EPG Vibration Limits Alignment and Trim Balance

The vibration levels for any load condition, at Engine-to-driven equipment alignment out of
any of the nine measuring locations, must not specification can result in excessive first order
exceed the following guideline limits: vibration displacement. If excessive first order
displacement is found while other limits are
1. Peak-to-peak displacement at half order met, the alignment must be measured and
frequency = 0.13 mm (5.0 mils) corrected.

8
Torsional Vibrations 2. Load demand curve on generator sets
Introduction which have a load dependent variable
Torsional vibrations occur as engine rigidity coupling.
components such as an engine crankshaft, 3. General arrangement drawing or sketch of
twist and recover. Standard generator set complete system, including data on
components withstand normal stresses equipment driven from front of engine.
caused by combustion forces and torque
reactions. Generator sets must be designed to 4. With driven equipment on both ends of the
prevent the natural frequency of the drive engine, the power demand of each end is
train from approaching the unit’s operating required. In addition, simultaneous front
speed. Failure of crankshaft, couplings, gears, and rear power (maximum engine load) is
or bearings may result without careful required.
attention in the beginning.
5. Make, model, WR2 (rotational inertia), and
Torsional Analysis torsional rigidity on all couplings used
Even though generator sets, factory packaged between the engine and driven equipment.
on Caterpillar designed bases, avoid critical
speeds where resonant conditions occur, all 6. WR2 of each rotating mass. Weight of each
applications, whether packaged by Caterpillar reciprocating mass.
or others, require a torsional vibration
analysis. This assures compatibility of the 7. Torsional rigidity and minimum shaft
engine and driven equipment. It must be diameter or detailed dimensions of all
performed by either the customer or by shafting in the driven system whether
Caterpillar, depending on the customer’s separately mounted or installed in a
preference. Customer performed analyses are housing.
subject to Caterpillar review and approval and
8. The ratio of the speed reducer or increaser.
Caterpillar does not assume responsibility for
analysis performed by others without the The WR2 and rigidity submitted for a speed
approval. For Caterpillar-performed analyses, reducer or increaser should state whether
a complete set of technical data (see below) or not they have been adjusted to engine
must be submitted to Caterpillar before speed.
calculations are undertaken. The report will
9. For reciprocating compressor applications,
include a mathematical determination of the
a harmonic analysis of the compressor
natural frequency, critical speeds, relative
torque curve under various load
amplitudes of angular displacement, and
conditions. If not available, a torque curve
approximate nodal locations of the complete
of the compressor under each load
elastic system (both engine and driven
condition through one compressor cycle.
equipment). See the TIR section of the price
The WR2 of all available flywheels for the
list for ordering information.
compressor.
Note: Consult factory on compound
installations. There may be additional charges Torsional Data
for analyses of applications where more than G3600-G3300 Engine data required for
one engine drives a single load. A separate torsional analysis is listed in the Technical
torsional analysis is also required for each Data section.
engine with different driven equipment in
Engine Torsional Pickup
multiple engine installations. A torsional
Each G3600 Engine is equipped with a
request form is included at the end of this
magnetic pickup, Part No. 7C-1897, installed
section.
inside the front housing. It generates a signal
Technical data required: from the front crankshaft gear (96 teeth) and
can be connected to a torsiograph. The
1. The operating speed range. electrical characteristics of the pickup are:

9
 • Internal impedance = 100 Ohms

• Open circuit voltage at 1000 rpm ' 80 volts

AC

• Maximum current output capability =

10 ma

The pickup output voltage is approximately 50

volts, when using a test instrument of
approximately 10,000 Ohms impedance.

The pickup should be used when measuring

torsional vibration on all G3600 Engine
installations, particularly when a high inertia
front drive is used. It can also be used to
check eventual damper or flexible coupling
deterioration.

10
Generator Set Vibration Measurements
Generator Set Description:

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

Rating: _______________________________

Rated Speed __________________________

Load Condition: _______________________

1/2 order 1st order Overall Overall Velocity

Location Disp (mils) Disp (mils) Disp (mils) (in/sec)
Point 1
Point 2
Point 3
Point 4
Point 5
Point 6
Point 7
Point 8
Point 9

11
 G3600 Torsional Analysis Request

Project Number ____________________________________

Project/Customer Name ____________________________
Dealer _____________________________________________
The information on this form is to be used for a specific request for torsional analysis on the
above G3600 Engine Application. Please provide a timely verbal response followed by a written
report to the responsible project engineer. The following information describes the major
components and performance data for this application:

Engine Model and Rating

G36____, ______ kW, (______ bhp)
______ rpm Low Idle, ______ rpm Rated Speed
Engine Regulation: Isochronous (Y/N) ____ or Percent Droop ____ %

Application/Equipment Description:
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

Engine Room Ambient Temperature

Generator (____), Compressor (____), Other Driven Equipment (____)
Supplier Name and Model Number _________________________________________________
Rotating Inertia/Drawings ________________________________________________________
Rotating Stiffness/Shaft Drawings __________________________________________________
Gear Box Drawings ______________________________________________________________

Part Numbers of Driveline Components

Flywheel Group _________________________________
Ring Gear Group ________________________________
Coupling Group _________________________________
Drive Group ____________________________________
Damper Group __________________________________

Engine Ship Date (RTS) ____________________________

Torsional Completion Date Required ________________
Caterpillar Project Engineer ________________________

12
Noise
Abstract
Background
Statement of the Problem
Simple Model
Large-Engine Installation
Site Criteria
Noise Data
Mechanical Noise
Inlet and Exhaust Noise
Noise Control
Commercial Elements
Vibration Isolators
Isolator Specification
Silencers
Enclosures and Barriers
Sound Absorption Treatments
Foundation Design
Simple System
Compound System
Comparison of Isolation Systems
Wave Barriers
Building Construction
Airborne Noise Control
Structure-borne Noise Control
Glossary
Noise • Recognize the special requirements of large
engine installations. The first step is to
become aware of the special noise
characteristics of large-engine installations.
Abstract Possible sources, paths, and receivers of
This section provides information for large-engine noise are reviewed.
designing Caterpillar G3600–G3300 series
large-engine unit installations to meet site • Identify site noise criteria. For example, is
noise criteria. Large-engine units include an the installation in a remote or a populated
engine and some piece of driven equipment, area? Is it within a building sensitive to
such as a generator or a compressor. noise (for example, a laboratory or a
Guidelines for installation design are hospital)? What regulations, standards, or
provided, along with information on using restrictions apply to noise? The noise
noise data on Caterpillar units (actual noise criteria form an essential part of the design
data are provided in the Technical Data goals. Since criteria vary from site to site,
Section or in TMI for G3500–G3300). this guide cannot identify all the criteria
that apply to a particular site. However,
Some installations require very little noise some guidelines for site noise criteria are
abatement (for example, a remote facility far provided.
from people). Very sensitive installations, on
the other hand, may require extensive noise • Obtain noise data on the engine unit.
abatement measures. Because of the variety Caterpillar provides noise data on typical
of noise criteria that may apply to a given site, G3600 units, including sound power data on
it is impossible for Caterpillar to provide a airborne engine mechanical noise as well
description of abatement measures meeting as intake and exhaust noise. These data are
all site criteria. It is the responsibility of the provided in the Technical Data Section,
facility designer to ensure that the specific which is revised periodically. For
criteria of the site are met. G3500–G3300, current data is located in
TMI.
It is strongly advised that a noise control
expert be involved in the facility design • Identify and select appropriate noise
process from the beginning if the large-engine abatement measures. Guidelines for
unit is to be installed in a building or area that attenuation of noise, both through
is noise sensitive. Since large internal commercially available equipment and
combustion engines produce high noise levels through facility construction, are provided.
at low frequencies, many traditional noise
control approaches are relatively ineffective. A glossary of some additional key technical
Every aspect of facility design must therefore terms is presented at the end of this section.
be reviewed with special emphasis on low-
frequency attenuation characteristics in order
to meet site criteria.

This document is organized around the

typical approach to designing a large-engine
installation, as follows:

15
 Background path attenuators (e.g., walls or silencers) are
Statement of the Problem more effective at high frequencies than at
Simple Model low frequencies. Finally, receivers such as
building structures or the human ear are
A simple source/path/receiver model is
more sensitive at some frequencies than at
useful in noise control programs for basic
others.
understanding of the problem. Such a model
is illustrated in Figure 4. • The role of the facility designer usually is
to control the paths of noise, since the
source generally cannot be altered and the
noise restrictions at the receiver are often
Source Path Receiver fixed.

Large-Engine Installation
Figure 4. For facility design purposes, the large-engine
unit may be modeled as a number of different
Following are some general observations sub-sources, each having one or more
regarding this simple model. different paths to possible receivers, as
illustrated in Figure 5. This particular
• Sources generally emit both airborne and illustration relates to external noise, but the
structure-borne noise (the latter form of external environment in this problem could
noise also commonly referred to as also be an interior space in another part of the
vibration). Each form of noise may result in facility. It permits the introduction of some
undesirable airborne noise at the receiver, important concepts of the noise problem, in
which is the primary concern here. the following paragraphs.
• Noise generally travels from the source to Airborne mechanical noise is radiated from the
the receiver along several paths engine unit; some surfaces radiate far more
simultaneously. Every significant noise path noise than others. Receivers of airborne
must be treated in order to successfully mechanical noise may be located in the same
reduce levels at the receiver. This is room as the unit (for example, an operator) or
analogous to electrical switches in parallel: outside the engine room (for example, a
all switches must be open to stop current person elsewhere in the building or a
flow. community resident outside the building).
Noise paths to receivers outside the room
• A path may involve a series of structural or
include walls, ceilings, tunnels, and ventilation
acoustic elements. Any element in the path
system ducts.
can be controlled in order to attenuate
noise along that path. This is analogous to The acoustic environment inside the room
electrical switches in series, where any consists of a direct sound field (sound
open switch can stop the current flow. radiated straight from the source to the
receiver) and a reverberant sound field (sound
• It is essential to identify the receivers and
reflected from room boundaries). The
to determine what noise limits apply to
reverberant sound field is affected by the
them. This dictates the attenuation
room acoustics of the space (principally, the
required along each path.
sound absorptive properties of the room
• Sources, paths, and receivers of noise all boundaries), while the direct sound field is
have frequency-dependent response independent of the room acoustics.
properties. Sources such as large internal
Inlet and exhaust noise are also airborne
combustion engines typically emit high-
components, and generally are significant
amplitude, low-frequency noise, while most
noise sources on large internal combustion
engines. In addition to the airborne noise

16
transmitted along the inlet and exhaust people (e.g., hearing protection) or for
piping, noise may be radiated from the piping, equipment (e.g., vibration).
or from structures connected to the piping.
It is imperative that the site criteria be defined
Structure-borne noise (or vibration) is emitted before facility design is undertaken. Either
from the source and propagates through under- or over-designing the facility can be
connecting structures to airborne sound unnecessarily expensive if excessive
radiating surfaces. In the case of the engine abatement equipment is specified or if
unit, structure-borne noise travels first construction has to be redone in order to
through the spring mounts to the foundation. meet site criteria. The key is to determine the
Next, the noise energy may travel to the requirements of the site and design toward
building structure, either directly (if the that goal.
foundation is supported directly on the
building structure) or after traversing resilient Because of the extensive variation in the form
material or soil (if the foundation is isolated and the level of applicable restrictions and
from the building structure). At that point the standards around the world, it is beyond the
structure-borne energy is radiated as airborne scope of this document to provide a detailed
noise. coverage of this area. It is the responsibility of
the facility designer to identify the criteria
Site Criteria that apply to a particular installation. The
The site criteria determine the extent of noise facility must meet regulations governing the
control measures and treatments required for installation site, and may also voluntarily meet
a given installation. The criteria may be criteria and guidelines promoting safety and
defined by law or by acceptability standards. comfort of the receivers. A poorly designed
Generally, for large-engine units they address facility meeting local ordinances while
comfort of exposed people (e.g., noise in disregarding standards of comfort and safety
adjacent residential areas or in occupied for residents can still be the target of
spaces in other parts of the facility), but they community complaint.
may also address safety issues, either for

3
Stack
4

2
Large-engine Unit
1 5

Foundation 6
Soil

Figure 5.

17
 Site criteria for large-engine installations must the standard includes the 125 Hz octave band
take into account the high-amplitude low- as the lowest band of interest.
frequency noise emitted by such equipment,
in the form of both airborne and structure- In acquiring these data, the room correction
borne energy. Low-frequency noise is factor K (see the standard for a definition of
attenuated much less by walls and K) typically exceeds the limit of 7 dB, since
foundations than is high-frequency noise, and the tests are performed in a standard test cell
most noise control treatments are not as as opposed to a free-field environment.
effective at low frequency. Furthermore,
For facility design, room sound pressure
traditional design procedures for noise control
levels may be estimated by reversing the
may not be appropriate for low-frequency
calculation procedure in ISO/DIS 6798. This
noise. Again, it should be emphasized that
involves first defining a representative
experienced noise control professionals
enclosing surface for the unit and then
should be consulted in the design of noise-
calculating the free-field sound levels for that
sensitive installations.
surface from the sound power data. Then an
Noise Data adjustment is made to the estimated sound
levels to account for reverberation, using
Caterpillar provides noise data on
octave-band estimates for the correction
representative G3600–G3300 engine units.
factor K based on the anticipated room
These data are contained in the Technical
acoustic properties of the facility. With the
Data Section or in TMI. Generally, data are
room sound pressure level estimates and the
provided on a complete unit, such as a gen
site noise criteria, sound transmission loss
set, including an engine, some piece of driven
requirements for the facility can be
equipment, and a base. This is appropriate
determined.
because a unit will always include a base,
whether supplied by Caterpillar or by Inlet and Exhaust Noise
someone else. Usually the driven equipment Caterpillar measures inlet and exhaust sound
can be considered a secondary source in power according to ISO/DIS 6798, Annex A.
these data. However, the base should be These data may be used to estimate the
considered a significant sound radiating insertion loss requirements for inlet and
element of the set. Thus, the unit noise levels exhaust silencers.
(both airborne and structure-borne) might be
significantly different for a set with a different Noise Control
base. Successful facility design for noise generally
involves blending the use of noise control
Mechanical Noise
elements with careful attention to design
Caterpillar airborne mechanical sound
details. These two areas are addressed in the
power data are measured according to
following paragraphs.
ISO/DIS 6798, “Acoustics—Test code for the
measurement of airborne noise emitted by Commercial Elements
reciprocating internal combustion engines— This section provides some basic information
Engineering method and survey method.” on common types of commercially available
The uncertainty (standard deviation) of the noise control elements. The elements
A-weighted sound power levels is 5 dB, discussed here may or may not be part of a
according to the standard, since the data are successful large-engine installation,
acquired using the survey method and the depending on the installation design and on
noise has prominent discrete tones. the site criteria.
Octave-band sound power levels are provided, Vibration Isolators
although the standard only calls for an overall
There are a number of different types of
level when using the survey method. Also, the
vibration isolators available in the commercial
measurement frequency range includes the
market. Isolators might be used in the
31.5 Hz and the 63 Hz octave bands, although
suspension system for the engine unit (in

18
conjunction with, or as replacements for, the They may also be used for isolating building
standard Caterpillar spring mounts), or they structure elements such as floors and walls.
might be used to isolate vibration sensitive or
sound radiating elements of the building Seismic isolators. Isolators can transmit
structure. They work by providing an seismic vibrations to the engine unit and
impedance mismatch between structural possibly cause damage. Isolators are available
elements, thereby reflecting energy back that incorporate seismic restraining or
toward the source and reducing the energy damping devices with positive stops in all
transmitted to the receiving structure. directions.
Isolation is discussed further in the section on
Pipe hangers. Another potentially important
foundations below. Following is a brief
structure-borne noise path is through
summary of some common types of isolators:
supports for piping connected to the engine,
Air mounts (air springs). This type of isolator such as fuel and water lines, exhaust pipes,
uses an air-filled rubber tube as the spring and conduit. Isolated pipe hangers generally
element. Generally, lower mounting use springs or rubber elements to provide
resonance frequencies can be obtained with transmission loss.
air mounts than with other types of mounts.
Thus, they are often used in applications
Isolator Specification
where a very high degree of isolation is ISO Standard 2017-1982 is a useful guide for
required. However, usually they require a both isolator manufacturers and users,
regulated air supply and more maintenance containing recommended guidelines for the
than spring mounts. exchange of isolator and application
information to help ensure a successful
Metal spring mounts. This type probably is the isolation design.
most commonly used for mounting stationary
equipment. Spring mounts are especially Silencers
useful where moderately large static Silencers are used to attenuate airborne noise
deflections are required (static deflection is in piping and duct systems. Their
inversely proportional to the square of the effectiveness generally is frequency sensitive,
mounting resonance frequency), and in harsh so it is essential that they be matched to the
environments. This is the type of isolator frequency content of the noise. There are two
supplied by Caterpillar for its G3600 large- major categories of silencers: dissipative and
engine units, or as an attachment for smaller reactive. Dissipative silencers use absorptive,
engines. fibrous material to dissipate energy as heat.
They are effective only for high frequency
Elastomeric (rubber) isolators. This is perhaps applications (i.e., 500 to 8000 Hz).
the most common form of isolator used in
mobile equipment (e.g., engine mounts in Reactive silencers, on the other hand, use a
vehicles), but this type is found less often in change in cross-sectional area to reflect noise
stationary equipment installations. This form back to the source. They are typically used for
possesses greater damping than other forms, low-frequency applications (such as large
depending on the type of rubber used. One internal combustion engines), and they may
possible disadvantage of this form is that the incorporate perforated tubes to increase
properties of elastomers change more with broadband performance. The effectiveness of
age than do metals. a reactive silencer depends on its diameter,
volume, and overall design. Multi-chamber
Resilient pads. These are simple pads of some silencers provide maximum sound attenuation
resilient material such as rubber, felt, or cork. with some flow restriction. Straight-through
They are sometimes used alone or in silencers offer negligible flow restriction with
conjunction with other types of isolator to slightly lower sound attenuation.
provide high-frequency vibration isolation.
Used alone for equipment mounting, they are Stack silencers are designed to be inserted
generally the least effective type of isolator. directly into a stack and withstand a harsh

19
 environment. Finally, some manufacturers so that noise outside the enclosure is also
offer combination heat-recovery silencers for increased. In the case of a barrier without
hot gas exhaust. absorption, the noise is simply reflected
elsewhere. Transmission loss and absorption
Most manufacturers offer silencer dynamic are the main selection criteria for barriers and
insertion loss (DIL) information in octave enclosures, and each is a function of
bands from 63 to 8000 Hz, tested in frequency.
accordance with ASTM E-477. DIL is the
difference in sound level with and without a Openings in enclosures should be acoustically
silencer installed in a pipe or duct with treated, for maximum effectiveness. Also,
airflow. Some manufacturers rate silencers as when using sound barriers it is important to
being “industrial”, “commercial”, or control “flanking paths” (sound paths around
“residential” grade; in such a case, the DIL of the barrier).
the silencer should still be requested in order
to determine the grade of silencer most There are many types of commercially
suitable for the installation. available enclosures and barriers. Complete
enclosures for specific types of mechanical
To determine the DIL required by a particular equipment are available, some of which
application, information is required on the include silenced air inlets/exits and a reactive
actual (unsilenced) and desired noise levels at silencer for exhaust noise. Several types of
the emission point. The difference between modular panels are available that may include
these values is the silencer DIL. The desired sound absorbing material on one or both
source noise level is determined from the sides of the panel. Outdoor barriers, designed
criteria governing the site. to resist wind and seismic forces, are also
available to block or reflect noise outdoors.
When used to attenuate exhaust noise, the
silencer must be sized to accommodate the Along with acoustical performance, practical
specified volume of flow without imposing issues must be considered in using barriers
excessive back pressure. The flow area for a or enclosures. Engine enclosures require
given back pressure can be calculated from ventilation to dissipate the heat that builds up
the engine exhaust flow (CFM) and the within the enclosure. The enclosure must be
exhaust temperature. The pressure drop will accessible for maintenance and inspection,
determine the required size of the silencer. and may require panic latches on doors.
Acoustic materials within the enclosure must
Enclosures and Barriers be fire-resistant.
Enclosures and barriers block and reflect
direct-radiated sound from a noise source. A Sound Absorption Treatments
barrier provides a “shadow zone” of sound Acoustically absorptive surfaces convert
attenuation between the source and the acoustic energy into heat, and are generally
receiver, much as light casts a shadow behind described by sound absorption coefficients in
a wall. Full enclosures may be used around octave bands. Absorptive surfaces may be
the source or around the receiver (e.g., used to reduce the reverberant (reflected)
personnel in affected areas). Partial barriers sound field within a room. As mentioned
may be used to protect noise sensitive areas, above, reducing the reverberant field within a
by locating receivers in the shadow zone. room can also reduce the noise field outside
the room. It should be noted that absorptive
The effectiveness of a barrier in blocking materials do not attenuate the direct sound
noise transmitted through it is a function of its field.
sound transmission characteristics. Both
enclosures and barriers should be lined with The absorption of a room may be estimated
absorptive material to be fully effective. In the on an octave-band basis from the absorption
case of an enclosure without absorption, the coefficients and the area of each room surface
reverberant field inside the enclosure can (ceiling, walls, and floor). Alternatively, the
greatly increase the interior sound pressure, room absorption may be determined through

20
reverberation time measurements. Using this sensitive installations is to over-design for
information and the source sound power data, structure-borne noise, to ensure that it is not a
the noise reduction that can be obtained by problem. This means taking care to control
adding absorption to a room may be every possible structure-borne noise path.
determined. Information on the absorption Especially in this area, designers are strongly
coefficients of a material or element may be urged to consult qualified professional noise
obtained from the manufacturer. control engineers for noise-sensitive
installations.
A wide variety of commercially available
sound absorbing elements are available for Large-engine units usually are mounted on
almost every application. Ceiling treatments concrete pad or metal deck foundations, using
include lay-in tiles or boards (for suspended the Caterpillar-supplied spring mounts
ceilings), tiles that can be directly affixed to between the unit base and the foundation.
the ceiling surface, and suspended absorbers. Since the Caterpillar unit base provides
Acoustic wall panels range from sufficient stiffness for alignment and relative
“architectural” panels with attractive finishes deflection of the engine and the driven
to perforated metal panels filled with equipment, there is no need to rely on the
absorbing materials. Concrete blocks with foundation for additional stiffness. Thus a
slotted faces and acoustical fill may be used to foundation that is adequate for supporting the
add sound absorption to normal concrete static load of the unit will be satisfactory for
block wall construction. many installations where noise is not a critical
concern.
Sound absorbing elements are selected on the
basis of their sound absorption coefficient in In installations where noise is a major
the octave bands of interest. In addition, the concern, attention must be directed toward all
elements must survive their environment, be elements of the isolation system and to the
easy to maintain, and offer acceptable flame structural paths between the foundation and
spread properties. the rest of the building structure. Adequate
isolation often can be achieved with a simple
Foundation Design system, but some installations may require a
Foundation Design is a very important and compound isolation system. Both types are
often overlooked aspect of large-engine unit discussed briefly in the following paragraphs.
facility design. Large-engine units, as noted
above, emit relatively strong low frequency Simple System
energy—structure-borne as well as airborne. If An isolation system with one dynamic mass
the facility design does not account for both and one set of isolation mounts is termed a
forms of noise, it is likely that site noise criteria simple isolation system. The transmissibility
will not be met. (Foundation design for function for an ideal simple isolation system is
installations where noise is not an issue is shown in Figure 6. Transmissibility describes
discussed in the Mounting section. the ratio of force transmitted to the foundation
(assumed rigid) to the force generated in the
Unfortunately, structure-borne transmission excitation source. Thus low transmissibility is
and radiation is much more difficult to analyze desirable.
than airborne noise. Whereas it may be
relatively straightforward to estimate the At low frequencies the transmissibility has a
airborne noise transmission loss of the building value of unity—that is, force is transmitted
structure and various types of noise control across the isolator without a change in
systems, and thereby assess the adequacy of a amplitude. Around the resonance frequency
facility design, reliable quantitative estimates of of the system, the transmissibility reaches a
structure-borne noise transmission may be maximum—that is, the transmitted force is
extremely difficult or impossible to obtain with substantially greater than the applied force,
current technology, particularly at low depending on the amount of damping in the
frequencies. Thus, the usual approach for noise- mounts. The resonance frequency is

21
 determined by the ratio of mount stiffness to are evident below 3 Hz. In the frequency
dynamic mass. range above those modes, the transmissibility
function falls off with a -2 decade per decade
At a point above the resonance frequency, the slope, as with the ideal system. However, note
transmissibility function drops below unity the peaks in the function starting at around 20
and isolation benefit begins to be realized. Hz. Those peaks are associated with
(The frequency at which the function crosses structural resonances in one or both of the
unity is 1.4 times the resonance frequency.) structures on either side of the isolation
From that point the transmissibility elements.
diminishes at a rate of -2 decades per decade
of frequency. Clearly, the isolation system Compound System
must be designed so that the frequency of the Increased structure-borne noise isolation can
rigid-body mode is much lower than the be realized with a compound isolation system.
lowest frequency of significant structure- Such a system has an intermediate mass with
borne noise from the source, in order to an additional set of isolation mounts, thus
realize isolation benefit. doubling the number of rigid-body modes of
the isolation system. Above the rigid-body
Actual installations differ from the simple, mode range, the transmissibility function has
ideal system in several important respects. a -4 decade per decade slope—twice the slope
First, the isolated mass actually has six rigid- of the simple system. This is illustrated in
body degrees of freedom, rather than a single Figure 8 for an ideal system with only vertical
one as in the system described above. That translation response (the response of the
means that an actual system has six simple model is also plotted, with a grey line,
resonance modes defining the lower- for comparison).
frequency range where no isolation benefit is
provided. Note that there are two rigid-body modes in
this function, one at about 3.5 Hz and one at
The second important difference between about 7 Hz. Above the second mode the
actual systems and the ideal system is that the greater negative slope in the function is
structures on either side of the isolators are clearly evident.
not perfectly rigid. The effectiveness of the
system depends on the dynamic compliance An actual compound isolation system would
(inverse of dynamic stiffness) of the resilient have a total of 12 rigid-body modes. An actual
elements relative to the compliance of the system also would have reduced isolation
attached structures. Thus, an isolation system effectiveness associated with resonances in
may not perform satisfactorily, even with very the structural elements on either side of the
soft resilient elements, unless the connected isolation elements, just as in a simple isolation
structures are relatively stiff. system.

The principal source of dynamic weakness in A common question from facility designers is,
structures is resonance. Resonance is a "How large should the foundation mass be to
dynamic effect where the structure may be prevent excessive structure-borne noise?" For
hundreds or thousands of times weaker than a simple isolation system, where the
it is statically (i.e., at zero Hz). Therefore, foundation is rigidly supported on the
isolation effectiveness will suffer around building structure or embedded in the
resonance frequencies of the structures on ground, the above discussion indicates that
either side of the isolation elements. It is the mass of the foundation is not in itself
important, therefore, to ensure that there are important. Rather, it is the dynamic stiffness
no uncontrolled resonances in the critical of the foundation that affects the isolation
frequency range of the isolation system. effectiveness.

Figure 7 shows a measured transmissibility Another critical factor is the nature of the
function on an actual simple mounting structural connection between the foundation
system. Several of the six rigid-body modes and the rest of the building structure. For

22
 IDEAL SIMPLE ISOLATION SYSTEM

Figure 6.

MEASURED TRANSMISSABILITY ON
A SIMPLE MOUNTING SYSTEM

Figure 7.

COMPOUND ISOLATION MOUNTING SYSTEM

Figure 8.

23
 example, with a soil-embedded foundation, equal to that of the gen set package, with 8
where there is direct ground contact all standard spring mounts between the gen set
around the foundation, substantial structure- base and the block and 10 standard spring
borne noise transmission may occur from the mounts between the block and ground. The
foundation to the soil and from the soil into total weight on the lower mounts is slightly
the building structure, regardless of the mass below the total rated capacity of those
of the foundation. This is because wave mounts. This compound system has two
motion occurs in any elastic medium, and vertical bounce modes, one at 3.1 Hz (where
wave motion will be transmitted into any the gen set and the block vibrate in phase)
other elastic medium in contact with the first. and one at 8.6 Hz (where the gen set and the
Thus, for a simple isolation system, attention block vibrate out of phase).
must be focused on foundation stiffness as
well as the interface between the foundation The transmissibility function for the compound
and its supporting ground or structure. system is plotted in Figure 11, along with the
functions for the two simple systems for
Another concern with any type of isolation comparison.
system is to ensure that there are no rigid
structural connections across the isolation Above the higher mode, the transmissibility
system, which can in effect short-circuit the function has a slope of -4 decades per decade
isolation system. of frequency—twice as great as that of a
simple system—as discussed above. Thus,
Comparison of Isolation Systems above 10 Hz the transmissibility of the
To illustrate different isolation systems, compound system is much better than that of
consider the case of a G3600 gen set package. the standard system, and the difference
The total weight of the package is 113,000 lb continues to increase with frequency.
(51,300 kg). The standard mount system for Similarly, the performance of the compound
the package consists of 8 spring mounts, system is better than that of the simple air-
each with a spring rate of 34,640 lb/in mount system above 20 Hz. However, below
(6.08e6 N/m) and a capacity of 22,900 lb 10 Hz the transmissibility function for the
(10,400 kg). This standard system has a compound system is substantially worse than
fundamental vertical bounce mode frequency that of either of the simple systems.
of 4.9 Hz (for simplicity, ignore the other five
rigid-body modes of the system). The Note that while the standard simple spring-
transmissibility function for this system is mount system is quite stable by itself, some
shown in Figure 6. As shown above, the additional isolation elements might be
function has a slope of -2 decades per decade required for adequate lateral stability in either
of frequency above the resonance frequency. the simple air-mount system or the compound
system.
Now, consider a modified simple isolation
system where the standard spring mounts are
replaced with air mounts with a total effective
spring rate of 26,000 lb/in (4.56e6 N/m). This
modified system has a fundamental vertical
bounce mode frequency of 1.5 Hz, as
illustrated in the transmissibility function in
Figure 10, which also shows the
transmissibility function for the standard
system for comparison. Note that above 4 Hz
the air-mount system transmissibility is an
order of magnitude lower than that of the
standard spring-mount system.

Finally, consider a compound isolation system

having an intermediate block with a mass

24
 SIMPLE ISOLATION SYSTEM– SPRING MOUNTS

Figure 9.

SPRING VS AIR MOUNTS

Figure 10.

SPRING AND AIR MOUNTS VS COMPOUND MOUNTING

Figure 11.

25
 Wave Barriers a building is through good building layout.
Wave barriers can be used to attenuate Equipment rooms should be situated far from
structure-borne noise transmission in sensitive receiver locations in the building.
installations where the concrete pad is This takes advantage of the fact that
embedded in the ground. Wave barriers propagating sound energy diminishes with
typically take the form of a trench around the distance from the source. In addition, there
pad. The trench, which may be unfilled or are two other methods of controlling airborne
filled with a resilient material, is sized so that noise: with high transmission loss walls and
it provides an effective impedance mismatch with absorption.
for soilborne vibrational energy.
It is helpful to review some terminology
Building Construction before discussing the sound transmission
A properly designed facility provides adequate characteristics of walls. The transmission loss
attenuation for all possible paths of noise in (TL) of a partition is a measure of the ratio of
order to meet the site noise criteria. It has energy incident on the wall to that transmitted
been emphasized throughout this discussion through the wall, expressed in dB. The less
that this requires attention to both airborne relative sound transmitted through the wall,
and structure-borne noise. Either form can the higher the TL of the wall. TL is a function
result in excessive airborne noise within the of frequency.
facility or in the exterior environment. The
The sound transmission class (STC) of a
following paragraphs are intended to provide
partition is a single-number rating calculated
some basic guidelines and cautions regarding
from the partition TL. A reference contour is
facility design for noise control.
adjusted against the measured TL data, and
Airborne Noise Control the STC rating equals the value of the
Airborne noise control is a straightforward adjusted contour at 500 Hz. The STC rating
and well-developed area compared with does not include information in frequency
structure-borne noise control. There is bands below 125 Hz. This rating is useful for
abundant information available on sound designing walls that provide insulation against
absorption and transmission properties of the sounds of speech and music; it is
common construction materials, and there are inappropriate for industrial machinery with
accepted and proven procedures for applying low-frequency energy such as large-engine
that information. units. TL data should be used instead,
whenever possible.
However, it is important to recognize that much
of the conventional information and procedures In typical partitions, sounds at higher
were developed for higher-frequency noise, and frequencies are attenuated more than sounds
thus may not be appropriate for large-engine at lower frequencies. The highest
units, which produce strong low-frequency transmission loss values are found in cavity
energy. For example, structural and acoustic wall (two-leaf) constructions, where the two
resonances (conditions of minimum dynamic separate wall layers are well isolated. The
stiffness) may coincide with pure-tone frequency transmission loss values increase with the
components of the engine noise, resulting in masses of the individual leafs, the depth of the
very efficient transfer of energy. Conventional airspace, and the characteristics of any sound-
building acoustics generally is based on absorptive material in the airspace.
statistical descriptions of noise, and therefore
It should be noted that noise leaks can
does not address resonance effects.
severely degrade the performance of a
For some installations, airborne noise must partition. Materials are tested for their
be controlled at several receiver points: inside transmission loss characteristics in a
the engine room; in other rooms in the controlled laboratory setting, with all edges
building; and outside the building. The sealed. But in typical construction, sound
simplest way to reduce airborne noise within leaks may occur at the edges of the wall, at
openings for pipes or electrical outlets, and

26
across shared ceilings (so-called flanking Another way to attenuate structure-borne
paths). A wall with a leakage area equal to noise is through structural discontinuities. A
0.01% of that of the wall area cannot exceed discontinuity, or impedance mismatch, causes
STC = 40, no matter how high the STC of the a reflection of energy back toward the source,
wall construction. thereby controlling noise transmission. Such
discontinuities are usually filled with a
A partition may include elements with various resilient material to prevent debris falling into
transmission loss characteristics—for and “shorting out” the gap. Semirigid
example, windows and doors. The fiberglass board is normally used to fill wall
transmission loss of the partition must be gaps, while asphalt-impregnated fiberglass
calculated taking all elements into board is normally used between on-grade
consideration. slabs, foundations, and footings. Many times,
large buildings already incorporate expansion
To estimate the total airborne noise
joints to allow for thermal expansion and
transmission loss of a facility, subtract the
contraction. These may be used to attenuate
noise value for each receiver from the
structure-borne noise by placing the source
estimated room-average sound pressure level.
and receivers on opposite sides of the
If there is more than one space, the sum of
expansion joint. It is essential that
the individual contributions must not exceed
construction elements, pipes, or any other
the criterion.
rigid connections do not bridge these
Structure-borne Noise Control discontinuities.
This area was actually introduced above in a In addition to the source and the path,
discussion on foundations. The purpose of a receiver locations can also be treated to
vibration isolation system (whether simple or control structure-borne noise in some
compound), or a wave barrier, is to control situations. For example, a “floating floor”
the transmission of structure-borne noise construction may be used to isolate the
from the engine unit to the building structure, receiver (e.g., a person or some piece of
either directly or through the ground. The vibration-sensitive equipment) from building
information above on commercial vibration vibration.
isolators also applies to this area.

Those measures are intended to control noise

Glossar y
close to the source, where control measures Attenuate. This is the noise control
generally are most effective. However, even technician’s word for “reduce”.
with effective isolation mounting of the engine
A-weighting. The ear does not hear equally at
unit it still may be necessary to provide
all frequencies—that is, it is more sensitive at
additional structure-borne noise attenuation in
some frequencies than at others. The A-
the building construction. The simplest way
weighting curve was developed to account for
to attenuate structure-borne noise along a
the filtering effect of human hearing. This
path (at least conceptually) is to increase the
curve severely attenuates low-frequency noise
distance between the source and receiver,
(below 100 Hz), allows mid-frequencies (1000
since the amplitude of structure-borne noise
Hz) to pass unattenuated, and attenuates high
decreases with increasing distance from the
frequencies. The unit “dBA” refers to a level
vibration source. The attenuation of noise in
with A-weighting applied.
concrete-frame buildings has been found to
be about 5 dB per floor for frequencies up to Frequency. Refers to the rapidity or the pitch
1000 Hz. Attenuation for vibrations travelling of an oscillation. The conventional unit is
along continuous concrete floor slabs typically Hertz (abbreviated “Hz”), one Hz being one
range from 1.5 to 2 dB/meter. In general, cycle per second.
there is less attenuation along horizontal
building structures. Level. Quantities describing sound are usually
expressed as a level. By definition, level is 10
times the logarithm of the ratio of a given

27
 power-like quantity to a reference quantity of
the same kind, and has the unit dB (decibel).
Describing quantities in terms of level is very
useful when the range of values is large. For
example, whispered speech has an average
sound power level of 1e-8 watts (40 dB), while
a light airplane cruising has a sound power
level of 100 watts (140 dB). A 10 dB increase
corresponds to a factor of 10 increase in a
power-like quantity and a factor of 3.16
increase in a linear quantity.

Octave band. A constant-percentage division

of frequency—that is, a given octave band is
twice as wide as the immediately lower band.
A band is specified by its center frequency
(which is actually the geometrical center,
rather than the arithmetic center of the band).

Sound power. The total acoustical output of a

source. Since sound power relates only to
source strength, it is independent of the
acoustic environment. Given information on
the acoustic environment the sound pressure
can be estimated for any position relative to
the noise source. Sound power is not
measured directly, but is determined from
either sound pressure or sound intensity
measurements. Guidelines for measurement
of both quantities are provided in various
national and international standards.

Sound intensity. The rate of flow of sound

energy through a unit area at a given point.
Intensity is a vector quantity—that is, it has a
direction associated with it—as opposed to
sound pressure. In practice, sound intensity
usually is measured with a two-microphone
probe.

Sound pressure. The dynamic pressure at a

point in space. Sound pressure is a scalar
quantity—that is, it has no direction
associated with it. It is the easiest quantity of
sound to measure, requiring only a simple
sound level meter. However, sound pressure,
being the sum of sound waves arriving from
every direction, depends on the acoustic
characteristics of the environment and varies
with position relative to the noise source.
Thus sound pressure cannot be used to
describe the strength of a noise source
without specifying relative position and room
acoustic properties of the test environment.

28
 Materials and specifications are
subject to change without notice.

© 1997 Caterpillar Inc.

Printed in U.S.A.