Indian Roads Congress

Special Publication 27

GOLDEN JUBILEE YEAR REPORT

CONTAINING
RECOMMEND-
ATIONS OF
THE IRC
REGIONAL
WORKSHOPS
ON HIGHWAY
SAFETY

NEW DELHI 1984

<<
 IndIan Roads Congress
Special Publication 27

REPORT
CONTAINING
RECOMMEND-
ATIONS OF
THE IRC
REGIONAL
WORKSHOPS
ON HIGHWAY
SAFETY

Published by
The Indian Roads Congress

Copies can be had by VPP.

from the Secretary,
Indian Roads Congress,
Jamnagar House,
Shahjahan Road,
New DeIhHilO 011
NEW DELHI 19B4 Price 24&**%
(Plus packing &
postage)

<<
 First Pubtished in November, 1984

(ilie Right of Publication and Trans/orion are Reserred

Published by N nan Koshi, ~kcrL’~arv, Indian Roads Congress, Jamnagnr

House, Shabjahan Road, New fleihi, Printed al PR INlAID, Nes; Delhi-20
<<
 IGREWO]. I)

1 1 UUPccl t!Lli.itL~ tli,it the , LC! Lii 1 i1~ in OUr Loll lltc\
c’lt~ c’ithc hi’’h ‘‘! 11! the Pd. U i akic t,t ~L! dr’Iu brn~thit tic
Y~0c

cnt’tc’-’ ci F iii acet lent tl~uUK r !sinL~‘ft qdilv ant mw

‘,iands at flu!. than 15 pci ¼~Uta co nip ~ed to 10 p r c. -it
~.

N a decade 1,ack O~L’ r ‘0.000 ln~’ are h’ct cscrv ~ a r ci’

iii rccad’~ b.. ‘.idcs ml U! le to thu ll\i ni or Plopic’ ~tnC h nc
&CuUOflhic lc’’ne~ in tct ins cci Jamaic’ tehid ‘s N
‘

IlL fle’ d to r c 1~urinocreate’ vttciv 01’ c’Lt! h itch i~tv~ k, !1i~.1 C

tic’- ot the tlt:UOct impovtanc~’+

[he Indian Roads Congress ha~e been deeply cone i ned

vith the subject of Highway Safety, in pursuance of a decision
ot the Council in their 85th meeting held at Hyderabad on the
3rd January. 1976 the Indian Roads congress organised Work-
shops on Highway Safety in six regions of the country at
Chandigarh. Trivandrum, Lucknoss Bombay, Calcutta and .

Cand h ina gar.

With a view to ha~e interaction between the various

disciplines necessary for tackling problems of highway safety.
speciali~tsfrom other walks of life, such as administrators, planners.
pi ofessors. police and transport officers and scientists apart from
highway engineers, were invited to participate in these workshops.
A number of useful suggestions were thu own up in these workshops
which are now being brought out in the form of a Special
Publication.

K~K.SAraN
New Delhi Director General (Road Development) & Additional
November, 1984 Secretary to the Govt. of India

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 CONTENTS

I’age
Section 1 Introduction I
1.2. Accident Scenario ... 4
1.6. Accident Causative Factors ... 7
1.11. Highway Safety Workshops Organised
by the Indian Roads Congress .. 9
1.12. Scope of this Publication . 10
Section 2 Consolidated Summary of Recommen-
dations of the IRC Highway Safety
Workshops Organised at Chandigarh,
Trivandrum, Lucknow, Bombay,
Calcutta and Gandhinagar ... ii

2.1. Engineering Measures to Improve

Road Safety ... 13
2.2. Traffic Enforcement ... 19
2.3. Traffic Education ... 24
2.4. Accident investigation ... 26
Section 3 : Explanatory Notes ... 31
3.1. Road Condition and Traffic Safety ... 33
3.2. Geometric Design for Improved Safety ... 36
3.3. Road Intersections •.. 5~
3.4. Roadside Developments, Roadside
Hazards and Road Appurtenances .. 66
3.5. Road Surface Characteristics .. 78
3.6. Traffic Regulation and Control .. 79
3.7. Accident Recording and Analysis ... 92
3.8. Education ... 100
3:9. Enforcement ... 103
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 Page
Appeadla Standaids, Coda and Manuals ofthe Indian
Roads Congress which contain Guidelines
Relating to Traffic Safety .. 105

LIST OF TABLES
Table A.,. Page
1.1. Gro’sth of Registered Motor Vehicles in India ... 3
12. Growth of Road and Rail Traffi~’In India .. 4
1.3. Road Accidents in India ... 5
1.4. Accident Rates In a Few Selected Cities in India . 5
1.5. Rate of Road Accidents in s Few Selected
Countries 6
1.6. Estimated Cost of Road Accidents in India .. 7
3.1. Effect of Frequency of Intersections on
Accident Rate .. SI
3.2. Parameters to be Considered for Reducing
the Intensity of Vehicular Conflicts ... 57
3.3. Check List of Points to bc Looked Into from
Safety Angle in the Design of Intersections ... 60
3.4. Speed Limits Prescribed in the Motor Vehicles
Act, 1939 •.. 82
3.5. Speed Limits Recommended for Different Types
of Vehicles In Urban Areas 82
3.6. Comparison of Accident Rates of Road Sections
CarryIng Uniform Traffic ... 97
3.7. Comparhon of Accident Rates of Road Sections
Carrying Different Traffic Intensities ... 97
3.8. PossIble Causes of Predominant
Type of Accident . ... 95
3.9. Remedial Measures Suggested for Different
Types or Collision 99

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 1 1ST OF FiGURES
Fig. So. Page
3.1. Effect of Road Parameters on Accident Rate ... 35
3.2. Some of the Safety Problems Arising at
Horiontal Curves ..- 39
3.3. Corrections to Vertical Profile for
Improved Safety 41
3.4. Sketches illustrating Good and Bad
Alignment Co-ordination 42
3.5. Treatment at Typical Cases of Pavement
Widening ... 44
3.6. Traffic Safety Problems Relating to Shoulders 46
3.7. Side Drains for Hill Roads 47
3.11. Embankment Slopes for Traffic Safety 47
3.9. Problems of Visibility Along and Across
the Road ... 49
3.10. Criteria for Measuring Sight Distance 50•
3.11. Vehicular Conflicts at lntersections .55
3.12. Conflict Points at Typical intersections 56
3.13. Channellsation for Separating Conflicis
and for Reducing Conflict Area ... 59
3.14. Satisfactory and Unsatisibctory Design of
%t-gradc Intersections 62
3.15. Controlling Entry Speed of Right Turning
Vehicles 62
3.16. Treatment at Bra aching Point of Byepasses to
Avoid Misdirection to Through Traffic 64
3.17. Minimum Sight Triangle at Uncontrolled
Intersection 65
3.15. Minimum Sight Triangle at Priority Intersection 66
3.19. Typical Cross-sections for Highnay Sections
Approaching CitlesjTowns 68
3.20. TransitIon at Bridge Approaches 70
3.21. Common Designs of Guard-Rails ... 75
3.22. Typical Guard-Rail Treatment at Bridge
Approaches 76
3.23. Arrangements for Traffic when a Cross-Drainage
Structure is to be Reconstructed 77
3.24. Pavement Markings at Road Intersections 93
3.25. Method of Marking No-Passing Zone on Snmmit
Curve 94
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 MFMI3FRS OF THE TRAFFIC ENGINEERING COMMUI TEE

I Dr. N .5, Srinivasan Pace itt ice. Director, National Transportation Pian~
(C’onvenOr) ning and. Research Cenl re, Trivandruni
2. F). Sanyal Chief Pro ccI Co~ordina(or, National ‘i’ransporla—
(Meniber~Secrctary) tHen Planning and Research Centre, New Del hi
ProF. G. NI. Anclavan Ch~elEngineer, Flood Relief Works Tanñl Nadu
l.T.EC. f:ixpert with Highway Authority, Indian
IC A rLinach a am
Embassy, Sanaa Y A It
.5,. A K I3andopadhya~a i:’raliic & Transporta.t in Planner, Calcu I in
6. AsK ihattacharya ChiJ I ngintei I Roath) Mirnsti ~ oF Shipptnt Si
iransport (Roads Wing)
7, P.S. Bawa Inspector General of Police, Goa, Damn n & Diu,
Panaji-403 (It) I
8, fts,C, Borliar Superintending Engineer, P.W .1). Bombay
c~. P. [)a Superintending Engineer, Research Development &
Quality Promotion Ccll( R&B), Orissa
‘i. c:; hash Chief E.ngineer, lRetd.) P.W.D. Bihar
11. Dr. AK. (Jupla Reader in Civil E ngg. Cwordina tor ‘iran:sportation
Engg., University of Ronrkee
12. 113r. CE.. .Listo Pr of. of Civil Engineering, Bangalore University
1:1. L.R. Kadiyali I Ii 0 1 n~inttt I Pla nninl,F M in isi r of Shipping &
iransport (Roads Wing)
i~4. 1(5. Logavflyagani Chief Eng~neer(Reid.), Tamil Nadu
15 . ,loginder Singh Supertni,ending Engineer, Maharshi Dayanand
Univer:sity, ltohtak
16, Dr. 5K. Khanna Secretary, University Grants Cninniission
7 1:3,Nlehta Secretary to the (bc t. of Gujarat, B & C Dept t.
18. Dr. S.P. Paianiswamy Professor, Indian Institute ol Technology., Kanpur
19. SM. ParLilkar iR 1 nl,ineu Mun p11 Corpot ttion of 1w riot
Born hay
2.0. P. Pa I naiF Engin;.’er’in~Chief’cum.S’ecretary t ci the Govt. of
Orissa
21. Dr. S. Ragha va (‘han l’lead I’ransportation Engineering., Regional
Engineering College, Warangal
22. Prof. N . ltangaoat han Professor, School of Plartning & Archite:ctLire,
New Dci hi
2.:L VS. Rani: 5.i,çri’titry to the Gi:ivt, ot’ Maharashtra (I)
24, ProF NI .5 .V. Rae FLail of Det,artniertt c:it’ Traffic &. rr~tt~sj~ortatiori
Planning, School of Planning & Architect ore,
New Delhi
25. i’)r, 0,5. Sahgal Principal, Punjab Engineering College, Chandigarh
26. I.), V. Sahni hr I m,,rne t (its. td ) Punj sh P 5% D B& It

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27 Dr. S NI. Sarin Scientist, Tra file Dh ision Central Road Research
Inst ito e
28. H C. Sethi Superintending Engineer, Haryana P.W.D. B&R
29. HJ’sI Shah Chief Engineer (NH) R&B Deptt. (landhinagar
30. 1.1 Thillainayagam 15, Second Street, Adyar, Madras
31, V.V. Thakar Chief Ewcutive, Laghu Lidyog Nigam, Bhnpal
32. P Ci Valsankar Town & Country Planner, Ministry of Works &
Housing
33 DL. Vaidva Execuuve Engineer & Head, Traffic Engineering
Cell, Simm
34. PD. Wani Superintending Engineer, Thane (PW Circlej
35. K. Yegnanarayana Chief Engineer (ReId.), P.W.i), Hyderabad
36. R ,Y. Tanthe Chief, Transport & Communications Division,
B.M,R~D~A,
7 ~r (3 urutnurthy Superintending Engineer, Traffic Engg. Managerne nt
Circle, Highways & Rural Works, Madras
38. P.R. Wagh Superintending Engineer, Road Project Circle,
Aurangabad
3’) It .C. Sharina Director, Transport Research, Ministry of Shipping
& Transport
40, MA hdul Rahiman Chief Engineer, National Highways, Trivand rum
Kut ty
41, The Piesident Secretary to the Govt. of Maharashtra (I)-Ex~fficFo
(VS. Rand
42. [he Adviser Ads iser (l’echnical) Hoogly Rivet’ Bridge Comniis—
PC Bhasinl sioners~Ex-officlo
43. The Secretary Chief Engineer (Bridges), Ministry of Shipping &
(N man Koshi Transport (Roads Wing)-Ex-officIo
44 K.K. Sarin Director General (Road Development) & AddL
Secretary to the Govt of 1ndia-Es-~ffcio

<<
 Introduction

Introduction

<<
 1~
INTRODUCT1ON

Li. The rapid socio-economic development taking place

in the country since Independence has brought in its wake a~
large expansion of the transportation system. Of the available
modes of transport, road transport, because of its easy avai-
lability, flexibility in operation, adaptability to individual needs,
door to door service and reliability, has become increasingly
popular and its share in the total transportation load has been
steadily increasing. Over the past 30 years, the number of regis-
tered motor vehicles has increased by 14 times, the freight
traffic by 4.6 times and passenger traffic by 5 times as could be
seen from Tables LI. and 1,2. According to the projections of the
National Transport Policy Committee, the mechanised road
transport is poised to handle rmeight and passenger traffic of the
order of 185 billion tonne km and 800 billion passenger km
respectively by the turn of the century. In a situation like this,
it is becoming increasingly important to ensure that all possi-
ble measures are taken for making road transport safe and
firee-flowing.

TABLE 1.1. GROwTE OF Reorsrraro MoToa Vamcuts IN lr’mtA

(‘000 Nos.)

Type of vehicle 1950-51 1980-81 Per cent

l~ increase

C~ars,,jeeps, taxis 159 1054 563

Buses 34 140 312
Trucks 82 494 502
Two and three wheelers 27 2461 9015
Other vehicles 4 548 13600

Total 306 4697 1435

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 4 INTIt0DIJCT1t )N

TABLE 12. GRowTH OF ROAD AND RAIL TRAFFiC tN INDIA

S

Particulars Rail Road k Total

A. Freight traffic
(Billion tonne-km) 1950—51 44,1 5,5 49.6
(88,9) (11.1) (100)
1981-82 174.2 104.0 278,2
(62.6) (37,4) (100)

Per cent increase 290 1800 460

B. Passenger traffic
(Billion passenger kin)
1950-51 56 23 89
(74.2) (25.8) (100)
1981-82 221 316 537
(41.2) (58,8) (100)

Per cent increase 230 1270 500

Note Figures within brackets show the relative share between Rail and Road
in per cent.

1.2. Accident Scenario

The phenomenal growth of road transport has brought
along with it the serious problem of traffic accidents. There.
has been an increasing trend in the number of road accidents
as well as casualties from year to year. Over the last 20 years,
the number of accidents has gone up by 1.8 tfmes, the number
killed by 4.2~limes and the number injured by 2+5 times as mdi-
cated in Table 1.3. On an average, over 400 reported road accidents
take place every day leading to about 70 persons being killed
and 300 injurcd. Besides this, a sizeable number of accidents,
mostly of minor nature go unreported each day.

1.3. A further analysis of the data reveals certain speci-

the country. The five metropoli-
tic features of road accidents in
tan cities of Bombay, Banglore, Calcutta, Delhi and Madras

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 INTRODUCtION 5
TAMe 1,3. RoAD ACCIDENTS IN INDIA

year Number of Number of persons Number of persons

accidents killed injured

19S) 55,500 5,100 33,700

19ic8 102,200 10,800 58,400
1976 121,800 17,200 88,100
1980 148,000 24,000 114,000
1981 153,400 26,500 118,000

Per cent increase com-

pared to year 1960 180 420 250
Average gross th rate
per annum tper cent) 4.9 8.2 6.1

account for about 30 per cent of the total accidents in the country
as could be seen from Table 1.4. As regards the types of persons
killed, occupants of motor vehicles constitute about 41 per cent,
pedestrians 40 per cent and cyclists 7 per cent. If data for the
metropolitan cities alone are considered, the proportion of pede-
strian and cyclist casualties are much higher. Fault of driver of
motor vehicles has been found to be responsible for about 50
per cent of the accidents while the corresponding figures in respect
of pedestrians and cyclists are about 9 per cent and 4 per cent res-
pectively. Another revealing feature is that majority of the fatal
accidents are due to fliult of drivers ofheavy vehicles.
TAttle. l.4.ACcrnENT RATE IN A Paw SELECTED Cinas
iN INDIA

City’particulars 1979 1980 1981

A. Number of accIdents
Bombay 22,601 22,979 23,161
Bangalore 4,377 4,215 4,279
C’alcutta 9,970 9,158 8,268
Delhi 4,497 4,044 3,626
Madras 4,722 5,163 5,878
All India 142,171 148,000 153,400
Total for 5 cities 46,167 45,500 45,212
(32.5) (31.0) (29.5)

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 6 INTRODUCTION

B. Number of persons killed

Bombay 751 733 673
Bangalore 315 316 366
Calcutta 365 357 400
Delhi 763 663 750
Madras 267 310 339
All india 22,595 24,000 26,500
Total for 5 cities 2,461 2,379 2,528
(11.0) (10.0) ~9.5)

C. Number of persons injured

Bombay 8,377 7,891 6,879
.Bangalore 3,388 3,429 3,581
Calcutta 3,607 3,t58 2,921
Delhi 4,207 3,807 3,278
Madras 2,764 2,996 3,348
All India 102,961 114,000 118,000
Total for 5 cities 23,343 21,281 20,007
(22.7) ((8.7) (I7.0)

Note Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage

1.4. Compared to sonic of the developed countries, the

number of accidents in India in absolute terms may he low, but
the accident rate in terms of unit number of motor vehicles bri-
ngs out a disturbing picture. For example, in the years 1979,
the number of fatalities per 10, 000 vehicles ranged between 2
and 5 in countries like Japan, U.K. and U.S.A., while in the
case of India, it was as high as 55 as indicated in Table 1.5. Looking
from another angle, while there were only 2 to 5 fatalities per
100 accidents in these countries, the figure was as high as 16
for India, a matter of serious concern indeed.

TABLE 1 .5.R ATE op ROAD ACCIDENTS IN A Fiaw SaLCTED

CouNTau ES

:ountry No. of accidents . No, of fatalities No. of fatalities

~ per 10,000 vehicles per 10,000 vehicles per 100 accidents

India 346 55 15.9

Japan 100 1.8 1.8
U.K. 153 3.9 2.5
U.S.A. 140 3,3 2.4
France 94 4.6 49
137 4.9 3.6
W. Germany

<<
 INTRODUCTION 7
1.5. The high and growing accident rate in the country
and the consequent loss to lire and property have a serious Im-
pact on the national economy. A detailed analysis or road acci-
dent cost recently completed as a part of the Road User Cost
Study in india’ showed that the overall cost of road accidents
in the country during the year 1978 amounted to Rs. 2367
million, based on an estimated cost or Rs 49,804 per fttal accident
and Rs 29,510 per accident leading to serious injuries-see Tabiel.6.
This works out to roughly 0.35 per cent of the GD!’. ir under-
reporting of accident cases and limited demand on claim Tri-
bunals are taken Into account, the actual accident cost would
be much higher. This is a serious matter which the country
can ill afford to neglect.

Tail .6. EsrnsArsD Con os Row Accunain’s 05 mesA (1978)

SL Accident category Number of Rate p~ Estimated east

No. accidents accident(Rs) ofaccidents
I (Rs million)

1. Fatal 21A09 49,804 10*2

2. SerIous Injury ~4,4tO 29,510 729.3
3. MIner Injury 73,231 321 23.1
4~ Damage to bases 40,764 5,467 222.9
5. Dsmagelotrucks 45,164 6,111 276.0
6. Demagetoars 41,251 t,300 49.5
7. Damage to tn-wheelers 15,279 300 4.6
Total: 2366.6 —

•RoM User Cast Study In india, Final Report, Vol. V Central Read Research
luutltute, New Delhi. 1982.

1.6. Accident Causative Faders

“Road accidents do not just happen but are caused” ii a
common cliche in the area or traffic safety. Thus, If accidents are
caused by some agents, surely they could be identified and appro-
priate remedial measures developed and Implemented for their
prevention to the extent feasible and for the reduction of the Ill
eflbcts and trauma of the accidents still happening. As brought out

<<
 S I N TRODUCTION

earlier, analysis of the data on accidents in the country exenip-

lify that driver or the motor vehicle is the single major factor
responsible for the accidents. This must be the result of his
misjudgernent, or his inattentiveness to perceive the situation
ahead because of his poor reflexes, fatigue, inexperience or being
under the influence of intoxicants. There are, however, other
factors which contribute directly or indirectly to the accidents.
These are:
(I) the road,
(ii) the vehicle, and
iiii) the toad users

1.7. II’ road factor is analysed, it may b~ seen that it

has several ramifications. First is the planning of the road in
relation to the land use pattern, and here the town and
country planners have an important role to play. Second is
the geometric design of the. road and provision of skid-free pave-
ment surfacing for safe movement or vehicles which fall under the
purview of highway engineers. Third is the provision of suitable
traffic guidance and control system like signs signals, pavement
markings and delineators which concern traffic engineers and
traffic management specialists. Fourth is the landscaping of the
road environment and provision of resting facilities for vehicle
drivers so that they are kept alert while driving and this aspect
is looked after by landscaping engineers and architects,

1.8. As regards the vehicle, its fitnesss or roadworthiness

is most important from traffic safety angle. Control over its
fit ness and its conformity with the legal provisions is exercised
by transport officials and the police.

1.9. The road user group can be broadly classified into

three categories, namely, the pedestrians, the drivers of non-
niotorised vehicles and the drivers of motorised vehicles. The
first two catogories are not governed by any specific traffic regu-
lations and generally drivers of slow vehicless do not feel obli-
ged to acquire any formal knowledge of the traffic rules and
regulations For these groups of people, concerted effort is ~var-
ranted in educating them of the correct behaviour on the road,
and on this edacationists and mass media have a vital role to

<<
 iNTRODUCTION 9

play. As regards the drivers of motor vehicles, it is a question of

adherence to he stringent licensing procedures as prescribed by
law and enforcement authorities responsible for the driving
rules and regulations. Here, licensing authorities and the police
come into the picture.

1.10. Thus, the problem of traffic safety cannot be looked

at in isolation but as a system requiring attention at several fronts
and involving action by several disciplines.
1.1 1. Highway Safety Workshops Organised by the Indian
Roads Congress
Traffic accidents 1.iaving grown into serious dimensions as
brought out earlier, the Indian Roads Congress, the national
body of highway engineers, has been looking into this problem
with deep concern and has been, taking a series of actions on the
professional front directed towards bringing an awareness amongst
politicians, a dministrators, engineers and other concerned
authorities, developing recommendations arid measures on acci-
dent prevention, and dissemination of knowledge in the field.
A panel discussion on ‘‘Highway Safety Through Engineering
Techniques’’ ri as organised during the Annual Session of the
Congress held at Madras in December, 1970. Another panel
discussion on highway safety was held at Amritsar in January,
1982. However, the major thrust on the subject was made with
the organisation of a series of inter-disciplinary Highway Safety
Workshops in different parts of the country. Six such Workshops
were held, the first at Chandigarh in January, 1977 the second
at Trivandrum in October, 1977 the third at Lucknow in Nove-
mber i978 the fourth at Bombay in December, 1979 the fifth at
Calcutta in November, 1980 and the sixth at Gandhinagar
(Oujarat) in September-October, 1982. The most important
feature of these workshops was the active particpaction of the
operating officials and specialists of the various disciplines con-
nected with traffic operation and traffic safety such as the police,
transport and licensing officials, town planners, research workers
and highway engineers. The idea was that the safety problem
which requires attention and action of the various departments
and organisations should be discussed in all its facets so that
ciTcctivc and workable solutions could be evolved liar direct

<<
 10 INTRODUCTION

application. As envisaged, these Workshops generated very use-

ful discussion, and a number of important recommendations
arising therefrom have been circulated amongst the State Govern-
ments and other concerned authorities from time to time,
1.12. Scope of this Publication
This Publication is intended to serve as a ready reference
book for guidance of adminstrators, engineers and other officials
who are concerned with traffic safety and in the implementation of
the traffic safety programmes. Section 2 gives the consolidated
summary of the recommendations of the six H.~ighway Safety
Workshops organised by the Indian Roads Congress. Some of
the recommendations are self-explanatory in nature and can be
implemented directly. For many others, explanatory notes have
been included in Section 3 of this publication for providing a
detailed discussion of the related aspects and guidelines on the
actual implementation of the corrective measures. This Section
has been prepared from the current knowledge on the subject
and from what is considered as good engineering practice. As the
experience grows, this section would need to be reviewed and
updated in the years to come,

<<
 Summary of 11
Recommefldat~ons

Summary of
Recorn men-
dations

<<
 2
CONSOLIDATED SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE IRC
HIGHWAY SAFETY WORKSHOPS ORGANISED AT CHANDIGARIL
TR1V AND RUM, LUCKNOW, 13OMB¼Y,CALCUflA AND
GANDHWIAGAR

2,1. Engineering Measures to Improve Road Safety

2.1.1. Road geometrics
(i) Uniform design standards recommended by the Indian
Roads Congress for planning and designing the align-
ment of roads should be adopted.
(ii) While designing the alignment, kinbs in the horizontal
and vertical directions should be avoided, horizontal
curves provided with as large radii as feasible, and the
alignment both in the vertical and horizontal dire etkns
sulitably co-ordinated so as to provide aesthetically pleas-
ing profile with built-in safety.
(iii) Necessary sight distance as appropriate to the situation
should be provided at horizontal/vertical curves and at
intersections. Availability of the required sight distance
should be periodically checked for removal of all
obstructions.
(iv) On existing roads, locations/sections having substandard
geometries such as narrow pavement, inadequate sight
distance, sharp curvature, etc. should be identified and
effective steps taken for their rectification. Besides spot
improvements of the defective locations, a thorough
study of these should be made while taking up major
improvements to the road/pavement, and ~~e•!correction
of the geometric deficiencies should be made as a part of
the project itself.
2.1,2. Road intersections
(i) In the design of road intersections, adequate care should
be taken to minimise the number of conflict points for
increasing safety.
(ii) As 3-arm intersections are generally safer than 4-arm

<<
 14 SuMMAItY OF REcoMMENDATIoNs

intersections, while laying new roads, it will he desirable

to design the road network in such a way that the inter-
sections, by and large, will have three arms.
(iii) Wherever a new road is built, the intersections with the
existing roads should be properly designed and executed
as a part of the new road project taking into considera-
tion the traffic flow requirements.
(iv) Islands provided within the intersection area and else-
where should be suitably painted and in rural areas they
should be of the mountable type.
(v) Approaches to intersections should he provided with
properly laid out guidance system in the form of signs
and pavement markings.
(vi) Traffic signals, where provided, should be properly
eo-ordinated to minimise delays, as such a coordination,
besides reducing overall fuel consumption results in
better behaviour of drivers. The signals should also be
maintained in good working order.
(vii) The lighting of road intersections should be of higher
intensity than along straiflt stretches so as to provide the
necessary visual warning to approaching road users.
Street lighting in urban areas should be so provided and
maintained that pavements always remain well-lit
so as to make driving possible only with parking
lights.

2.1.3. Pedestrian facilities

(i) Pedestrians should be considered as a traffic unit in the
design of roads in urban areas.
(ii) As pedestrians are often involved in fatal traffic accid-
ents, footpaths of adequate width with suitable surfacing
should be provided on all busy urban roads, kept
free from encroachment by hawkers and maintained
properly,
(iii) Wherever necessary, railing barriers for pedestrians
should be provided to control the movement of pedes-
trians.

<<
 SuMMARY OF REcOMMENDATIoNs 15

(iv) Pedestrian crossings should be made adequately conspi-

cons through the provision of zebra crossings prefera-
bly with flashing beacons. Such crossings near schools
should be given special attention.
(v) On busy roads having heavy volvme of pedestrian traffic
across the road, pedestrian underpasses/overbridges
should be provided.

2.1.4. Separate tracks for slow moving vehicles

(i) Cycle traffic on iniportant urban roads should be segre-
gated from other fast traffic by providing separate cycle
tracks/lanes. These tracks/lanes should be continuous
and should be maintained in good order.
(ii) Cycle traffic should be properly segregated at junctions
also.
(iii) Separate tracks for other slow vehicles should be provi-
ded wherever possible, and so warranted.

2.1.5. Bus bays and terminals

(i) Lay’byes of appropriate designs recommended by the
Indian Roads Congress (JRC 80-1981 for rural high-
ways and IRC: 70-1977 for urban roads) should be
provided at pick-up bus stops on all busy roads.
(ii) Properly planned bus terminals should be provided in
the cities at suitable locations.
(iii) The bus terminals should be planned in an integrated
manner keeping in view the various demands of the
passengers.

2.1.6. Medians
(i) Physical separation of opposing traffic streams greatly
facilitates reduction of accidents. For this purpose
medians should be provided, wherever appropriate and
possible.
(ii) Medians should be wide enough to enable povision of
pocket lanes for right turning traffic,

<<
 16 SLINIMAuv OF RECOMMENDATioNs
(iii) Median openings should be provided judiciously keeping
in view the problem of road safety (see IRC 62-1976
for guidance on access control and median openings).

2.1.7. Shoulders
(i) Shoulders of adequate width and suitable specifications
should be provided and properly maintained to ensure
smooth flow of traffic.
(ii) In black cotton soil areas hard shoulders, at least on
main highways to start with, should be provided.
2.1.8. Embankment of roads
(i) Side slopes ofembankments should not be very steep as
otherwise serious accidents are likely to occur (see IRC
36-1970 for guidance on safe side slopes).
(ii) At hazardous locations such as approaches to narrow
bridges, high embankments etc. guard rails of suitable
design should be provided for better safety.

2.1.9. Speed-breakers
Speed breakers of the steep hump type now being pro-
vided on some of the roads are dangerous and should
be done away with.

2.1.10. Bridges and culverts

(i) Approaches to bridges and culverts should be laid out
carefully so that these could smoothly join the roadway
on the structure.
(ifl The width of bridges upto 30 m length should preferably
be kept equal to width of roadway as the sudden reduc-
tion in the width of bridge leads to traffic hazards.
(iii) Wherever widening of single lane to two-lane carriage-
~ay is undertaken, the widening/reconstruction of
narrow culverts equal to full formation width should be
simultaneously taken up. For this purpose, it would be
preferable to include the provision for culverts in the
estimate for widening of road itself. H..o~~ever,
wherever

<<
 Susniaitv or Rrroi~IMrNnATJoNs 17
this is not possiblc, bold warning sign hoards on both
sides of narrow culverts should be installed,

2. 1.11. Road-rail grade crossing

Unmanned mad-rail grade crossings should he provided with
automatic audio visual signals such as the one developed by the
RDSO of the Railways. Stick devices would increase the safety
at these places.
2.1.12. Flood level indicators
Flood level indicators should be installed and maintained at
all submersible bridges and causeways for providing adequate
information to the road users at such locations.
2.1.13. Repair of roads
(i) Prompt maintenance under condition of flood and land-
slide should be planned in advance and adequate equip-
ment and personnel made available,
(ii) Repairs to roads in urban area should he carried out
during the non.peak hours.
(iii) Repair to potholes, shoulder drop-offs, etc. caused during
rainy season should be done soon after the rainy season
so that minimum inconvenience is caused to traffic.
The financing procedures to meet the cost of such repairs
should he streamlined by the State Governments, so
that these repairs can be attended to without delay.
2. 1. 14. Service road
.Provision of service roads with controlled access to the
arterial road should be provided to enable the reduction of
numerous road intersections and thereby increase safety (see
1RC 62-1976 for guidance on access control).
2.1.15. Skidding/surface cbaracteristics
(F) Road pavements on horizontal curves and intersections
are subject to large centrifugal forces, and vehicles on
such sections are prone to skidding. Also, skidding can
occur due to polishing of aggregates and at locations
ss here bleeding of bitumen shows up due to the use of

<<
 18 Su~ls~A1ty
OF REco~~~1rN
DATIONS

excessive bitumen, Such locations should be identified

and necessary measures such as provision of skid-proof
surfacing shouid be taken. Guidance in this regard can
be had from the 1RC Highway Reseasch Board State-
of-Art Report on “Pavement Slipperiness and Skid
Resistance”.
(ii) Skid—prone locations yet to he corrected should be
notified to the motorists by posting appropriate warning
signs.

2. 1.16. i’raffic control devices

ti) Traffic control devices such as signs, signals, and road
markings of the required standards should be employed
to regulate and control the traffic to promote greater
safety (see 1RC 67-1977 for traffic signs and TRC 35-
1970 for road markings).
(ii) Delineators of scientific design and preferably of reflect-
five type should be used wherever necessary in such a
manner that these can guide the traffic efficiently (see
IRC 79-1981),
(iii) Suitable control devices must be made available to Ike
enforcement authorities for the purpose of better control
of traffic on road for temporary diversions.
(iv) Warning signs and devices should be installed well in
advance at both ends of the road section under repair
improvement in order to reduce accident ricks.
(v) Warning signs should be clearly visible at night also.
(vi) At all hazardous locations, reflectors should he provided
for warning the road users of possible hazards.
(vii) The estimates of the projects should include the cost of
installalion oftrafflc control devices,
(viii) The cost of road markings should form a part of road
maintenance grant.
(ix) All cities and State Highway Departments should have a
‘Road Sign’ workshop.

<<
 Su~mlARYOF Rrco~tssENDATioNs 19

2. 1.17. Location of trees

Where as it is desirable to save trees, if they are a safety
hazard, such trees should be removed. Moreover trees should be
painted in white colour upto a height of 1,25 m above the ground
with 300 mm middle band in black colour to warn the road users
of their presence.

2.1.18. Elimination of surprise elements

As far as possible surprise elements should be removed from
the roads, and construction of permanent/semi—permanent struc-
tures, statues, etc. within the road land boundaries for other than
road purposes should be completely discouraged.

2.2. Traffic Enforcement

2.2.1. Speed limit
Speed limit in mixed traffic condition should be judiciously
imposed and adequately enforced at locations where high speed
travel is hazardous. The speed limit should be appropriate to the
situation and be arrived at after a study of the distribution of the
speed of vehicles.
2.2.2. Parking regulation
(i) The provision of parking space required for public build-
ings like cinema theatres should be effectively enforced
for ensuring better traffic management and control.
(ii) Off-street parking facilities should be provided at the
fringes of central business districts of each city to prevent
indiscriminate parking of vehicles on the congested
streets.
(iii) Location of moter vehicle repair workshops should be
properly planned and regulated and their locations
should form integral part of the zonal plans.
(iv) At octroi and other check posts, laybyes for trucks
should he provided.
(v) On rural highways, truck parks and rest areas should
be provided at suitable locations.
(vi) Truck terminals with adequate capacity and infrastructure
should he provided at suitable locations in the cities.

<<
 20 SUMMARY OF REC0MMENDkTION5

These can be developed with the financial participation

of the truck owners and hooking agencies.

2.2,3. Weights and dimensions of vehicles

(i) The Motor Vehicles Act has recently been amended to
provide for uniform application of the regulations
regarding maximum weights and dimensions of road
vehicles. These provision are also included in
IR.C 3-1983. These should be enforced strictly.
(ii) Carrying of long rods and over-sized loads is hazardous,
and should be strictly control led. Such loads should
be permitted to be carried only in specially designed
vehicles provided with necessary safety measures,

2.2.4. Vehicle code

(i) Uniform vehicle code should be worked out and enfor-
ced at national level to ensure better safety of vehicles.
This docun’ent should give due importance to quality
of various parts and also include safely fixtures.
(ii) Seat belts should be made a compulsory fitment in
~assenger cars and the driver and the front-seat passen-
gers should be made to wear these svhile in motion.
(iii) Slow-moving vehicles including cycles must have
reflectors fixed bolh in front and rear,
(iv) All trucks and other public carrier vehicles in ust carry
reflective signs to be installed in front and rear on the
highway, in case of breakdown so as to ssarm% the other
traffic about the obstruction.

2.2.5. Fitness of vehicle

(i) There should be periodic inspection by the registering
authority of mechanical condition of all types of auto-
mobiles on the road, and unfit vehicles should be kept
off the road,
(ii) Automobiles, particularly puhlie service vehicles should
be subjected to surpirse spot checks for road-worthiness
to ensure their proper mechanical fitness,

<<
 SUMMARY or Rwosi MFNLxsTtoNs 21
(iii) The tyre rating should be limited to the registered laden
weight so that in case of overloading tyres could give
way.
(iv) Electrical direction indicators should be made
compulsory for all motor vehicles including autorick-
shaws.
(v) Only those buses which are completly fit should be
allowed to be used as school buses.
(vi) Saft’ty aspect of cycle rickshaws, specially that of its
braking system, should be improved.
2.2.6. Visibility at night
(i) For better visibility at night, rear and front of trucks and
buses plying on rural highways should be painted bright
yellow.
(ii) For better visibility, the auto rickshaws should be painted
yell ow.
(iii) Adequate measures should be taken to ensure proper
functioning of vehicle lights for enhancing visibility
during night.

2.2.7. Bald tyres

The use of bald tyres leads to traffIc hazards and therefore
should be checked, particularly for commercial vehicles.

2.2.8. Use of helmets

Use of helmets by scooter/motor cycle/moped drivers and
riders has been made compulsory only in a few States, Such
enforcement should be done in the remaining States also.
2,2.9. Licensing of drivers
(i) The drivers should be subjected to rigorous written and
in-field/on-road tests for ascertaining their driving
ability besides physical fitness and psychoJogic~Jcwnpati-
bility. Minimum educational standards for dfivers
should also be prescribed.
(ii) it is desirable to prescribe the maximum age limit for

<<
 SuMSIAIn OF Rrcosisirsovriotss

heavy vehicle drivers. Maximum hours of work for

professional drivers should also be enforced.
(iii) It is reconimended that licences with respect to all
drivers should carry a photograph of the driver for
quick identification. Such licences should always be
carried on person by all drivers, while driving.
(iv) A national register of drivers to whom licences for
driving heavy vehicles have been issued, should be
maintained so that no driver can get a licence from any
other State once the same has been cancelled or impoun-
ded by the authority in another State.
(v) l~achdriver should carry with him an identity card
giving the particulars such as name and address of the
next of kin and biological data of the person such as
blood group, rhesus factor, chronic disease, heart condi-
tion, drug allergies, etc. to enable quick and unambi-
guous medical treatment in times of emergency.

2.2.10. Driving hours’

Driving hours should be restricted to avoid fatigue.

2.2.11. Punishment for traffic offences

(i) Exemplary punishment should be given to repeated
traffic offenders.
(ii) Spot punishment system introduced in Bombay should
be studied for viability and may be adopted in other
cities as well if found suitable.
‘F,; U
~ (ij4)’,$eparat~traffic mobile courts composed of magistrates
w4tb~wm*Jng knowledge of the automobile and sufficient
driving experience should be set up in all the cities for
promptly dealing with the traffic violations, since prompt
F, ‘~o~tipn;y4it’h~y~.Wtter impact on violators.
U ‘ ‘i ~, ‘F F ,JLF F ,FUFFI?F,Fdfl F,,’) “~F.’ ‘F Fl
2.F!2~eJI~j4Qrc~t11CII~personnel
H i,rj#i’~+
‘‘hi~j) ~ roads, there is a need to
strengthen the enfotdE4thbli’t’ staff and also to train them
lI1’Ii aq~~~çlTh~nuqffici~pf
1 z?~obi!e courts for traffic
<<
 SvIM~tAm~Y
or ltrc’oslslENoA’rioNs 23

oli’ences should also he augmented for the speedy dis-

posal of traffic violation cases.
(ii) There is also need to ‘get assistance to police by setting
up other agencies like traffic wardens.
(iii) Police officers in metropolitan cities could also be empo-
wered to collect fines on the spot for minor violations
as this arrangement has been found to be very effective
in making the road users abide by the law and regula-
tions.

2.2.13. F4uiplnent
(F) Availability of latest traffic control and measuring
equipment is an essential prerequisite towards effective
entbrcement. For this purpose, wireless equipment,
radar speedometers, brake efficiency meters, etc., should
be made available to the enforcement authorities in
major cities.
(ii) As drunken driving has proved to be a major source of
trafiic accidents, blood alcohol meters like breath
analysers should be made available for enforcement.
(iii) Adequate number of weighing machines and portable
weigh bridges should be made available to check over-
loading.
(iv) Latest traffic control equipment with closed circuit T.V.,
automatic traffic controllers, etc. should be introduced in
major metropolitan cities in a gradual manner.
(v) Traffic aid posts should be established at regular inter-
vals on all important rural highways. Highway patrols
should be instituted on main highways and cranes
should be available to remove vehicles involved in
accidents or stalled.

2.2.14. Uniformity in enforcement

As far as possible, the enforcement of traffic regulatio~ and
the agency/agencies handling enforcement should be of uniform
pattern throughout the country.

<<
 24 Su~ts1A1nor itEcMtvtENDAi IONS
2.2.15. Motor vehicle act and rules
(i) The Motor Vehicle Act should be revised to cover both
fast and slow moving traflic and also pedestrians.
(ii) Motor Vehicle .R ules should be made uniform in all the
States of the country.
(iii) Besides maximum punishment as prescribed in the
current Act, minimum punishment is also required to be
stipulated therein.
2.2.16. Uoardlngs and ribbon development
(i) There should be strict control on the display of adver’.
tisements along the roads, specially at intersections (sec
l:RC 46’.1972 for guidance in this regard).
cii) There should be effective and speedy remosal of
encroachments on road land and footpaths.
(iii) Central legislation for prevention of ribbon development
and removal of encroachments should be expedited.
Powers should be given to the Engineering stall for the
removal of encroachments.

2.3. Traffic Education

2.3.1. Road safety propaganda
(i) All categories of road users including pedestrians should
he made to understand the importance of road safety
th rough available media such as newspapers, radio and
television.
ku) Ministry of Information and Broadcasting~ Government
of India should bring out a series of films on road
safety.

2.3.2. TrainIng of drivers

Heavy vehicle drivers should be subjected to thorough train’.
ing before issue of licences and also during their service period.

2.3.3. Driving school

(i) Functioning of driving schools should be regulated to
provide for proper training by competent personnel.

<<
 SuMMARY OF RLCOMSIENUA110\s 25
(ii) Properly equipped driving schools should be instituted
fbi effecting better training of drivers, it would be very
helpful, if a few model schools are set up by the
(Jove rn ni en t.
2.3.4. Safet~education to children
(I) Children should be educated on the need for road safety
by introducing this as a subject of study in the curri-
culum.
(ii) Essay and painting compet2tions should be conducted
for children to make road safety programme more
popular.
(iii) Expenditure to be incurred on education campaigns
should conic under Plan provisions.
(iv) traffic training parks suitably planned and adequately
equipped should be provided in all cities to train children
on the proper road user behaviour.
2.3.5. Courtesy to pedestrains
Apart from engineering and enforcement measures, intensive
education of’ drivers to extend courtesy to pedestrains should be
given.

2.3.6. rrral.lic training classes

Traffic training classes may be run by social workers for the
purpose of educating the road users. Such classes may be made
compulsory fbi those committing minor violations.

2.3.7. Road safety education cell

Road safety education cell should be formed in each city and
should be manned by competent persons.

2.3.8. Quality improvement programme

Personnel manning various traffic safety and traffic education
cells should be sent for refresher courses from time to time.

2.3.9. Highway safety code and driving manual

Vnifbrm highway safety code and driving manual should be

<<
 26 S LIMMARY OF Racosi MLNDATION5

prepared for the country and road users must be familiar with the
provisions made in these codes.

2.3.10. Seminars and safety campaigns

(~) Periodical seminars and group discussions should he held
~rherein experts in different fields of traffic and trans~
portation could highlight the importance of road safety
and measures for achieving the same.
(ii) All types of~road users should be covered in the safety
campaigns in order to ensure better safety on roads.
(iii) All local authorities, particularly civic and education
authorities should be involved in road safety campaign.
2.4. Accident investigation
2.4.1. Accident reporting
(i) The Accident Reporting froms A I & 4 evolved by the
indian Roads Congress (see i.RC 53-1983) should be
used by all the States for recording and reporting
accident data. This will facilitate identification of the
problems and the required solutions thereof.
(ii) The Police staff should be trnined in filling these forms
in an objective manner, and in the storage, analysis and
retrieval of the information.
(iii) There should be a system of checking the filled-up forms
for compatibility and completeness on a sample basis.
(iv) Data of all accidents including minor ones should be
collected.
(v) For fatal accidents, reporting should be comprehensive
involving all disciplines and causes must be investigated
in depth.
2.4.2. Investigation
(i) investigating police officials should be given training in
the latest methods of scientific accident investigation
and such officials should be adequately equipped.
(ii) Up-to-dnte techniques should be employed for analysing
the accident data with the idea of identifying accident-

<<
 SuMMARY or RECOMMENDA1 tONS 27
prone spots and working out priority oriented improve—
nient schemes.
2.4.3. Specialists investigation
Fatal accidents should be investigated jointly by specialists
from all concerned disciplines to make suitable recommendations.
The Traffic Engineering Cells should co-ordinate this work,
2.4.4. Accident mechanism
Urban areas being more vulnerable to road accidents the
mechanism of accidents in such areas should be studied in greater
detail.

2.4.5. Accident bureaus

(i) Separate accident bureaus should be set tip in each
State to effect proper collection, compilation and analysis
of accident data, These bureaus should work in close
liaison with the Traffic Engineering Cells.
(ii) These bureaus should include specialists like traffic
engineers, enforcement officials, medical experts, experts
in forensic science, econoniista, statisticians and social
workers.

2.5. General Recommendations

2.5.1. Traffic engineering cell
(i) Traflic engineering cells manned by specialists in the
field should be created in all state P.W.D.’s for effective
design of roads and road facilities with adequate
emphasis on safety. There should also be a traffic
engineering cell in the Roads Wing of the Union Ministry
of’ Shipping and Transport to study problems in so far as
they relate to National Highways.
(ii) in all metropolitan cities, there should be a properly
staffed Traffic Cell having all disciplines, i.e. traffic
police, highway engineers, doctors, town planners, traffic
managers, etc. Such a cell should be adequately
equipped to reach the accident sites, provide first aid
to the injured and remove them to hospital, remove

<<
 28 SuSINIARY 01: RrcosmMENoAIIONS
the involved vehicles from the road pavement, record
accident detail and then analyse for improvements
required, etc.

(iii) For proper manning of the above cells, the staff of the
State P.W.D’s and Municipalities/City Corporations
should he encouraged and even sponsored by these
organisations to attend courses of long duration in traffic
engineering and traffic planning offered by various
universities and institutions in hidia.

2.5.2. Comprehensive traffic and transportation planning

(i) Comprehensive traffic and transportation planning
should be undertaken in all cities to effectively forecast
the anticipated future traffic and to design the required
traffic facilities for the future design year to ensure
rnaximuni safety. At the same time, immediate improve-
ment plans for optimisirtg the existing facilities to ensure
safe and efficient movement should be planned as an
integral part of the long term solutions and implemented
on priority basis.
(ii) Decentralization of activities and decongestion from
the central business districts should be undertaken
to reduce the traffic congestion in the cities.
(iii) For medium sized cities, traffic operation plans inch;-
ding traffic engineering improvements to increase the
capacity and traffic regulation and control measures
to ensure safe and efficient movement should be
prepared.
(iv) Schools/colleges should not be allowed to be opened
along heavily trafficked roads, As regards cxisting
schools/colleges opening into highways, necessary
facilities like foot-over bridgesfsubways and other
traffic control measures should be provided.
(v) For improving efficency and safety of movement of heavy
traffic, access-controlled high speed expressways should
be provided on heavily trafficked sections of trunk
routes in the country,

<<
 Su~tu~sRv
or .RECSISIENDST!oNs 29
2.5,3. Siaggering of working hours
Staggering of working hours should be considered in order
to red nec the congestion at peak hours,

2.5.4. Unified ransportation aulborit y

in metropolitan cities, unified transportation authority should
be created to plan, execute and maintain roads and traffic impro-
~‘ements, Such an authority should employ inter—disciplinary
staff so that aspects such as regulation and control could also
he tackled in a comprehensive manner.

2.55. Municipal services

Cuts are made in roads in urban areas to lay pipes, cables
etc. which are not properly repaired. A centralised control
should be exerciscd in granting permission for any road cutting
and to ensure that these cuts are repaired properly without any
dlay.

2.5.6, Medical care

(1) A good number of road fatalities could be averted
by timely medical attention. Efforts should be made
to properly equip and operate such medical care units
in all cities and on important highways.
(ii) All hospitals should be made to attend to accident
cases. The medico—legal problem should be looked
into and tackled.
(iii) Pam medical forces should be formed from within
the public, police and other organisations in order to
extend adequate post-accident care to accident victims.

2.5.7. Safety benevolant fund

A safety benevolant fund for accident victims should be
raised 1mm the public and sho nld be properly supplemented by
Ihe Government.
2,5,~. Funds for road safely measures
(i) There is a need Ibm allocating more funds for carrying
out road safety measures.

<<
 30 SuMMARY ov RircnnlnlDAuoNs
(Ii) A non-Lapsing Central Road Safety Fund on lines
similar to the Central Road Fund should be Instituted
at the Centre for carrying out road saibty programmes
In the country.
2.5.9. Natlosal read safety council
LI) To tackle the road saibty problem at the National
level In a sustained and balanced manner, a National
Road Safety Council should be constituted at the centre
with adequate financial and statutory provisions.
(Ii) A top level Co-ordination Committee consisting or
representative of police, transport, road, finance.
medical and other departments should be set up in
each State under the chairmanship ofState Chief Secre-
tary for Looking Into the highway safety problem In the
State.

<<
 ExplanatorY Notes 31

Explanatory
Notes

<<
 3
E~PLANATORYNOTES

3.1. Road Condition and Traffic Safety

3A.l. it is generally accepted that road accidents do not just
happen, hut are caused. The causative factors may be the road, the
driver, the vehicle, other road users and the environment, either
singly or collectively. The evaluation of the contribution of the
individual factors to an accident is difficult, and quite often it is
the easiest and the quickest way to conclude that the accident
was caused by the driver, who, as is expected should have
instantaneously reacted to the changes in the other elements of the
entire complex and adjusted his manoeuvre correspondingly
to compensate for the changes. This is one reason that
the available statistics ou road a ccidents in the country
attribute a majority of the accidents to~!fault of drivers, This is
not to say that all drivers are entirely thultiess. There are cases
of driving under the influence of intoxicants, or drivers with
poor sensory reflexes and driving skills who normally should
not have been permitted to drive, or arrogant drivers not abiding
by the traffic rules or driving recklessly for sheer thrill, etc. where
the drivers should be held solely responsible for the accident.
Howevei~, there can he many other cases where situations are
allowed to exist on the rodway which are conducive for drivers
to commit mistakes, e.g., presence of a sharp curve following
a long tangent section pooi lighting hidden dip in the profile
sudden narrowing of the roadway because of a cross-drainage
structure in an otherwise wide road, or aspects distracting or
weakening the attention ofthe drivers and ~creating a delusive
notion of traffic condition, etc.

3.1.2. The above situations may not by themselves consti-

tute the basic cause of accidents, hut by the elimination of such
unfavourable roadway features and by creating safe driving con di-
tions, traffic safety can be improved considerably. in other
words, the road design should rather be to assist disci-
plined drivers and to make their work easier so that there is the
least possibility ot their making mistakes than to force them to

<<
34 ExPLANAToRY NOTES

change their condition of driving to get over unfavourable road

feat u res.

3.1,3, Valuable data on the effect of the various road

parameters on accident rate relating to roads int India have now
become available from the Road User Cost Study completed by
the Central Road Research institute in collaboration with the
Ministry of Shipping & Transport and the World Bank, The
data pertain to two studies, one on a 114 km length of Bombay-
Pune road (two-lane black-topped highway traversing plain,
roiling and hilly terrains, and carrying ADT of 4747 vehicles),
and the other on 34 routes in different parts of the country (cove-
ring a good range of the variables), Regression equations have
been developed relating the accident rate to the different geometric
variables. The more generalised equations derived from the
second study have been:
ARC) = — .0.9134 + 0.0545RF + 0,5560J 0.222W
—

+ 0.001 177 QADT (R’ = 0.766) ..,..(l)

AR(1) 0.2 171 + 0.002884CV +0.4126J — 0.3447W
+ 0.001274 QADT (R2 = 0.759) (2)
.....

Where AR (1) = Accident rate per km per annum

R.F = Rise and fall in metres per km

CV = Average horizontal curvature in degrees/km

I = Number ofjunctions per km

W = Pavement width in metrcs

QADT = Average traflic volume in vehicles/day

These equations can he used for predicting the accident raic of

a road section or for comparing the accident potentialities of a
number of alternatives having different geometric and traffic
features bound by the same limits as those used in developing
these equations. These, however, cannot be used for micro level
unalysis, for example, what will happen to the accident rate
when. a sharp curve, of radius 100 m is flattened to 350 ni.

For getting a broad appreciation of the significance of the

4Road User Cosi Siudy in india, Final Report, Vol. V, Central Road Research
1 nsiituie, New Delhi 1982

<<
 EXPLANATORY Moms 35

various road parameters on the accident rates, the above two

equations have been used to plot the diagrams in Fig.3.I.. For pio-

40
Ill
-J
C
Cc
20 -

0
15 0 ~.._.i ~-.--~

5.0 55 60 65 Z0
0
fOI EFFECT 0F~PMEMENT wIOfli 14) EFFECT OF RISE/FALL (m/krn)

N-
El

I—
40

20
2

3 4 100 200 400 600

NO. OFJUNC7/oN9/)crn (F) EFFECT OP HORIZONTAL
Ib) EFFECT OF CURVATURE (d7n/i~m)
Lu
0
C NOTES
Lu
V Z, FEi~TURES OF THE BASIC P040
Ii FSOM ~!JIICl4ONE VARIABLE ~‘rns
CIIANOEO AT A TIME ARE.

~~nre.Ft wh4~ — 7 rn
k No. oF jin~ction, — I
AOT (I?e/~/day) - 5000
Rise/Fall ~rn/~n) — /0
1,1 Curva#ure (dr/km) * /00
V
‘U
0, 2.Fros, gi To 0 HAVE SEEN

5000 6000 7000 WORKED OUT FROM EON. Cl)

WIllIS FIG ®
IS FROM
Cc)EFPECT OF AOT (Ve~kles/doy) EON ~ — SEE PARA 3$

Fig, 3 1, Effect of road parameters on acôident rate

(From Road User Cost Study in India)
<<
 36 ExPLANAToRY NOTES

tting these diagrams, a basic road having the following features

have been assumed:
Pavemeat widih ~ 7 m
No. of junctions 1
ADT (veh/day) 5000
Rise/fall (m/km) 10
Curvature (degree/km) ...,,,., 100

To study the effect of on.e feature, value for that feature is varied
while those of others are kept constant. The diagrams are by
themselves’ self-explanatory.
3.2. Geometric Design for Improved Safety
3,2,1. In this para1 the following aspects of road design
influencing traffic safety are discussed:
(i) Road alignment
(ii) Road cross-section; and
(iii) Sight distance

These aspects which generally fall under geometric design should

be regarded as integral part of road design right from the initial
construction of the road. For existing roads, the approach
should be to identify the defects and deficiencies and take appro-
priate remedial action in a systematic manner... Where the cor-
rective action is expected to be delayed., the presence of the
deficiency should be notified to the motoring public through
appropriate signs.

3.2.2. Road alignment

General
(i) The alignment of a road pre-determines the path
taken by a vehicle in moving from one point to the other and
comprises the elements of horizontal curve for effecting changes’
in direction and grade for negotiating the differences in elevation.
These elements are detern,ined on the basis of the design speed
and the type of terrain traversed. From safety angle, the effort
should he to design and develop the alignment in such a way
that it is like a free flowing ribbon tied to the natural topography
and unfolding the different features of the. road and the landscape
to the drivers sufficiently in advance so that he is least fatigued
<<
 ExPLANAToRY NOTES 37

and his interests are kept alive on the roadways ahead. In other
uords, the alignment affording pleasant driving and devoid
or surprise eleme nts will not tax the driver to make him commit
mistakes, and this is conducive to safe driving. Considerations
needing attention in this regard are discusesd here in under.

‘Uniformity in design
(2) ‘The alignment should follow uniform design standards.
Drivers get conditioned by the road on which they are travelling
and 1mm past experinee they expect certain things ahead. For
example, a driver on a good alignment will expect flat and free-
flowing curves, and in case an isolated sharp curve is present it
will be a surprise element which will prove to be more dangerous
than a curve of same radius in a generally poor alignment. Con-
sistency in road alignment is, therefore, an important pre-requisite
for traffic safety. in places where change in standard is unavoid-
able, such as where a hill road emerges on to the plains, it is
desirable to effect the same gradually by providing successive
sections of gradually increasing standards till the road users get
adjusted to the new conditions. At unavoidable locations having
sharp chauges in standards, safety can be improved by providing
adequate warning about the same through installation of relevant
warning signs and posting of speed limit restrictions,

Horizontal curves
(3) ‘Horizontal curves are generally associated with high
accident rates, The accident rate is influenced not only by the
sharpness (curvature) of the curves but also by the frequency of
their occurrence. Sharper the curve, greater is the proneness to
accidents. A road section with an isolated sharp curve has a
greater accident rate than one with more number of curves. The
accident rate shoots up with increasing curvature of an isolated
curve.

(4) Hazard at horizontal curves arises because of several

factors acting singularly or in combination. Important amongst
these and the actions that could be considered for improving
safety are briefly discusted below
(i) At a horizontal curve, the driver has to act on his steering wheei
in lime, and if he is not prepared for the change in direction or is

<<
 EXPLANATORY Non.s
taken by surprise, his velucle wdl leave the intended path and either
hit a stationary object or trip off the roadway. This surprise
element has already been discussed in the earlier paragraphs.
(ii) At curves, a vehicle is subject to centrifugal force the intensity of
which depends on the travelling speed and the degree ofcurvature.
Design requirement warrants that a portion of this force (equal to
the force developed at 75 per cent of the design speed) should be
counteracted by superetesation (superelevation rate should he subject
to maximum of 7 per cent for plain and snow-bound hilly terrains,
and 10 per cent for non-snow-bound hilly terrain) and the balance
by side friction subject to a maximum ratio of 0.15. Absence of, or
inadequate superelevation will mean greater pressure on side friction
which may lead to skidding, particularly where the pavement is wet
or has a smooth and slippery surfacing. From these considerations,
therefore, it should be ensured that the ourves are provided with
proper and adequate superelevation and skid-free surfacing,
ciii) On curves, compared to straight sections, vehicles occupy more
space in the lateral direction, and it is also more difficult to judge
the clearance between opposing vehicles. Any misjudgment in this
regard will mean sedous head-on collision.. On curves, therefore,
suitable system for guiding the vehicles in their respective paths
should be provided, and this can be in the form of centre line and
edge line pavement markings. Reflective studs will be advantageous
particularly on un-lit rural highways. The edges of roadway on the
curves should also be notified by means of delineators or white
washed guard stones.
(iv) The problem of inadequate visibility may arise on the inside of the
curve in case any obstruction to sight like building, waD, high crops,
etc. exis!s. This aspect is discussed in more detail in para 3.2.4.

(5) Some of the safety problems arising at horizontal curves.

are illustrated in Fig. 3.2.

Long tangent sections

(6) Long tangent sections exceeding 3 km in length should
be avoided as far as possible. Such sections make distant objects
In the line of the road appear nearer and consequently create a
psychological feeling in the driver to speed up, thus creating a
hazardous situation.

Vertical profile
(7) The most important feature of vertical profile affecting
safety is the availability of adequate sight distance. Good

<<
 Exn~&NATaRYNOTES 39

~pSHARPGURVE

@) IsoLated sharp cufl? ~fl a good aagnmant ‘~smore cjawgerous ~see U

than a series ol ouren Eh en general9* poor aLignment ~set R)

(b) Roriawnal c~nessP~ouLd be visible far $uff~cient

distance in aa~,ance OLItsi~kctf the turune shawd g~
~
4~t free of rcrjdside the#ructjotLs, Distance AS eçaat
to a seconds trotet t~me 5renn start nj corhm ~S
partiduler(y tribaL,

JRONG RLGHT

PLnN &CCTLONS AA a)

PU oynrnnrilcs ct motion cU0d39 a curve in dl,, Camber acts as reverse

sufwsrntoh”ohc:J OnS aids i~sUswcTy ~rce tn snala ~‘) b1afl~trOUt‘In ~‘

~ cn;!t on cc’unterncis port of Ito s’dewny jforc:e to keep

~pri:.:~fon~~t~~1:7

-~ — ~ Entn:s wfn’tt oct u/sled by voilcha because

7-r~ ptT~*
-—““‘ •__•_---‘*_,__ Of tlraciknnf of rear otheds

/ ~ds On Cusrves vehicles’ occupy ‘mote space iateroL cdrnC*iOn. Peremenr

wiaenb,9 and centre Line rnorkJn~win te~pXeep 7w Ye h~c~C VS its
Ob~fl Lone.

ie~ vjsis~it’~at instdn of cur ~ becomes’

on eien,eni pp design. At Least

,
-74—-——’7sç”
40f Vi5~6~e~“

CoasT nuc’rlc•N
~
N~ ensured,
stoppinq distance shouLd he
TO skUll

Fig. 32. Some of the safety problems arising at horizontal curves

<<
40 FxVLANs”rctRv Noit~s

engineering practice requive.s that the summit c urves should he

designed to provide the rteeded sight distance (safe stopping sight
distance being the absolute minimum), while the valley curves should
be designed for headlight distance required for safe driving during
hours of darkness (see para 3.2.4. for more details). The other
factors affecting safety are (a) the rate of grade, (b) the length of
grade, and (c) the frequency of grade changes. The first two
factors influence the extent of speed differential between trucks
and cars travelling upgrade since speed of trucks is more affected
by grades exceeding 3 per cent, Accident rate increases and the
capacity reduces as the speed differential increases. Where the
speed differential is expected to be more than about 25 km/h on
two-lane highways, it wtll be desirable to provide a separate
climbing lane in the upgrade direction, particularly where the
proportion of trucks is high. Some of die problems arising in
vertical profile and the manner of their correction are illustrated
in Fig. 3.3,

Alignment Co-ordination
(8) A driver gets a three—dimensional view of the road
ahead in the landscape and, therefore, from angles of safety and
providing confidence in driving, the horizontal alignment and the
vertical profile should be co-ordinated to provide for aesthetically
pleasing view of the road besides full information on the features
(ups and downs, direction changes, etc.) of the road ahead. An
alignment not so co-ordinated and which presents a warped appear-
ance. or conceals important features of the road ahead (e.g. a
hidden dip or similar visual discontinuity) makes driver judgment
difficult and increases the chances of accident. Sonic of the guide-
lines in alignment co-ordination are
(i) The. degree of curvature should be properly balanced with the gradient,
e.g~,flat horizontal curve should not be at the expense of steep and
long grades, and vice-versa.
(ii) Vertical and horizontal curves should cioncide as far as possible,
and where this is difficult, the horizontal curve should he somewhat
longer than Ihe vertical curve.
(iii) Sharp horizontal curves should be avoided at or near the apex
of a pronounced sumrnit(valley vertical curve from safety consider-
ations.

<<
 ExPLA,ATORY NOTES 41

3.3. Correctioiis to vertical profile for improved safely

Fig. 3.4. Illustrates some typical cases of good and had align-
ment co-ordination.
<<
42 EXPLANATORY NOTES
0

<<
 ExILANARORY NOTES 43

3.2.3. Road cross-section

(1) The elements involved in road cross-section are the width
and the number of traffic lanes, the width of median where provi-
ded, the type and width of shoulders, the crosfall, the embank-
ment side slopes and the side drains. The design criteria and
values fttr all these elements for adoption under different situat-
ions have been standardised by the Indian Roads Congress which
should be followed in all cases. However, the points requiring
specific attention from safety angle are highlighted below
(i) The facilty with which a vehicle can move freely and satèly along a
road is influenced by the width and number of traffic lanes, and the
volume and composition of traffic. The carriageway widths have
been standardised as 3.75 in for single lane, 5.5 m for intermediate
lane, 7 m for two lanes and 3.5 m per tane for multi-lane highways,
and each type of cross-section has been assigned a capacity value in
terms of P.C.Us. For all rural highways having traffic volumes
within the capacity of two—lanes, it will he preferable to go in for
7 in wide carriageway instead ol’ the intermediate lane, particularly
where the proportion of commercial vehicles is more than 50 per
cent. Further, safety can be improved by wIdening the road sections
with traffic volumes close to or exceeding the capacity.
lit At tocaLions where the carriageway is widened from single to two
lanes, two to four lanes, or vice versa, an important requirement is
that the increase or decrease in width should he brought about grad-
ually with a splay of 1 in 15 to I in 20 for rural highways and I in 10
to 1 in 15 in the case of’ urban roads. Also, the transition should
be provided with guidance system In the form of signs and pave-
ment markings. Typical cases are illustrated in Fig. 3.5.
(iii) Approaches to a narrow bridge in an otherwise w’ide road creates
hazardous situation. Such cases require special attention, and the
treatment to he given is discussed in detail in para 3,4.3.
(iv) ‘I’he type aud condition as also the level and crossfall of shoulders
relative to the carriageway are important from the point of view of
traffic safety. On single lane roads, the outer side wheels of vehicles
generally travel for considerable distance on the shoulders for over-
taking crossing manoeuvres. On two-lane roads, vehicles may have
to use the shoulders in emergencies, or drive along the pavement
edges. Soft earthen shoulders have been found to be responsible for
overturning of many heavily loaded trucks due to wheels sinking
into the shoulders during the rainy season. Further, the slushy
condition causes the mud from the surface ofthe wheels to spread
on to the pavement surface presenting a constant threat for skid-
ding. A good design practice, therefore, calls for provision of
hard shoulders upto a width of atleast one metre and regular
<<
44 ExP].~ANATonxNOTES
SIGN—I
T
7 rn

-~ kErn ~ 4
- T
Tm

~cA) FROM 2 TO ~-_LAN—

S’~MMETRIC,AL Wk0EN~NG ~-—som
GIG N —2

- - ~ —— Tm

I
7m

I
fl~) FROM 2 TO 4 LANC. WIDENkNCI
I
ON ONE SIDE

RREAK 04 AL,IONF~1Ew7

4-20
—— ——-- ——

— — —— ——

3 75 ITI

(d~~g.1Qi~Qf~.j~L
I
LEGEND
SIGN-t ROAt) WIoRNINE SElF ALL CASES, S4GNE;
SIGN - 2 ROAD NARRCbWNG SF(OULD• BE FRO1R::iED 405
CLIJSTaR OF SF0 SNOW N FOR C ASS
REFLECTORS

Fig 35. Treatment at typical cases of pavement widening

<<
 EXPLANATORY NOTES 45

maintenance thereof. Quarry spalls, gravel, haid moo rum,or other

locally available granular material can be used for the purpose of
improving safety at low cost. Another aspect is that the space to
a distance of at least 1.5 m from the edge of the carriageway should
be kept free of all obstructions so that drivers feel confident to make
full use of the carriageway width and thus contribute to improved
capacity and safety. Sonic of these points are illustrated in
Fig, 36.

(v) Medians improve the capacity and safety on high volume roads by
physically separating the opposing traffic streams, reducing head-
light glare ~by planting shrubs in the median space), and providing
positive delineation of the right edge of the carriagev~ay. Medians
also protect right turning traffic at crossings. As a general rule,
rural highways of four or more lanes and urban roads of six or
more lanes should he provided ~ith median, For four lane urban
roads, provision of median should be judicious Inking into account
such considerations as safety, directional distribution of traffic
(medians not advisable when tidal flows of traffic are present),
proportion of slow vehicles roadside developments, etc,
Medians should he highly visible both during day and
at night from safety considerations. For this purpose,
median kerb and surface area in-between should be
providcd with an effective contrast in colour and tex-
t u re.
The number of median openings is an important factor
affecting safety; the higher the number of openings per
unit length the higher is the accident rate. Median open-
ings, should generafly be limited to intersections with
public roads, and the distance between successive open-
ings should not be less than 750 in for rural highways
and 500 rn fcr urban arterials.
(vi) In cut sect ions, for draining the roadway, it is a general practice
to provide open drains on the hillsidejust at the edge of the shoul-
ders. For such cases, ~v’shaped drains (with a slope not exceeding
3:1), though hydraulically not as efficient as the trapezoidal section,
is advantageous from safety angle since out of control vehicles
can make use of tht, drain and get retrieved ‘from an otherwise dang-
erous situation - see Fig. 3~7~
(vii) It will be desirable to have embankment slopes as tiat as possible so
that any wayward vehicle leaving the roadnay will have a better
chance of survival, Front safety considerations IRC:364970
recommends side slopes of 4:1 for low embankments upto 1.5 m height

<<
46 EXPLANATORY NOTES

H SHOULDER k—-— PAVE PAENI ~-4—+~

/ ~
~ict~~c :::0~:
TO STAG NA L
~S HAZA’R DOLl
H
DC IDE
DAMASI PAVEMENT

LOW SHOULDER 5
DANGEROUS FOR
TRAFFIC AND
CAUSES EDGE
4j~Cr~ SRLr~ INU Cfr
Hf PA YE I4ENLT

LOOSE OR SLUSHY
SHOULDER COLlArD
OVERTURNING OF
V E HiCLES

ORCNTH OF SHRU6S
ON SHOULDER

•y~~/>~,
1 OBj’TRULT, I

:~1 AND REDUCES

CA PACITY
ROAD
~

HARD SHOULOER
DE5IRAaLE~HARO
~.

tAoNE~sTRE
atG#t ,srz~tz0~t~t2~4 WIDE
r4
F

Fig. 3~6, Traffic safety problems relating to shoulders

<<
 EXPLANATORY Noms 47
Where embankment height is more, a cross~sectionfor side slopes,
starting from 2:1 at top and ending at 4:1, at the ground is suggesled-
see Fig. 3.8. Adoption of such slopes will no doubt involve extra
cost, but weighing the benefits likely to accrue from improved safely,
it would be preferable to provide such slopes particularly at critical
locations such as sharp curves.

V~ SHAPED DRAIN

(PREFER~bLE- EASIER
FOR ANY WAYWARD
VEHICLE TO GET RETRIEVED)

TRAPEZOIDAL DRAIN

(HYDPAUUcALW MORE
EFFICIENT WT DANGEROUS
FOR ANY WAYWARD VEt4ICLE)
Fig, 3.7. Side drains for hill roads

4
II-

(~) LOW EMBANKMENT

cb HIGH EMBAPacMEMT

Fig. 3.8. Embankment slopes for traffic safety

<<
 48 Expi. ANATORY N0TF,s
3,2.4. Sight distance
(1) Sight distance, or ability to see ahead is one of the most
important factors affecting safe and efficient movement of vehicles
on roads. The road must provide for sufficient sight distance in
which a driver can control his vehicle, or come to stop to avoid
striking an obstacle on the roadway, or safely complete the mano-
cuvre of overtaking a slower vehicle without hitting an on-coming
vehicle in the opposite lane. IRC 66-1976 explains the types of
sight distances and lays down minimum standards for various
design speeds.

(2) Obstruction to sight or reduced visibility arises in two

cases, (i) along the alignment where there is break in the grade
tine, and (ii) in the lateral direction along inside of horizotital
curves due to obstructions like walls, cut slopes, buildings, wooded
areas, high farm crops, etc. These cases are illustrated in Fig. 19.

(3) The needed visibility in the longitudinal direction can be

ensured by providing suitably designed vertical curves. For 2-lane
highways, the effort should be to provide visibility corresponding
at least to intermediate sight distance. In cases where the terrain
is characterised by a series of ups and downs, a profile closely
following the natural ground surface which creates a “roller-
coaster” kind of profile should be avoided. Similarly, on long
straight sections, local hidden dips which merge with the continuity
of the road when viewed from a distance should be avoided. A
vehicle stopped in such a dip for repairs or other reasons can be
seen only at the last moment, thus creating a hazardous situation.
Fig. 3.3. shows some typical cases.

(4) On valley curves visibility is not a problem during day

time. But for night travel the design must ensure that the roadway
is illutninated by vehicle headlights for sufficient length to enable
the vehicle to brake to a stop, if necessary.

(5) On the inside of horizontal curves, visibility can be

improved by cutting back the obstructions to sight, lowering the
height of hedges, replacing solid compound walls by see through-
grills, cuttiag back the hill slope or benching as considered approp-
riate.
<<
 EXPLANATORY NOTES 49

~tV~BI LIlY 5ELOW

THIS LINE

~yr~ IA) Al SUMMIT C:iJR,VE

H NOT VISIBLE P.T NIGHT

AS NOT LIGHTED BY HEAD

(b) AT VALLEY CURVE

THIS LINE

INSIDE oc HORIZONTAL CURVE

Fig. 3,9. [‘rohlem,sof visibility along and across the road

(6) Where a horizontal and summit curve overlap~,the line

of sight will not beover the top of the crest but to one side, and in
part my be off the roadway. Design in such cases should provide
for required sight distance both in vertical direction along the
pavement and in horizontal direction on the inside of the curve.

<<
 50 EXPLANATORY NOTES!

(7) Fig. 3,10. illustrates the criteria for measurement of sight

distance.

k_OVERTAKING &
SAFE STOPPING

Fig. 3.10, Crileria for measuring sigh distance

3.3. Road Intersections

3.3.1. General picture of accidents at intersections
Ft is generally accepted that road intersections are a major
cause of accidents. Statistics both for the country and abroad
show that roughly one-third of all road accidents occur at inter-
sections. The recent study of accidents on Bombay-Rune Road
(N.H. 4) and on a number of other highways conducted as a part
of the Road User Cost Study showed that the presence of inter-
sections is highly significant as an accident causative factor, Table
3.1. high’ights this fact making use of the equation derived for
Bombay-Rune Road,

<<
 Ex PL SNATORY NUnS 51
tABLE 3 1. EFFECT OF FREQUENCY OF INTERSECTIONS ON ACCIDENT RATE

SI. No, of interseetions km Personal injury accidents per million

No. vehicle km/annum

~ Number Per cent increase

over the case at
SI. No. 1

1. 1 0.66 -—

2. 2 1.14 73
3. 3 162 145
4. 4 210 218

Note (i( The equation used to arrive at the above figure is

AR (3) — 0,1526 .i- Q~2I6RF f 0.0031 CV + 0,47933

Where AR (3) Personal injury accident inte in number per million vehicle
km/annuni
-: Vertical profile denoting rise and fall in ni km

(‘5? Average horirontal curvature in degree km

J - Number of intersections km

(ii) In working out the above Table, ~alues for RE and (‘V have been
assumed to he I and 100 respectively corresponding to plain
tet rain.

3,3.2. Factors affecting safety at intersections

(I) Satèty at an intersection results from the operation of a
cninpftx system of variables. Quite often, an accident takes place
because of the interaction of a number of contributing variables.
To have an objective study of accidents and for finding the approp-
riate remedial measures, it is necessary to identify the variables
and the possible contribution of each variable. The variables can
be grouped under two broad headings, namely, human variables
and physical variables,

Human variables
(2) The behaviour of road users follows a three-phase pro-
cess of perception, decision and action. These phases not only
succeed each other but are also concurrent. A fault in one or
more of these phases often foretells the occurrence of accidents.
Risk arises when wrong actions are performed either because of

<<
 52 EXPLANATORY NOTES

incorrect or incomplete in,.formation leading to wrong decisions, or

wrong decision in spite of proper information implying incorrect
judgment.

(3) For driving correctly at intersections, the drivers must

perceive certain essential information such as (i) the need for
changes in speed, choice of lane/route across the intersection area
and anticipation about possible approach of other road users:
(ii) the traffic control devices setting out guidance or regulation
about speed, turning, etc; (iii) traffic on the other approach roads
covering the types and their positions with regard to the inter-
section area and to himself, their speed, the lanes/routes the other
road users will use and signals given by other road users concerit-
ing slowing down stopping or turning (iv) the position and speed
of the road user himself; and (v) special circumstances such as
slippery pavement, diversion, etc.

(4) Generally, the total quantity of information that can be

picked up or absorbed by a road user in a given period of time is
limited, The chances of obtaining complete information decreases
when a situation becomes complicated, such as in difficult road
situation with various kinds of traffic, crossing pedestrains and
numerous traffic signs. Besides this, there could be external
situations imposed by objects obstructing visibility, or decreased
visibility because of insufficient lighting, or glare, or the driver’s
attention being diverted by irrelevant information like advertise-
ments, shop window displays, etc. Instances are not far to seek
where intersections overload the driver with information svith the
result that drivers disregard significant information such as warn-
ing signs.

(5) Anothcr important factor in safety at intersections is the

familiarity of the situation. Generally, chances of a road user
missing the crucial information or under—estimating the risks are
greater for those who are new or unfamiliar with local situations.
Under-estimation of risk may also occur when a familiar situation
has changed and if this situation is inconspicuous and not clearly
notified.

<<
 EXPlANATORY Non.s 53

Physical variables
(6) Basically, hazard at an intersection arises as a result of
conflict between two or more traffic streams, or between a vehicle
and other road users, or between vehicles in the same stream.
Several physical factors influence the type and intensity of the
conflicts, A clear understanding of the different types of conflicts
is, therefore, essential not only for safety evaluation of an inter-
section but also for developing appropriate remedial measures.
The types of conflicts and influence on traffic safety are discusnd
in para 3.3.3.
(7) important physical variables influencing hazards at inter-
sections can be grouped under the following broad heads:
(i) Location Location in the network; sith respect to
oilier intersections; and in relation to
topography and other environmental
features.
(ii) Type of intersection type in relation to the intensity and mixed
nature or traffic; the type of area whether
rural or urban; the presence of pedestrains;
cyclists and other slow-moving vehicles;
speeds of approaching vehicles, etc.
(iii) Intersection geometry the size and shape of the intersection area;
the angle or obliquity of approaching legs;
the presence of traffic islands, flaring, etc.
in the intersection area.
(iv) Visibility sight distance available within the inter-
section areas as also between the inter-
secting legs.
-

(v) Traffic intensity and mixed nature of traffic; pro-

portion of slow traffic; pedestrain volumes,
etc.
(vi) Traffic control the presence ofsigns, signals and pavement
devices markings,
-

(vii) Other conditions roadside conditions; ribbon development;

advertisement hoardings; weather, light
and road surface conditions.

(8) The physical variable enumerated above act either singly

or in combination. How these act on safety at intersections, and
what measures can be taken to improve the safety situation are
discussed in para 3.3.4.
<<
 54 EXPLANATORY No’rr:s
3,3,3, i’raffic conflicts at intersections
(1) Movement of a vehicle along or across an intersection
area invariably involves a conflict, The conflicts are of varied
types, and the intensities of collision produced by them are also
different. The attempt in any safety improvement programme
should, therefore, be not only to reduce the number of conflicts
but also convert more intense conflicts into ones of minor nature,
It should be understood that it is not possible to remove all con-
flicts since even interchanges have merging/diverging conflicts, and
in some cases (e.g. cloverleaf design) weaving conflicts.

(2) The different types of vehicular conflicts at an inter-

section are illustrated in Fig. 3,11. alongwith the possible types of
collision produced by each of these, Of these, conflicts arising
-

out of merging, diverging or weaving manoeuvres can be conside-

red to he of’ minor nature (since the resulting collision is not of
setious type) white those from straight moving and right turning
movements are of more serious type. Compared to straight
moving, right turning movements arc more potential for serious
collisions since the vehicles will have to take a longer curved path
within the intersection area, have to look for potentially conflicting
vehicles in all directions, and are involved in greater number of
conflicts in their path. A closer attention and necessary provisions
for right turning movements are therefore important for improved
safety at intersections. Table 3,2. brings out the parameters to be
considered lbr reducing the intensity of vehicular conflicts,

(3) The number ol’ conflict points at an intersection area

affects traffic safety, the larger the number of conflict points greater
is the probability of collision. Fig. 3.i2. brings out the number
and type of conflicts at typical intersections, This highlights the
point that having intersections with fewer legs or making one or
more nI the crossing roads one-way can drastically reduce the
conflict points for improved safety.

(4) The occurrence of conflict points at close sequence as

shown in Fig. 3.12 (a) creates hazardous situation of serious nature,
and this can also psychologically affect the capabilities and judge-
nient of drivers. The area of conflict, i.e. the space available in

<<
 EXPLANATORY NOTES s5

CON FL.ICT pocs~~LE

‘ryPt OF
GO1.~$I0N

A,LE~SDANGE~OU5

M~RG NO
~2 M,’eG,fl ,~

Sr!m~~

D1VERG~NG
REAR END, SIDE SWIPE
Cpor~~~j~,,m~
~I~91~s)
~t srn~I~

~ dIfl~II~
O~.’
B MORE DA~(GEP.OU5

SINGLE CUT1’~Nc
HEAD - ON
(5~r~’r ~

~UL’fl PLC CUT’Tfl’4G

HEAD OH
(Slr~g~/,*
~no~-~.tj)

DIVE ROING,
C~VI’TING B’MaRGfl~G HEfr~D-ON~
SIDE SWIPE
C~i
5I~fi~rn~~j)

RE~’~R
END, ~t~.O-CN,,
DIVERGING, C~’T’flHG
s~orswIPE
a MERGING
(QI~I~t~ }

Fig. 3,11, Vehicular conflicts at intersections

<<
56 EXPLANATORY NOTES

4 —— 06
O — 6

4 1.. ~i66 E V

* — NIL
o — 12

© .JQIML

r © 9!±~LJ~9±2
f’s 3 —

ONE. WAY

LEGEND

MAJOR CONFLICTS—ø

•— 2*2=4 MINOR cONFLJCTS-0

O—~6+6=12

® IS~O-Ph~aSE
5~GNAL

<< Fig. 3.12. Conflict poin~sat typical intersections

 EXPLANATORY No’rr.s 57
TA5LE 3,2. PARAMETRR,S TO BE CoNseDitarn FOR Rrnucu~oTHE
iNTENsITY OP VEHICULAR CONFLICTS

SI. Conflict Crucial parameters for Application in design

No, improved safety

I. Merging Should be at small angles Design of acceleration lanes

and low relative speeds. and merging tapers.
Presence of sufficient gaps
in the main stream neces-
sary.

2. Diverging Should be at small angles Design of deceleration

.
and low relative speeds. lanes and diverging tapers.
Diverging arm notified
sufficiently in advance.

3. Weaving Merging, crossing and Design of rotary intcrsec-

diverging should be at small tions, and in cases when
angles and low relative merging and diverging
speeds over sufficient dis. roads closely follow each
tance called weaving length, other as in cloverleaf inter-
changes.

4. Cutting (laps in main stream should D-esign and capacity evaiua-

(straight be adequate, delineation of tion of at-grade intersec-
moving)tt manoeuvre ar-c-a and con- tions,
trol of priority -for move-
nient from each arm.

5. Cutting and Adequate gaps in the main Design and capacity evalua-
merging, or stream, safe storage space tion of at-grade intersec-
diverging and to wait -for acceptable gap, tions.
cutting (right turning radius -for safe
turning)tt movement, delineation of
manoeuvre area, and con-
trol of priority for move-
ment.

Note ~ttWhere the safety requirements cannot be satisfied, these movements

(i) can be converted into less -dangerous -weaving by adopting rotary
designs or (ii) can be separated in time by signal control, or (iii) can be
separated in space by grade separation, as appropriate.

<<
 58 EXPLANATORY Noi-us
the lateral direction (hr carrying out a tnanoeuvre, if more than
necessary, can add further dimensions to the problem. A driver
negotiating a manoeuvre adjusts his speed and position in anticipa-
tion of a particular path for a potentially conflicting vehicle, and
in case the latter has a large area to manoeuvre, the calculations
of the former will get seriously upset, and this may result in a
serious accident. From safety angle, therefore, it is essential not
only to separate the possible conflicts but also to reduce the poten-
tial conflict area. This can be achieved through ehannelisation.
This point is illustrated in Fig. 3.13 (a to d) with the progressive
development ol’ a ‘1’ intersection. Even where traffic volumes do
not de ma nd channelisation, the principle can be applied to reduce
the non-functional ilttersection area for obviating the possible
wavering of vehicles. Such cases arise at oblique intersections of
a minor road with a major road as illustrated in Fig, 3,13 (e).

3.3,4. Measures for improved safety at intersections

(1) Risk of accidents at intersections can be reduced and
their consequences minimised by taking suitable engineering
measures discussed in the following paragraphs. While some
apply to new intersections others apply to both now- and existing
ones. in all cases, it will be a good practice to examine the design
in the light of a check list, a sample of which is suggested in
Table 3.3.
(2) in the development of road network for an area, due
attention should be paid to the following points from traffic safety
angle:
(i) The roads in the network should follow an hierarchical
pattern with respect to function so that priorities of each
arm of the intersection could be understood and suitably
provided (hr by way of introducing ‘GIVE WAY’ or
‘STOP’ signs for traffic entering the intersection front
minor roads.
(ii) The number of intersections should be reduced to the
barest minimum. On rural highways, the intersections
should not be spaced closer than 750 m. On urban
arterials, the corresponding minimum distance should be
500 m.

<<
 EXPLANATORY NOTES 59

‘~-4alU*4CWANNEUSEO LMG~’
CONRtJCT ARE~A • VEH~CLE5
LA~O ~
CAN wAVER AND ‘rHE3R PAThS
BECONE UNPREOSCTA8LE.

tbt ~M RRCADCHA~NEL~EO~

,~M,~L. R~ ~ ThRNJNG PATHS —

~

\~ ~
h~
PARTLY DELINEATED ,~

~ —

Is

* —

— -..-
— i=~~ -*

teAl ALL TuRHING Mover~El47.S

SEPARATED AND THE~ PATHS
DEL~’JEATED, LE5~Cr-At4C~-~F
cr
vo-~CTA~our P~cr~5
COHI~IC7~MGVE~CL~4

~\ \\

C~RVC OF-H ~LI’iuM

TRI~lN~~ADI~LS —
~
\\
FOR
REDU~N~NOU .FUMCTION,4L
-
FOR REOL~C,ME \~\JUNCT~O~J AREA
JUNCTION AREA

t1A~JOR

MINOR

<<

Fig. 3,13. (a to e) Channelisation for separting con9icts and for

reducing conflict area
60 EXPLANATORY Ncrr,s

TASLI, 3.3 CHECK LIST OF POINTs TO BE LOOKED INTO FROM SAFETY

ANGLE IN TILE DESIGN OF INTERSECTIONs

1, Location
(i) importance in network
(ii) Grade/curvature of crossing roads
(iii) I)istance from adjoining intersections
2. Choice of design
(i) Compatibility with traffic volume
1 directional distribution
and mixed nature, and importance of intersecting roads
-(ii) Speeds of approach roads
(iii) ‘l’ype of area, urban or rural
(iv) Possibility of lighting the intersection ar-ca
(v) Uniformity in design
3. Visibility
fl) Overall visibility
(ii) Clearance of sight triangles -

4. Layout design
(1) Number of conflict points and possibility -of reducing these
-(ii) Separation of conflict points
(iii) Conversion of major conflict points into minor ones
(iv) Turning radius
(v) Size and shape of channclising islands
(vi) Type of kerb for islands (ñI-ountable/non-mountabte)
(vii) Painting of kerb faces in black and white bands
(viii) Presence of non-functional intersection area
(ix) Flaring of approach arms
5. Traffic control devices
(i) Signs -
(ii) Signals and flashing beacons
(iii) Pavement markings
6. Misceilaasous
(i) Advertisement hoardings
(ii) Drainage
(iii) Skid resistant pavement surfacing
(iv) Lighting

<<
 ExPt.,ANATORY NOTES 61

(iii) Having more of ‘1’ intersections which have fewer

number of -conflict points in place of 4-way intersections.

Choice of type of intersection

(3) A variety of designs are possible from simple layouts
having only left turning curves to complex channelised layouts,
or rotary, or signal control. Each type is appropriate to a parti-
cular situation of traffic and environmental parameters. A wrong
choice may -mean congestion and delay at one end to confusion
at-id inconvenience on the other, and this means greater proneness
to accidents. For example, a signal controlled junction on a
lightly trafficked road or an isolated signal or rotary on a high
speed h-- ighway -will be a cause for increasing the accident rate,
Also, a complex channelised layout should be avoided on unlit
rural highways.

intersection geometry
(4) Geometric features include the location and direction of
the intersecting arms, the location, size and shape of channelising
islands, the turning radius, etc. Some of the satisfactory and
unsatisfactory geometric design features at intersections are illus-
trated in Fig. 3.14.
(5) Very often the intersection area is flared out to accom—
modate the different manoeuvres and channelising islands, The
angle of flaring to suit the approach speeds, the delineation of the
path or channels right from the approaches in logical sequence are
important. Leaving a large unmarked area at the junction will
cause wavering of vehicles and increase accident potential. No
traffic island should conic on the normal vehicle path, and if used
should be of sufficient size (minimum 6 mE area) and their faces
painted in black and white bands to make them adequately
conspicuous.
(6) The left turning curves should follow the path of the inner
rear wheel and should not be so sharp as to cause the turning
vehicle to encroach on the lanes intended f-or other vehicles. This
can be achieved by providing 2-centred or 3-centred compound
curves. For high speed rural highways like National Highways,
2-centred designs of 17-23 tn and 20-30 m (with left infiltration
lanes) have been successfully used in- many places,

<<
 62 EXPLANATORY NOTES

FlG~.3.14 SATISFACTORY AND UNSATISFACTORY DESIGN OF

AT- GRADE WTERSECTIONS

(7) Controlling the entry speed of right turning vehicles is
another requirement in design from safety angle. Fig.3.15 illustra-
tes the case relating to a ‘T’ intersection.

(~o DANGEROUS (b) SAFER

Fig. 315. Controlling entry speed of right turning vehicles

<<
 ExPL~NATott’s’No’rus 63
(8) Proper treatment at the branching points of byepasses of
major highways is very important from safety angle. The section
byapassed should invariably be flexed and subordinated to the
byepass so that the fast through traffic on the major highway is not
misguided into the bye-passed or abandoned road. Fig. 3.16. illustr-
ates the case.

(9) Acceleration and deceleration lanes are intended to avoid

acceleration or deceleration by the entering and leaving vehicles
taking place on the lanes meant for through traffic. These should
be provided only where at least one of the roads is a high speed
highway, and there are at least 200 turning vehicles per hour. On
low-volume intersections, if provided, these lanes will only serve
to increase the meandering area for vehicles and add to the
hazards. However, the right turning pocket lane carved out of
the median has been found to be very useful in reducing the acci-
dent rate.

Visibilit s
(10) A major factor affecting safety at intersections is the
~ sibility or sight distance. There are two considerations which
arc important to the driver as he approaches an intersection.
First is the overall visibility of the junction layout to provide the
driver with a clear picture of the type of intersection, the facilities
provided for the various movements, the presence of channelising
islands--- antI other traffic control devices. Poor alignments can
produce ‘hidden, intersections with erroneous visual impressions
which may lead to incorrect clecision by the users.

(ii) Locations with straight alignment and near—level grades

are the best for intersections. Locations on long and flat valley
curves have superior overall visibility, but the down grades should
not be steeper than 1 per cent to cause vehicles to accelerate.
Locations at top of summit curves have poor visibility but have
the advantage of reduced speeds of approaching vehicles. At
such locations, rotaries are preferable. However, locations on
either side of a summit curve will prove to be highly dangerous.
Where such a situation cannot be avoided, the junctions should be
located at a distance equal to at least the safe stopping sight distance
<<
64 EXPLANATORY NOTES
0
C ~
0:’
I
xt~
2:
4:
z
C! 0-
Q
-I C
0-,
U
?~
‘1’
C— C~
U
— V
o a
u_i us
O tO F-
cx C
U
trj
C Lii
o Li,

<<
 EXPLANATORY NOTES 65

away from the summit and where the grade is the flattest and not
steeper than 2 per cent.
(12) The second improtant requirement towards safe negoti-
ation of an intersection is the right triangle visibility. After a
driver becomes aware of approaching an intersection, be must be
able to observe and comprehend the speed and direction of appro-
aching traffic to his right and left. The driver must be able to see
sufficient distance along the cross road to allow him to judge if he
can make a crossing by suitably adjusting the speed or he must
come to a stop.
(13) There are two specific conditions that are relevant to
minimum sight triangle. These are:
(it ‘Uncontrolled intersections’ shere the intersect lug roads are of moie
or less equal importance and there is no established priority.
(ii) ‘Priority intersections’ like an intersection between major and minor
roads where the major road has the priority for movement ~~hilethe
entry from the minor road is controlled by ‘STOP’ or ‘GIVE WAY’
signs and stop line markings.
Sight distance requirements in both these cases are illustrated in
Figs,3.17 and 3.18.

- DESLGH SPEED oc ROAD

I
D~.02— SAFE STOPPING StGHT
DISTAMCE

F 1g. 3.17. Nhnirnttiu sight t riangic at uncontrolled intersection

<<
 66 EXPLANATORY NOTES

-r ------ --

LfoSECOHOS GAPTOoIsrAwcE1
‘I CORRESPOWrnRG DtS~GN(
I
L5PEEDOFThCM~ORROADJ

Pig. -. IS. Minimum sight triangle al priority intersection

3.4. Roadside Developments, Roadside Hazards and Road

Appurtenances
3.4.1. Ribbon development
(1) Ribbon development along highways i.e. development
of commercial business and residential activity on either side of
the highway close -to the road boundaries generates a lot of local
traffic and throws up pedestrians and slow-moving traffic on to
the highway resulting in criss-cross movements, restriction to
sight distance, distraction to drivers of through traffic, all leading
to utter confusion and serious hazard. Encroachment of road
land, sometimes even the roadway area by hawkers, vendors and
petty shops, and parking of trucks and other vehicles on the road-
way for long periods add further dimensions to the problem. The
problem is particularly acute and highly hazardous at sections of
highways approaching major cities and towns, This aspect is
dealt with in greater detail ia para 3.4.2.

<<
 EXPLANATORY Noits 67

(2) Measures for the prevention of ribbon development along

highways is discussed at length in LLC. Special Publication
No. 15-1974 ‘Ribbon Development Along Highways and its Preve-
ntion’. Some of the measures which can pay quick dividends
are
(i) Construction of parallel service roads for segregating local and
slow traffic from the main highway.
(ii) In the absence of adequate land, provision of railing barriers
and maintaining the footpaths in good order for encouraging pede-
strians to use them,
(iii) Development of off-road facilities like truck parks at intervals
for the purposes of rest, refreshment, vehicle repairs, etc for
,

truckers,
(iv) Strict enforcement of no-parking restrictions on the roadway and
removal of encroachments on the road land.
(v) Proper location of bus stops on lay-byes (see para 34,5) or in
off-road terminals.
(vi) Controlling the location and frequency of fuet-fitling stations in
accordance with IRC: 12-1983 “Recommended Practtice for
Location and Layout of Roadside Motor-Fuel Filling & Motor-
Fuel Filting-cum~ServiceStations (Second Revision)”.
(s ii) Check barriers for various purposes should as far as possible be
combined into single ones so as to control their proliferation where
constructed these should conform to the type designs recommended
in IRC: 41-1972 ‘Type Designs for Check Barriers’.

3.4,2. Highway sections approaching cities and towns

(I) Sections of highways approaching cities and towns are
more vulnerable to ribbon development and encroachment.
This is for the reason that such locations generate a lot ofbusi-
ness wilh vehicles, drivers and passengers coming from long
distances. The local developments drastically red itce the free
passage of vehicles, and such situations will prove to be highly
hazardous for drivers who till then have been driving at high
speeds on the rural sections of the highsvay.
(2) For such sections, besides taking action on the pre-
vention of ribbon development, removal of encroachments, etc.
as discussed in para 3.4.1., the roadway itself should be suitably
widened and provided with safety measures (like pedestrian
crossings and railing barriers). The widening treatment will
depend on the available right-of-way, the proportion and type of
local traffic, etc. Fig. 3.19. shows a few typical cross-sections along-

<<
 68 EXPLANAToRY NoTES

(C) MORE LOCAL TRAFFIC

ROW, LiMiTED

(b~LOCAL TRAFFIC MOSTLY

BICYCLES .MORC
THROUGH TRAFFIC

RO,VQ, REASONABLE
MIXED LOCP’,L~

TRAFFIC

(co SUFFICIENT a.aw,

HEAyy THROUGH TRAFFIC.
FUTURE DEVELOPMENT
IMPORTANT

FR— FOOTPATH <MIN WIDTH am)

SR.- SERVICE ROAD (NIH, WIDTH 550i)
Ct— CYCLE TRACS( (KIN. WIDTH 3m)
MC.— MAIM CARRIAGEWAY
R,O.IsA— RIGHT-OF-WA’?
- RAILING BARRIER

NOTES:
I. THE WIDTH OF FOOTPATH, CYCLE TRPCI( AND SIDE DRAIN MAY BE ADJUSTED
AS PER REQUIREMENT AND AVAILABLE ROW, ALSO, SEE IRC:ge FOR MORE
DETAILS
2. ‘ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN METRES
Fig. 3 IS. Typical cross-sections for highway sections approaching
Cit ieSftowns

<<
 EXPLANATORY Nc’rrs 69
with suggestions on their application. l’hese may be taken for
guidance only, and may be adjusted according to actual needs
and available right-of-way. In the design of the main cirriageway,
service road, cycle track and footpath, guidance can be had
from, IRC:86-1983 ‘Geometric Design Standards for Urban Roads
in Plains’~.

3.4.3. Approaches to bridges

(I) The present practice in India is to curtail the shoulders
at all bridge structures except culverts. However, there are
numerous locations on the highways where bridges do not have
even the widths equal to the flanking road carriageways.

(2) A motorist driving along an open highway (presence of

shoulders and absence of lateral obstructions gives him confi-
dence to drive fast and even along the carriageway edges), when
he suddenly meets with a bridge structure (absence of shoulders,
and presence of lateral obstructions like kerbs and parapets) he
has to adjust his speed and lateral position quickly, as otherwise
he may collide with the kerb or parapet or other protruding
members of the structure. The situation becomes more critical
and highly hazardous if the bridge roadway is narrow and there
is already a vehicle on it. Failure to comprehend the situation
and make adjustments in position and speed has quite often been
the cause of serious accidents including tripping of vehicles into,
the water course below. Some of the measures for avoiding
such critical situations are:
(i) Ensuring adequate visibility or the bridge strUcture from the~
approaching roads for a distance equal to at least 1,5 times the
safe stopping sight distance,
(ii) Avoiding road intersections for a distance of at least 200 in from
either end of the bridge.
(iii) Providing suitable transitions to the roadways where their widths
differ. Three common cases occur: (a) road built to single lane
2-lanes while
while the bridge is of two-lanes; (b) road built to
the bridge is of 4-lanes; and ~c) road built to 4-lane divided cross
section while the bridge is of 2 lanes in the first 1nsta~ceto be
widened at a future date.. Suggested treatments for these cases
are shovn in Flg.3.20,

<<
 7() Expr.~t~t’roRy
NOTES

~ 1 ~y5~ ________

Iwv~ ~ ~

~) SINGLE LANE ROAD — TWO LANE ~R¾OGE

75,~ 5~fl _I7~—~4 _:~. ~ *

1W rn NUN~ _
(b) TWO LANE ROAD -
mmmmmmmm*~
280 rn ~

FOUR LANE. BRIDGE

1W 200 rn *

(QgO~ ~

Fig. 320. Tiansition at bridge aj.proaches

(iv) In the case of narrow bridges, posting of advance warning signs

and painting of the ends of the parapets in bands preferably
with reflectorised painL

(v) Providing guard~raiis(discussed in more detail in para 3~4.S,)

(vif En the case of underpasses, piers and abutments built close to or
within the traffic lanes may cause accidents due to their sudden
appearance These should be protected with guard~railso, con~
CL~C~Cbarriers iiot only to reduce the severity of impact but also
10 redirect any erring vehicle to its normal path.

Railway level crossings

3~4~4
There are a large number of railway Level crossings along
the highways in the country, and a good prOportkn of these are
still unni~nned. While the phased programnie of converting
all the unmanned crossings in to mann~dOnes and the heavily
<<
 EXPLANATORY NOTES 71
trafficked ones into overbidges/subways should be accelerated,
all possible measures should be taken for improving safety at
the crossings still existing at level. The measures should include:
fi) Provision of adequate visibility including clearance of the sight
triangles as at road intersections.
(ii) Removal of obstructions or irrelevant information like advertise-
ments from the immediate vicinity of the crossing.
(iii) Provision of warning signs including advance warning signs in
accordance with IRC:67-1977 ‘Code of Practice for Road Signs’.
(iv) Provision of flashers or automatic stop signals linked with railway
signals to give warning of approaching trains. At unmanned
crossings automatic audio-visual signals as the one developed by
the RDSO should be provided.
(v) The design of the crossing and the approach roads should be in
accordance with IRC:39-1970 ‘Standards for Road-Rail Level
Crossings’.

3,4,5. Pick-up bus-stops

(1) Bus system is an important means of transportation
both in the rural and urban areas in the country. People swar-
niing the roads near the bus stops is a common sight. Besides
risks arising out of passengers alighting or boarding a moving
bus which can be controlled only through discipline, there can
be other factors causing serious accidents at bus stops. These
may be as a result of:
(i) Visibility obscured by standing vehicles, and a through vehicle
running over waiting or alighting bus passengers.
(ii) Bus stopping on the main carriageway itself thus blocking part
of the roadway and causing serious obstruction to other vehicles;
and
(iii) Bus stop located too near and preceding an intersection, and the
bus not having sufficient distance to merge with the main traffic to
negotiate turning movements.

(2) For avoiding these hazards, certain measures are necess-

ary both in the design and operation of bus stops, Important
among these are
0) Bus stops should be located at places where there is adequate visihi~
lity and the grades are flat or gentle;
(ii) There are two ways of providing bus bays, viz, one by carvipg out
an additional width adjoining the main carriageway, and the secqnd

<<
 72 EXPLANATORY Ncnrs
by having an exclusive lay-bye separated from the main carriage’~ay.
As far as possible, except for very lightly trafficked roads, the second
alternative of having a separate lay-bye should be adopted, This
will provide for safe refuge area for passengers and obviate the
possibility of waiting people swarming the main carriageway;
(iii) The bus bay area should be properly drained and maintained in
good order;
(~v)The bus stops and bays should be sufficiently away from an inter-
section, and should have easy entry and exit. Guidance in location
and design of pick-up bus stops can he had from IRC : 80-1981
~TypeDesigns for Pick-up Bus Stops on Rural (i.e. Non- urban)
Highways’~and
(v) No-parking regulation for a distance of 100 in from either side of
bus bay turning curves should be strictly enforced.
3.4.6. Avenue trees
Roadside trees have been a traditional complement of all old
roads including main highways in the country. Planted with an
eye on the provision of shade to pedestrain and animal-cart traffic,
they have been accepted as a part of the road. However, with
the advent of fast motorised traffic, trees too close to the roadway
arc proving to be a serious traffic hazard. Experience shows that
the trees should he located at a minimum distance of 10-12 in
from the centre of extreme traffic lane to provide recovery area
for any wayward vehicle running off the road. This clearance
distance for planting trees should be adopted for all new roads.
For existing roads, there should be a phased programme for
removing trees falling within the clearance area with side by side
plantation of new trees beyond the clearance zone, First priority
for removal should be for trees falling along outside of horizontal
curves (since vehicles are more prone to trip off the roadway at
these places) and those on inside of curves obstructing visibility.
Trees allowed to remain should be painted in white colour for a
height of 1.25 m above roadway level with 300 mm middle band
in black colour to warn road users of their persence. For better
night visibility, it will also be preferable to fix on their face a piece
of red refleetorised lape, disc or paint.
3,4.7, Kilometre stones, sign posts and utility poles
(1) Position of kilonietre stones, sign posts and utility poles
is another factor relating to road accidents. Vehicles going off the
<<
 EXPLANATORY NoTEs 73
carriageway may strike them resulting in accident.

(2) Kilometre stones on embanked roads should be fixed at

the edge of the roadway outside the shoulder on specially erected
platform. in cutting, they should be fixed clear of the shoulder
and the tide drain. For more details, reference may be made to
1RC 8-1980.

(3) For road signs, the minimum lateral clearance from

carriageway edge should be 600 mm for kerbed roads and 2 m for
unkerbed roads (see also para 3,6.4.).

(4) For utility poles, the clearances should be as per

IRC: 32-1969.

3,4.8. Guard-rails
(I) Guard-rails are used where vehicles accidentally leaving
the roadway would be subjected to considerable danger or where
there are abrupt changes in roadway widths as at approaches to
bridges, or for protecting the components of subway structures
like piers and abutments located in the proximity of the travelled
way. The purpose is to restrain and redirect out-of-control
vehicles away from the danger zone and opposing traffic flows.

(2) Warrants for installation of guard-rails have been

developed in countries like the U.S.A., and if these are applied
directly to roads in the country it will be found that most of the
highways will require guard-railing for most of their lengths. This
is neither feasible, nor necessary since speeds of vehicles in the
country are relatively low, At the same time, there are vulnerable
areas where guard-rails have a very useful role to play. The
approach should, therefore, be to identify the critical areas or the
combination of critical parameters, and prepare a priority-wise list
for phased action.

(3) The critical parameters are the high probability of a

vehicle leaving the roadway (e.g. at outside of sharp horizontal
curves, approaches to a narrow bridge, etc.) and the degree of
danger awaiting such a vehicle (e.g. deep valley, deep water
course or ditch, etc.). This means that outside of a sharp hori-
zontal curve falling on the valley side, and high approaches to a

<<
 74 EXPLANATORY NOTES
narrow bridge will claim a high prioiity. Another way of accord-
ing priority is to analyse the locations where accidents are caused
due to vehicles tripping off the roadway.

(4) Common designs of guard-rails are shown in Fig. 3.21.

in their installation, they should he located somewhat away from
the useful shoulder line and at about the same elevation. It is
desirable to flare the guard-rails outwards for a short distance at
the end of tariffic approach and anchor the! ends of guard-rails in
order to lessen possible direct impact and! to provide a full view to
the driver,. A typical guard-rail treatment at a bridge approach
is shown in Fig. 3.22.

3,4.9, Roadside facilities

(1) Long distance drivers need rest and recreation enroute.
A driver who has rested will be fresh and alert, and is less likely
to commit inistakes. From safety angle, therefore, it is desirable
to provide the necessary facilities on all through highways.

(2) The facilities may be In the form of:

(I) Roadside lay-byes at scenic spots for the travellers to park their
vehicles and relax for sorretime with provision for drinking water
and light refreshments;
(ii) OIl-road rest areas for night halt. Such places should have facili-
ties for over-night halt, food and vehicle repair; and
(iii) Truck parks with facilities for night halt, food, vehicle repair; and
parking for long distance truckers.
Detailed guidelines on the provision of these facilities are
contained in the IRC Special Publication No. 21 “Landscaping of
Roads”.
(3) Besides providing rest and recreation for road travellers,
the above mentioned facilities will help traffic safety from the
following angles:
(i) Discourage parking of vehicles on the roadway itself;
and
(ii) Discourage the mushroom growth of roadside tea/eatable
shops and vendors,

<<
 EXPLANATORY N tiTUS 75

SECTiON SEAM TYPE

GUARDRAIL

It,

TNREE-STEA$O CABLE WEAK P051

GuARQ RAM.

80% ØEAM WEAK P0U

GtaRQpAst.

Fig. 3,21. Common designs of guard~rails

<<
76 EXPLANATORY NO1ES

PLAN

ELEVATION
FIg. 3.22 Typical guard-rail treatment at bridge approaches

3.4.10. Arrangements for traffic at construction sites

(1) On occasions it may become unavoidable to suspend or
direct traffic from a section of a highway for improving/repairing
the highway or cross-drainage structures, or a breach caused by
floods. Disproportionately large number of accidents are known
to have occurred at such sites due to poor geometrics or inade-
quate guidance to the motorists.
(2) Basic principles to be kept in mind at such locations
from the point of view of safety are;
(i) Traffic must be guided properly if it is required to follow
an alternate path;
(ii) Display of clear warnng about any hazards that may be
present, including posting or advance warning signs; and
(iii) Geometrics of alternative facility or diversion should be
such as to allow smooth and safe flow of traffic0

<<
 EXPlANATORY NOTrS 77

(3) Fig. 3.23. illustrates the typical arrangements that could

be made during widening/reconstruction of cross-drainage struc-
tures. Adequate warning signs, pavement markings and geo-
metrics, as shown in the figure, if strictly adhered to, could result
in drastic reduction of severe accidents, At both ends, the diver-

HOOtS OF DAMNUS ~.S

TAR DRUMS MINTED
5L~IIS WIOITE 01
SM1I.M otyict --
InVIOlABLE

POSItION OP
F1.AEMAM

SEtS IBOIAD It

DR REPIJCTORI*IDTOfl

Ca) tASkS SORt CN4 85 Cbs PASSCMG OF

i!I,.2a~PtSPJ GJER oivflsaOM

11g. 3.23. Arrangements fur traffic when a cross-drainage structure

is to be reconstructed

<<
 78 EXPLANATORY NOTES

sion should be joined to the main carriageway with smooth transi-

tions keeping in view the grade and visibility requirements.
(4) Another important requirement from safety angle is
that at the end of day’s work, all the construction equipment
should be parked outside the main roadway. If this is not possi-
ble, they should be parked at the extreme edge of the shoulders
and provided with red lamps on both sides during the hours of
darkness.
3,5. Road Surface Characteristics

3.5.1, General
The two important attributes of road surface characteristics
affecting traffic safety are the riding quality and skid resistance.
The riding quality refers to the surface evenness of the pavement
which in conjuction with the characteristics of the vehicle and the
quality of driving determines the riding comfort. Skid resistance
is the frictional force developed at the tyre—pavement interface
when a tyre on being prevented from rotating, skids on the pave-
ment surface. Longitudinal friction is needed for acceleration
and deceleration whereas lateral friction becomes important while
negotiating horizontal curves.

3.5,2. Riding quality

(I) Riding quality has a direct impact on traffic safety in
the sense that an uneven surface or a road with poor riding quality
causes undue jerks and vibrations and this leads to early fatigue
of the driver and impairs his judgment manoeuvrability, all lead-
idg to hazardous situations.

(2) Riding quality of a road pavement can be assessed by

a number of ways. These are
(I) Subjective assessment by a panel of raters on a 5-point scale while
riding on a vehicle at constant speed;
(ii) Measurement or surface irregularities under a straight edge; and
(iii) Measurement or unevenness by special equipment like profilograph
which plots the road surface profile, or a bump integrater which
cumulates the unevenness in terms of cmfkm while riding at a cons-
tant speed employing a fixed diameter wheel, Besides safety, since
riding quality is an impoTtant factor affecting vehicle operating cost,

<<
 EXPLANATORY NoTEs 79
it will be a good practice to assess the riding quality at least once in
a year for planning maintenance and other remedial measures.
(3) Surface unevenness of a pavement, to a great extent is
influenced by the unevenness built in at the time of construction.
It is, therefore, important that all care is taken about surface
regularity at the time of constructionjreconstruction. For guidance
in this regard, reference may be made to IRC : SP 16-1977
‘Surface Evenness of Highway Pavements’ which lays down the
norms and makes suggestions on their achievement.
3.5,3. Skid resistance
(1) Skid resistance has not been a major factor for roads
in the country in view of the predominant use of open graded
surfacings and relatively lower speeds. However, this aspect
is gaining importance in view of the progressive use of smoother
surfacings and the development of high speed highways.
(2) Identification of potential slick spots can be made in a
number of ways, Some of these are
(i) Predominance or single vehicle accident indicates skidding possi-
bilities:
(ii) Higher proportion or accidents during wet weather indicates skidding
potential;
(iii) Absence or inadequacy of superelevation at. horizontat curves may
lead to skidding accidents;
(iv) Bleeding bituminous surfaces have high skid-risk potential;
(v) Horizontal curves on heavily trafficked roads provided with asphaltic
or cement concrete surfaces, particularly attended with oil spillage
from vehicles have high potential for skidding.

(3) Measures for correcting the slick spots include the provi-
sion of skid-proof surfacing, correction to superelevation at horizon-
tal curves, sand blotting of bleeding surfaces, etc. For more
details, reference may be made to I.R.C, Highway Research Board
Special Report No. 2-1976 ‘State-of-the Art: Pavement Slipperiness
and Skid Resistance’.
3.6. Traffic Regulation and Control
3,6.1, General
(1) Traffic regulation is concerned with matters relating to

<<
 80 EXPLANATORY NOTES

the control of vehicles, drivers and other road users, and the
manner of their using the road space. in India, the traffic is mixed
in character, and the spectrum of vehicles range from fast moving
passenger cars to slow moving animal carts, hand carts, etc. each
competing for the available road space, Well thought-out regula-
tion and control measures are therefore of paramount importance
for the safe and efficient movement of vehicles and pedestrians
having different physical and speed characteristics,

(2) Traffic regulation and control measures can be dealt

with under three broad heads, namely
(i) legislative measures;
(ii) Engineering measures; and
(iii) Traffic control devices.

For best results, it is important that all these measures should

complement and supplement one another, and should be backed
by effective enforcement.

3.6.2. Legislathe measures

(I) In India, the Motor Vehicles Act 1939 as amended from
time to time along with the local legislations provide the basis for
regulating vehicles, drivers, and traffic movement. Under these,
adequate provisions have been made to control and manage
vehicular traffic through traffic laws covering different aspects such
as dimensions and weights of vehicles, speed limits, restrictions on
the use of certain vehicles on specified routes, parking places,
traffic signs, etc. Some of these measures are discussed in the
following paragraphs.

Regulation of speed
(2) Imposition of speed limit is a powerful tool in traffic
regulation and safety, and the general experience has been that it
brings down the number of those ~sho drive at high speeds and
reduces accident rate. Regulation of speed may be warranted in
the following situations
(~)In urban areas, becawc of the mixed traffic, too frequent intersec-
lions and large pedestrian flows, particular care is warranted in the
sicinity of schools and colleges.
(ii) In rural areas for the control of heavy commercial vehicles,

<<
 Ex~tAN si’oay NOTES 81
ilil \l small Pages (noi covered under urban area) located along
ural bighisays for the protection of pedestrians and othcs sloo
tiiüiie,
(is ) Al locations is here geonteInc deficiencies donot pennit higher
speeds, such as at sharp hot icontal curses and at locations hat ing
rest rcted vistbility.

(3) A variety of fitctors influence the valne of speed limit to

be applied. Important among these are
(i) Running speed of traffic —~normaltv, 1 he 85th percentile i1’LLd of
t chides is ~etccted for speed limit Speeds sttrve ssoLttd yield fin a to

.
determine t h ,s.
Iii) Road L’unthtioas the geometry of the road, gradient. sight distance,
street lighting, safety measures for pedestrians, etc. are some ol’ the
aspects that should be studied before selecting the specet Until,
liii) Fin ironment of the road the extent of roadside deselopment. the
frequency and nature Lit access points, the Nesence of schools. pins
tields, cinema houses, and places of it orship attracting Ta rge ci osicts
are some of the condttir’ns governing tlte speed limit.
is) ‘l’rattic ••. I he tilume aad mised nat inc of tratlic also got ci n tlte
spents until 5, For heat ~ conimetcial vehicles, tosser speed limits
should be applied hL’catLse of their poterttialit~ for more serious
a cc‘cien t s
(s I Accident rates Anal> of past accident rates still gis c positit e
irtcttL’ation it hether thet L’ is any need of imposing speed limits, and if
so the actual limit,
(4) The speed limits suggested in the Motor Ve Ii ides Act fUr
rut-al areas arc reproduced in Table 3,4. Thc speed tim its rccom~
mended by the Indian Roads Congress (1RC : 70-i977 ‘Guidelines
on Regula tiott and Cotttrol of Mixed Traffic itt Urban Areas’) for
a pplieation to itt i sod traffic con ditions in a rba n areas are givett itt
‘Table 3.5.

(5) Posting of speed limits alotie is not j inst sttfficient, and

there should be strict enforcement, A variety of eq uiptite itt liLe
~‘tioseope and radar speed meter are available for detecting speed
violation, a net these have become popular ss ith the enlbrcement
a uthorities.

Regulation of vehicles
(6) Reputation of motorised vehicles covers the f’ollowintz
aspects
(it Vehicle registration

<<
 EXPLANATORY NoTEs
‘r ABLE 3.4. S~ntrl.,EMIT5 PRascidnuso tNt THE M01DE VEHICLES ACT, 1939

Class of vehicle Maximum

speed km/h
Ill ~ without trailers
Ii) Light motor vehicles or a motor cycle .,, No limit
ii) Medium or heavy passenger motor vehicle .. 60
tdu Medium or heavy goods motor vehicle ... OP

I2 Art icula ted heavy niot or vehicle ,, 50

t3 vehicle drawing not more than one trailer
(it Vehicle being a light motor vehicle, and trailer being
two-wheeled having a laden weight not more than
800 kg . Oft
lii) Vehicle being a light motor vehicle, and trailer
having more than 800 kg ‘ ‘ so
iii) Vehicle being a medium motor vehicle ... 50

I it) Vehicle being a heavy motor vehicle ,, 40

(v) ‘Vehicle being a heavy motor vehicle used by tlte
tire brigade so
I-I t An> case not covered hT above ,,. 3l’t

SABlE 3.5. Srwm LIMITs RECOMMENDED FOR DJPPEREN’r Tyars op

VrnitcLrs IN LTRBAN ARrAs

Speed limit—kmth

Group I Cl roup Ii
Rotict category ______________ —

Light and Heavy

medium vehicles vehicles

(II Major roads of arterial ?sub—a rierial

character mostly in open and think
btt il t ‘ttp areas 50 40

12) Rctads ss ith moderate tot tile sittia

ed in semi-built-up areas 40 30
31 Cotngested roads in built-up areas 30 20

<<
 EXPLANATORY No’rt::s 83
(‘it Coast ruct ion and equipinen I of vehicles
(iP) Sue, weight and loads nf vehicles
(is Lighting of vehicles
(s) tnspect ion of vehicles
lvi) Control tif tritnspflrt vehicles
(vii) t nsurance

On some of these aspects, State Governments arc empowered to

make rules for effective enforcement,

Regulation coliceruing the dri’ier

(7) Regttlations concerning the driver as provided in the
Motor Vehicles Act cover the ibliowing aspects
(i) I. censittg ~if t he el river
(ii) Requirements of physical fitness
I ut) Age ol’ driter
(iv t f)isquit Iitical ion it nd endorsement of lice nees

The present regulations are adequate to ensure physical fitness

and driving ability on the part of’ the driver, hut what is crucial
is the strict enforcement. The, drivers are expected not to drive
in a raslt and negligent manner and failure to observe this is
deemed to be an offence. Driving under the influence of liquor
or drugs, and driving when mentally or physically ttnfit are also
punishable ofiènces,

Regttiat ion of non-motorised traffic

(8) Cyclists constitute a large number amongst those driving
a non— motorised vehicle in urban areas. By ~ large no licence
is required to ride a bicycle, and the cyclists do not feel obliged
to acquire any formal knowledge of traffic rules and’ regulations.
The result is that a large number of accidents have been taking.
place in the city streets which can be attributed to the cyclists not
having, proper traffic sense or the bicycles not fitted with the
necessary safety equipment like hell, light, reflector or brake. For
ensu ring smooth and safe flow of cycle traffic under mixed traffic
conditions as’ obtaining on our roads, die following rules coul el
be considere.d for enforcement
)i) Making it compulsory for the bicycles to be provided sv it Is head
lanip, hack reflector, belt and brakes;

<<
 84 Exi’I..:NATORy Noîrs
iii \‘lakrng it obliga ory For the c>cflsts to rise the separate e~ele H acks,
where prcrvrded,
iir~Prohib I ing ~tre c~vclists from carrying any other person on the
vehicle, or toads other Ihan a hat can sa Fel~ be accirrnrnodllted in
the H tint basket or the rear carrier;
nt Prrrh:b dog the ccles fror being tossed by any o:her t chicle:

E:~nstrningI hat not more than 2 escles remain abreast except rrri cycle
It aekis: and

p Nlalr:rrg U oblip,atoes fur:” the csel:sts to keep icr the e’rtrc’me left
the ea: :agewav sslrerc no separate cycle tracks has e been pros dod.

(91 As ref.’a rds hand—pr..t lIed and aninia ~drawn carts, the
tolftowinft rcr,ttitttrotis, ii enforced, s~otild be useFul from safely
a n~tie
tit Slaking ohligrrton~Her beta to carry a lantern at nr:glrt rind to fl’s
red reflector’s at the rear’~
t irf P oh~bit re, tire use of any cart 1mm earrt ink pises or rods longer
:lrarr Sm I trek cr1’ these loath shoud be pi’osrdc’cl r’,iih roil flag,s
dir rig d,,o torte and red Ianrps durrng hours of da rknero,
I \lakirir.r, ,: obirga rrr for the carts to pk onl~’on ike sroo e.rvriilglft
was’ uhercrrcr pissirkel When: such a faclity is riot here’., he carts
turd hi” :n.:idr: I:: l’.:e.:p to lee c’\irunhl:: left ol thecrtrtrage’rt~and
is lkrlr b rig the p’l~’rigirf the cr.trts on fast busy roads at tertst during
he It rifts of peak traffic.

B egtilar ions oF pedes lila ns

(10) in ttrbttn
ttrerts. a suhslt:qntral nr.ttnher i:ef lalalities ill
ae:::islenls pe:’: mm top.:’:L’strians Ii is, therefore, iniportartt tur
lii.,,’ nu~’,,:irtotrtof fo”clestt”~msfor which purpose c:nforc:e.—
mont en f}~,,”Inrl:tssinut may he htt!plul
,‘slakirtg r uir’.igamly r’err :t’ie pedes:rians icr walk urn tIre f’irotpaths
‘leE e’’,,i:eh •it0 .i lee have been p::crs :dcd; and

1 Ii’::’ :‘rrusi Ire nr:rde :o curse the roads us sehr;a~or pedestt’ian oser~
Ire si:e’ir die:: li,:s have been pr’ovided Al other ltncat:crns
rhirr:it:l be tr~:irriLtcci 10 cross the road only at pedestrian
ci rrr’.t:gs.

L rtthtbt t tug eeriain i ~pe~ of sehieks on cerlain roads

of ti,., p:’b..’mc of er”ngestiofl a,rises durtng. the

peak It’ ‘ , tt t•’.i 1‘o he ssorth ‘.‘rrnsidet tog the prohibition of
.‘

the s’elt i :.:‘ ‘1 55 I: :h create the twa xinrt ttrn congestion.

‘ This, how~

<<
 ExPl.4&’N ~ni(’tttY No’i’r.s

cen,’t’, will be stin:r:essful only sshere a suitable’ alter itative re.t’ute

is tn ai a ide, ‘the measures can be
rrlr biting tlrc’ plying cnfIreas~ecnrrrrrre:’cit.rI scbieleus’,snd slcrrs:t’tos rug
citric drt’Hng lee peak lrrnur s. and
ii l’:’nrlt fri. rug :lte ply’irrg ref heasy cnrrnnrre:’eia vehicles e: irrrg r:nlrues
where selrcrols a:’e located, dru rig tIre erfrcrring and clew rug lrerro~
cr1’ I Ire school is.

Parking regulation
1 12) The phenomenal grtrsvth of’ motor vehicles in trnss ns
and cities has bt’ought into sharp ftrcLts tlttit problem cit park’rne.
A vi’ Icicle pr rked on the road occttpies some rrrad space ‘is hic It
eou iii t.’ethrr~sise have been used by a neo;’in~etech ide, a ttd a lscr
causes obstrttction tt) visibility ss hich is particLilorly’ ct’t:eial nt
irterseetiorts, SaFety, corn fort and cons en ie nec of’ road ctsei’’,,
dc mand it proper and effective reFulation of ~arking.

(13) ‘[he parking problctn which is heconiinq aeul’:e purL

trl~tri’t’in the CBD areas can he looked at front twcr angles:
(ift H’ont rolling I ftc parking demand though tcrss n plrinn ing rrre~tati‘es
and augment ng the parking supply through engineering measures,
i

a ni
(ii) Regulating the eti’cctite t:tilisation of’ the its arlablr: too king
spaces.

As regan cis the first aspect, the measures include control on the
eortstruetiotl of multi—store3’ed eotTtttie reial and office cc: mplexes,
cinema halls, etc., which generate huge parking dc ntancl, and
insistl ng on providing their own parking spaces. Go idan:,,:’e ott the
need for parking spaces for’ diflerent types of buildinos can be
had from tRC: SP: 121973 ‘Tentative Reeomntendamjon on the Pro~
v sidifi ol Parking Spaces’ for Urban Areas’. Side by side, lhce
sttpplydeii1andl posfiion of parking spaces shc’rtr Id Lie a ssesserj
periodically by’ pa rking surveys, an ci fir rthe r augtrte ntalion in
the form cr1 off—street parking spaces, inulti—storey’ed çrar.kitt.
garages, etc. shirulcl he. thought of.

(14) Fot’ the effective trlilisaticrn cr1 Ihe available park’inte

t’nms,’es with traffic’ .t,ul”fi’e’ u i.’ n flu’ fl’lt ‘tine’ :‘e~r ““‘ut
“‘

rnrr’n:rll~’irrrposr’rt:

<<
 86 EXPLANATORY NOTES

(i) Exciusise parking spaces for taxis and other public service
vehicles
(ii) Resersation of kerb space for bus stops and prohibiting the
parking of other vehicles for a distance of 100 m on each side
of the stop;
iii) Restrictions on parking near intersections, for a distance of at least
100 ni on each side;
(iv) Designa ion of parking spaces along the roadway edges at certain
locations;
(Vt Prohibition of parking along heavily trafficked ioads during peak
hours; and
(vi) Parking corn rot h~fees.

3.6,3. Engineering measures

(i) Engineering measures of traffic regulation include
segregation of traffic by their operational characteristics, provision
of suitable facilities for the safe movement and crossing of pede-
strians and cyclists, measures for safe and quick movement of
vehicles, etc. Some of these are discussed in the following
paragraphs.
Segregation of traffic
(2) Movement of mixed traffic in the same stream causes
friction between vehicles of different operational characteristics,
and reduces the speed and capacity. Further, in a mixed stream,
motor vehicles are subject to frequent stop-start or deceleration
-acceleration operations resulting in wastage of fuel and intense
atmospheric pollution. All this can be obviated by segregating
the slow moving vehicles from the fast moving ones. Segregation
can be effected by providing separate carriageways, aticast 5.5 in
wide, for slow traffic. The actual cross-section to be adopted
will depend on the available land width. Where land is limited,
it will be worthwhile to combine the space for bicycles, other
slow-vehicles and local traffic into a single carriageway on each
side with separate lanes far fast moving through traffic instead
of a common carriageway for all. Fig.3. 19, shows a few typica’
cross-sections effecting traffic segregation.

One-way streets
~31 Adoption of one-way syste in of street operation for
dealing with large volumes of mixed traflIc ott narrow’ streets

<<
 EXPLANATORY N cyrus 87

has proved to be successful in many cases, One—way street system

results in better utilisation of the available streets, improved
safety because of reduced conflicts at intersections, elimination of
head—on collisions and headlight glare from on—coming vehicles.
higher operating speeds fbr vehicles, and involves least cost com~
ia red to other alternatives. This system is eminently suited where
g.rid’iron pattern of roads exists, and for other eases should be consi-
dctcd only where pa rallel streets of adequate capacity are available
at intervals not exceeding 200 in and it is possible to merge the
two o ne-way streets at a suitable point into two-way streets.

Pro~isionfor through traffic passing through cities and towns

(4) in cities and towns falling in the route of through
highways like the National Highway, a major safety problem is
created because of the through traffic moving on the congested
urban streets. There are two ways of tackling this problem:
(i) Segregating the local and slow.rnoving traffic by construe ing

I
service roads, Footpaths etc., so that the through t raffle eon tiow
unhindered, This however is possible onty when the urban link
has a land width of at least 30 m, and
(ii Constructing a byepass for the through t ra tIle,

In either case, it will be desirable to carry ottt an economic anal”

ysis fbr choosing the best alternative.

Facilities for commercial traffic

(5) Many of the busy arterial roads’ in the heart of cities;
towns are dotted with warehouses, wholesale markets and coin-
me reial establishments where loading/unloading of goods constitu-
tes an important activity. In the absence of any lay-byes, the
trucks park on the main carriageway for long periods, thus
usurping the precious space of the moving traffic, Further, the
u nloacled goods and those waiting to he loaded are stacked on the
lootpaths intended tbr pedestrians. All this contributes to serious
congestion, contusion and traffic hold—ups leading to hazardous
situations. Some of the measures for obviating these problents
are
(it Restricting the toading/unloaduig of a treks o nt) during the night t two
when the traffic is low:
(ii) Shifting wholesale markets generating a tot of intlowjouttiov. traffic
to outskirts of the city with in—built facitities;

<<
 88 EXPL\NA’tOrtY No’ii S

(iii) Providing truck terminals far away front the cay centre with suttuh:c
approaches, thereby deeentralising the bulk of loading and unloading
activities from the congested areas of the city; and
(is) Insisting at construction stage on all new business premises to proside
for olltstreet loading unloading facilities.

Bicycle traffic
(6) in the recent Inist, there has’ been a phen~menal growth
of bicycle tt affie in and around cities and towns, and cyclists
cctnstitute one ol’ the major groups of accident t’ icti tns. The move—
inc itt of cyclists on the main carriageway along with the fast trttffic
givcs rise to traffic conflicts at intersections as well as along narrow
congested streets. Some of the solut;ons for alleviating the sitt.ta—
lion ate
ii) Segi egat ing the c~ctctraffic by constructing separate escte t tacks,
I <c: 11-1962 ~ReeonimendedPractice for the Design and l...a)out
ot’ C %tk Tracks’, provides guidelines on the aarrants. design and
construction of cycle tracks.
iii ‘1 in tet 5cc tions, particularly the major ones, neecs~a r~provisions
should b.c made icr the sai’e rnos’etueat of cycle traffic, Tltis rnc~
he itt the form of separate phase for cyclists at muli i—phase signatiset,l
intersect ions; provision oF cycle boxes ahead of the stop line and
sepa rate turning lanes for them; and posting of police a it h butt
spea ket s for warnittg erring cyclists and tnot orists.

Pedestrian traffic
7) Pedestrians eoitstittttc the sitigle largest group o acci-
dent victims in t..t rba n areas. This is lbr the reast:tn that the
pedestrian voicttnes are increasing leaps and bounds. a iid that a
substantial proportion of them are not itniiliar w ith the traffic
rnles a ad rcgttltttions. Apart from education and enforce ment,
certain entzinccr i ng mcasttres sv ill be highly helpful in ituproving
the sLtfety of pedestrians.

(8) 1 he require meats ol pedestrians are saiiieient space fri r

ss a IL mg alortg Lhe road an di earnia rked areas for crossing the road
a ilh so fety. Raised footpaths of adequate width, pros icled with
tin iii it surface and kept free of vendors, hawkers and other
cnct oncit ittents a ill prcn’ ide safe passage for pedestrians a long the
road and ci iscourage them l’ront spilling on to the main carriage—
n’.~’’i.~.s gtniteln’t.ec ‘~n ‘I,i’c, tl,:r:;i,,:11 ci’ t’”

<<
 89
under dilterertt situations. Where the streets arc narrow and the
pedestrian ffmss arc heavy due to commeu vial shopping actkity. It
~ill he advantageous to reser’. e these for the cxci tisive use of
pedestrians or as pedestrian precincts.
~9) For the safe crossing of roads by pedestrians, all inipor-
taut intersections should provide for pedestrian cross-stalks.
Besides this, pedestrian crossings should also be provided at loca-
Hans sslikh generate pedestrian traffic such as cinemas, schools,
~tv. The crossings should be visible for adequate .!istance from
tither side and provided with “Zeh:a” markings and pedestrian
crossing signs so that the driver clan approaching vehicle ssill be
alerted about the pedestrians etosslng the road. The cross-stalk
van iulco be riade priminent by providing flashing beacons.

(10) Crossing al a busy and wide arterial rand b~a large

nit nibet of pedestrians may necessitate the provision of pedestrian
sub-is ays or user-paases. Such t~cditiesare expensive and should
tiwr~foic.be provided only when there is sufflcientjustilleation for
the same. The Justification could be the eombined effects of
pedestrian aeciJents. and delay to both vehicular traffic and
pedestrians. When such facilities are constructed, it will be
desk able to post policemen at these locations atleast to guide the
pedestrians to tosS the road only thiough these and not otherwise.
(ii) Pros isMin of railing barriers at the footpath edges will
I’ve helpful in preventing pedestrians from spilling on to the main
carriagessay, pnrtieularly on busy roads and intersections. They
also help in presenting pedestrians rwm crossing the road at their
ss ill and force them to cross only at pre-determined and welL nod-
lied tross-staiks. The railings should be ofaesthetically pleasing
design and should not be too low to permit easy cross-os er.

3.6.4. Traffic control drless

(Ii A traffic control device in any sign, signal, marking or
device placed or erected for the purpose of regulating, warning or
~iuiding traffic. Basic requirements of traffic control des ices arc
to:
~ii uvrnpel attention:
N rm’i vnic nr i’’.’ re~s ii~c:

<<
 90 EXPLANAT0tt’t’ Not I:~S
makes its meaning clear at a glance; and
dvi command respect

“the basic require ments are achieved by appropriate design,

placement, rnamtenance condition, visibility, and uniformity of
application.

Road signs
(2) A road sign is a device mounted on a fixed or a portable
support to give, in Ihe form of symbols andjor descriptions, warn—
me, direction or guidence to traffic. Road s~gnshave a profound
influence on road safety. it has been often found that posting of
an appropriate sign Ii as improved safety at an accident—prone spot
to a great extent.

(3) The Ninth Schedule of the Motor Vehicles Act, 1939

has been amended to introduce the new system of symbolic signs
in conformity with the international signs. Corn plete details of the
signs md tiding guidelines on their erection are contained in
IRC 671977 ‘Code of Practice tbr Road Signs’. The new system
of signs should become fully operational by first June, 1985. For
new roads, the complete sign system should be planned at the
design stage and installed before opening the roads to traffic. On
existing roads, a careful survey should be done to assess the
requirements and the signs should be installed and maintained in
good condition without loss of time, On rural highways and unlit
roads, increasing use of reflectorised signs should be made ibr
improved visibility at night. it is also important to educate the
road users of the new system of signs and the message given by
them for easy recognition and compliance.

(4) Road Signs are classified into three categories given

below
Mandatory~ These inrorm the road users of laws and regula lions.
Regulatory Violation of these is a legal offence.
Cautionary I Warn road users of the existence ot’eertain hazardous
Warning conditions.
In forma tory .:;‘or information and guidance of road users.

So far traffic safety is concerned, mandatory signs are the

most important followed by cautionary signs, while informatory

<<
 ExPJ..,ANAIoitY No’i ItS 91

sigus although not directly coatiected v~ith safety, provide useful

information for the road user, It should be understood that a
ss rung or wrongly placed sign is more dangerous than no sign at

(5) It is sery important that the road user is able to recog-

nise the signs easily and in time. These should be placed on the
left hand side of the road in plain/rolling terrain and on the valley
side of the road in hills. Care should ~lso be taken that these are
not placed in such a way as to obstruct S’chicular traffic. On
kerbe ci roads, the edge of sign should he atleast 60 cm a way from
the edge of the kerb whereas on unkerbed roads the edge of the
stgns should be at a distance of 2 in from the edge of the carriage-
way.

(6) The signs should be properly oriented Lbr the dr~vcrsto

see them at proper time. On horizontal curves, the signs should be
placed at right angles to the line of travel of the approaching
traffic, On grades, it is desirable to tilt the sign forward or back-
w a rd tc) improve the viewing angle.

Traffic signals
(7) Traffic signals tall under two broad categories, namely,
fixed time signals and vehicle actuated signals. The Indian Roads
Congress is in the process of finalising detailed guidelines on the
design and installation of fixed time traffic signals.

(8) Trim file sigtiats are eminently suited for control of traffic
at intersection on heavily traflicked urban roads. Where a number
of signals fall on the same roads, all these should be synchronised
for easy movement of through traffic without delay.
(9) ‘traffic signals should be installed only where they are
warranted, Their use should be avoided on high speed highways
or in the proxi inity of pronounced down grades.

Road markings
(10) Road markings are lines, patterns and words applied
on the carriageway or kerbs, on to objects within or adjacent to the
carriageway for control, warning, guidance or information of road—
users. Because of their position in the normal field of attention

<<
 9~ EXPLArsATORv Nom LS

and s isual locus, they serve as a very effective means: in cons eying
the intended message to the cl rivers without dis crting their attention
from the roadway. Detailed guided ines on the design and appl I-
cation tit’ road markings are contained in IRC’ 35—1970 ‘Code of
P~acticefbr Road Markings (u ith Paints)’.

(II) From safety angle, the most erticia I locations for appli-
cation of pa s e meat markings are at intersections, and itt suni mit
cit rs es with 1 united visibility for marking no—passing zones.
11 samples of these are it [ustraic d in Ftgs. 3.24. and 3.25. respec-
[is e: ly,

(12) ‘1 lie road markings should be eriodieally renewed to

maintain their functional efficiency.

Road delineators
(13) The role of dehineators is to provide visual assistance
to drivers about alignment of the road ahead, especially at night.
Del incatoru are classified on r three types~

ii) Roads ay indicators Loca ted at the edge of usable shoulder, i liese
ate intended to delineate the edges of the roadway so as to guidt
drivers about the align ment ahead.
If) Hazard markers These are mo deli ne obstruct ions like gea I d .i ails
and abutments adjacent to the carriageway, for instance at culver is
and bridges s’. liich are na rower than the roadway w id h at appi oa~•
ches.
tin) Object markers: These are used to indicate hazards and obstrue-
t ions svi thin the chicle flow pat h, for esa mple channel ising islands
close to intersect ions.
l.:or details on the dlesign and placement of road del itleators,
eft rence may be made to IRC 79-1981 “Recomntended Practice
for Road Dehineators”.

3.7. Accident Recording and Analysis

3.7,1.
General
Accidents a me incidc nts ott the t oad involving damage to
r~
opc fly, in~ones to people, or less of life, or a coma bination of all
these. Accidents have been ha ppcning and will conttittue to
Ii ~t)Cfl as long as there is movement on the roads, httt the majt..,’
cflnt’i’r a of the People ns well as the Concerned itutltorities is hon

<<
 ExPi..ANivrORY T~OTEs 93

—— 1

ROADS 1~ltTHoOTCENTRE LINE ~4AR)cfttG

MW
~)
SUBJECT TO OCCASIONAL TURNiNG t4OVEt’IENTS

b___..~M
(l~ROAD WITHOUT CEI4TRE L1NEMAR1(114G SliT
SU~EX~’rTOfREQUENT TURNiNG MOVEMEHTS

*_i
C~)ROAt) WITH CENTRE LiNE

—~ J L~ DFOR MOST 01 ‘lThIu

;
.~,

fl~.....SOM—4.-
— ~
SoM~
Cd) TWO LANE ROAD WHICH o~
CAN ~EWIDE WED TO 4 LANES ~
IN THE VICINITY OF THE ~

~-

i~5M~ ~M
—4- 50M
~.5il 5M Ch~TURN MARKING
FOR SPEED LESS Th4N 30M.P H. (50km/h)
~ FOUR LANE ROAD itt
SUBURBAN AREAS

r;~1.4i
FOR SPEEDS
—rn

~ P H. (SOKml
GRE4TER Tt~lAN’3Ot~t
LANE ROAD IN
If) FO~,th~
SUBURBAN AREAS

(9) V ~NTERSECThON TURN t.4pyr~js

<<
Fig. 3.24. Pa vement, markings at road intersections

-
94 Expm~ANaToRYNoms
2
Lu
-J
U-
0 ~
115
5)
~LI
j
0
r’)
N
,~ z ~.
4 o
w j 0
d
1152 15.
U 0
cc . --
L~ E a. E
-
-J
~-
‘50
I~I ~_o —,
-
I I
i.
UI
L~t

<<
 LXPLANAT0RY Non’s 95
to ‘educe the number of accidents, and even if they happen, how
to reduce their intensity and the resulting trauma. This calls for a
clear understanding as to why the accidents happen, how they
happen, the parameters involved alongwith their relative contribu-
tion, etc. and will require properly recorded accident information
as a first step in the analysis. The importance of accurate accident
inl’brniation and its oljectivc analysis in any traffic safety pro—
gnamnie either at the macro or the micro level, therefore, needs no
special emphasis, it should also be borne in mind that the
correctness or appropriateness of any remedial measure derived
irota accident analysis will, to a great degree, depend on the
correctness and completeness of the accident information. in view
of the vol ominous data to be processed, it will be advantageous
for the authorities concerned with accident analysis to make use
of computer facilities.

3,7.2. Accidetil recording

(I) in India, the Police are primarily responsible ,fbr record-
ing, road accidents, Details of individual road accidents are
necorded by them on Road Accident Form A—I which was origi-
nal 1y introd steed in 1939. On the basis of Form A-I, the Police
pre pare a summary of road accidents occurring during the year
in the Road Accident .‘Forni—4. These summaries are subsequently
utilised by the State and Central Statistical Cells to develop overall
occident statistics,

(2) However, the inlormation emcnating from these ‘Forms

have not been complete or sufficient to make a. scientific analysis
for the cause of the accidents. To improve the situation, the
Indian Roads Congress has finalised revised Forms A-i and 4
with a view to collecting more specific and detailed information,
vide JRC 53-1982 Road Accident Forms A-i and 4’. These
tbrn,s, if filled in properly, provide the necessary information on
the drivers, vehicles and others involved in the accident, the
geometric and surface features of the road, environmental para-
meters at the time of the accident, etc. for facilitating parametric
analysis. The format of the Forms has been designed to facilitate
computer processing, For ensuring proper filling of these forms,
the IRC has plans to organise training courses for police personnel
on all—india basis.

<<
 96 ii.x PI..~NA’notv N’rt’rt:s
3.7,3. Accident analysis
General
(I) A major objeetis e or accident analysis is to discern the
fttctors that ha~ç’ been responsible for the accident an el their
relative cot’ttribtttton so tl’trtt appropriate corrective action ct:vnld he
a ken.

(2) The analysis will depend on the purpose ftir s\hich it is

made, and t he quality and completeness of the dat tt, Ge nerally,
the analysis is done fbr any of’ the 6 sI lowing purposes:
Ii) Res.Lu’ ol’itstminktraiit’eand poller regulations to the macro lesc’l,
(ii) Ident itica F on of’ haso i Onus road sect ions brat ions, and
it Spot improvement of inst is idua I locations

Anal) sis for a administratice and policy purpose’

(31 H crc, the analysis may he for the following purposes:
it) Keeping an eve on F lie accident ‘end from yea r to year. comparing
accident rate with othei’ count ries, or between States or between
cii es 50 that ito’ LtlarLliing situation can be dircemned for further
015 eO igttt on rtntt eOri’eet ice’ tic ion For this purpo~e.ihe aec’dent
or t’atalii v rotc can or expressed in terms ot’ the number of’ aecidenis
or fatalities ‘or every i 00,000 poputa t ion or l(t,f)tiO registered
sehicte,s,
ii) For policy decisions includtng making ame ndnien 15 tO the Motor
Vehicles Act lot tightening control over or correcting a nv detie’cncy
as the major accident ettusat is e factors. For this ptnpose, it ss ii hi’
necessary to make an anal sis for the dominant causes of accide n is.
For instance, if human fa iliac has been the major cause, concerted
attent ion could be directs d towa t’ds education, stricter corn ro I rivet
driver licensing and better enforcement, Similarly if s’ehcbe failures
eon t nbu te to a good proportion of t lie accidents, attent ion could
he pa at to stricter eo nt rot os er fit ness of vehicles and measures for
improving s chicle equ i t’men t. I r road factors ha ppen t t:s be dominant,
standards for geotnet t it’ design and road surface clta tact eristies,
and policy on traffic control devices may warrant a res tew,
iii) For planning decisions and fetrt her investments with regard to
improving safety measures t elating to major arget groups of
accident victims. r on this purpose, the analysis shotttd he for the
type or types ot’ persons (e.g. pedestrians, cyclists, etc,’l killed or
injured in road accid cots. For example, if it is found for a city that
pedestrians eonst i to e the major gretup of s let rn, cones rted action
cottld be taken to improve pedestrian facilities and educate them on
road safety through mass media

<<
 Expl,,~NrvronyNoTes 97

Analysis l’or identification of hazardous road sections!locat ions

(4) The main objective of this analysis is to identify artd
locate road sections or locations ~vliich have shown to be more
prone to accidents than others, The idea is that once such se’~-
tions/locations are identified, further detailed studies including
spot inspections could be made to find out the causes of accidents
and the deilciencics in the roadway for evolving appropriate
remedial measures. The. analysis can he on the lines of one or
more of the following:
(0 (‘omnpanison of accident rates of a series of road sections in the
network carrying relatively uniform tratfic flow, in terms of accident’.
pet km. The example in Table 3.6. illustrates the analysis
ii) Cootpanisoti of accident rates of road sect ions in the netu rink ear
iog different traffic intensities, in terms of accident rates per niibbtoo
elticle-~~~
km ‘l’he example in Table 3.7. illustrates the analysis

‘i’Astt r 3.6, (“on PAtil5ON or ACCtDrwT RATEs or ROAD SrcTioNs

(:‘Aru VINCi tJNIFORM 1’RAF}Ic

Road Section l.ength ft ut No. of acci- Accident rate Remants

dent S per per kin
year

A 20 Itt tl.5
It lOP 25 0.25
(‘ fit) 20 0,125
r) 40 32 0.8 Most Hazardous

‘t’At;Ln 3,7, (“rsstpAtmtsoN rtr Ac’r’tDEN’r RxrEs rtp RoAD SEr’noNs

CaRvrwc Dtrpt~RanT‘t’RAfltC: iNTrrNStTtts

Road Sections l...ength A .0.1. N”r.i,,s,~f Accident rate Remarks

(knit accidents per million
per year vchicle~—km

A 20 700 tO 1.96 Most Hazardous

B tOO 1200 25 0.57
C’ 160 500 2tt 0 68
I) 40 200(1 25 (t 86

<<
 98 ExPI..rtNAi’oRy NOTEs

liii) t’repat tog an accident spot map h~ slir:rw tng the locatictrt rif cacti
accident wittt ttte help ctf pins of dilierent shapes on colours repre~
sent ing different types of accidents (i.e.. fatal, personal injury, nun~
injury, etc.). Such maps which are normally maintained for a
calendar year furnish a quick v isua I index it f the loca t ions of
accident concen nation. A simple street mat’ to a scale of I in
5000 showing streets a ml a feir topographical feat tt R s vi ill he gene-
rally satisfactory for unbaa a neai.., For rural areas, a map to a
sea Ic of I in 50,000 (I in 25,000 in congested areas near cities) mar
tie adequate. ‘By this way, black spots or locaiions having eluster~
ing of pins denoting t’ai a I personal injury accidents crtn be dent died
for tart her invest iga I ion and corrective action.

spot improvement of hazardous locations

(5) The objective in this phetse is to ana lyse ft ~r the ma~or
cause of a ccidents for evolving appropriate correct iv e measures
at already identifIed hazardous sections!locatiorts, The folltiwin g
procedures will he helpful in the analysis
Ii) Analysis for the predominant type cit accident will go e’ a hrottcl
indication itbt.ut the prrtbable causes rtfttccictenrs, This is illrtstta ten
in Table 3.8.
hit Analysis for the tr pe of collision vi tth tltc help of collision diagrrtnt.
(.‘ntllisiotn diagrttm is a sketch of the hitzardous location in which the
ditlerent types of collisions that had taken place are indicated by
respective symbols A study of the diagtamn will help to discet n
the pi edonunant type of collision so that appnopr late remedial
measures could he taken i’he remedial nieasttres suggestcrl in
‘l’able 3.9. can be tised as a guide.
ttsLDosttN vxi
‘Lsiu..r 3.8. Pctsmtak.i (‘stjsr.s Ut’ Ac’CIDEN’rs rarot i
Tvrts or AccIDENT

St. Predominant type of Possible causes

No. accident

Single vehicle accident Slippery road surface, sharp horizontal curve,

absence of superetevation, surprise geometric ele-
ment, absence of proper roadway delineation.
2. Accidents during Slippery road surface, absence of superelevation at
wet weather horizontal curve.
3. Accidents during Poor lighting condition, sharp horizontal curve
nights combined with steep grade, poor delineation of
roadway edges, tired or drunken driver,
4. Collision against Trees and other fixed objects in proximity of road-
tixed objects way edge, narrow hridge(culvert in an otherwise
wide roadway, surprise geometric element.

<<
 5] ORY Notes 99
‘t’.sttt,t. 3,9, l’tttstrut,st,. Slt.:sst mets Setuctt’.srEu WIt l)tvrm ar~s’
‘l’s Pr ttr Cot EtsioN

SI, st>~ot’ colti’v tort Po.ssthle remedial measures

\o.

Rca r—e ad collision itt Provision of decelet itt ion lane a ad night — I urn log
intet section pocket lane
Provision r’f left intiltrtttion lane
Removal of 5gb i.thstracltons
Installation of advance warning signs about proper
lanes for ditfercnt destinations
Increasing amber time in case of signal control
2 lIc.tel’oo, t tgltt angle Removal of sight obsti itetions and enforcement iii
and night titers colli— parking regulation
sioti itt inlet scetioti Installation of stop lincs
1signs ott minor arms
Prohibition ot night tt.mnns where possible
Provision ofchamtnetising islands
Conversion into rotary where space is available
lnstattatiou of tiattic signals sshere ntinimutvt
w~trrantsare met
Creation of one-stay streets
Side us ipttsg coil tsioa
at intersection I tistallation of pavement tisank hugs
Vt’ idening of pus ement
Elimination of roa dsidc obstructions such as caused
by parked vehicles and other bottlenecks
Installation of channelising islands
.4. Pedest niati ‘s cli cutar
eotlistoti itt Installation of pedestrian cross-n a 1k tines
itt let sL’ctiott
Erect ion of pedestrian railing barriers
Provision of pedestrian refuge island
Prohibition of kerb parking
Clearing fool-path of all encroachments
Provision of pedestrian subwaysoverbridgts where
minimum warrants are satisfied
Installation of signal control
5. I—I ca i—on coIltsio rt
Pros ision of pitt etrten I lane markings, and tePee Ion
studs in case of tinli t highit ays
I nstalIatiomt of no—passing rest rict ions at Inca I iomts
hay ing poor visibility
Installation of centre-dividing strip
C’rcatiem of one-way streets
( olli”iott ott h tised
object Ap~tlicat ion of red retleciors to tixed objects
Ba tiding of roadn ide trees
Removal of tixed objects ii here possible
Veh~cl~ runnitig ott Installation of pavement, edge tines
road vs as Installation ot’ warning collectors, guaret—rait or
deltnea tors
Cot reetioti ctf superelevalion at hot rental cut yes
Providing skict resistant surlhcing
c:eslltsion vi ttli pitt keel
vehicle Parking prohibition
Change from angle to parallel parking
Arranging otf-street parking facilittes
Creation of one-way streets
<<
 lIlt) Ex.I’LAN
4~Tclti’NOTES

(iii) tl)n.spot investigation of hazardous locations can be highly useful

in the identification of adverse road and cnvirotimenial fea tttres
vi hiclt cats be related to the driver’s reactions arid the difficttlties he
possibly encounters so that appropriate corrective measures could
he elcvcoped. ‘the investigation should also include observations
for cont]iets I i.e. situations involving one or more vehicles vs here
there is ams imminent danger of a collision). This may be done by
a study of traffic flows at ~ite or by making fast runs through the
area under iris estigation. Such a study can hell) to identify the
high risk vehicle tnaaoeuvres and the locations whore they would
viecun so that appropriate remedial measures could be thought oh’.

3.8. Education

3.8.1. General
(I) Stittistics of mttd ace ideuts in the country clearly bring
out that in majority ol tite cases, human failure has been the maul
cause. This li uman in ilure may he due to ignorance, carelessness,
downright callousness or indifferent attitude, For correcting the
situation in this crucial area, ccl ucation and propaganda or any
measure to ërtctticahc it better road sense in the minds of road
ttscrs httve a vital role tti play.

(2) The objective ol’ education concerning road traffic should

he to impress upon the minds of all road users the complexities of
modern day traffic and the dangers underlying the simple process
oh’ moving froni one’ place to another, Obviously different types
ol’ road users require different types of instructions and guidance
though the bstsic discipline and an ttnderstancling of’ the rights and
privileges oF other rctad users should be common. But one thing
s certain that the earlier a person begins his education in life, the
better road ttscr he vvil] prove to he in future. ‘l’hc best way to
hcgiti ed ucatirtg a person, therefore, is in the beginning itself i,e,
at tIle primary school level when the mind of the child is still
ito oressiotalle. and vt ha.teve r discrpline or attitude is itnbibcd at
that time vs ill East him for his life’.

3,8.2. Education of the children

I) Edttcatiou cii’ children should start from the primary
e asses. T’ltcir text books should contain a chapter or two on the
rules of the road and the correct methods of’ crossing and walking
a Icing tile’ streets. (‘tilt tttrcd illustrations depicting both the correct
<<
 Expisissioav Nou.s ‘UI
and wiong nuethods beside% leaving a lasting impression %ilI create
the curiosity to know why a particular methnd is right or wrong.
This may be supplemented by sho’n Ing them occasionally shod
films covering sarinus aspects af traffic problems and accidents.
(21 As the children gross up, they should be encouraged to
sit themselves enrolled in the School Safety Patrols ssherein
they will be required to take training in controlling traffic at
sarloibs intersections and pedestrian crossings with the help of
traffic police. This still help them to come at grips with the reali-
ties of the traffic problems. and these will leave an indelible
murk on their personalities.
(3) Another very effective method to teach the children
about truffle problems is the traffic Training Park. This park
simulates the traffic conditions on the roads and the children are
icquited to go from one point to another on their cycles or other
cons eyancc. On the way, all sorts of traffic conditions such as
right turns, left turns, etc. are met u ith and the child is required
to negotiate them. gising proper signals. etc., as per rules and
conventions. The instructor watches the competents. and marks
are allotted with the winners getting acclamations and prizes.
In thk way, game is combined with education, and very soon
tlw children acquire proficiency in traffic rules and regulalions.
~4l As a pad of the national effort in the traffic education
iii children. the Indian Roads Congress will shortly be bringing
nut two publications, one an illustrated booklet on Road Safety
For Children, and the other on ‘Guidance to teachers involved in
road safety education.’
3.8.3. EducatIon ci adults - other than drivers of motor
vebleles
rhis group includes pedestrians, cyclists and drivers of
non-motorised vehicles. The difficulty with this group is that
tFcre are no adequate laws to regulate them, and by and large.
they arc ignorant of the existing traffic rules and regulations.
They also require no licence to make their presence on the
roads. What Is required is that they should he educated about the
traffic rules and regulations. the safe way oftheir using the road
facilities and better mad behaviour. Road safety propaganda

<<
 till EXPLANATORY Nuiss
through mass media tsee pars 3.8.5.p can play a vital role in this
regard.
3.8.4. E.d.eatlou of adults-drhers of motor sehieks
(1) Drivers of motor schicles. whether light or heas y,
know or atleast they are expected to know the rules and regula-
tions pertaining to traffic. Their problem generally is rashness,
scmmetinues drunkenness and lack of respect for the life and
safety of morc s ulnerable people like p~destriansand cyclists.
Many aetklenis can be avoided if the motorists were less Impe-
tuous and ~ere trained the an of defensive driving’ i.e. driving
with a sery watchful eye on the mistakes that may be or are
likely to be committed by the other road users. For their edu-
cation, it is desirable that every aspirant for driving licence should
he required to undergo training in a recognised driser training
school, and the instructor should inculcate in him the desirability
of adopting an attitude of defensive driving and extending due
courtesy to other road users. lt will also be helplbl if a few model
driving schools are set up by the Government to serve as an
example for others.
(2) Among the driven of motorised sehieles, drivers of twos
wheelers (motor cycles. scooters and mopeds) constitute the most
s ulnerable section because of their instability against even a small
impact. Some studies have shown thatthis group of drivers/riders
is 14 times more vulnerable to fetal accidents than a traveller by
any other mode of conveyance, and also that almost all deaths and
most of the severe injury accidents are caused by Injuries on the
head and face. This category of road users should, therefore, be
educated about their greater vulnerability and the necessity of
their wearing safety helmets.
3.8.5. Road safety preguga.da
All available types of mass media, e.g., leaflets, hoardings,
cinema films and slides, radioiT.V. talks, lectures or advertise-
ments, etc. can be utilised fIn the purposes of road safety propa-
ganda. Audiovisual media such as cinema and television have
definitely more impact and reach a larger number of persona than
other avenues. Foj children, besides a chapter or two In their
text books, comics can be very profitably utilised. Commercial
<<
 Exn.sNATorv Nons 103
ads ertisements in-beiween popular programmes in radioT.V. wIll
also have a better impact and can reach larger bodies of people.
Similarly, short film; on the tragedy of road accidents with the
participation of well-known personalities from the show-business
can be made and shown In cinema halls and television for greater
impact on the people.

3.9. Eaforesnssnt
3.9.1. Enforcement of traffic laws and regulations has to
t~ose r a wide spectrum of people with different backgrounds. etc.,
and for best results the methods adopted should not only create a
deterrent to violators or potential violators of traffic laws but also
attempt to raise the level of voluntary compliance among the road
users. To achieve this objective, the great mass of road users
should be made to believe that the traffic laws are reasonable and
iatendcd for the overall welfare of the society, and that in case of
their breakage, court action will be prompt and result in adequate
antI uniform penalties.
3.9.2. Bulk of the responsibility for enforcement and control
of traffic lies with the traffic police. The mere presence of the
policemen induces people to behave in a better way. The enforce-
ment measures adopted by the police should be of two kinds,
namely,
Ii) punlt~vmeasures hued on chai’ans, ønes, arrests and preventions
for major otTences. and
tim) mton.punlthe messu.cs such as sense and conspicuous patrols, warn-
inst.. education, tic.

As regards the punitisc measures, the prosecution should be quick

and the punishment uniform. This can be achieved with the help
of mobile courts which have proved to be very useful in Delhi and
a few other cities.
3.9.3. Among the non-punitive actions, the foLlowing Innova-
tive ones which are being adopted in some cities can have a positive
impact:
ci) Instead of ehailsaing or imposing tines on c)elists fOr the absence of
essential equipment like bell or light. It will be more purposelbl to
Isle a %endor of these equipment along with the police squad and

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 104 ExPLANvi~oRvNoirs

compcl the cychsl~to puchasc the missing paul. Similar action can
be considered tbr scoolcrjsts driving without hehnet.
iii) Similarly, for other minor oflences, the offenders can be wade to
compulsorily attend traffic 1 raining classes tn he run by social
ss oricers

These cc some ol the cxtt nip] e s which show how poT ice enforee~
in cm can be based upon persuation rather than on three and still
be more purposelul than imposition ol fines.

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 EXPLANATORY Nons los

Appendix

Siandards, Codes and Mantmak of the Indian Roads Congress which

contain Guidelines on Asjects Relating to Traffic Safety

I. Road Vehicle
IRC 3-1983 ‘Dimensions & Weights ot Road Design Vehicles’

II. Geometric Design of Roads and Appurtenances

IRC 81981) Type Designs for Highway Kilometre Stones’
IRC : 11-1962 ‘Recommended Practice for the Design and Layout of
Cycle Tracks’
IRC 12-1983 ‘Recommended Practice for Location and Layout of Road-
side Motor-Fuel Filling & Motor-Fuel Filling-cum-Service
Stations’
IRC : 32-1969 ‘Standard for Vertical and Horizontal Clearances of Over-
head Electric Pos~er and Telecommunication Lines as
Related to Roads’
lRC :36-1970 ‘Recommended Practice for the Construction of Earth
Einbankments for Road Works’
IRC: 41-1972 ‘Type Designs for Check Barriers’
IRC 52-1981 ‘Recommendations about the Alignment Survey and
Geometric Design of Hill Roads’
IRC : 54-1974 ‘Lateral and Vertical Clearance at Underpasses for Vehi-
cular Traffic’
IRC : 66-1976 ‘Recommended Practice for Sight Distance on Rural
Highways’
1RC : 69-1977 ‘Space Standards for Roads in Urban Areas’
IRC : 73-1980 ‘Geometric Design Standards for Rural (Non-urbar~)
Highways’
1RC :80-1981 ‘Type Designs for Pick-up Bus Stops on Rural (he. Non-
urban) Highways’
IRC : 86-1983 ‘Geometric Design Standards for Urban Roads in Plains’
1RC : Sl~: 23-1983 ‘Vertical Curves for Highways’

Ill. Design of Road Crossings

IRC :39-1970 ‘Standards for Road-Rail Level Crossingc
IRC : 65-1976 ‘Recommended Practice for Traffic Rotaries’

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 106 ExPL,\NArotcv Ntrrrs
IV. Road Surface Characteristics
I RC : SP : 16-1977 ‘Surthce Evenness of High’aa~Pavements’
IRC Highssay Research Board Special Report No. 2—1976” Stale of the
\rt : Pavement Slipperiness and iSkid Resistance

V. Traffic Control t)evices

I RC : 2-1968 ‘Route Marker Signs for National Highs~ays’
1RC : 30-1968 ‘Standard Letters and Numerals of Different Hcighi s for
Use on Highway Signs’
IRC : 31-1969 ‘Route Marker Signs for S’tate Routes’
I RC : 35-1970 ‘Code of Practice for Road Markings (v ith Paints)’
I RC : 67-1977 ~Code of Practice for Road Signs’
I RC : 7Cr- 19$ I - Recommended Practice for Road flelincators’

I. Parking
I 1W : SP : 12- I973’fentati\ e Recommendations on the Provi’, on of
Parking Spaces for Urban Areas’
VII. Ribbon Des eloprnent and Access Control
I RC : 62—1976 ‘Guidelines for Control of Access on Highways’
I RC : S P : I 5-1974 ‘Ribbon Development along Higlw ays and its Pre-
vention’
~rl11 Traffic Regulation and Control
I RC : 70- 1977 ‘G uidelines on Regulation and Control of Mixed IraDie in
Urban Areas’

IX. Roadside Adsertisemeat

I RC : 46-1972 ‘A Policy on Roadside Advertisements’
X Roadside Facilities and Environmental Considerations
1 RC : SP : 21-1979 ‘Manual on Landscaping of Roads”
F:~nvironmcntaI Consideration in Planning and Design of I-I ighss ifl5 in
India (1979),

Xl. Accident Recording

I RC : 53—1982 ‘Road Accident Forms A—l and 4’

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 ExPL~~NAroay
NoTEs 107

ACI( NOWLEDGEMENT

The initial draft of this publication was prepared by Shri

K, Arunachalam, Deputy Secretary (Research), Indian Roads
(I’ongre~. This was later finalised by him in consultation with
T)r, N S S rio ivasan, (‘onvenor of’ the Traffic Engineering Com—
.

in flee. The approval ol the Tm file Engineering Committee was

obta~ncd throucrh circulation,

The )~ tid ian Roads Congress thanks the Governments oi

H a rvana, Kern]a, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, West Bengal and
C uja rat ftrr hosting the Regional Workshops and all the engineers,
,~cientistsand experts from various other d~seiplinesfor their active
pa rticipat ion in these workshops and their vttl nable contributions,

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