Advanced Manufacturing Choices

Additive Manufacturing Techniques

J.Ramkumar
Dept of Mechanical Engineering
IIT Kanpur
[email protected]
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Table of Contents
1. Introduction: What is Additive Manufacturing
2. Historical development
3. From Rapid Prototyping to Additive Manufacturing (AM) – Where are we today?
4. Overview of current AM technologies
1. Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM)
2. Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
3. 3D Printing (3DP)
4. Selected Laser Sintering (SLS)
5. Electron Beam Melting (EBM)
6. Multijet Modeling (MJM)
7. Stereolithography (SLA)
5. Modeling challenges in AM
6. Additive manufacturing of architected materials
7. Conclusions
 3

From Rapid Prototyping to Additive

Manufacturing
What is Rapid Prototyping

- From 3D model to physical object, with a “click”

- The part is produced by “printing” multiple slices (cross
sections) of the object and fusing them together in situ
- A variety of technologies exists, employing different
physical principles and working on different materials
- The object is manufactured in its final shape, with no
need for subtractive processing

How is Rapid Prototyping different from Additive Manufacturing?

The difference is in the use and scalability, not in the technology itself:
Rapid Prototyping: used to generate non-structural and non-functional demo pieces or
batch-of-one components for proof of concept.
Additive Manufacturing: used as a real, scalable manufacturing process, to generate fully
functional final components in high-tech materials for low-batch, high-value manufacturing.
 4

Why is Additive Manufacturing the Next

Frontier?

EBF3 = Electron Beam Freeform Fabrication (Developed by NASA LaRC)

 5

Rapid Prototyping vs Additive

Manufacturing today

AM breakdown by industry today

Wohlers Report 2011 ~ ISBN 0-9754429-6-1

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From Rapid Prototyping to Additive

Manufacturing A limitation or an opportunity?

Rapid Prototyping in a nutshell

1. 3D CAD model of the desired object is generated
2. The CAD file is typically translated into STL* format
3. The object described by the STL file is sliced along
one direction (the ‘z’ or ‘printing’ direction)
4. Each slice is manufactured and layers are fused
together (a variety of techniques exist). The
material can be deposited by dots (0D), lines (1D)
or sheets (2D)
*The STL (stereo lithography) file format is
supported by most CAD packages, and is is
widely used in most rapid prototyping / additive
A voxel (volumetric pixel or, more manufacturing technologies.
correctly, Volumetric Picture STL files describe only the surface geometry of
Element) is a volume element, a three dimensional object without any
representing a value on a regular representation of color, texture or other common
grid in three dimensional space. CAD model attributes. The STL file describes a
This is analogous to a pixel, discretized triangulated surface by the unit
which represents 2D image data normal and vertices coordinates for each
in a bitmap. triangle (ordered by the right-hand rule).
 7

Compromises in Additive Manufacturing

Another key compromise is among process speed, volume and tolerances.

• Laminated Object Modeling (LOM)

• Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
• 3D Printing (3DP)
• Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
• Electron Beam Melting (EBM)
• Multijet Modeling (MJM)
• Stereolithography (SLA, STL)
• Micro-stereolithography
(serial and projected)
• Two photon lithography
 8

Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM)

1. Sheets of material (paper, plastic,
ceramic, or composite) are either
precut or rolled.
2. A new sheet is loaded on the build
platform and glued to the layer
underneath.
3. A laser beam is used to cut the desired
contour on the top layer.
4. The sections to be removed are diced
in cross-hatched squares; the diced
scrap remains in place to support the
build.
5. The platform is lowered and another
sheet is loaded. The process is
repeated.
6. The product comes out as a
rectangular block of laminated material
containing the prototype and the scrap
cubes. The scrap/support material is
separated from the prototype part.
 9

Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM)

Current market leaders
- Mcor Technologies (Ireland)
Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) - Solido (Israel)
was developed by Helisys of Torrance, CA, - Strataconception (France)
in the 1990s. Helisys went out of business - Kira Corporation (Japan)
in 2000 and their LOM equipment is now
serviced by Cubic Technologies.

Equipment picture

Mcor Technologies Matrix 300+

(uses A4 paper and water-based adhesive)
Courtesy, Cubic Technologies
 10

Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM)

KEY METRICS ADVANTAGES

Maximum build size 40in x 40in x 20in • Relatively high-speed process

• Low cost (readily available materials)
Resolution in (x,y) +/- .004 in • Large builds possible (no chemical
Resolution in z Variable reactions)
• Parts can be used immediately after the
Speed Medium process (no need for post-curing)
• No additional support structure is
Cost Low
required (the part is self-supported)
Available materials Paper, Plastic
Sheet
DISADVANTAGES

KEY APPLICATION AREAS • Removal of the scrap material is laborious

• The ‘z’ resolution is not as high as for other
• Pattern Making
technologies
• Decorative Objects
• Limited material set
• Need for sealing step to keep moisture out
 11

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)

5. The sacrificial support material (if available)
1. A spool of themoplastic wire (typically
is dissolved in a heated sodium hydroxide
acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)) with
(NaOH) solution with the assistance of
a 0.012 in (300 μm) diameter is
ultrasonic agitation.
continuously supplied to a nozzle

2. The nozzle heats up the wire and extrudes

a hot, viscos strand (like squeezing
toothpaste of of a tube).

3. A computer controls the nozzle movement

along the x- and y-axes, and each cross-
section of the prototype is produced by
melting the plastic wire that solidifies on
cooling.

4. In the newest models, a second nozzle

carries a support wax that can easily be
removed afterward, allowing construction
of more complex parts. The most common
support material is marketed by Stratasys
under the name WaterWorks
 12

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)

Current market leaders
The fused deposition modeling (FDM) technology - Stratasys, Inc.
was developed by S. Scott Crump in the late 1980s
and was commercialized in 1990. The double
material approach was developed by Stratasys in
1999.
"Ribbon Tetrus" (Carlo Séquin)

www.nybro.com.au

Stratasys Dimension SST 1200

Courtesy, Dr. Robin Richards,

University College London, UK
 13

FDM process parameters

 14

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)

KEY METRICS ADVANTAGES

Maximum build size 20” x 20” x 20” • Economical (inexpensive materials)

• Enables multiple colors
Resolution in (x,y) +/- (0.002” - 0.005”) • Easy to build DIY kits (one of the most
Resolution in z +/- (0.002” - 0.01”) common technologies for home 3D
printing)
Speed Slow • A wide range of materials possible by
Cost Medium loading the polymer

Available materials Thermoplastics

(ABS, PC,
ULTEM…)

KEY APPLICATION AREAS

• Conceptual Models www.redeyeondemand.com
• Engineering Models
• Functional Testing Prototypes DISADVANTAGES
• Materials suite currently limited to
thermoplastics (may be resolved by loading)
 15

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)

Do it Yourself FDM rapid prototyping systems
FAB@Home RepRap
• First multi-material printer available to the public
• Open-source system
• Open-source system
• Founded in 2005 by Dr. A. Bowyer at the University of
• Project goal: open-source mass-collaboration Bath (UK)
developing personal fabrication technology aimed at
bringing personal fabrication to your home (project • Project goal: Deliver a 3D printer that can print itself!
started by H. Lipson and E. Malone at Cornell in 2006). • 1st machine in 2007 (Darwin)
• Popular Mechanics Breakthrough Award 2007 • Replication achieved in 2008
 16

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)

Do it Yourself FDM rapid prototyping systems

Cubify Cube
• Commercially available fully built for $1,200
• Resolution 0.2mm
• 16 colors
• Prints in ABS and PLA
• Awarded 2012 Popular Mechanics Breakthrough Award
 17

3D Printing (3DP)
1. A layer of powder (plaster,
ceramic) is spread across the
build area
2. Inkjet-like printing of binder over
the top layer densifies and
compacts the powder locally
3. The platform is lowered and the
next layer of dry powder is
spread on top of the previous
layer
4. Upon extraction from the
machine, the dry powder is
brushed off and recycled
 18

3D Printing (3DP) Current market leaders

- Z Corporation
Z Corporation first introduced high- - Exone
resolution, 24-color, 3DP (HD3DP™) in - Voxeljet
2005 (600 dpi). Z Corp was later bought by
3D Systems.

Olaf Diegel Atom 3D printed guitar

Zcorp Z510
 19

3D Printing (3DP)
KEY METRICS ADVANTAGES

3D Printing (3DP)
Maximum build size
Resolution in (x,y)
14 in x 10 in x 8 in
640 dpi
• Can create extremely
realistic multi-color
parts (24-bit color)
Resolution in z Variable using inkjet technology
Speed Fast • Can generate complex
components with
Cost Low internal degrees of
Available materials Plaster, sand, oxide freedom
ceramics, sugar • Economical
and starch for food • Versatile Printed with Z Corp 650

printing

KEY APPLICATION AREAS DISADVANTAGES

• Widely used to print colorful and complex • Very limited materials suite
parts for demonstration purposes • Low resolution (lowest of all AM technologies)
• Molds for sand casting of metals • Negligible mechanical properties (unusable
for any structural application)
 20

Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)

1. A continuous layer of powder is
deposited on the fabrication
platform
2. A focused laser beam is used to
fuse/sinter powder particles in a
small volume within the layer
3. The laser beam is scanned to
define a 2D slice of the object
within the layer
4. The fabrication piston is
lowered, the powder delivery
piston is raised and a new layer
is deposited
5. After removal from the machine,
the unsintered dry powder is
brushed off and recycled
 21

Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)

Current market leaders
- 3D Systems
• SLS technology invented at UT Austin in the
‘80s by Joe Beaman, Carl Deckard and Dave
Bourell.
• First successful machine: DTM Sinterstation
2000, in late 1990s
• DTM later acquired by 3D Systems

Bulatov Abstract Creations

3D Systems Sinterstation

Important note:
SLS patent runs out in Feb 2014!
3D Systems A huge influx of players and
Metal Technology Co. technologies is anticipated.
 22

Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)

KEY METRICS ADVANTAGES
Maximum build size 700 mm x 380 mm x 560 • Wide array of structural materials beyond
mm polymers
Resolution in (x,y) High (Spot Dependant) • No need for support materials
• Cheaper than EBM
Resolution in z 0.005” • One of two technologies that allow
Speed Medium complex parts in metals

Cost Medium
Available materials Powdered plastics
(nylon), metals (steel,
titanium, tungsten),
ceramics (silicon
carbide) and fiber-
reinforced PMCs DISADVANTAGES

KEY APPLICATION AREAS • Expensive relative to FDM, 3DP

• The quality of metal parts is not as high as
• Structural components with EBM
 23

Electron Beam Melting (EBM)

1. The fabrication chamber is
maintained at high vacuum and high
temperature
2. A layer of metal powder is deposited
on the fabrication platform
3. A focused electron beam is used to
melt the powder particles in a small
volume within the layer
4. The electron beam is scanned to
define a 2D slice of the object within
the layer
5. The build table is lowered, and a
new layer of dry powder is deposited
on top of the previous layer
6. After removal from the machine, the
unmelted powder is brushed off and
recycled
 24

Electron Beam Melting (EBM)

Current market leaders
EBM process developed by - Arcam AB (Sweden)
Arcam AB (Sweden) in 1997

Arcam A2 machine
 25

Electron Beam Melting (EBM)

KEY METRICS ADVANTAGES
Maximum build 200mm x 200mm x • Method of choice for high-quality metal
size 350mm parts
Resolution in (x,y) +/- 0.2mm • Wide range of metals
• Fully dense parts with very homogeneous
Resolution in z 0.002” (0.05 mm)
microstructures
Speed Medium • Vacuum operation allows building of highly
reactive metals (e.g., Titanium)
Cost High • High temperature operation (700-1000C)
Available materials Metals: titanium, results in structures free of internal stresses
tungsten, stainless • EBM allows even better microstructural
steel, cobalt chrome, control than many conventional processes.
Ni-based superalloys.

DISADVANTAGES
KEY APPLICATION AREAS • Extremely expensive (more than SLS)
• Conventional machining may be required
• Structural components for aerospace to finish the goods (rough surface)
(Ti6Al4V, gammaTiAl, Ni superalloys) • Requires vacuum operation
• Custom-made bio-implants (Ti6Al4V)
 26

Multijet Modeling (MJM)

1. A piezoelectric print head with
thousands of nozzles is used to jet 16
micron droplets of photopolymer on
the printing structure. An additional set
of nozzles deposits a sacrificial
support material to fill the rest of the
layer.
2. A UV curing lamp is scanned across
the build to immediately cross-link the
photopolymer droplets.
3. The elevator is lowered by one layer
thickness and the process is repeated The method of building each layer is similar to
layer-by-layer until the model is built. Inkjet Printing, in that it uses an array of inkjet
4. The sacrificial material is removed: print heads to deposit tiny drops of build material
and support material to form each layer of a part.
▫ The Objet system uses a photopolymer as
However, as in Stereolithography (see following
support material; the support material is
slides), the build material is a liquid acrylate-
designed to crosslink less than the model
based photopolymer that is cured by a UV lamp
material and is washed away with pressurized
after each layer is deposited.
water.
For this reason, Multijet Modeling is sometimes
▫ The 3D Systems InVision uses wax as
referred to as Photopolymer Inkjet Printing.
support material, which can be melted away.
 27

Multijet Modeling (MJM)

Current market leaders
Multijet modeling (MJM) was
- Objet
introduced by 3D Systems in 1996 as
- 3D Systems
a cheaper alternative to industrial-
grade Stereolithography machines.

Objet Desktop 30 Pro

3D Systems
Thermojet
 28

Multijet Modeling (MJM)

KEY METRICS
Maximum build size 1000mm x 800mm
x 500mm ADVANTAGES
Resolution in (x,y) 450 dpi • Fast process
Resolution in z 16 microns • Complex parts via sacrificial support
materials
Speed Fast
Cost High
Available materials Acrylate-based
photopolymer
DISADVANTAGES
KEY APPLICATION AREAS
• Accuracy is not as good as SLA
• Automotive
• Defense
• Aerospace
• Consumer goods
• Household appliances
• Medical applications
 29

Stereolithography (SLA)
1. A structure support base is positioned
on an elevator structure and immersed
in a tank of liquid photosensitive
monomer, with only a thin liquid film
above it
2. A UV laser locally cross-links the
monomer on the thin liquid film above
the structure support base
3. The elevator plate is lowered by a small A suitable photosensitive polymer
prescribed step, exposing a fresh layer must be very transparent to UV light
of liquid monomer, and the process is in uncured liquid form and very
repeated absorbent in cured solid form, to
4. At the end of the job, the whole part is avoid bleeding solid features into
cured once more after excess resin and the layers underneath the current
one being printed.
support structures are removed
 30

Stereolithography (SLA)
Solidification of the monomer can occur in
two different modalities:

Free surface mode: Solidification occurs

at the resin/air interface. In this mode, care
must be taken to avoid waves or a slant of
the liquid surface, which would
compromise the final dimensional
resolution. The elevator moves down at
each step (top-down build).
H-W Kang et al 2012 J. Micromech. Microeng. 22 115021

Fixed surface mode: The resin is stored

in a container with a transparent window
plate for exposure, and solidification occurs
at the stable window/resin interface. In this
mode, the elevator moves up at each step
(bottom-up build).
 31

Stereolithography (SLA)
Two fundamental process variations
exist:

▫ Scanning stereolithography. The laser

beam is rastered onto the surface. Parts
are constructed in a point-by-point and line-
by-line fashion, with the sliced shapes
written directly from a computerized design
of the cross-sectional shapes.

▫ Projection stereolithography. A parallel

fabrication process in which all the voxels in
a layer are exposed at the same time; the
topology to be printed on each layer is
defined by 2D shapes (masks). These 2D
shapes are either a set of real photomasks
or digital masks defined on a DLP projector.
 32

Stereolithography (SLA)
SLA was pioneered by Chuck Hull in Current market leaders
the mid-1980s (see picture below). - 3D Systems
Hull founded 3D Systems to - Sony
commercialize its new manufacturing
process.

3D Systems iPro 9000 XL

 33

Stereolithography (SLA)
KEY METRICS
Maximum build size 1500mm x 750mm ADVANTAGES
x 550mm
• Fast
Resolution in (x,y) Spot Dependent • Good resolution
Resolution in z 0.004” • No need for support material
• Photosensitive polymers have acceptable
Speed Medium mechanical properties
Cost High
Available materials Thermoset
polymers:
photosensitive
resins
DISADVANTAGES

• Expensive equipment ($100-$500K)

KEY APPLICATION AREAS
• Expensive materials (photosensitive resins
are ~$100-200 /kg)
• Patterns for metal processing (e.g.,
• Material suite limited to resins
molding)
• Prototypes for demonstrational purposes
 34

Stereolithography (SLA)
APPLICATION TO MEMS AND NEMS

• The application of rapid prototyping (RP)

techniques to MEMS and NEMS requires
higher accuracy than what is normally
achievable with commercial RP equipment.
• Laminated object manufacturing (LOM),
fused deposition modeling (FDM), and
selective laser sintering (SLS) all must be
excluded as microfabrication candidates on
that basis.
• Only stereolithography has the potential to
achieve the fabrication tolerances required
to qualify as a MEMS or NEMS tool.
• Latest enhancements that have made it an
attractive option are high-resolution micro-
and nanofabrication methods.

EPFL, Lausanne, Switzerland

 35

Stereolithography (SLA)
MICROSTEREOLITHOGRAPHY

• Microstereolithography, derived from conventional

stereolithography, was introduced by Ikuta in 1993.

• Whereas in conventional stereolithography the laser

spot size and layer thickness are both in the 100-μm
range, in microstereolithography a UV laser beam is
focused to a 1–2-μm spot size to solidify material in
a thin layer of 1–10 μm.

• The monomers used in RP and micro-

stereolithography are both UV-curable systems, but
the viscosity in the latter case is much lower (e.g., 6
cPs vs. 2000 cPs), because high surface tension
hinders both efficient crevice filling and flat surface
formation at the microscale.
www.miicraft.com

• In microstereolithography the solidified polymer is

light enough so that it does not require a support as
is required for the heavier pieces made in RP.
 36

Stereolithography (SLA)
TWO-PHOTON LITHOGRAPHY

• Two-photon lithography provides a further

enhancement of the SLA resolution.

• Special initiator molecules in the monomer only

start the polymerization reactions if activated by
two photons simultaneously. The laser intensity
field can be tuned so that this event only happens
in a very small region near the focus. The result is
extremely local polymerization, with resolutions in
the tens of nanometers range.

• Two-photon polymerization can occur everywhere

in the monomer bath, as opposed to only at the top
layer, simplifying the hardware requirements
considerably.

www.laser-zentrum-hannover.de
 37

Current materials in Additive

Manufacturing
Materials in AM today
- Thermoplastics (FDM, SLS)
- Thermosets (SLA)
- Powder based composites (3DP)
- Metals (EBM, SLS)
- Sealant tapes, paper (LOM)
- Starch and sugar (3DP)
• Functional/structural parts
▫ FDM (ABS and Nylon)
▫ SLS (thermoplastics, metals)
▫ EBM (high strength alloys, Ti, stainless steel, CoCr)
• Non-functional/structural parts
▫ SLA (resins): smoothest surface, good for casting
▫ LOM (paper), 3D Printing (plaster, sand): marketing and concept prototypes, sand casting molds

• As new materials are introduced, more functional components will be manufactured (perhaps 30-
40% by 2020).
• Importantly AM is one of the best approaches for complex architected materials.
 38

Challenges in AM materials properties

predictions
• Most AM processes introduce anisotropy in mechanical properties (z different from x,y)
• Local differences in laser/EB power (e.g., perimeter vs center) introduce heterogeneity in
mechanical properties
• Laser fluctuations might result in embedded defects that are difficult to identify
• All existing machines are open-loop: temperature sensors have been introduced in some
processes, but the readings are not used to optimize the processing parameters on the fly.
 39

Micro-Architected Materials
Overarching vision

UNIQUE DEFORMATION
MECHANISMS
SIZE EFFECTS
IN PLASTICITY
How can we fill unclaimed regions? AND FRACTURE
- Optimal topology
- Optimal geometry
- Base material optimization (nm-features)
- Hierarchical design
IMPROVED STRENGTH IMPROVED STRENGTH
AT THE MACROSCALE AT THE FILM LEVEL
What do we need?
- Understand multi-scale mechanical behavior (deformation and failure modes)
- Understand processing -> microstructure -> mechanical properties (including size effects)
- Developing new models for FE analysis and optimal design
 40

A word of caution
Tech Consultancy Puts 3D Printing at Peak of "Hype Cycle"
PARAMETERS INVOLVED
DEFECTS
Density Problem
• Scan speed has a significant effect on density .
• At sufficiently low scan speeds, the relative density is almost
independent of the layer thickness for the selected range of the
layer thickness, and a maximum of 99% relative density is
achievable.
• At higher scan speed values, a higher layer thickness results in
less density.

Residual Stress
• Due to localized heating, complex thermal and phase
transformation stresses are generated during the process.
• In addition, frequent thermal expansion and contraction of the
previously solidified layers during the process generates
considerable thermal stresses and stress gradients that can
exceed the yield strength of the material.
• Residual stresses can lead to part distortion, initiate fracture,
and unwanted decrease in strength.
Surface finish
• Parts often require post‐processing operations such as
surface machining, polishing and shot peening to attain
final part surface finish.
• Surface roughness is heavily dependent on laser
processing parameters.
PARAMETERS INVOLVED
LAY PATTERN
• Printing of layers in FDM has different types. Each type is
used for different types of loading.

• The angle in which the layers are printed is called raster angle.
• The raster angle has a direct bearing on the resulting structure
and plays a significant role in influencing the mechanical
characteristics of parts produced.
INFILL PATTERN
• In FDM, the printed part will have a structure inside instead
of being a solid. This is called infill pattern.
• This infill pattern provides high strength while reducing the
total weight of the part produced. Also it reduces the printing
time.
• There are many types of infill. Rectangular, triangular, wiggle
and hexagonal or honeycomb are the widely used structures.
Each structure offers different properties.
• We can also change the quantity of infill to be filled. 0% infill
gives hollow part, and 100% infill gives solid part. Generally,
20-50% of infill is used.
SHELL
• The top, the bottom, and the sides of the part are filled with
solid layers. This outside shape is called shell.
• Shells are the outer layers of a print which make the walls of
an object, prior to the various infill levels being printed
within. The number of shell layers can be varied.
ORIENTATION
• Spending time optimizing the 3d model before printing can
greatly improve overall quality and reduce print time. It can
be done by orienting the model on the print bed to minimize
the amount of support needed.
• When the printer recognizes overhangs or features floating in
mid-air, it starts printing supporting material alongside the
model so that the printer has something to print on.
• One simple way to avoid support material is to rotate the
model so that overhangs become bases.
• Another important aspect to consider when orienting the part
is to start with a flat area that can adhere to the platform.
• While printing parts with overhangs, the orientation of the
overhangs should be considered. Because, printing the
support material increases the overall printing time.
• By choosing the appropriate orientation, the build time for
support materials can be reduced.
DEFECTS
• Surface defects like staircase error can come from
curve-approximation errors in the originating STL file.
• Internal defects include voids just inside the
perimeter (at the contour-raster intersection) as well as
within rasters. Voids around the perimeter occur either
due to normal raster curvature or are attributable to
raster discontinuities.
• Also parts produced using FDM are anisotropic. Their
properties depend on the building direction as well as
the tool path definition.
DISADVANTAGES
• Small features and thin walls cannot be made accurately.
• Layers are visible and surface finish is not good.
• The process is very slow.
• The built part is weak in build axis direction.
• Support structures are required for some shapes and
support structure removal is a difficult process.
Stl format
 Additive manufacturing
• Additive
manufacturing refers
to a process by which
digital 3D design is
used to build up a
component in layers
by depositing material
Steps in Generic Am process

Source: Gibson, Rosen, Additive Manufacturing

 Stl format
• CAD model prepared in the first step is
converted to STL (STerioLithography) format, a
common language to almost all additive
manufacturing machinary.
• Two types of formats are used for STL file
▫ ASCII format
▫ Binary format
• ASCII STL file is larger than that of binary but is
human readable and hence is used widely
 Stl format
• The STL format is the tessellated representation
of the CAD model in which the CAD surface is
approximated to a series of triangular facets.

Source: Gibson, Rosen, Additive Manufacturing

 STL file information
• It stores information of the triangular facets that
describes the surface to be built
• Each triangle is described as three points with
their coordinates and a outward directed normal
which is obtained when
we move in a counterclockwise direction
on the facet loop.

Source: Steriolithography_Materials, Process and Applications

The structure of an ASCII Stl format

Source: Steriolithography_Materials, Process and Applications

 STL format rules
• The generation of STL file follows two important rules
• Facet Orientation rule: The orientation of the facet
involves the definition of the vertices of each triangle in a
counterclockwise order.
• Adjacency rule: Each triangular facet must share
two vertices with each of its adjacent triangles.
• Mobius rule: Since the vertices are ordered, the
direction on one facet’s edge is exactly opposite
to that of another facet sharing the same edge.
 Disadvantages of stl format
• STL file is many times larger than the original
CAD data file
• STL file carries much redundancy information
such as duplicate vertices and edges.
• Commercial tessellation algorithms are not
robust and may give rise to errors which
need to be repaired before proceeding
for further steps

Rapid Prototyping_ Chua Chee Kai, Leong Kah Fai, Lim Chi Sing
 Errors in stl format

• Gaps or missing facets

• Degenerate facets
• Overlapping facets
• Non-manifold topology conditions
 Missing facets or gaps
• Tessellation of surfaces with large curvature can
result in errors at the intersection between such
surfaces, leaving gaps or holes along edges of the
part model

Rapid Prototyping_ Chua Chee Kai, Leong Kah Fai, Lim Chi Sing
 Degenerate facets
• A geometrical degeneracy will occur when all the
facets’ edges are collinear even though all its
vertices are distinct.

• Degenerate facets are less critical in STL and

they seldom cause serious build failures
 Overlapping facets
• These are generated due to numerical round-off
errors occurred during tessellation

Rapid Prototyping_ Chua Chee Kai, Leong Kah Fai, Lim Chi Sing
 Non-manifold errors
• There are three types of non-manifold errors
▫ Non-manifold edge
▫ Non-manifold point
▫ Non-manifold face
• These may be generated because generation of
fine features is susceptible to round-off errors.
non-manifold edge

Rapid Prototyping_ Chua Chee Kai, Leong Kah Fai, Lim Chi Sing
Non-manifold point and non-
manifold face

Rapid Prototyping_ Chua Chee Kai, Leong Kah Fai, Lim Chi Sing
 Valid and invalid models
• Valid model: A model is said to be valid if it is free of all types of
errors.
• Invalid model: A model is said to be invalid if it has atleast one of
the above abnormalities
• However if the model is invalid and not corrected and
proceeded forward, then error in the geometric model
would cause the system to have no predetermined
boundary on the particular slice and the building process
would continue right to the physical limit of the AM machinery.
• Hence invalid model is to be repaired before proceeding to next
step.
 Generic stl repair
• The basic approach is to detect and identify the boundaries of
all the gaps in the model.
• Once the boundaries of the gap are identified, suitable facets
would then be generated to repair these gaps.
• Two conditions are ensured in generating the facets.
• First condition: The orientation of the generated facet is correct
and compatible with the rest of the model
• Second condition: Any contoured surface of the model would be
followed closely by the generated facets due to the smaller facet
generated
Missing facets problem

Rapid Prototyping_ Chua Chee Kai, Leong Kah Fai, Lim Chi Sing
 Missing facets problem
• Detection of gap
• Number the vertices of the gap and the vertex
of facet sharing an edge with it
• Numbering is done following the face
orientation rule
• Representing the edges adjacent to the gap
 Missing facets problem
• Sort the erroneous edges into a closed loop
• Representation of gap with all the edges forming
a sorted closed loop
 Missing facets repair
• Generation of facets for the repair of the
gaps