Received June 28, 2019, accepted July 12, 2019, date of publication July 23, 2019, date of current

version August 9, 2019.

Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2930567

General Theory of Skyhook Control and Its

Application to Semi-Active Suspension
Control Strategy Design
CHANGNING LIU 1, LONG CHEN 2, XIAOFENG YANG1 , XIAOLIANG ZHANG2 , AND YI YANG1
1 Schoolof Automotive and Traffic Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
2 Automotive Engineering Research Institute, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China

Corresponding author: Long Chen ([email protected])

This work was supported in part by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant 51875257 and Grant 51705209,
in part by the Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province under Grant BK20160533, and in part by the Postgraduate Education
Reform Project of Jiangsu Province under Grant KYCX18_2228.

ABSTRACT A novel general theory of skyhook control is proposed and applied to the semi-active suspension
control strategy design to improve the performance of the vehicle suspension system. Based on this theory,
the mechanical impedance model of the general theory of skyhook suspension is established. To design the
suspension structure, the effect of the skyhook element and its parameters on suspension is analyzed. Then,
adaptive fish swarm algorithm based on nonlinear dynamic visual field is used to optimize the parameters
of the general theory of skyhook control. To realize the general theory of skyhook control and verify it,
a novel controllable inerter is designed and utilized into the semi-active suspension system. The simulation
results demonstrate that the semi-active suspension with a general theory of skyhook control can enhance
the suspension performance. Finally, the robustness of the general theory of skyhook control under different
spring stiffness and sprung mass is researched. The results indicate that the suspension with the general
theory of skyhook control has superior performance and robustness compared with the traditional skyhook
damper controlled suspension and passive suspension.

INDEX TERMS Semi-active suspension, skyhook control, mechanical impedance, controllable inerter.

I. INTRODUCTION those two design approaches, are all obtained a fixed structure
The function of vehicle suspension is to improve the ride and parameters of the suspension. Normally it cannot gain the
comfort and driving safety. Today the most widely used sus- satisfying performance in all of those three indexes or must
pension is passive suspension. It consists of spring, damper, rely on a complex structure [7], [8]. Semi-active suspension
and inerter [1]–[3]. A common approach used to design can adjust suspension parameters according to the control
the passive suspension is structure approach [4], [5], which strategy to achieve satisfying performance in different con-
bases on the passive elements (spring, damper, and inerter) dition of the vehicle and the road [9]–[11]. Skyhook (SH)
connected in parallel or in series. This approach can limit the control suspension is a semi-active suspension which is easy
complexity of the suspension structure. Whereas, some excel- to implement with little information about the vehicle state.
lent structures maybe be ignored as a consequence. To solve It sets a virtually damper between the vehicle body and the
this problem, in [1], [6], mechanical impedance approach was imaginary sky [12]. It is effective to enhance the ride comfort
used into suspension design. In this approach, a mechanical of the vehicle, but the dynamic tire load deteriorates at the
impedance function is established first. Then, the parameters same time. In [13], a solution was proposed to improve
of mechanical impedance function are optimized based on the performance of the skyhook control strategy by adding
the design objective. After that, network synthesis is used to the sliding mode and internal model theory. In term of the
realize the suspension structure passively. It is a more general performance of suspension, this solution is more superior
approach compare with the structure approach. However, to the traditional skyhook controller. In [14], Hu and Chen
designed a comfort-oriented vehicle suspension with skyhook
The associate editor coordinating the review of this manuscript and inerter. Semi-active inerter was used to realize the semi-
approving it for publication was Luigi Biagiotti. active skyhook inerter control and three different control laws

101552 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License. For more information, see http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ VOLUME 7, 2019
C. Liu et al.: General Theory of Skyhook Control and Its Application to Semi-Active Suspension Control Strategy Design

were compared. It is a meaningful exploration for applying

inerter to skyhook control strategy. However, those skyhook
control strategies contain only one element. That is to say,
the mechanical characteristics of these strategies are incom-
plete. From the point of mechanical network, those skyhook
strategies can be seen as different kinds of special theory of
skyhook control and missing some mechanical characteristic,
for instance, the spring characteristic, damping characteris-
tic, or inerter characteristic. Further improvement in suspen-
sion performance is limited.
In this paper, the problem of lacking of stiffness, damping,
FIGURE 1. Quarter-car kinetic model. (a) GSH based on T (s). (b) GSH
or inertial characteristic in skyhook control is solved and a based on traditional spring-damper structure.
novel general theory of skyhook (GSH) control based on the
theory of mechanical impedance is proposed. In section 2,
the suspension model of GSH suspension is analyzed and The impedances of the spring, damper, and inerter have forms
the transfer function of the GSH suspension is deduced. of k/s, c, and bs. They can be expressed in those functions as
Then, the effect of the skyhook spring, skyhook damper and follows:
skyhook inerter on suspension is analyzed. The GSH control
ksky-i
suspension structure is designed and parameters are opti- Y (s) = F(csky-i , , bsky-i s) (1)
mized by adaptive fish swarm algorithm based on nonlinear s
ki
dynamic visual field. In section 3, the semi-active suspension T (s) = F(ci , , bi s) (2)
system based on GSH control is designed and performance s
is analyzed. A novel controllable inerter is proposed and In which, i = 1, 2, · · · , ksky-i is the i-th skyhook spring
devised to realize the GSH control. And random-input test is stiffness, csky-i is the i-th skyhook damping coefficient,
taken to evaluate the performance of the semi-active suspen- bsky-i is the i-th skyhook inerter coefficient, ki is the i-th spring
sion based on the GSH control. Lastly, the robustness of the stiffness, ci is the i-th damping coefficient, bi is the i-th inerter
GSH control is analyzed with the variation in spring stiffness coefficient.
and sprung mass. There are two significant contributions in The frequency-domain analysis of vibration transfer char-
this paper: (1) the GSH control completes the mechanical acteristics is convenient based on the theory of mechani-
characteristics of the skyhook control and further improves cal impedance. In Fig.1, m2 is the sprung mass, m1 is the
the suspension performance; (2) the novel controllable inerter unsprung mass, kt is the stiffness of the tire, x2 is the dis-
proposed in this paper realizes the continuous skyhook inerter placement of the sprung mass, x1 is the displacement of the
control and makes the GSH control realizable. unsprung mass, xr is the road random input.
Equation (3) is the dynamic model of Fig. 1 (a),
(
II. SUSPENSION DESIGN BASED ON GSH CONTROL m2 s2 X2 + sT (s)(X2 − X1 ) + sY (s)X2 = 0
A. QUARTER-CAR KINETIC MODEL OF GSH (3)
m1 s2 X1 − sT (s)(X2 − X1 ) + kt (X1 − Xr ) = 0
CONTROL SUSPENSION
As demonstrated in Fig. 1 (a), the quarter-car kinetic model In which X2 , X1 , and Xr are the Laplace transform
of GSH control suspension is established. It consists of a of x2 , x1 , and xr .
sprung mass m2 , an unsprung mass m1 , and a tire stiffness kt . According to the Equation (3), the transfer function for
Unlike the traditional suspension model, the structure of the body acceleration ẍ2 to random road input xr can be deduced
suspension is replaced by a mechanical impedance function in (4), as shown at the bottom of this page.
T (s) [15]–[17] and a virtually mechanical impedance func- The transfer function for suspension working space x2 − x1
tion Y (s) which is connected the skyhook and the sprung to random road input xr can be deduced in (5), as shown at the
mass. In the GSH control, Y (s) contains the characteris- bottom of this page.
tics of stiffness, damping, and inertial. So the Y (s) is a The transfer function for dynamic tire load (x1 − xr )kt to
general network and it can be expressed as a mechanical random road input xr can be deduced in (6), as shown at the
impedance function including springs, dampers, and inerters. bottom of the next page.

X2 2 T (s)kt s3
Hẍ2 ∼xr (s) = s = (4)
Xr (m1 m2 s + m1 s (T (s) + Y (s)) + m2 s T (s) + T (s)Y (s)s2 + kt m2 s2 + kt s(T (s) + Y (s))
4 3 3

X2 − X1 −kt (m2 s2 + sY (s))

H(x2 −x1 )∼xr (s) = = (5)
Xr (m1 m2 s + m1 s (T (s) + Y (s)) + m2 s3 T (s) + T (s)Y (s)s2 + kt m2 s2 + kt s(T (s) + Y (s))
4 3

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Select the grade-A road as input model, the pavement In which, k1 is the skyhook spring stiffness, c1 is the
spectrum expressed by time frequency is skyhook damping coefficient, b1 is the skyhook inerter coef-
ficient. In special, when the Y (s) = Y2 (s), GSH sus-
G0 up−1
S(f ) = (7) pension is the traditional skyhook damper suspension. The
fp GSH suspension contains the traditional skyhook damper
In which, the road roughness coefficient G0 = 5 × suspension.
10−6 m3 /cycle., the slope of the spectral density curve in Select the small passenger car as the reference model. The
double logarithmic coordinates p = 2.5, u is the speed, f parameters of the quarter-car kinetic model in Fig. 1 (b) are
is the time frequency. Setting s = j2π f , the power spectral manifested in Table 1. The vehicle speed was set as 20 m/s.
density of the body acceleration, suspension working space, The time frequency f = 0.01.
and dynamic tire load are as follows:
 2 TABLE 1. Suspension parameters.
Sẍ2 (f ) = Hẍ2 ∼xr (j2π f ) S(f ) (8)
 2
Sx2 −x1 (f ) = H(x2 −x1 )∼xr (j2π f ) S(f ) (9)
 2
S(x1 −xr )kt (f ) = H(x1 −xr )kt ∼xr (j2π f ) S(f )
  (10)
The root-mean-square values are
sZ
∞
BA = Sẍ2 (f )df (11)
0
sZ
∞
SWS = Sx2 −x1 (f )df (12)
0 For the purpose of analyzing the effect of the one parameter
sZ
∞ of the skyhook element, suspension performance was studied
DTL = S(x1 −xr )kt (f )df (13) with changes parameters in skyhook element. The lower and
0
upper bounds of the parameters are demonstrated in Table 2.
B. THE EFFECT OF STRUCTURE AND PARAMETERS ON In which, the range of the parameter is large enough to design
GSH SUSPENSION the vehicle suspension. And the trends of the suspension
To GSH suspension, the best performance of suspension can performance with the change of the parameters of skyhook
be obtained by the appropriate structure and parameters. The element are demonstrated in Fig. 2.
high-order skyhook control strategy is always accompanied
with active suspension which stands for the high cost and TABLE 2. Range of optimized parameters.

huge energy consumption. For the purpose of easier achieve-

ment and dependable operation, the high-order skyhook con-
trol strategy was deserted and the first-order skyhook control
strategy was selected for the vehicle suspension to maintain
the advantage of little control information demanded.
For the purpose of analyzing the performance of different
skyhook suspension with different skyhook element sepa-
rately, the suspension between the vehicle body and the tire
was set as the traditional spring-damper structure. Fig. 1 (b)
It is apparent from Fig. 2 that the RMS value of body accel-
is the quarter-car kinetic model and T1 (s) = k/s + c.
eration, suspension working space, and dynamic tire load
To reduce the order of the suspension, Y (s) was
remain steady with the increasing of the skyhook spring stiff-
just analyzed the basic condition: one spring(Y1 (s)), one
ness k1 . The RMS value of body acceleration and dynamic
damper(Y2 (s)), or one inerter(Y3 (s)). Therefore, the Y (s) can
tire load increases slightly (6.3%, 27.7%) and the RMS
be expressed as follows:
value of suspension working space decreases a little (9.2%).
k1 Therefore, the application of the skyhook spring alone
Y1 (s) = (14)
s has a slight impact on suspension performance. Whereas,
Y2 (s) = c1 (15) the increase of the skyhook damping coefficient c1 can reduce
Y3 (s) = b1 s (16) the RMS value of body acceleration and suspension working

X1 − Xr −kt(m1 m2 s4 + m1 s3 (T (s) + Y (s)) + m2 s3 T (s) + T (s)Y (s)s2 )

H(x1 −xr )kt ∼xr (s) = kt = (6)
Xr (m1 m2 s + m1 s3 (T (s) + Y (s)) + m2 s3 T (s) + T (s)Y (s)s2 + kt m2 s2 + kt s(T (s) + Y (s))
4

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FIGURE 2. The effect of suspension performance with changes of the parameters in skyhook element.

space to some extent. When the damping coefficient c1 is C. SUSPENSION PARAMETERS OPTIMIZED BY ADAPTIVE
less than 2500 N · s/m, the RMS value of dynamic tire load FISH SWARM ALGORITHM BASED ON NONLINEAR
will be reduced slightly. But when the damping coefficient DYNAMIC VISUAL FIELD
is more than 2500 N · s/m, the RMS value of dynamic Selecting the vehicle body acceleration RMS value BA,
tire load increases a lot. And with the increase of the sky- the dynamic tire load RMS value DTL, and the suspension
hook inerter coefficient, the RMS value of body acceleration working space RMS value SWS as the objective of ride com-
and the suspension working space plunges. Meanwhile, the fort, tire grounding, and body attitude separately to design
dynamic tire load soars significantly. The RMS value of body the suspension. Arranging related objective functions to find
acceleration plunges when the skyhook inerter coefficient b1 suspension parameters that focus on improving ride comfort
increases but less than 1000 kg. However, the suspension when the RMS value of the suspension working space and
working space and dynamic tire load deteriorate along with dynamic tire load is not greater than the traditional suspension
the variation at the same time. So, the skyhook inerter obviously. On account of the changing of those three indexes
coefficient b1 can maintain only a small value. Because of are different, especially the improvement of one index will
unsatisfied performance of the skyhook spring and the key cause the deterioration of other two indexes, the comprehen-
role of body acceleration in the passenger-vehicle suspension, sive evaluation index of suspension performance needs to
Y (s) should contain the damper characteristic and inerter be established. Because of the different units and orders of
characteristic. The Y4 (s) is set as c2 + b2 s, in which, c2 is the magnitude for body acceleration, suspension working space,
skyhook damping coefficient and b2 is the skyhook inerter and dynamic tire load, performance indexes of suspension
coefficient. are divided by the corresponding performance indexes of

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passive suspension. The indexes of passive suspension are TABLE 3. Range of simulation parameters.
constant values because of the fixed parameters. This method
can normalize the data of objective function. Then, they are
combined by linear combination method to obtain a unified
objective function:
BA SWS DTL
min F(x) = w1 + w2 + w3
BA0 SWS0 DTL0
⇔ max −F(x)
s.t LB ≤ xi ≤ UB (17)
must measure the distance to the current optimal artificial fish
where F(x) is the fitness function of the adaptive fish swarm and use it as its own visual field. The evolution of the objec-
algorithm, w1 , w2 , and w3 are the weighting coefficients and tive function as demonstrated in Fig. 3. The optimization
set as 0.45, 0.35, 0.2. BA0 , SWS0 , and DTL0 are the RMS results of parameters in general theory of skyhook control are
of vehicle body acceleration, suspension working space, as follows: skyhook damping coefficient c2 is 1897 N · s/m,
dynamic tire load of the traditional suspension. xi is decision skyhook inerter coefficient b2 is 206 kg.
variables. xi = [c2 , b2 ]. UB is the upper bound value and LB
is the lower bound value.
The skyhook damping coefficient c2 and the skyhook
inerter coefficient b2 are optimized by adaptive fish swarm
algorithm based on nonlinear dynamic visual field. And the
ideal general skyhook should be realized by semi-active
control strategy, which contains controllable damper and
controllable inerter. To avoid the suspension damper c having
an adverse effect on the optimization progress, select
T2 (s) = k/s.
The fish swarm algorithm has strong global search ability.
For the optimization of suspension parameters, the fish FIGURE 3. Evolution of the objective function.
swarm algorithm can avoid local extrema and is not sensitive
to the initial value. It is a parallel search method with high
efficiency [18], [19]. However, the fixed visual field will lead III. PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF SEMI-ACTIVE
the poor global search capability or poor local search ability. SUSPENSION SYSTEM WITH GSH CONTROL STRATEGY
This paper designs an adaptive fish swarm algorithm based A. QUARTER-CAR KINETIC MODEL OF
on nonlinear dynamic visual field. It can maintain a large SEMI-ACTIVE SUSPENSION
visual field in the early stage to ensure the strong global The ideal GSH suspension cannot be applied directly to
search capability. As the search progresses, the visual field engineering because the vehicle cannot be fixed to the sky-
can adjust and the algorithm evolves into a local search, hook. So the semi-active control was utilized to achieve
which effectively guarantees the accuracy and convergence. the functions of the ideal GSH suspension. For testing the
The visual field and moving step can be adjusted according performance of the suspension, the quarter-car kinetic model
to (18). of semi-active suspension based on the theory of general
 skyhook control was established.
Visual = Visual × a + Visualmin

As demonstrated in Fig. 4, the quarter-car kinetic model
Step = Step × a + Stepmin (18) of semi-active suspension consists of the sprung mass,
s

a = exp(−30 × (t/Tmax ) ) the unsprng mass, suspension spring, tire stiffness equiva-

lent spring, a controllable damper and a controllable inerter.
In which, s is an integer which is greater than 1, t is the
The suspension spring, controllable damper, and controllable
current number of iterations.
inerter are paralleling between the sprung mass and the
The parameters range of the skyhook damping coeffi-
unsprng mass.
cient c2 and the skyhook inerter coefficient b2 are demon-
The kinetic equitation is
strated in Table 3. 
The vehicle speed was set as 20 m/s on a road with an  m1 ẍ1 + kt (x1 − xr ) − k(x2 − x1 )
unevenness coefficient of G0 = 5 × 10−6 m3 /cycle. Speed


 −bctrl (ẍ2 − ẍ1 ) − cctrl (ẋ2 − ẋ1 ) = 0
white noise was selected as the road surface input. The artifi- (19)
 m 2 ẍ 2 + k(x 2 − x1 ) + b ctrl (ẍ 2 − ẍ 1 )
cial fish, with a population size of 100, the maximum number



of iterations was set to 50, the maximum number of trials +cctrl (ẋ2 − ẋ1 ) = 0
was 100, the initial visual field was 2.5, the congestion factor In which, m2 is the sprung mass, m1 is the unsprung mass,
was 0.618 and the moving step was 0.3. Each artificial fish kt is the stiffness of the tire, x2 is the displacement of the

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The controllable inerter is a novel type of fluid inerter.

It contains a hollow piston, two piston rods, and a cylinder.
The piston is set in the cylinder. The piston rod is linked to
the piston. The piston is made of hard rubber. Fig. 5(b) is its
detail. It has a helical channel surrounding its outer surface.
The piston and cylinder are all filled with a fluid separately.
In the piston rod, there is a tube which can import or export
fluid inside the piston. The cross-section of the helical chan-
nel can be viewed as an isosceles triangle. When the fluid
imports or exports into the piston, the angle θ will be changed.
Excluding the nonlinearity factor, the inertia force F is
FIGURE 4. Quarter-car kinetic model of semi-active suspension.
the equal and opposite force applied to the terminals, x is
the relative displacement between them and b is the inerter
sprung mass,x1 is the displacement of the unsprung mass, xr coefficient. The inertia force is described by the following
is the road random input. cctrl and bctrl are the controllable equation:
damping coefficient and the controllable inerter coefficient.
F = bẍ (20)
B. DESIGN OF A NOVEL CONTROLLABLE INERTER Let r1 be the radius of the cylinder, r2 be the radius of the
For realizing the force of skyhook damper, there are two types piston rod, rh be the radius of the helical channel, Ph be the
of skyhook control strategy for skyhook damper: the on-off pitch of the helix, andqld be the width of the piston. l be the
skyhook control strategy and the continuous skyhook con- h P2 +(2πrh )2
trol strategy [20]–[22]. Similarly, the skyhook inerter control channel length, l = Ph . Let a be the length of the
strategy can be also divided into two types as above. The two waists. Let S1 be the annular area of the cylinder and ρ
coefficient cctrl orbctrl has two states in the on-off skyhook be the fluid density. S1 = π r12 Let S2 be the channel cross-
control: an on-state with a maximal coefficient cmax or bmax , sectional area, S2 = 1/2a2 sin θ , S2 ∈ (0, 0.5a2 ]. S3 be the
and an off-state with a minimal coefficient cmin or bmin . cross-sectional area of the piston rod and S3 = π r32 . The
However, because the coefficient will switch between the working area of the piston face is (S1 − S3 ).
maximal and minimal value, the control will have severe chat- Thus, the controllable inerter coefficient b is:
ter problems in practice. Compared with the on-off skyhook (S1 − S3 )2
control strategy, the continuous skyhook control strategy is b = ρ·l·
S22
closer to the ideal skyhook. It has a continuous value between q
the maximal and minimal coefficient of the damper or inerter. ld P2h + (2π rh )2 2π (r1 − r3 )2
There are a multitude of approaches to realize the continu- =ρ· ·( )2 (21)
Ph 1
2 · a2 · sin θ
ous skyhook damper control [23]. Unlike the damper, contin-
uous skyhook control inerter is rarely. In this paper, a novel b is a coefficient relates to the θ .
controllable inerter was designed as manifested in Fig. 5(a) The parameter of control strategy cctrl and bctrl [14] are as
to realize the continuous skyhook inerter control. follows, in which, the max value of cmax is c2 , the max value
of bmax is b2 , and the ideal value of cmin and bmin are zero.

max(c , min( csky ẋ2 , c , ẋ (ẋ − ẋ ) ≥ 0
min max 2 2 1
cctrl = ẋ2 − ẋ1
cmin , ẋ2 (ẋ2 − ẋ1 ) < 0

(22)

max(b , min( bsky ẍ2 , b , ẍ (ẍ − ẍ ) ≥ 0
min max 2 2 1
bctrl = ẍ2 − ẍ1
bmin , ẍ2 (ẍ2 − ẍ1 ) < 0

(23)

C. TEST IN RANDOM INPUT

Integral white noise of time-domain expression is taken as the
road input, the input equation is:
p
ẋr (t) = 2π G0 uw(t) (24)

In which w(t) is a mean value of zero Gauss white noise,

FIGURE 5. The structure of the novel controllable inerter. G0 is the road roughness coefficient, u is the vehicle speed.

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In this test, the vehicle speed u was 20 m/s and the road working space within a reasonable range, the suspension can
roughness coefficient G0 was ×10−6 m3 /cycle. To ana- absorb road vibration and avoid vibration transmit to the
lyze the performance of those GSH controlled suspension, vehicle body. Therefore, the suspension with GSH control
the traditional spring-damper structure suspension and the has better performance of body acceleration and dynamic
traditional skyhook damper control suspension (SH control tire load compared with the passive suspension and suspen-
suspension) were used as the comparative target and the sion with SH control. To quantify the performance of the
random road information was taken as input of it. The param- suspension with GSH control, the RMS value of the three
eters of the traditional suspension are k0 = 22000 N/m, performance indexes and the percentage of the improve-
c0 = 1200 N·s/m. The skyhook damper coefficient of the SH ment comparing with the passive suspension are recorded
control suspension csky0 = 1897 N · s/m. Other parameters in Table 4. The positive variation number means the value
are same as the traditional suspension. It is a special situation is increased, and the performance is deteriorated. The neg-
of GSH control suspension when the bctrl is set to 0. The ative variation number means the value is decreased, and
system output power spectral density of random response the performance is enhanced. Clearly, the suspension with
manifested in Fig. 6. The RMS values of the three indexes SH control improves the performance of body acceleration
were demonstrated in Table 4. (−5.6%) at the cost of deteriorated performance in dynamic
tire load (+7.9%). Whereas, the GSH controlled suspension
avoids this disadvantage. The body acceleration decreases
approximately 45.4% and the dynamic tire load decreases
approximately 4.2%. The Fig. 6 and Table 4 indicate that the
semi-active suspension based on the GSH control improves
the suspension performance significantly.

D. INFLUENCES OF SPRING STIFFNESS AND SPRUNG

MASS ON SUSPENSION PERFORMANCE
The spring stiffness k and sprung mass m2 have a consid-
erable effect on the performance of suspension. In addition,
the sprung mass m2 is variable during different conditions
such as the empty loaded condition and the fully loaded con-
dition. For the purpose of further exploration of the robust-
ness of the GSH controlled suspension performance under
different working conditions, the spring stiffness k and sprung
mass m2 were set to different values, and the suspension
model was simulated.
The value of the spring stiffness k is defined in percentage
changes from the initially value given in Table 1. The varia-
tions range of the spring stiffness was from 50% descent to
50% ascent. There are two conditions of the sprung mass m2 :
the empty loaded condition (m2 = 320 kg) and the fully
loaded condition (m2 = 450 kg).
The simulation results are manifested in Fig. 7. For all of
those three suspensions, the fully loaded condition has small
RMS value in body acceleration and larger RMS value in
dynamic tire load comparing with the empty loaded condi-
tion. With the alteration of the spring stiffness k and sprung
mass m2 , performance indexes of GSH controlled suspen-
sion are all small than the passive suspension in the case of
the same spring stiffness and sprung mass. In addition, the
fluctuation of those indexes of GSH controlled suspension
FIGURE 6. Comparison of three types suspensions. is smaller than the passive suspension and the SH controlled
suspension, except the little increase of the dynamic tire load.
As demonstrated in Fig. 6, select the performance of the But as a small passenger car, the variation of the dynamic
passive suspension and SH control suspension as the standard tire load has a little effect on the road. For the robustness,
reference, the body acceleration and dynamic tire load of the increase of the RMS value of body acceleration for GSH
the GSH control suspension decrease a lot. The suspension and SH control suspension is about 50%, but about 105% for
working space increases a little. But when the suspension passive suspension.

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TABLE 4. RMS values and its variation of random response outputs.

GSH control strategy can enhance the suspension perfor-

mance obviously. What’s more, the analysis of the influence
of spring stiffness and sprung mass on suspension perfor-
mance demonstrated that under different working conditions,
the GSH control suspension had superior performance and
robustness compared with the traditional skyhook control
suspension and passive suspension. The significance of the
general skyhook control strategy and the novel controllable
inerter can be concluded as:
1. The application of the GSH control strategy into
vehicle suspension can obtain superior suspension per-
formance, especially in indexes of the body accel-
eration (improve 45.4%) and dynamic tire load
(improve 4.2%) compare with the passive suspension.
And with the changing of the spring stiffness (±50%)
and the sprung mass (empty loaded or fully loaded),
the GSH controlled suspension had better robustness
than the passive suspension and the SH controlled sus-
pension. It extends new ideas for suspension control.
2. The paper applied the transfer function to designing the
control strategy and explored the effect of the skyhook
spring, skyhook damper, and skyhook inerter on sus-
pension. According to the analysis results, the structure
of suspension was designed and the parameters were
optimized by adaptive fish swarm algorithm based on
nonlinear dynamic visual field. This approach can be
utilized into a more complex structure GSH suspension
system.
3. A novel controllable inerter was designed to realize
the continuous skyhook inerter control strategy. It is
the foundation of the GSH suspension and has a sig-
nificance value in the engineering of the controllable
inerter.
FIGURE 7. Influences of spring stiffness and sprung mass on vehicle
performance.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
In general, the GSH controlled suspension has superior The authors would like to thank the associate editor and the
performance and robustness in different working conditions. anonymous reviewers for their careful reading and helpful
With the changing of the spring stiffness and the sprung mass, comments.
the GSH controlled suspension has better robustness than the
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