8

Part 3

Spread Footing Foundations1

— 2013 —

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Section/Article Description Page

3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-2

3.1.1 Scope (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-2
3.1.2 Classification (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-3

3.2 Information Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-3 1

3.2.1 Field Survey (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-3
3.2.2 Controlling Dimensions (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-4
3.2.3 Loads (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-4
3.2.4 Character of Subsurface Materials (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-5

3.3 Depth of Base of Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-6 3

3.3.1 Selection of Tentative Depths (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-6
3.3.2 Revision of Depths of Footings (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-7

3.4 Sizing of Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-7

3.4.1 Definitions (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-7
3.4.2 Safety Factors (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-7
3.4.3 Footings on Granular Material (Cohesion = 0) (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-8
3.4.4 Footings on Saturated Clay ( = 0) (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-10
3.4.5 Footings on Unsaturated Silts and Clays (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-11
3.4.6 Footings on Non-Homogeneous Deposits (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-11
3.4.7 Footings on Soils with Cohesion and Friction (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-12

3.5 Footings with Eccentric Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-12

3.5.1 Loads Eccentric in One Direction (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-12
3.5.2 Loads Eccentric in Two Directions (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-12
3.5.3 Sizing Footings with Eccentric Loads (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-13

3.6 Footing Stresses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-14

3.6.1 Pressure Distribution (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-14

1
References, Vol. 58, 1957, pp. 633, 1182; Vol. 59, 1958, pp. 676, 1188; Vol. 62, 1961, pp. 438, 860; Vol. 74, 1973, p. 138; Vol. 76, 1975, p. 206; Vol. 78,
1977, p. 108; Vol. 90, 1989, pp. 53, 56; Vol. 96, p. 59.

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Concrete Structures and Foundations

TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT)

Section/Article Description Page

3.7 Field Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-14

3.7.1 Modification of Design (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-14
3.7.2 Reinforcement (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-14
3.7.3 Footings at Varying Levels (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-14
3.7.4 Drainage (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-14
3.7.5 Treatment of Bottom of Excavation (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-14
3.7.6 Stresses (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-15
3.7.7 Information on Drawings (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-15

3.8 Combined Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-15

3.8.1 Uses and Types (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-15
3.8.2 Allowable Soil Pressures (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-16
3.8.3 Column Loads (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-16
3.8.4 Sizing Combined Footings (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-16

Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-16

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Description Page

8-3-1 Bulbs of Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-4

8-3-2 Extreme Frost Penetration, in Inches, Based upon State Averages. Source: U.S. National Weather Records Center
................................................................................... 8-3-6
8-3-3 Relationship Among , N, and Bearing Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-9
8-3-4 Types of Combined Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-15

SECTION 3.1 GENERAL

3.1.1 SCOPE (2013)1

a. This part of the Manual covers investigation, design and construction of rectangular or square spread footings.

b. In general for the purposes of this part, spread footings will be considered to be of rectangular or square shape of
dimensions (B) x (L) where B (width of the footing) is less than or equal to L (length of the footing).

c. A spread footing is a structural unit which transfers and distributes load to the underlying soil at a pressure consistent
with the requirements of the structure and the supporting capacity of the soil. The general approach to sizing footings
on soil is to assure that the maximum contact pressure defined in Article 3.4.1 is equal to or less than the allowable soil
pressure defined in the same article.

d. Sizing of footings on rock is not covered in this part.

1
See C - Commentary

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3.1.2 CLASSIFICATION (2013)

a. Spread footings may be classified according to their depth and dimensions:

(1) Spread footings may be classified as shallow footings when the depth of foundation, Df, defined as the minimum
vertical distance from the base of the footing to the surface of the surrounding ground or floor, does not exceed the
least width, B, of the footing. See Figure 8-3-1.

(2) Deep footings, for which the depth, Df, is greater than the width, B, (see Figure 8-3-1) are described in Part 4, Pile
Foundations and Part 24, Drilled Shaft Foundations.

b. Spread footings may be classified according to the structural elements they support:

(1) An individual column footing which supports a single column or isolated load

(2) A continuous footing which supports a wall or abutment

(3) A combined footing which supports more than one column

(4) A raft or mat footing, which is not covered in this part, supports all the columns in a structure or a large portion
thereof

c. Spread footings may be classified with respect to the subsurface material from which they derive their support:
1
(1) Footings on granular, non-cohesive soils

(2) Footings on saturated clay or plastic silt

(3) Footings on unsaturated clay or silt

(4) Footings on nonhomogeneous deposits 3

(5) Footings on preconsolidated clay

(6) Footings on rock

4
SECTION 3.2 INFORMATION REQUIRED

3.2.1 FIELD SURVEY (2013)

a. All available information shall be furnished in the form of a topographic map, in order to adapt the structural
requirements to the field conditions. The locations and dimensions of underground and above ground utilities, existing
foundations, roads, tracks, or other structures shall be indicated. In connection with footings for river crossings, the
records of normal high water, low water, floodwater level, depth of scour, stream flow direction and velocities, and
alignment of the stream shall be provided.

b. All available information concerning the nature of the foundations of neighboring structures, the nature of the
underlying materials, and of the settlement and behavior of these foundations shall be assembled and condensed as a
guide to the judgment of the engineer in the design of the new structure.

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(kPa)

NO REDUCTION IN ALLOWABLE
SETTLEMENT PRESSURE IS
REQUIRED WHEN WATER
TABLE IS BELOW THIS
ELEVATION - SEE ARTICLE
3.4.3.3b

Reduction in allowable pressure under footing on granular material

Figure 8-3-1. Bulbs of Pressure

(Factors affected by depth)

3.2.2 CONTROLLING DIMENSIONS (2013)

Information shall be assembled concerning the proposed arrangement of the columns, piers, abutments or equipment to be
supported; the depths of basements, tunnels, and other excavations; the surface elevation of fill areas; and all other factors that
may affect or be affected by the proposed construction.

3.2.3 LOADS (2013)

a. The loads to be supported by the foundations shall be subdivided into the following categories:

(1) Dead load

(2) Live load without impact1

(3) Longitudinal and lateral forces

(4) Snow load

(5) Ice load

1
See C - Commentary

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(6) Earthquake load

(7) Wind load

(8) Loads from pore water pressures including buoyancy and seepage forces

(9) Area load, defined as any load transmitted to the supporting soil by the addition of fill or adjacent structures

(10) Vibratory loads to footings on granular material shall be considered.

b. An estimate shall be made of the duration of each loading, because the settlement of some types of subsurface
materials depends upon the proportion of the total time the loads are active.

c. The character, frequency, and amplitude of any vibratory loads including earthquakes shall be noted for additional
analysis. If such loads are an important consideration, the foundation design shall be referred to a geotechnical
engineer with expertise in soil dynamics.

d. Footings shall be designed to resist the following loads:

(1) Primary Loads: Dead + Live + Centrifugal Force + Earth Pressure + Pore Water Pressures + Area Load + Special
Vibratory Loads

(2) Secondary Loads: Longitudinal Force + Wind + Ice and Stream Flow Pressures + Earthquake Forces.
1
3.2.4 CHARACTER OF SUBSURFACE MATERIALS (2013)

3.2.4.1 General

a. Pertinent supplementary data with respect to local geological or foundation conditions, including aerial photographs,
river morphology, scour reports and soil maps, shall be assembled if available. Data concerning changes in
groundwater level shall also be investigated. 3
b. The data concerning subsurface materials shall be assembled in suitable graphical form, such as cross sections through
the various deposits, showing the probable arrangement and sequence of lenses or strata, the pertinent physical
properties of each element of the deposit including liquefaction potential, and the location of the groundwater table.

3.2.4.2 Field Investigation

4
a. The nature and extent of the various formations of soil and rock beneath the site and the depth to groundwater shall be
determined by means of test borings or probes and physical tests of a type and to an extent appropriate to the character
and importance of the structure and the nature of the subsurface materials. The borings shall be made in accordance
with Part 22, Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation.

b. Borings should extend at least to a depth equal to two times the least footing width plus the depth of the footing from
the ground surface. At least one boring should, if practical, extend into bedrock. For structures on cohesive soils,
undisturbed samples should generally be recovered for laboratory testing. The recovery of undisturbed samples in
granular soil has not proven satisfactory. In-situ tests may provide useful data for foundation design. These tests
include standard penetration test, vane shear test, Dutch cone penetration test (static penetration test), pressuremeter
test, and other tests as described in Part 22, Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation.

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3.2.4.3 Depth of Frost and Volume Change

a. The maximum depth of frost penetration shall be determined, usually on the basis of local experience and records.
Figure 8-3-2 is a map showing the depths of frost penetration in the contiguous 48 states. Similarly, in regions of
excessively swelling or shrinking soils, the depth to which significant volume changes occur as a result of seasonal
variations in moisture content shall be determined.

b. Permafrost, or permanently frozen ground, exists in the northern hemisphere in arctic and subarctic regions. Although
the southern boundary of permafrost is irregular, it may extend as far south as the 50th parallel. Foundations for
structures, in areas of permafrost, should be designed in such a way as to not disturb the permanently frozen ground; or
if this is not practical, the influence of the foundation on the permafrost should be predicted so the effect of the changes
can be accommodated in the design. A geotechnical engineer with experience in these ground conditions should be
consulted for design of foundations to be placed on permafrost.

Figure 8-3-2. Extreme Frost Penetration, in Inches, Based upon State Averages. Source:
U.S. National Weather Records Center

SECTION 3.3 DEPTH OF BASE OF FOOTINGS

3.3.1 SELECTION OF TENTATIVE DEPTHS (2013)

On the basis of the data concerning the subsurface materials, tentative elevations for the bases of the footings shall be selected.
Unless special provisions are made, the depth shall not be less than the depth of frost penetration, scour, or in expansive clay

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subsoils, less than the thickness of the zone of significant volume change of the subsoil due to seasonal moisture variations.
Footings shall be founded below disturbed shallow soils, uncontrolled fills, soils susceptible to collapse, and organic soils.

3.3.2 REVISION OF DEPTHS OF FOOTINGS (2013)

After the preliminary depths have been selected, the allowable soil pressure shall be determined and the sizes of the footings
proportioned to the pressures. If the resulting design is not feasible or economical, similar studies shall be made of footings
established at other depths until the most suitable and economical arrangement is determined. In considering the relative
economy of footings at various levels, the cost and difficulty of excavation below groundwater level in pervious soils shall be
taken into account. The economy and suitability of other types of foundations, such as piles or drilled shafts, shall also be
considered. For deep foundations, the designer should refer to Part 4, Pile Foundations and Part 24, Drilled Shaft Foundations.

SECTION 3.4 SIZING OF FOOTINGS

3.4.1 DEFINITIONS (2013)

The following definitions will be used in the design procedures described below. The pressures used in this Section are net
pressures; that is, they represent pressures at the base level of the footing in excess of pressures at the same level due to the
weight of the surrounding soil immediately adjacent to the footing.

• Net Ultimate Bearing Capacity. The ultimate pressure at which the supporting material will fail in shear beneath 1
the footing, less the pressure due to the weight of the soil at that depth.

• Allowable Bearing Capacity. The net ultimate bearing pressure divided by an appropriate factor of safety.

• Allowable Settlement Pressure. The maximum pressure to which the footings may be subjected without
producing excessive settlement or excessive differential settlement of the structure. This settlement consists of two
stages: 3
– Initial Settlement or Elastic Settlement - occurs shortly after loading.

– Consolidation - occurs over an extended time period.

• Allowable Soil Capacity. The smaller of the allowable bearing pressure and the allowable settlement pressure.
4
• Maximum Contact Pressure. The maximum pressure applied by the combined effects of vertical and moment
loads for eccentrically loaded footings as described in this Part, Section 3.5, Footings with Eccentric Loads.

3.4.2 SAFETY FACTORS1 (2013)

The safety factor for Primary Loads shall not be less than 3; for Primary + Secondary Loads the safety factor shall not be less
than 2. Consideration shall be taken of load duration in relation to foundation soil and groundwater conditions when selecting
a safety factor.

1
See C - Commentary

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3.4.3 FOOTINGS ON GRANULAR MATERIAL (COHESION = 0) (2013)

3.4.3.1 General

a. The allowable soil pressure for a footing on granular material depends on the width of the footing, B; the shape of the
footing; the depth of foundation, Df, the SPT1 Blow Count or N-value of the foundation material; the unit weight of the
foundation material,  ; and the depth of the groundwater table.

b. The depth of the present and/or future groundwater level will noticeably affect the bearing capacity and allowable
settlement pressure of the footing. Consideration shall be given to the future groundwater level - See Figure 8-3-1.

c. Vibrational loads can cause severe settlement of a footing founded on very loose to medium dense granular soils. If
future construction in the adjacent area will require pile driving, vibratory compaction of subsoil, or other vibrations,
then consideration should be given to a more extensive vibratory analysis and a geotechnical engineer knowledgeable
in soil dynamics shall be consulted.

3.4.3.2 Net Bearing Capacity of a Footing on Granular Material

a. The net ultimate bearing capacity of a footing on granular material can be calculated from the following equations:

(1) For a continuous footing:

Q u = 0.5BN  + D f   N q – 1 

(2) For a square footing:

Q u = 0.4BN  + D f   N q – 1 

(3) For a circular footing:

Q u = 0.3BN  + D f   N q – 1 

where:

Qu = the net ultimate bearing capacity in lb/square foot (kPa)

B = the footing width in feet (m)
Df = the footing depth in feet (m)
 = the unit weight of the granular material in lb/cubic foot (kN/m3)
N and Nq = dimensionless bearing capacity factors which are a function of the internal angle of friction, .
The standard penetration blow count, N, is typically utilized to correlate to the internal angle
of friction.

The standard penetration blow count is described in Part 22, Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation. The relationship
among , N, and the bearing capacity factors are shown in Figure 8-3-3 as proposed by Peck, Hanson and Thornburn.

b. For saturated sands the buoyant unit weight should be used in the equations above.

1
See C - Commentary

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Figure 8-3-3. Relationship Among , N, and Bearing Capacity

3.4.3.3 Allowable Settlement Pressure for Granular Material

a. An empirical equation by Meyerhof may be used to estimate the allowable settlement pressure, Qs.

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(1) For B  4 feet (1220 mm):

Ns-
Q s = ------
8

Q s = 0.471sN (metric)

(2) For B  4 feet (1220 mm):

Ns  B + 1 
Q s =  ------- ------------------
 12  B

 B + 305 
Q s =  0.314sN  ------------------------ (metric)
B

where:

Qs is in tons/square foot (kPa)

N = the standard penetration blow count
B = the footing width in feet (millimeters)
s = the allowable settlement in inches (millimeters)

(3) The presence of a water table will have the effect of reducing the allowable settlement pressure as the effective
stress is lowered. Therefore the allowable settlement pressure shall be reduced 50% if the water table is at the base
of the footing and 0% if the water table is at a depth greater than B. The reduction for intermediate depths can be
interpolated, see Figure 8-3-1. Fluctuations in water table elevation shall be considered.

3.4.3.4 Sizing Footings on Granular Material

A trial footing size is used to determine the net bearing capacity from Article 3.4.3.2 and the allowable bearing pressure
described in Article 3.4.1 is calculated by dividing the net ultimate bearing capacity by the appropriate safety factor from
Article 3.4.2. The trial footing size is used to determine the allowable settlement pressure defined in Article 3.4.3.3. The loads
defined in Article 3.2.3 are divided by the trial footing area to give the maximum contact pressure defined in Article 3.4.1. If
the maximum contact pressure is greater than either the allowable bearing capacity or the allowable settlement pressure, the
footing size must be increased until the maximum contact pressure is less than the allowable soil pressure defined in
Article 3.4.1.

3.4.4 FOOTINGS ON SATURATED CLAY ( = 0) (2013)

3.4.4.1 General

The net ultimate bearing capacity of spread footings on saturated clays or clayey soils depends on the footing width, B; the
footing length, L; the depth of the footing below the surface, Df, and on the unconfined compressive strength of the clay, qu.

3.4.4.2 Net Bearing Capacity

a. The net ultimate bearing capacity for a footing may be determined by means of the following equations:

(1) For a continuous footing:

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Qu = 2.7qu

(2) For a square or rectangular footing:

Qu = 2.7qu (1 + 0.3 B/L)

(3) For a circular footing:

Qu = 3.5qu

b. In these equations, Qu and qu are expressed in tons/square foot. The value of qu shall be taken as the average
unconfined compressive strength of the clay within a depth B below the base of the footing; provided, however, that
the strength of the clay does not decrease significantly with increasing depth below the footing. In the event that
weaker material underlies stronger material, a special investigation of the bearing capacity shall be undertaken.

3.4.4.3 Sizing Footings on Clay

The appropriate factor of safety as indicated in Article 3.4.2 shall be used in order to obtain an allowable bearing capacity. The
required footing area is determined by dividing the column or wall load by the allowable bearing capacity.

3.4.4.4 Settlement Characteristics

a. For footings located on or above clays with qu below 2.0 tons per square foot (0.19 MPa), a settlement analysis should
generally be undertaken using the footing size and contact pressure determined in Article 3.4.11. If the estimated
settlement is greater than the allowable settlement, the footing design shall be reevaluated to bring the estimated
settlement below the allowable limit or a deep foundation shall be used.

b. The potential effect of subsidence due to drainage of the soil shall be considered in the design of the structure.

3.4.5 FOOTINGS ON UNSATURATED SILTS AND CLAYS (2013)

a. Laboratory testing is required for accurate determination of the allowable bearing capacity. Due to the existence of
tension cracks in the soil and unknown pore pressures, an extensive field investigation may be required. Similar
structures will not necessarily have the same solution. Careful evaluation is necessary in order to arrive at a satisfactory
footing design. A rise in the groundwater table will reduce the allowable bearing capacity and complicate the analysis.

b. Where loadings on footings are light, due consideration to swelling of a clay soil shall be given. This may be especially
important if the percent of soil with particle diameters less than 0.001 mm is greater than 15%.

3.4.6 FOOTINGS ON NON-HOMOGENEOUS DEPOSITS (2013)

a. Footings established above stratified or other non-homogeneous formations shall be proportioned on the assumption
that the most unfavorable condition disclosed by the subsurface exploration may be present under the most heavily
loaded footings, unless detailed information is obtained concerning the actual conditions beneath each footing.

b. Subsoil of this type requires extensive knowledge and investigation in order to obtain a suitable solution. However, in
many cases using the above assumption in order to simplify the solution is satisfactory.

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3.4.7 FOOTINGS ON SOILS WITH COHESION AND FRICTION (2013)

a. Many soils, including preconsolidated clays, fit this category and an accurate analysis can be carried out. The
investigation must be undertaken without the use of the simplifying assumptions made for granular or cohesive soils,
and more extensive laboratory information is required. Triaxial shear tests are required for this analysis.

b. At times, it will be satisfactory to assume the soil alternately only granular or cohesive and use the lower value for
allowable pressure.

SECTION 3.5 FOOTINGS WITH ECCENTRIC LOADS

3.5.1 LOADS ECCENTRIC IN ONE DIRECTION (2013)

a. When a footing is subjected to overturning moments in addition to total vertical loads, the line of action of the resultant
force is located some distance from the centroid of the footing. This distance, called eccentricity, e, is calculated by the
equation

e = M
-----
P

where:

M = the moment
P = total vertical load

The eccentricity shall have a maximum value of B/6.

b. The contact pressure distribution beneath a footing subjected to overturning moment will be non-uniform and the
maximum contact pressure, qmax and minimum contact pressure, qmin, can be calculated from:

P - + ---------
6M-
q max = -------
BL B 2 L

P - – ---------
6M-
q min = -------
BL B 2 L

where:

B = footing width
L = footing length
M = moment
P = total vertical load

3.5.2 LOADS ECCENTRIC IN TWO DIRECTIONS (2013)

a. When a footing is subjected to overturning moments in two directions, the total vertical load, P, is calculated, the
horizontal loads and their lines of action in each direction are determined, and the moments in the two directions are
computed by multiplying the force times the moment arm for each load. The eccentricity in each direction is computed
by dividing the moment in each direction by the vertical load as follows:

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M M
e x = -------x and e y = -------y
P P

where:

ex and ey = the eccentricities in the two directions

Mx and My = the moments in the respective directions (i.e. Mx is the moment about the
y axis and My is the moment about the x axis)
B is the footing dimension parallel to the x direction and L is parallel to the
y direction, and all other terms are as previously defined.

The eccentricities ex and ey shall have a maximum value of B/6 and L/6, respectively.

b. The contact pressure distribution beneath a footing subjected to overturning moments in two directions will be non-
uniform, and the maximum contact pressure, qmax, and the minimum contact pressure, qmin, can be calculated from:

P 6M 6M
q max = -------- + ----------x- + ----------y-
BL B 2 L BL 2

P 6M 6M
q min = -------- – ----------x- – ----------y- 1
BL B 2 L BL 2

3.5.3 SIZING FOOTINGS WITH ECCENTRIC LOADS (2013)

a. Footings shall be initially sized using Primary Loads with the required factor of safety and verified by using Primary +
Secondary Loads with their required factor of safety. Both design criteria must be met.
3
b. Select trial footing dimensions B and L. Using these dimensions, the previously determined eccentricities, and the total
vertical load, calculate the maximum and minimum contact pressures beneath the footing according to Article 3.5.1.b
for loads eccentric in one direction or Article 3.5.2.b for loads eccentric in two directions. The maximum contact
pressure is then compared with the allowable soil pressure determined from either Article 3.4.3 for granular material,
or Article 3.4.4 for clays. If the maximum contact pressure exceeds the allowable soil pressures or if the settlement is
excessive, the footing size shall be increased in order to decrease maximum contact pressure and settlement. If the
resulting footing size is too large to be practical, deep foundations, such as piles as described in Part 4, Pile 4
Foundations or drilled shafts as described in Part 24, Drilled Shaft Foundations, shall be considered.

c. If qmin is negative, the corner of the footing is in tension and larger footing dimensions shall be tried. The computations
of maximum and minimum contact pressures are repeated with new trial dimensions until qmin becomes positive. This
indicates that the soil under the entire footing is in compression and the entire footing area will contribute to the
footing’s load carrying capacity.

d. If a footing is subject to eccentric loading, then it must be sized such that the safety factor of overturning is 2 or greater
and the safety factor of sliding is 1.5 or greater. These safety factors are calculated as follows:

FSoverturning = Σ Resisting Moments ⁄ Σ Overturning Moments

FSsliding = Σ Sliding Resistance ⁄ Σ Driving Horizontal Forces

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SECTION 3.6 FOOTING STRESSES

3.6.1 PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION (2013)

a. The pressure distribution on the footing itself is eqivalent to the reaction of the soil to the contact pressure.

b. It is desirable, if possible, to proportion the footing for a uniform pressure distribution.

c. A more detailed study may be required for a flexible footing and for a mat footing. In actual practice, the pressure
distribution may vary materially from this ideal distribution. The distribution of the reaction is dependent upon the
rigidity of the structural system, distribution of the loading and characteristics of the soil.

SECTION 3.7 FIELD CONDITIONS

3.7.1 MODIFICATION OF DESIGN (2013)

If excavation discloses soils or soil conditions different from those upon which the design of the footings has been based, the
design shall be altered as necessary.

3.7.2 REINFORCEMENT (2013)

Wherever the concrete of a reinforced footing is cast against the soil, steel reinforcement shall be provided with a cover of not
less than 3 inches (76 mm). If the concrete is cast against a seal coat or against steel sheeting that is to remain in place, the
cover shall be not less than 2 inches (51 mm).

3.7.3 FOOTINGS AT VARYING LEVELS (2013)

If the footings for two adjacent parts of a structure are established at different elevations, the difference in elevation of the
bases of adjacent footings, divided by the least horizontal clear distance between the footings, shall not exceed a value
appropriate to the characteristics of the subsoil, and in general should not exceed 1.0. An increased load on the lower footing
will result otherwise.

3.7.4 DRAINAGE (2013)

Unless underwater construction is specified, surface water or groundwater shall not be permitted to accumulate in excavations
for footings. Such water shall be conducted to sumps located outside the boundaries of the footings and removed. If the water
cannot be handled by this procedure, groundwater lowering should be accomplished by well points, a tremie seal course, or
other appropriate means.

3.7.5 TREATMENT OF BOTTOM OF EXCAVATION (2013)

a. Care should be exercised to prevent disturbance of the materials at the bottom of the excavation by equipment or
workers. The bottom 3 inches (76 mm) of concrete in the footings shall be neglected for strength calculations.

b. On soft clayey or silty soils a working platform or mud coat of lean concrete, from 2 inches (51 mm) to 3 inches (76
mm) in thickness, is recommended if disturbance is probable. Otherwise, final excavation of the last 3 inches (76 mm)
to 6 inches (152 mm) above grade should be deferred until immediately before placement of the reinforcement. The
concrete in a working platform or mud slab shall not be considered as contributing to the strength of the footing.

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c. If a tremie seal is to be placed to permit dewatering of the cofferdam, the thickness of the seal, in addition to other
factors, shall be adequate to withstand the upward pressure of the water beneath the seal at the time of dewatering. This
uplift force shall be determined by a rational analysis1.

3.7.6 STRESSES (2013)

Concrete and reinforcing steel stresses/strength shall be in accordance with Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design.

3.7.7 INFORMATION ON DRAWINGS (2013)

Design drawings shall indicate the allowable soil pressure, type of soil, grade of the reinforcing steel, strength of concrete, and
other pertinent data.

SECTION 3.8 COMBINED FOOTINGS

3.8.1 USES AND TYPES (2013)

a. Combined footings support more than one column and are used for reasons such as:

(1) Property line or other obstructions make it undesirable to use a single column on an independent single footing.

(2) Allowable soil pressures are so low or column loads so large that individual footings would overlap. 1
b. Examples of combined footing types are illustrated in Figure 8-3-4 and include: rectangular, trapezoidal, and strap
footings.

Figure 8-3-4. Types of Combined Footings

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3.8.2 ALLOWABLE SOIL PRESSURES (2013)

a. Allowable soil pressures defined in Article 3.4.1 are determined from Article 3.4.3 for granular material or
Article 3.4.4 for clays. For combined footings, the minimum safety factor is 3 for all load cases.

b. A combined footing is ideally proportioned such that the centroid of the contact area lies on the line of action of the
resultant of column loads, thereby producing a uniform pressure distribution. In situations where it is impossible to
produce a uniform pressure distribution, the pressure distribution is computed and the footing sized according to the
principles outlined in Section 3.5, Footings with Eccentric Loads. The dimensions of the footing are selected so that the
allowable soil pressure is not exceeded.

3.8.3 COLUMN LOADS (2013)

Combined footings should be proportioned for uniform soil pressure under dead load plus the amount of live load that is likely
to govern settlement as recommended in Article 3.2.3. The centroid of the footing should lie on the line of action of the
resultant column loads consisting of dead load plus a fraction of live load required by the specifications or building code, as
applicable.

3.8.4 SIZING COMBINED FOOTINGS (2013)

3.8.4.1 Rectangular Footings

A rectangular footing is used if the rectangle can extend beyond each column the distance necessary to make the centroid of
the rectangle coincide with the point where the resultant of the column loads intersects the base.

3.8.4.2 Trapezoidal Footings

A trapezoidal footing is used if a rectangular footing cannot project the required distance beyond one or multiple columns.

3.8.4.3 Strap Footings

The strap footing is considered as two individual footings connected by a beam.

C - COMMENTARY

The purpose of this part is to furnish an explanation of various articles in Part 3, Spread Footing Foundations. In the
numbering of articles of this Section, the numbers after the “C-” correspond to the section/article being explained.

C - SECTION 3.1 GENERAL

C - 3.1.1 SCOPE (2013)

The designer should be aware that the approaches presented here are for the least complicated situation; and where unusual
geology or loadings are expected, geotechnical engineering specialists should be consulted.

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C - SECTION 3.2 INFORMATION REQUIRED

C - 3.2.3 LOADS (2013)

a. (2) Impact is not considered in the design of a footing except for special circumstances. Normal live load, defined as
the live load that is likely to be transmitted to the foundation throughout the greater portion of the useful lifetime of the
structure, is commonly used when the foundation soil is saturated clay.

Maximum live load, defined as the greatest live load that may be anticipated at any time during the lifetime of the
structure, is commonly used when the foundation soil is freely draining granular material.

C - SECTION 3.4 SIZING OF FOOTINGS

C - 3.4.2 SAFETY FACTORS (2013)

A factor of safety of 3.0 for Primary Loads should be applied when the bearing capacity of a footing is calculated using the
bearing capacity equations of Articles 3.4.3.2 or 3.4.4.2. However, a reduced factor of safety for Primary Loads may be
considered in cases where detailed site-specific soils investigations have been performed and advanced testing and analytical
methods have been applied to evaluate the load vs. settlement relationship of the footing system. In such cases the footing
may be sized to limit footing settlement to within tolerable limits under Primary and Secondary loading conditions. However,
in no case should the bearing capacity factor of safety be less than 2.0.

C - 3.4.3 FOOTINGS ON GRANULAR MATERIAL (COHESION = 0) (2013) 1

C - 3.4.3.1 General

a. Investigation. Penetration testing is a most useful method to determine the soil condition underlying a site. The
Standard Penetration Test (SPT) is the most popular and economical means to obtain this subsurface data. The method
is standardized by ASTM D1586 as “Standard Method for Penetration Test and Split-Barrel Sampling of Soil” and is
commonly called the Standard Penetration Test. For detailed procedure, see Part 22, Geotechnical Subsurface 3
Investigation.

C - 3.4.4 FOOTINGS ON SATURATED CLAY ( = 0) (2013)

C - 3.4.4.4 Settlement Characteristics

4
a. In certain cases, large settlements will occur by consolidation of an underlying layer under very small additional loads.
If any doubt exists concerning the consolidation characteristics of the soil, one or more consolidation tests should be
undertaken. Settlement by “consolidation” of underlying clay layers can be many times the initial “elastic settlement.”
Both the consolidation and elastic settlements can be estimated by using data obtained from laboratory analysis.

C - SECTION 3.7 FIELD CONDITIONS

C - 3.7.5 TREATMENT OF BOTTOM OF EXCAVATION (2013)

c. In determining uplift forces and required seal concrete depth in cofferdams, factors such as floods, extreme high tides,
and upstream power generation that raise the normal pool elevation should be considered. The final design pool
elevation shall be clearly noted on the plans, monitored and not exceeded during construction while the cofferdam is
dewatered.

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