Climate change: impacts on fisheries and aquaculture 119

x7

Climate change: impacts on

fisheries and aquaculture
Bimal P Mohanty1, Sasmita Mohanty2,
Jyanendra K Sahoo3 and Anil P Sharma1
1Central
Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Barrackpore, Kolkata 700120;
2School of Biotechnology, KIIT University, Bhubaneswar 751024,
3Orissa University of Agriculture & Technology, College of Fisheries, Berhampur760007;

India.

Climate change has been recognized as the foremost environmental problem of the twenty-
first century and has been a subject of considerable debate and controversy. It is predicted to
lead to adverse, irreversible impacts on the earth and the ecosystem as a whole. Although it
is difficult to connect specific weather events to climate change, increases in global
temperature has been predicted to cause broader changes, including glacial retreat, arctic
shrinkage and worldwide sea level rise. Climate change has been implicated in mass
mortalities of several aquatic species including plants, fish, corals and mammals. The
present chapter has been divided in to two parts; the first part discusses the causes and
general concerns of global climate change and the second part deals, specifically, on the
impacts of climate change on fisheries and aquaculture, possible mitigation options and
development of suitable monitoring tools.

1. Global Climate change: Causes and concerns

Climate change is the variation in the earth’s global climate or in regional climates over time
and it involves changes in the variability or average state of the atmosphere over durations
ranging from decades to millions of years. The United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC) uses the term ‘climate change’ for human-caused change and
‘climate variability’ for other changes. In last 100 years, ending in 2005, the average global
air temperature near the earth’s surface has been estimated to increase at the rate of 0.74 +/-
0.18 °C (1.33 +/- 0.32 °F) (IPCC 2007). In recent usage, especially in the context of
environmental policy, the term ‘climate change’ often refers to changes in the modern
climate.

2. Causes of climate change

There are both natural processes and anthropogenic activities affecting the earth’s
temperature and the resultant climate change. The steep increases in the global
120 Climate Change and Variability

anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions over the decades are major contributors to
the global warming.

2.1. Natural processes affecting the earth’s temperature

Sun is the primary source of energy on earth. Though the sun’s output is nearly constant,
small changes over an extended period of time can lead to climate change. The earth’s
climate changes are in response to many natural processes like orbital forcing (variations in
its orbit around the Sun), volcanic eruptions, and atmospheric greenhouse gas
concentrations. Changes in atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases and aerosols,
land-cover and solar radiation alter the energy balance of the climate system and causes
warming or cooling of the earth’s atmosphere. Volcanic eruptions emit many gases and one
of the most important of these is sulfur dioxide (SO2) which forms sulfate aerosol (SO4) in
the atmosphere.

2.2 Greenhouse gases

Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are those gaseous constituents of the atmosphere, both natural
and anthropogenic, that are responsible for the greenhouse effect, leading to an increase in
the amount of infrared or thermal radiation near the surface. While water vapor (H2O),
carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4), and ozone (O3) are the primary
greenhouse gases in the Earth’s atmosphere, there are a number of entirely human-made
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, such as the halocarbons and other chlorine- and
bromine-containing substances. Halocarbons such as CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) are
completely artificial (man-made), and are produced from the chemical industry in which
they are used as coolants and in foam blowing.
Increases in CO2 are the single largest factor contributing more than 60% of human-
enhanced increases and more than 90% of rapid increase in past decade. Most CO2
emissions are from the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and gas. Rising CO2 is also
related to deforestation, which eliminates an important carbon sink of the terrestrial
biosphere (www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/globalwarming.html; Shea et al., 2007).
Currently, the atmosphere contains about 370 ppm of CO2, which is the highest
concentration in 420000 years and perhaps as long as 2 million years. Estimates of CO2
concentrations at the end of the 21st century range from 490 to 1260 ppm, or a 75% to 350%
increase above preindustrial concentrations (WMO World Data Centre for Greenhouse
Gases. Greenhouse gas bulletin, 2006; Shea KM and the Committee on Environmental
Health, 2007).

3. Impacts of climate change

Although it is difficult to connect specific weather events to global warming, an increase in
global temperatures may in turn cause broader changes, including glacial retreat, arctic
shrinkage, and worldwide sea level rise. Changes in the amount and pattern of precipitation
may result in flooding and drought. Other effects may include changes in agricultural
yields, addition of new trade routes, reduced summer stream flows, species extinctions, and
increases in the range of disease vectors (Understanding and responding to Climate Change.
2008: http://www.national-academies.org).
Climate change: impacts on fisheries and aquaculture 121

Most models on Global climate change indicate that snow pack is likely to decline on many
mountain ranges in the west, which would bring adverse impact on fish populations,
hydropower, water recreation and water availability for agricultural, industrial and
residential use. Partial loss of ice sheets on polar land could imply meters of sea level rise,
major changes in coastlines and inundation of low-lying areas, with greatest effects in river
deltas and low-lying islands. Such changes are projected to occur over millennial time
scales, but more rapid sea level rise on century time scales cannot be excluded. Current
models of climate change predict a rise in sea surface temperatures of between 2 °C and 5 °C
by the year 2100 (IPCC Third Assessment Report, 2001: Done et al., 2003).
Climate change will affect ecosystems and human systems like agricultural, transportation
and health infrastructure. The regions that will be most severely affected are often the
regions that are the least able to adept. Bangladesh is projected to lose 17.5 % of its land if
sea level rises about 1 meter (39 inches), displacing millions of people. Several islands in the
South Pacific and Indian oceans may disappear. Many other coastal regions will be at
increased risk of flooding, especially during storm surges, threatening animals, plants and
human infrastructure such as roads, bridges and water supplies.
There are many ways in which climate change might affect human health, including heat
stress, heat (sun) stroke, increased air pollution, and food scarcities due to drought and
other agricultural stresses. Because many disease pathogens and carriers are strongly
influenced by temperature, humidity and other climate variables, climate change may also
influence the spread of infectious diseases or the intensity of disease outbreaks. During the
last 100 years, anthropogenic activities related to burning fossil fuel, deforestation and
agriculture has led to a 35% increase in the CO2 levels in the temperature and this has
resulted in increased trapping of heat and the resultant increase in the earth’s atmosphere.
Most of the observed increase in globally-averaged temperatures has been attributed to the
greenhouse gas concentrations. The globally averaged surface temperature rise has been
projected to be 1.1-6.4 °C by end of the 21st century (2090-2099) which is mainly due to
thermal expansion of the ocean (www.searo.who.int/en/Section260/Section2468_
14335.htm, 2008). The global average sea level rose at an average rate of 1.8 mm per year
from 1961 to 2003 and the total rise during the 20th century was estimated to be 0.17 m (The
Fourth Assessment Report of IPCC, 2007). Due to such surface warming it is predicted that
heat waves and heavy precipitations will continue to become more frequent with more
intense and devastating tropical cyclones (typhoons and hurricanes). Due to the resultant
disruption in ecosystem’s services to support human health and livelihood, there will be
strong negative impact on the health system. IPCC has projected an increase in malnutrition
and consequent disorders, with implications for child growth and development. Increased
burden of diarrheal diseases and infectious disease vectors are expected due to the erratic
rainfall patterns.
Climate change is likely to lead to some irreversible impacts. Approximately 20- 30 % of
species assessed so far are likely to be at increased risk of extinction if increases in global
average warming exceed 1.5-2.5 °C (relative to 1980-1999). As global average temperature
increase exceeds about 3.5 °C, model projections suggest significant extinctions (40-70 % of
species assessed) around the globe. Some projected regional impacts of Climate change have
been systematically listed in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, 2007.
122 Climate Change and Variability

4. Impacts of Climate Change on Fisheries and Aquaculture

Fish has been an important part of the human diet in almost all countries of the world. It is
highly nutritious; it can provide vital nutrients absent in typical starchy staples which
dominate poor people’s diets (FAO, 2005a; FAO, 2007a). Fish provides about 20 % of animal
protein intake (Thorpe et al., 2006) and is one of the cheapest sources of animal proteins as
far as availability and affordability is concerned. While it serves as a health food for the
affluent world owing to the fish oils rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), for the
people in the other extreme of the nutrition scale, fish is a health food owing to its proteins,
oils, vitamins and minerals and the benefits associated with the consumption of small
indigenous fishes (Mohanty et al., 2010a).
Although aquaculture has been contributing an increasingly significant proportion of fish
over recent decades, approximately two-thirds of fish are still caught in capture fisheries.
The number of people directly employed in fisheries and aquaculture is estimated at 43.5
million, of which over 90 % are small –scale fishers (FAO, 2005a). In addition to those
directly employed in fishing, over 200 million people are thought to be dependent on small-
scale fishing in developing countries, in terms of other economic activities generated by the
supply of fish (trade, processing, transport, retail, etc.) and supporting activities (boat
building, net making, engine manufacture and repair, supply of services to fisherman and
fuel to fishing boats etc.) in addition to millions for whom fisheries provide a supplemental
income (FAO, 2005a). Fisheries are often available in remote and rural areas where other
economic activities are limited and can thus be important sources for economic growth and
livelihoods in rural areas with few other economic activities (FAO, 2005a)

4.1 Potential impacts of climate change on fisheries

Climate change is projected to impact broadly across ecosystems, societies and economics,
increasing pressure on all livelihoods and food supplies. The major chunk of earth is
encompassed by water that harbors vast majority of marine and freshwater fishery
resources and thus likely to be affected to a greater extent by vagaries of climate change.
Capture fisheries has unique features of natural resource harvesting linked with global
ecosystem processes and thus is more prone to such problems. Aquaculture complements
and increasingly adds to the supply chain and has important links with capture fisheries
and is likely to be affected when the capture fisheries is affected.
The ecological systems which support fisheries are already known to be sensitive to climate
variability. For example, in 2007, the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
highlighted various risks to aquatic systems from climate change, including loss of coastal
wetlands, coral bleaching and changes in the distribution and timing of fresh water flows,
and acknowledged the uncertain effect of acidification of oceanic water which is predicted
to have profound impacts on marine ecosystems (Orr et al., 2005). Similarly, fishing
communities and related industries are concentrated in coastal or low lying zones which are
increasingly at risk from sea level rise, extreme weather events and wide range of human
pressures (Nicholls et al., 2007a). While poverty in fishing communities or other forms of
marginalization reduces their ability to adapt and respond to change, increasingly
globalized fish markets are creating new vulnerabilities to market disruptions which may
result from climate change.
Climate change: impacts on fisheries and aquaculture 123

Fisheries and fisher folk may have the impact in a wide range of ways due to climate
change. The distribution or productivity of marine and fresh water fish stocks might be
affected owing to the processes such as ocean acidification, habitat damage, changes in
oceanography, disruption to precipitation and freshwater availability (Daw et al., 2009).
Climate change, in particular, rising temperatures, can have both direct and indirect effects
on global fish production. With increased global temperature, the spatial distribution of fish
stocks might change due to the migration of fishes from one region to another in search of
suitable conditions. Climate change will have major consequences for population dynamics
of marine biota via changes in transport processes that influence dispersals and recruitment
(Barange and Perry, 2009). These impacts will differ in magnitude and direction for
populations within individual marine species whose geographical ranges span large
gradients in latitude and temperature, as experimented by Mantzouni and Mackenzie (2010)
in cod recruitment throughout the north Atlantic. The effects of increasing temperature on
marine and freshwater ecosystems are already evident, with rapid pole ward shifts in
distributions of fish and plankton in regions such as North East Atlantic, where temperature
change has been rapid (Brander, 2007). Climate change has been implicated in mass
mortalities of many aquatic species, including plants, fish, corals, and mammals (Harvell et
al., 1999; Battin et al., 2007).
Climate change will have impact on global biodiversity; alien species would expand into
regions in which they previously could not survive and reproduce (Walther et al., 2009).
Climate driven changes in species composition and abundance will alter species diversity
and it is also likely to affect the ecosystems and the availability, accessibility, and quality of
resources upon which human populations rely, both directly and indirectly through food
web processes. Extreme weather events could result in escape of farmed stock and
contribute to reduction in genetic diversity of wild stock affecting biodiversity.
Climate variability and change is projected to have significant effects on the physical,
chemical, and biological components of northern Canadian marine, terrestrial, and
freshwater systems. According to a study conducted by Prowse et al. (2009), the northward
migration of species and the disruption and competition from invading species are already
occurring and will continue to affect marine, terrestrial, and freshwater communities. This
will have implications for the protection and management of wildlife, fish, and fisheries
resources; protected areas; and forests. Shifting environmental conditions will likely
introduce new animal-transmitted diseases and redistribute some existing diseases,
affecting key economic resources and some human populations. Stress on populations of
iconic wildlife species, such as the polar bear, ringed seals, and whales, will continue as a
result of changes in critical sea-ice habitat interactions. Where these stresses affect
economically and culturally important species, they will have significant effects on people
and regional economies. Further integrated, field-based monitoring and research programs,
and the development of predictive models are required to allow for more detailed and
comprehensive projections of change to be made, and to inform the development and
implementation of appropriate adaptation, wildlife, and habitat conservation and protection
strategies.
Fisheries will also be exposed to a diverse range of direct and indirect climate impacts,
including displacement and migration of human populations; impacts on coastal
communities and infrastructure due to sea level rise; and changes in the frequency,
distribution or intensity of tropical storms. Inland fisheries ecology is profoundly affected
124 Climate Change and Variability

by changes in precipitation and run-off which may occur due to climate change. Lake
fisheries in Southern Africa for example, will likely be heavily impacted by reduced lake
levels and catches. The variety of different impact mechanisms, complex interactions
between social, ecological and economic systems and the possibility of sudden and
surprising changes make future effects of climate change on fisheries difficult to predict. In
fact, understanding the ecological impacts of climate change is a crucial challenge of the
twenty-first century. There is a clear lack of general rules regarding the impacts of global
warming on biota. A study conducted by Daufresne et al. (2009) provided evidence that
reduced body size is the third universal ecological response to global warming in aquatic
systems besides the shift of species ranges toward higher altitudes and latitudes and the
seasonal shifts in life cycle events.
Apart from fisheries, global primary production (planktonic primary production) which is
related to global fisheries catches at the scale of Large Marine Ecosystems appears to be
declining, in some part due to climate variability and change, with consequences for the
near future fisheries catches (Chassot et al., 2010).
Other climatic change impacts on fisheries include surface winds, high CO2 levels and
variability in precipitations. While surface wind would alter both the delivery of nutrients in
to the photic zone and strength and distribution of ocean currents, higher CO2 levels can
change the ocean acidity and variability in precipitation would affect sea levels. Global
average sea level is rising at an average rate of 1.8 mm per year since 1961 and there is
evidence of increased variability in sea level in recent decades. It is recently reported that
ocean temperature and associated sea level increases between 1961 and 2003 were 50%
larger than estimated in the 2007 IPCC Report. All coastal ecosystems are vulnerable to sea
level rise and more direct anthropogenic impacts. Sea level rise may reduce intertidal
habitat areas in ecologically important regions thus affecting fish and fisheries.

4.2 Impact of climate change on the parasites and infectious diseases of aquatic
animals
The potential trends of climate change on aquatic organisms and in turn in fisheries and
aquaculture are less well documented and have primarily concentrated on coral bleaching
and associated changes. An increase in the incidence of disease outbreaks in corals and
marine mammals together with the incidence of new diseases has been reported. It was
suggested that both the climate and human activities may have accelerated the global
transport of species, bringing together of pathogens and previously unexposed populations
(Harvell et al., 1999; De Silva and Sato, 2009).
Climate changes could affect productivity of aquaculture systems and increase the
vulnerability of cultured fish to diseases. All aquatic ecosystems, including freshwater lakes
and rivers, coastal estuarine habitats and marine waters, are influenced by climate change
(Parry et al., 2007; Scavia et al., 2002; Schindler, 2001). Relatively small temperature changes
alter fish metabolism and physiology, with consequences for growth, fecundity, feeding
behavior, distribution, migration and abundance (Marcogliese, 2008). The general effects of
increased temperature on parasites include, rapid growth and maturation, earlier onset of
spring maturation, increased parasite mortality, increased number of generations per year,
increased rates of parasitism and disease, earlier and prolonged transmission, the possibility
of continuous, year-round transmission (Marcogliese, 2001).
Climate change: impacts on fisheries and aquaculture 125

Many diseases display greater virulence at higher temperatures that might be the result of
reduced resistance of the host due to stress or increased expression of virulence factors/
increased transmission of the vectors. Some examples have been summarized in table 1.

Host Disease /Parasite Response to high Reference

temperature
Largemouth Red sore disease Susceptibility to the Esch and
bass /bacterium Aeromonas disease increases Hazen (1980)
(Micropterus hydrophila
salmoides)
Mosquitofish Asian fish tapeworm -do- Granath and
(Gambusia (Bothriocephalus Esch (1983)
affinis) acheilognathi)
Trout Whirling disease / -do- Hiner and
(Onchorhynchus Myxozoan Myxobolus Moffitt (2001)
spp.) cerebralis
Juvenile coho Blackspot disease/ Virulence is directly Cairns et al.,
salmon (O. trematode larvae correlated with daily 2005
kisutch) (metacercariae) maximum temperature
A variety of reef Ciguatera fish Increased incidence of Tester et al.,
fish poisoning (CFP) caused CFP due to increased 2010
by bioaccumulation of temperature
algal toxins
Rainbow trout, Infected with More rapid onset of Kocan et al.,
Oncorhynchus Ichthyophonus sp. disease, higher parasite 2009
mykiss load, more severe host
tissue reaction and
reduced mean-day-to-
death at higher
temperature
Freshwater Spores released from Exacerbate PKD Tops et al.,
bryozoans sacs produced by the outbreaks and increase 2009
infected with parasite during the geographic range of
myxozoan, infection of freshwater PKD as a result of the
Tetracapsuloides bryozoans are infective combined responses of T.
bryosalmonae to salmonid fish, bryosalmonae and its
causing the devastating bryozoan hosts to higher
Proliferative Kidney temperatures.
Disease (PKD)
Table 1. Impact of climate change on parasitic and other diseases of aquatic animals.

As the emergence of disease is linked directly to changes in the ecology of hosts or

pathogens, or both (Harvell et al., 1999), climate change will have a profound impact on the
spread of parasites and disease in aquatic ecosystems (Harvell et al., 1999; Marcogliese, 2001;
Harvell et al., 2002). Climate change will affect parasite species directly resulting from the
extension of the geographical range of pathogens (Harvell et al., 2002). In addition,
126 Climate Change and Variability

increased temperature may cause thermal stress in aquatic animals, leading to reduced
growth, sub- optimal behaviors and reduced immunocompetence (Harvell et al., 1999;
Harvell et al., 2002; Roessig et al., 2004) resulting in changes in the distribution and
abundance of their hosts (Marcogliese, 2001). In the oceans, diseases are shown to increase
in corals, sea urchins, molluscs, sea turtles and marine mammals, although not all can be
linked unequivocally to climate alone (Lafferty et al., 2004). However, it was recently
suggested that diseases may not increase with climate change, although distributions of
parasites and pathogens will undoubtedly shift (Lafferty, 2009). Other factors may dominate
over climate in controlling the distribution and abundance of pathogens, including: habitat
alteration, invasive species, agricultural practices and human activities.
Effects on parasites Effects on hosts Effects on transmission

Faster embryonic Altered feeding Earlier reproduction in spring

development and
hatching
Faster rates of Altered behavior More generations per year
development and
maturation
Decreased longevity of Altered range Prolonged transmission in the fall
larvae and adults
Increased mortality of all Altered ecology Potential transmission year round
stages Reduced host
resistance
Table 2. General effects of increased temperature on parasite life cycles, their hosts and
transmission processes (Marcogliese, 2008)

Outbreaks of numerous water- borne diseases in both humans and aquatic organisms are
linked to climatic events, although it is often difficult to disentangle climatic from other
anthropogenic effects. In some cases, these outbreaks occur in foundation or keystone
species, with consequences throughout whole ecosystems. There is much evidence to
suggest that parasite and disease transmission, and possibly virulence, will increase with
global warming. However, the effects of climate change will be superimposed on a
multitude of other anthropogenic environmental changes. Climate change itself may
exacerbate these anthropogenic effects. Moreover, parasitism and disease may act
synergistically with these anthropogenic stressors to further increase the detrimental effects
of global warming on animal and human populations, with debilitating social economic
ramifications (Marcogliese, 2008).
The repercussions of climate change are not limited solely to temperature effects on hosts
and their parasites, but also have other possible effects such as: alteration in water levels and
flow regimes, eutrophication, stratification, changes in acidification, reduced ice cover,
changes in ocean currents, increased ultra- violet (UV) light penetration, run off, weather
extremes (Cochrane et al., 2009).
Climate change: impacts on fisheries and aquaculture 127

5. Anticipated impacts in next few decades

In addition to incremental changes of existing trends, complex social and ecological systems
such as coastal zones and fisheries, may exhibit sudden qualitative shifts in behaviour when
forcing variables past certain thresholds (Daw et al., 2009). For example, IPCC originally
estimated that the Greenland ice sheet would take more than 1000 years to melt, but recent
observations suggest that the process is already happening faster owing to mechanisms for
ice collapse that were not incorporated into the projections (Lenton et al., 2008). The
infamous collapse of the Northwest Atlantic northern cod fishery provides a non-climate-
related example where chronic over fishing led to a sudden, unexpected and irreversible
loss in production from this fishery. Thus, existing observations of linear trends cannot be
used to reliably predict impacts within the next 50 years (Daw et al., 2009).
A study by Veron et al. (2009) also emphasizes impact of increasing atmospheric CO2 levels
due to global warming on mass coral bleaching world-wide. According to this group,
temperature-induced mass coral bleaching causing mortality on a wide geographic scale
started when atmospheric CO2 levels exceeded approximately 320 ppm. At today's level of
approximately 387 ppm, allowing a lag-time of 10 years for sea temperatures to respond,
most reefs world-wide are committed to an irreversible decline. Mass bleaching will in
future become annual, departing from the 4 to 7 years return-time of El Niño events.
Bleaching will be exacerbated by the effects of degraded water-quality and increased severe
weather events. In addition, the progressive onset of ocean acidification will cause reduction
of coral growth and retardation of the growth of high magnesium calcite-secreting coralline
algae. If CO2 levels are allowed to reach 450 ppm (due to occur by 2030-2040 at the current
rates), reefs will be in rapid and terminal decline world-wide from multiple synergies
arising from mass bleaching, ocean acidification, and other environmental impacts. Damage
to shallow reef communities will become extensive with consequent reduction of
biodiversity followed by extinctions. Reefs will cease to be large-scale nursery grounds for
fish and will cease to have most of their current value to humanity. There will be knock-on
effects to ecosystems associated with reefs, and to other pelagic and benthic ecosystems.
This is likely to have been the path of great mass extinctions of the past, adding to the case
that anthropogenic CO2 emissions could trigger the Earth's sixth mass extinction (Veron et
al., 2009).

6. Climate change impacts on inland fisheries - the Indian scenario

In recent years the climate is showing perceptible changes in the Indian subcontinent, where
the average temperature is on the rise over the last few decades. In India, observed changes
include an increase in air temperature, regional monsoon variation, frequent droughts and
regional increase in severe storm incidences in coastal states and Himalayan glacier
recession (Vass et al., 2009). In some states like West Bengal, the average minimum and
maximum temperatures has increased in the range of 0.1 - 0.9 °C throughout the state. The
average rainfall has decreased and monsoon is also delayed; consequently, the climate
change impact is being felt on the temperature of the inland water bodies and on the
breeding behavior of fishes. It is well known that temperature is an important factor which
strongly influence the reproductive cycle in fishes. Temperature, along with rainfall and
photoperiod, stimulate the endocrine glands of fishes which help in the maturation of the
gonads. In India, the inland aquaculture is centered on the Indian major carps, Catla catla,
128 Climate Change and Variability

Labeo rohita and Cirrhinus mrigala and their spawning occurs during the monsoon (June-July)
and extend till September. In recent years the phenomenon of IMC maturing and spawning
as early as March is observed, making it possible to breed them twice a year. Thus, there is
an extended breeding activity as compared to a couple of decades ago (Dey et al., 2007),
which appears to be a positive impact of the climate change regime.

Fig. 1. Course of the River Ganga showing different stretches (http://www.gits4u.com/

water/ganga1.gif)

The mighty river Ganga forms the largest river system in India and not only millions of
people depend on its water but it provides livelihood to a large group of fishermen also. The
entire length of the river, with a span of 2,525 km from source to mouth is divided into three
main stretches consisting of upper (Tehri to Kanauji), middle (Kanpur to Patna) and lower
(Sultanpur to Katwa) (Figure 1). From analysis of 30 years’ time series data on river Ganga
and water bodies in the plains, Vass et al. (2009) reported an increase in annual mean
minimum water temperature in the upper cold-water stretch of the river (Haridwar) by 1.5
°C (from 13 °C during 1970-86 to 14.5 °C during 1987-2003) and by 0.2- 1.6 °C in the
aquaculture farms in the lower stretches in the Gangetic plains. This change in temperature
clime has resulted in a perceptible biogeographically distribution of the Gangetic fish fauna.
A number of fish species which were never reported in the upper stretch of the river and
were predominantly available in the lower and middle stretches in the 1950s (Menon, 1954)
have now been recorded from the upper cold-water region. Among them, Mastocembelus
armatus has been reported to be available at Tehri-Rishikesh and Glossogobius gurius is
available in the Haridwar stretch (Sinha et al., 1998) and Xenentodon cancila has also been
reported in the cold-water stretch (Vass et al., 2009). The predator-prey ratio in the middle
stretch of the river has been reported to be declined from 1:4.2 to 1:1.4 in the last three
decades. Fish production has been shown to have a distinct change in the last two decades
Climate change: impacts on fisheries and aquaculture 129

where the contribution from IMCs has decreased from 41.4% to 8.3% and that from catfishes
and miscellaneous species increased (Vass et al., 2009).

7. Adaptation and mitigation options

Adaptation to climate change is defined in the climate change literature as an adjustment in
ecological, social or economic systems, in response to observed or expected changes in
climatic stimuli and their effects and impacts in order to alleviate adverse impacts of change,
or take advantage of new opportunities. Adaptation is an active set of strategies and actions
taken by peoples in response to, or in anticipation to the change in order to enhance or
maintain their well being. Hence adaptation is a continuous stream of activities, actions,
decisions and attitudes that informs decisions about all aspects of life and that reflects
existing social norms and processes (Daw et al., 2009).
Many capture fisheries and their supporting ecosystems have been poorly managed, and the
economic losses due to overfishing, pollution and habitat loss are estimated to exceed $50
billion per year (World Bank & FAO, 2008). The capacity to adapt to climate change is
determined partly by material resources and also by networks, technologies and appropriate
governance structures. Improved governance, innovative technologies and more responsible
practices can generate increased and sustainable benefits from fisheries.
There is a wide range of potential adaptation options for fisheries. To build resilience to the
effects of climate change and derive sustainable benefits, fisheries and aquaculture
managers need to adopt and adhere to best practices such as those described in the FAO
‘Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries’, reducing overfishing and rebuilding fish
stocks. These practices need to be integrated more effectively with the management of river
basins, watersheds and coastal zones. Fisheries and aquaculture need to be blended into
National Climate Change Adaptation Strategies. In absence of careful planning, aquatic
ecosystems, fisheries and aquaculture can potentially suffer as a result of adaptation
measures applied by other sectors such as increased use of dams and hydro power in
catchments with high rainfall, or the construction of artificial coastal defenses or marine
wind farms (ftp://ftp.fao.org/FI/brochure/climate_change/policy_brief.pdf).
Mitigation solutions reducing the carbon footprint of Fisheries and Aquaculture will require
innovative approaches. One example is the recent inclusion of Mangrove conservation as
eligible for reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in developing
countries, which demonstrates the potential for catchment forest protection. Other
approaches to explore include finding innovative but environmentally safe ways to
sequester carbon in aquatic ecosystems, and developing low-carbon aquaculture production
systems (ftp://ftp.fao.org/FI/brochure/climate_change/policy_brief.pdf).
There is mounting interest in exploiting the importance of herbivorous fishes as a tool to
help ecosystems recover from climate change impacts. Aquaculture of herbivorous species
can provide nutritious food with a small carbon footprint. This approach might be
particularly suitable for recovery of coral reefs, which are acutely threatened by climate
change. Surveys of ten sites inside and outside a Bahamian marine reserve over a 2.5-year
period demonstrated that increases in coral cover, including adjustments for the initial size-
distribution of corals, were significantly higher at reserve sites than those in non-reserve
sites: macroalgal cover was significantly negatively correlated with the change in total coral
cover over time. Reducing herbivore exploitation as part of an ecosystem-based
130 Climate Change and Variability

management strategy for coral reefs appears to be justified (Mumby and Harborne, 2010).
Furthermore, farming of shellfish, such as oysters and mussels, is not only good business,
but also helps clean coastal water, while culturing aquatic plants help to remove waste from
polluted water. In contrast to the potential declines in agricultural yields in many areas of
the world, climate change opens new opportunities for aquaculture as increasing numbers
of species are cultured (ftp://ftp.fao.org/FI/brochure/climate_change/policy_brief.pdf).
Marine fish is one of the most important sources of animal protein for human use, especially
in developing countries with coastlines. Marine fishery is also an important industry in
many countries. The depletion of fishery resources is happening mainly due to
anthropogenic factors such as overfishing, habitat destruction, pollution, invasive species
introduction, and climate change. The most effective ways to reverse this downward trend
and restore fishery resources are to promote fishery conservation, establish marine-
protected areas, adopt ecosystem-based management, and implement a "precautionary
principle." Additionally, enhancing public awareness of marine conservation, which
includes eco-labeling, fishery ban or enclosure, slow fishing, and MPA (marine protected
areas) enforcement is important and effective (Shao, 2009).
The assessment report of the 4th International Panel on Climate Change confirms that global
warming is strongly affecting biological systems and that 20-30% of species risk extinction
from projected future increases in temperature. One of the widespread management
strategies taken to conserve individual species and their constituent populations against
climate-mediated declines has been the release of captive bred animals to wild in order to
augment wild populations for many species. Using a regression model based on a 37-year
study of wild and sea ranched Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) spawning together in the wild,
McGinnity et al. (2009) showed that the escape of captive bred animals into the wild can
substantially depress recruitment and more specifically disrupt the capacity of natural
populations to adapt to higher winter water temperatures associated with climate
variability, thus increasing the risk of extinction for the studied population within 20
generations. According to them, positive outcomes to climate change are possible if captive
bred animals are prevented from breeding in the wild. Rather than imposing an additional
genetic load on wild populations by releasing maladapted captive bred animals, they
propose that conservation efforts should focus on optimizing conditions for adaptation to
occur by reducing exploitation and protecting critical habitats.

8. Monitoring stress in aquatic animals and HSP70 as a possible monitoring

tool
Temperature above the normal optimum are sensed as heat stress by all organisms, Heat
stress (HS) disturbs cellular homeostasis and can lead to severe retardation in growth and
development and even death. Heat shock (stress) proteins (HSP) are a class of functionally
related proteins whose expression is increased when cells are exposed to elevated
temperatures or other stress. The dramatic up regulation of the HSPs is a key part of heat
shock (stress) response (HSR). The accumulation of HSPs under the control of heat shock
(stress) transcription factors (HSFs) play a central role in the heat stress response (HSR) and
acquired thermo tolerance. HSPs are highly conserved and ubiquitous and occur in all
organisms from bacteria to yeast to humans. Cells from virtually all organisms respond to
different stress by rapidly synthesizing the HSPs and therefore, HSPs are widely used as
Climate change: impacts on fisheries and aquaculture 131

biomarkers for stress response (Jolly and Marimoto, 2000). HSPs have multiple
housekeeping functions, such as activation of specific regulatory proteins and folding and
translocation of newly synthesized proteins. HSPs are usually produced in large amounts
(induction) in response to distinct stressors such as ischemia, hypoxia, chemical/toxic insult,
heavy metals, oxidative stress, inflammation and altered temperature or heat shock
(Marimoto, 1998).
Out of different HSPs, the HSP70 is unique in many ways; it acts as molecular chaperone in
both unstressed and stressed cells. HSC70, the constitutive HSP70 is crucial for the
chaperoning functions of unstressed cells, where as the inducible HSP70 is important for
allowing cells to cope with acute stress, especially those affecting the protein machinery.
HSP70 in marine mussels are widely used as a potential biomarker for stress response and
aquatic environmental monitoring of the marine ecosystem (Li et al., 2000).
The success of any organism depends not only on niche adaptation but also the ability to
survive environmental perturbation from homeostasis, a situation generally described as
stress (Clark et al., 2008a). Although species-specific mechanisms to combat stress have been
described, the production of heat shock proteins (HSPs), such as HSP70, is universally
described across all taxa. We have studied expression profile of the HSP70 proteins, in
different tissues of the large riverine catfish Sperata seenghala (Mohanty et al., 2008),
freshwater catfish Rita rita (Mohanty et al., 2010b), Indian catfish Clarias batrachus, Indian
major carps Labeo rohita, Catla catla, Cirrhinus mrigala, exotic carp Cyprinus carpio var.
communis and the murrel Channa striatus, the climbing perch Anabas testudineus (CIFRI, 2009;
Mohanty et al., 2009). Out of these, the IMCs are the major aquaculture species and therefore
are of much economic significance. Similarly, Anabas and Channa fetch good market value
and their demand is increasing owing to their perceived therapeutic value (Mohanty et al.,
2010a). The large riverine catfish S. seenghala comprises the major fisheries in majority of
rivers and reservoirs and the freshwater catfish Rita rita has a good market demand and
these two comprise a major share of the capture fisheries in India.
Monoclonal anti-HSP70 antibody (H5147, Sigma), developed in mouse against purified
bovine brain HSP70, in immunoblotting localizes both the constitutive (HSP73) and
inducible (HSP72) forms of HSP70. The antibody recognizes brain HSP70 of bovine, human,
rat, rabbit, chicken, and guinea pig. We observed immunoreactivity of this antibody with
HSP70 proteins in different organs and tissues of a variety of fish species (Table 3). The
strong immunoreactivity indicates that the HSP70 proteins of bovine and this riverine
catfish Rita rita share strong homology although fish belong to a clade phylogenetically
distant from the bovines. Persistent, high level of expression of HSP70 was observed in
muscle tissues of Rita rita and for this reason, we have used and recommend use of white
muscle tissue of Rita rita as a suitable positive control in analysis of HSP70 expression in
tissues of other organisms (Mohanty et al., 2010b).
Early studies on heat shock response in Antarctic marine ectoderms had led to the
conclusion that both microorganisms and fish lack the classical heat shock response, i.e.
there is no increase in HSP70 expression when warmed (Carratti et al., 1998; Hofmann et al.,
2000). However, later it was reported that other Antarctic animals, show an inducible heat
shock response, at a level probably set during their temperate evolutionary past (Clark et al.,
2008 a, b); the bivalve (clam) Laternula elliptica and gastropod (limpet) Nacella concinna show
an inducible heat shock response at 8 °C and 15 °C, respectively and these are temperatures
in excess of that which is currently experienced by these animals, which can be attributed to
132 Climate Change and Variability

the global warming (Waller et al., 2006). Permanent expression of the inducible HSP70
genes, species-specific high expression of HSC70 (N. concinna) and permanent expression of
GRP78 (N concinna and L. elliptica) indicates that, as for fish, chaperone proteins form an
essential part of the adaptation of the biochemical machinery of these animals to low but
stable temperatures. High constitutive levels of HSP gene family member expression may be
a compensatory mechanism for coping with elevated protein damage at low temperature
analogous to the permanent expression of HSP70 in the Antarctic notothenoids (Clark et al.,
2008 a). Such studies clearly indicate that both genetics and environment play important
role in spatio-temporal gene expression.

Fish species Liver Muscle Kidney Gill

Remarks
Labeo rohita - ++ ++ ++Mohanty et al. 2009
Cirrhinus mrigala ++ - - ++CIFRI 2009;
Mohanty et al. 2009
Cyprinous carpio var communis ++ ++ ++ - -do-
Anabas testudineus ++ - - ++ -do-
Channa punctatus - - ++ -do-
Sperrata seenghala ++ ++ ++ + Mohanty et al. 2008
Rita rita ++ ++ ++ + Mohanty et al. 2010b
Table 3. HSP70 expression profile in different tissues of some freshwater fishes, both
aquacultured and wild stock.

There is need to standardize tools suitable for monitoring stress resulting from global
warming and climate change impacts, in the aquatic animals from both aqua culture and
capture fisheries systems. As HSP70 expression has been reported in many fish species
(Table 3) it might serve as a suitable tool for monitoring impact of thermal stress/global
warming; however, as HSP70 proteins are expressed under other conditions also, it is
necessary to identify the heat shock (stress) transcription factors (HSFs) that can be
specifically attributed to global warming (thermal stress) and climate change. It is also
necessary to distinguish the constitutive and induced forms of the transcripts/proteins by
qPCR/proteomic analysis so that specific HSP70 forms suitable for monitoring performance
of the farmed fishes can be monitored for better management of aquacultured animals.
IPCC have predicted an average global warming between +2 and +6 °C, depending on the
scenarios, within the next 90 years (IPCC 2007). The consequences of this increase in
temperature are now well documented on both the abundance and geographic distribution
of numerous taxa i.e. at population or community levels; in contrast, studies at the cellular
level are still scarce. The study of the physiological or metabolic effects of such small
increases in temperature is difficult because they are below the amplitude of the daily or
seasonal thermal variations occurring in most environments. The underground water
organisms are highly thermally buffered and thus are well suited for characterization of
cellular responses of global warming. Colson-Proch et al. (2010) studied the genes encoding
HSP70 family chaperones in amphipod crustaceans belonging to the ubiquitous sub-
terranean genus Niphargus and HSP 70 sequence in 8 populations of 2 complexes of species
of this genus (Niphargus rhenorhodanensis and Niphargus virei complexes). Expression profiles
of HSP70 were determined for one of these populations by reverse transcription and
quantitative polymerase chain reaction, confirming the inducible nature of this gene. An
Climate change: impacts on fisheries and aquaculture 133

increase of 2 °C seem to be without any effect on N. rhenorhodanensis physiology whereas a

heat shock of + 6 °C represented an important thermal stress for these individuals. Thus this
study showed that although Niphargus individuals do not undergo any daily or seasonal
thermal variations in underground water, they display an inducible HSP70 heat shock
response (Colson-Proch et al., 2010).

9. Epilogue
There are opposing viewpoints on the predicted impacts of ‘global warming’ also. Scientists
warn against overselling climate change. Some experts feel that the data produced by
models used to project weather changes, risk being over-interpreted by governments,
organizations and individuals keen to make plans for a changing climate, with dangerous
results. The point made is that the Global Climate Models (GCMs) help us understand
pieces of the climate system, but that does not mean we can predict the details. Thus,
indications of changes in the earth’s future climate must be treated with the utmost
seriousness and with the precautionary principle uppermost in our minds. Extensive climate
change may alter and threaten the living conditions of much of mankind. They may induce
large-scale migration and lead to greater competition for the earth’s resources. Such changes
will place particularly heavy burdens on the world’s most vulnerable countries. There may
be increased danger of violent conflicts and wars, within and between states. A wide array
of adaptation options is available, but more extensive adaptation than is currently occurring
is required to reduce vulnerability to climate change.
Although the understanding of climate change has advanced significantly during the past
few decades, many questions remain unanswered. The task of mitigating and adapting to
the impacts of climate change will require worldwide collaborative input from a wide range
of experts from various fields. The common man’s contribution will play a major role in
reducing the impacts of climate change and protecting the earth from climate change-related
hazards. The impacts of climate change to freshwater aquaculture in tropical and
subtropical region is difficult to predict as marine and freshwater populations are affected
by synergistic effects of multiple climate and noncelibate stressors. If such noncelibate
factors are identified and understood then it may be possible for local predictions of climate
change impacts to be made with high confidence (De Silva and Soto, 2009).
Coastal communities, fishers and fish farmers are profoundly affected by climate change.
Climate change is modifying the distribution and productivity of marine and freshwater
species and is already affecting biological processes and altering food webs, thus making the
consequences for sustainability of aquatic ecosystems for fisheries and aquaculture, and for
the people dependent on them, uncertain. Fisheries, aquaculture and fish habitats are at risk.
Deltas and estuaries are in the fore front and thus, most vulnerable to climate change.
Mitigation measures are urgently needed to neutralize and alleviate these growing threats,
to adapt to their impacts and also to build our knowledge base on Complex Ocean and
aquatic processes. The prime need is to reduce the global emissions of GHGs, which is the
primary anthropogenic factor responsible for climate change (ProAct Network, 2008).
Healthy aquatic ecosystems contribute greatly to food security and livelihoods. They are
critical for production of wild fish and for some of the seed and much of the feed (trash fish)
for aquaculture. Coastal ecosystems provide food, habitats and nursery grounds for fish.
Estuaries, coral reefs, mangroves and sea grass beds are particularly important. Mangroves
134 Climate Change and Variability

create barriers to destructive waves from storms and hold sediments in place with their
extensive root systems thereby reducing coastal erosion. Healthy coral reefs, sea grass beds
and wetlands provide similar benefits. Thus, these natural systems not only support
fisheries, but help protect communities from the terrible impacts of natural hazards and
disasters also (ProAct Network, 2008). In freshwater systems, ecosystem health and
productivity is linked to water quality and flow and the health of wetlands. Ecosystem-based
approaches to fisheries and coastal zone management are highly beneficial as such approaches
recognize the need for people to use the ecosystem for their food security and livelihoods while
enabling these valuable natural assets to adapt to the effects of climate change, and to reduce the
threats from other environmental stresses (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2007).
Fish and shellfish provide essential nutrition for 3 billion people and about 50% of animal
protein and micronutrients to 400 million people in the poorest countries of the world. Fish
is one of the cheapest sources of animal proteins and play important role in preventing
protein-calorie malnutrition. The health benefits of eating fish are being increasingly
understood by the consumers. Over 500 million people in the developing countries depend
on fisheries and aquaculture for their livelihoods. Aquaculture is the world’s fastest
growing food production system, growing at 7% annually. Fish products are among the
most widely traded foods internationally (ftp://ftp.fao.org/FI/brochure/climate_change/
policy_brief.pdf).
Implementing adaptation and mitigation pathways for communities dependent on fisheries,
aquaculture and aquatic ecosystems will need increased attention from policy-makers and
planners. Sustainable and resilient aquatic ecosystems will benefit the fishers as well as the
coastal communities and will provide good and services at national and global levels.
Fisheries and aquaculture need specific adaptation and mitigation measures like: improving
the management of fisheries and aquaculture as well as the integrity and resilience of
aquatic ecosystems; responding to the opportunities for and threats to food and livelihood
security due to climate change impacts; and helping the fisheries and aquaculture sector
reduce GHG emissions. To conclude, the present generation is already facing the harmful
effects of the climate change; however, the future generations will suffer most of the harmful
effects of global climate change. So, the present generation need to decide, whether to
aggressively reduce the chances of future harm at the cost of sacrificing some luxuries or to
let our descendants largely fend for themselves (Broome, 2008). Thus, how we handle the
issue of Climate Change is more of an ethical question and the global community must act
sensibly and responsibly.

10. References
Barange, M., & Perry, R.I. (2009) Physical and ecological impacts of climate change relevant
to marine and inland capture fisheries and aquaculture In: Climate change
implications for fisheries and aquaculture overview of current scientific Knowledge,
Cochrane, K., Young, C. De, Soto, D., & Bahri, T. (Eds). FAO Fisheries and
Aquaculture Technical paper: No. 530, pp. 7-106, FAO, Rome.
Battin, J., Wiley, M. W., Ruckelshaus, M. H., Palmer, R. N,. Korb, E., Bartz, K. K., & Imaki, H.
(2007) Projected impacts of climate change on salmon habitat restoration, Proc. Natl.
Acad. Sci, USA, 104, 6720-6725.
Climate change: impacts on fisheries and aquaculture 135

Brander, K. M. (2007) Global fish production and climate change, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., USA,
104, 19709-19714.
Broome, J. (2008) The ethics of climate change, Sci. Am., 298, 96-100.
Cairns, M. A., Ebersole, J. L., Baker, J. P., Wigngton, P. J. Jr., Lavigne, H. R., & Davis, S. M. (2005)
Influence of summer stream temperatures on black spot infestation of juvenile coho
salmon in the Oregon Coast Range, Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 134, 1471-1479.
Carrattù, L., Gracey, A. Y, B.uono, S., & Maresca, B. (1998) Do Antarctic fish respond to heat
shock? In: Fishes of Antarctica. A Biological Overview. di Prisco, G., Pisano, E., Clarke,
A. (Eds) Springer, Italy.
Chassot, E., Bonhommeau, S., Dulvy NK, Mélin F, Watson R, Gascuel D, Le Pape O. (2010)
Global marine primary production constrains fisheries catches. Ecol Lett., Feb 5.
[Epub ahead of print]
CIFRI (2009) Annual Report. Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Barrackpore,
Kolkata, India. ISSN 0970 6267.
Clark, M. S., Fraser, K. P. P., & Peck, L. S. (2008a) Antarctic marine molluscs do have an
HSP70 heat shock response, Cell Stress Chaperon., 13, 39-49.
Clark, M. S., Geissler, P., Waller, C., Fraser, K. P. P., Barnes, D. K. A., & Peck, L. S. (2008b)
Low heat shock thresholds in wild Antarctic inter-tidal limpets (Nacella concinna).
Cell Stress Chaperon., 13, 51-58.
Cochrane, K., Young, C. De, Soto, D., & Bahri, T. (2009) Climate change implications for fisheries
and aquaculture: overview of current scientific knowledge. FAO Fisheries and
Aquaculture Technical paper: No. 530,FAO, Rome.
Colson-Proch, C., Morales, A., Hervant, F., Konecny, L., Moulin, C., & Douady, C. J. (2010)
First cellular approach of the effects of global warming on groundwater organisms:
a study of the HSP70 gene expression. Cell Stress Chaperon., 15, 3, 259-270.
Daufresne, M., Lengfellner, K., & Sommer, U. (2009) Global warming benefits the small in
aquatic ecosystems. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA., 106, 31, 12788-12793.
Daw, T., Adger, W. N., Brown, K., & Badjeck, M.-C. (2009) Climate change and capture
fisheries: potential impacts, adaptation and mitigation. In: Climate change
implications for fisheries and aquaculture overview of current scientific Knowledge,
Cochrane, K., Young, C. De, Soto, D., & Bahri, T. (Eds). FAO Fisheries and
Aquaculture Technical paper: No. 530, pp.107-150, FAO, Rome.
De Silva, S. S. and Soto, D. 2009, Climate change and aquaculture: potential impacts,
adaptation and mitigation In: Climate change implications for fisheries and aquaculture
overview of current scientific Knowledge, Cochrane, K., Young, C. De, Soto, D., &
Bahri, T. (Eds). FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical paper: No. 530, pp. 151-
212, FAO, Rome.
Dey, S., Srivastava, P. K., Maji, S., Das, M. K., Mukhopadhyay, M. K., & Saha, P. K. (2007)
Impact of climate change on the breeding of Indian major carps in West Bengal. J.
Inland Fish. Soc. India, 39, 1, 26-34.
Done, T., Whetton, P., Jones, R. et al. (2003) Global climate change and coral bleaching on the
Great Barrier Reef. Final report to the State of Queensland Greenhouse taskforce
through the Department of Natural Resources and Mines, Queensland,.
Esch, G. W., & Hazen, T. C. (1980) Stress and body condition in a population of largemouth
bass: implications for red-sore disease, Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 109, 532-536.
136 Climate Change and Variability

FAO (2005) Increasing the contribution of small-scale fisheries to poverty alleviation and food security.
FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries. No. 10, 79 p., FAO, Rome.
FAO (2007) The state of world fisheries and aquaculture – 2006, 162 p., FAO, Rome.
Granath, W. O. Jr., & Esch, G. W. (1983) Survivorship and parasite- induced host mortality
among mosquio fish in a predator- free, North Carolina cooling reservoir, Am.
Midland Naturalist, 110, 314-323.
Harvell, C. D., Kim, K., Burkholder, J. M., Colwell, R. R., Epstein, P. R., Grimes, D. J., Hofmann, E.
E., Lipp, E. K., & Osterhaus, A. D. Overstreet RM et al. (1999) Emerging marine
diseases- climate links and anthropogenic factors, Science, 285, 1505-1510.
Harvell, C. D., Mitchell, C. E., Ward, J. R., Altizer, S., Dobson, A. P., Ostfeld, R. S & Samuel,
M.D. (2002) Climate warming and disease risks for terrestrial and marine biota,
Science, 296, 5576, 2158-2162.
Hiner, M., & Moffitt, C. M. (2001) Variation in infections of Myxobolus cerebralis in field-
exposed cutthroat and rainbow trout in Idaho, J. aquat. Anim. Hlth, 13, 124-132.
Hoegh-Goldberg, O. et al. (2007) Coral reefs under rapid climate change and ocean
acidification. Science, 318, 1737-1742.
Hofmann, G. E., Buckley, B. A., Airaksine, S., Keen, J. E., & Somero, G. N. (2000) Heat-shock
protein expression is absent in the Antarctic fish Trematomus bernacchii family
Nototheniidae. J Exp Biol., 203, 2331-2339.
IPCC (2007) Fourth Assessment Report - Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report, 2007.
IPCC (2001) Climate Change 2001. IPCC Third Assessment Report, 2001.
Jolly, C., & Marimoto, R. I. (2000) Role of the heat shock response and molecular chaperones
in oncogenesis and cell death, J. Natl Cancer Inst. 92, 1564-1572.
Kocan, R., Hershberger, P., Sanders, G., & Winton, J. (2009) Effects of temperature on disease
progression and swimming stamina in Ichthyophonus-infected rainbow trout,
Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum), J Fish Dis., 32, 10, 835-43.
Lafferty, K. D. (2009) The ecology of climate change and infectious diseases. Ecology, 90, 888-900.
Lafferty, K. D., Porter, J. W & Ford, S. E. (2004) Are diseases increasing in the ocean? Ann.
Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst., 35, 31-54.
Lenton, T. M., Held, H., Kriegler, E., Hall, J. W., Lucht, W., Rahmstorf, S., & Schellnhuber, H.
J. (2008) Tipping elements in the earth’s climate system, Proc Natl Acad Sci, USA,
105, 6, 1786-1793.
Li, C. Y., Lee, J. S., Ko, Y. G., Kim, J. I. & Seo, J. S. (2000) Heat shock protein 70 inhibits
apoptosis downstream of cytochrome c release and upstream of caspase-3
activation. J. Biol. Chem., 275, 25665-25671.
Ling, S. D., Johnson, C. R., Frusher, S. D., & Ridgway, K. R. (2009) Overfishing reduces
resilience of kelp beds to climate-driven catastrophic phase shift, Proc Natl Acad Sci
USA., 106, 52, 22341-22345.
Mantzouni, I., & Mackenzie, B. R. (2010) Productivity responses of a widespread marine
piscivore, Gadus morhua, to oceanic thermal extremes and trends. Proc Biol Sci. Feb
10. [Epub ahead of print].
Marcogliese, D. J. (2008) The impact of climate change on the parasites and infectious
diseases of aquatic animals, Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 27, 2, 467-484.
Marimoto, R.J. (1998) Regulation of the heat shock transcriptional response: cross talk
between a family of heat shock factors, molecular chaperones and negative
regulators. Genes Dev., 12, 3788-3796.
Climate change: impacts on fisheries and aquaculture 137

McGinnity, P., Jennings, E., DeEyto, E., Allott, N., Samuelsson, P., Rogan, G., Whelan, K., &
Cross, T. (2009) Impact of naturally spawning captive-bred Atlantic salmon on wild
populations: depressed recruitment and increased risk of climate-mediated
extinction, Proc Biol Sci. 276, 1673, 3601-3610.
Menon, A. G. K. (1954) Fish geography of the Himalayas. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.
11, 4, 467-493.
Mohanty, B. P., Mondal, K., Bhattacharjee, S., & Vass, K. K. (2008) HSP 70 expression profile
in tissues of the large riverine catfish Aorichthys seenghala (Sykes). P-GNB-58, p.153.
8th Indian Fisheries Forum 22-26 Nov 2008, Kolkata, India; jointly organized by
CIFRI, Inland Fisheries Society of India and Indian Fisheries Forum. ISBN-81-
85482-14-4.
Mohanty, B. P., Bhattacharjee, S, Mondal, K., & Das, M. K. (2009) HSP 70 expression in
different tissues of some important tropical freshwater fishes. 96th Indian Science
Congress, 3-7 January 2009, organized by NEHU, Shillong, India.
Mohanty, S., & Mohanty, B. P. (2009) Global climate change: a cause of concern, Natl Acad
Sci Lett, 32, 5 & 6, 149-156.
Mohanty, B. P., Behera, B. K., & Sharma, A. P. (2010a) Nutritional significance of small
indigenous fishes in human health. Bulletin No. 162, Central Inland Fisheries
Research Institute, Barrackpore, Kolkata, India. ISSN 0970-616X.
Mohanty, B. P., Bhattacharjee, S., Mondal, K., & Das, M. K. (2010b) HSP70 expression
profiles in white muscles of riverine catfish Rita rita show promise as biomarker for
pollution monitoring in tropical rivers. Natl Acad Sci Lett., 33, 5 & 6, 177-182.
Mumby, P. J., & Harborne, A. R. (2010) Marine reserves enhance the recovery of corals on
Caribbean reefs, PLoS One 5, 1, e8657.
National Climate Data Centre, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Global
warming: frequently asked questions. Available at: www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/
climate/globalwarming.html. Accessed December 9, 2008.
Nicholls, R. J., Wong, P. P., Burkett, V. R., Codignotto, J. O., Hay, J. E., McLean, R. F.,
Ragoonaden, S., & Woodroffe, C. D. (2007) Coastal systems and low-lying areas. In:
Climate Change 2007: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability, Parry, M. L., Canziani, O.
F., Palutikof, J. P., Linden, V. D. & Hanson, C. E., (Eds.), pp. 315-356. Contribution
of working group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Orr, J. C., Fabry, V. J., Aumont, O., Bopp, L., Doney, S. C., Feely, R. A., Gnanadesikan, A.,
Gruber, N., Ishida, A., Joos, F., Key, R. M., Lindsay, K., Maier-Reimer, E., Matear,
R., Monfray, P., Mouchet, A., Najjar, R. G., Plattner, G-K, Rodgers, K. B., Sabine, C.
L., Sarmiento, J. L., Schlitzer, R., slater, R. D., Totterdell, I. J., Weirig, M-F.,
Yamanaka, Y., & Yool, A. (2005) Anthropogenic ocean acidification over the
twenty-first century and its impact on calcifying organisms. Nature, 437, 681-686.
ProAct Network (2008) The role of environmental management and eco-engineering in
disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation.
Prowse, T. D., Furgal, C., Wrona, F. J., & Reist, J. D. (2009) Implications of climate change for
northern Canada: freshwater, marine, and terrestrial ecosystems, Ambio, 38, 5, 282-289.
Regional Framework for action to protect human health from effects of climate change in the
South East Asia and Pacific Region. 2007. Available at http://www.searo.who.int/
en/Section260/Section2468_14335.htm. Accessed December 9, 2008.
138 Climate Change and Variability

Scott, M. A., Locke, M., & Buck, L. T (2003) Tissue- specific expression of inducible and
constitutive Hsp70 isoforms in the western painted turtle, J Exptl. Biol., 206, 303-311.
Shao, K. T. (2009) Marine biodiversity and fishery sustainability. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr., 18, 4,
527-531.
Shea, K. M., & the Committee on Environmental Health. (2007) Global Climate Change and
children’s health. Pediatrics, 120, e1359-e1367.
Sinha, M., De, D. K., & Jha, B. C. (1998) The Ganga- Environment and Fishery. Central Inland
Fisheries Research Institute, Barrackpore, Kolkata, India.
Tester, P. A., Feldman, R. L., Nau, A. W., Kibler, S. R., & Wayne Litaker, R. (2010) Ciguatera
fish poisoning and sea surface temperatures in the Caribbean Sea and the West
Indies. Toxicon. Mar 3. [Epub ahead of print]
Thorpe, A., Reid, C., Anrooy, R. V., Brugere, C., & Becker, D. (2006) Poverty reduction
strategy papers and the fisheries sector: an opportunity forgone?, J Intl.
Dev., 18, 4, 487-517.
Tops, S., Hartikainen, H. L., & Okamura, B. (2009) The effects of infection by Tetracapsuloides
bryosalmonae (Myxozoa) and temperature on Fredericella sultana (Bryozoa). Int J
Parasitol., 39, 9, 1003-1010.
Understanding and responding to Climate Change. 2008 Edn. pp. 1-24. The National
Academies, USA (http://www.national-academies.org)
Vass, K. K., Das, M. K., Srivastava, P. K. & Dey, S. (2009) Assessing the impact of climate
change on inland fisheries in River Ganga and its plains in India. Aqu Ecosys Health
& Management., 12, 2, 138-151.
Veron, J. E., Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Lenton, T. M., Lough, J. M., Obura, D. O., Pearce-Kelly, P.,
Sheppard, C. R., Spalding, M., Stafford-Smith, M. G., & Rogers, A. D. (2009) The
coral reef crisis: the critical importance of<350 ppm CO2. Mar Pollut Bull., 58, 10,
1428-1436.
Waller, C., Barnes, D. K. A., & Convey, P. (2006) Ecological contrasts across an Atlantic land-
sea interface, Austral Ecol, 31, 656-666.
Walther, G. R., Roques, A., Hulme, P. E., Sykes, M. T., Pysek, P., Kühn, I., Zobel, M., Bacher,
S., Botta-Dukát, Z., Bugmann, H., Czúcz, B., Dauber, J., Hickler, T., Jarosík, V.,
Kenis, M., Klotz, S., Minchin, D., Moora, M., Nentwig, W., Ott, J., Panov, V. E.,
Reineking, B., Robinet, C., Semenchenko, V., Solarz, W., Thuiller, W., Vilà, M.,
Vohland, K., & Settele, J. (2009) Alien species in a warmer world: risks and
opportunities. Trends Ecol Evol., 24, 12, 686-693.
WMO World Data Centre for Greenhouse Gases. Greenhouse gas bulletin: the state of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere using global observations up to December
2004. Vol.1, March 14, 2006.
World Bank & FAO (2008) The sunken billions: the economic justification for fisheries
reform. Agriculture and Rural Development Dept. The World Bank: Washington
DC. www.worldbank.org.sunkenbillions