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General Psychology
Subject: GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY Credits: 4

SYLLABUS

A definition of Psychology

Practical problems, Methods of Psychology, Work of Psychologists, Schools of psychology, Attention &
Perception - Conscious clarity, determinants of Attention, Distraction, Sensory deprivation, Perceptual
constancies, perception of fundamental physical dimensions, Illusions, Organizational factors of perception.

Principles of learning

Classical conditioning, Operant Conditioning, Principles of reinforcement, Cognitive Learning, Individualized

learning, Learner & learning memory - kinds of memory, processes of memory, stages of memory, forgetting.
Thinking and language - Thinking process, Concepts.

Intelligence & Motivation

Theories - Measurement of Intelligence; Determinants; Testing for special aptitudes, Motivation - Motives as
inferences, Explanations and predictors, Biological motivation, Social motives, Motives to know and to be
effective.

Emotions

Physiology of emotion, Expression of emotions, Theories of emotions; Frustration and conflict, Personality -
Determinants of Personality, Theories of personality Psychodynamic, Trait, Type, Learning, Behavioural &
Self: Measurement of personality

Suggested Readings:

1. Morgan, Clifford. T., King, Richard. A., Weisz, John.R., Schopler, John, Introduction to Psychology,
TataMcGraw Hill.
2. Marx, Melvin H. Introduction to psychology - Problems, Procedures & Principles, MacMillan Publishing
Co.
3. Rathus, Spencer A. Essentials of Psychology.
4. Kalat, James W. Introduction to psychology, 4th edition, Brooks / Cole Publishing Co.
 A DEFINITION OF PSYCHOLOGY

STRUCTURE
Learning objectives
Psychology
History
Subfields
Methods of psychology
Criticism
Work of psychologists
Schools of psychology
Attention and perception—conscious clarity
Determinants of attention
Distraction sensory deprivation
Perceptual development
Characteristics of perceptual developments
Theories of perceptual development
Perceptual constancies
Perception of fundamental physical dimensions
Organizational factors of perception
Review questions

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Understand the meaning of psychology;
Explain the subfields of Psychology;
Explain the methods of psychology;
Understand the attention and perception;
Understand the perceptual development;
Understand the theories of perceptual development; and
Understand the organizational factors of perception.

PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology is an academic and applied discipline that involves the
scientific study of mental functions and behaviors. Psychology has the
immediate goal of understanding individuals and groups through both
establishing general principles and researching specific cases, and through
several accounts it ultimately aims to benefit society. In this field, a
professional practitioner or researcher is described a psychologist and can be
classified as a social, behavioral, or cognitive scientist.
Psychologists explore concepts such as perception, cognition, attention,
emotion, phenomenology, motivation, brain functioning, personality,
behavior, and interpersonal relationships. Psychologists of diverse stripes also
consider the unconscious mind. Psychologists employ empirical methods to
infer causal and correlational relationships flanked by psychosocial variables.
In addition, or in opposition, to employing empirical and deductive methods,
some—especially clinical and counseling psychologists—at times rely upon
symbolic interpretation and other inductive techniques. Psychology has been
described as a "hub science", with psychological findings linking to research
and perspectives from the social sciences, natural sciences, medicine, and the
humanities, such as philosophy.
While psychological knowledge is often applied to the assessment and
treatment of mental health problems, it is also directed towards understanding
and solving problems in several different spheres of human activity. The
majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role,
practicing in clinical, counseling, or school settings. Several do scientific
research on a wide range of topics related to mental processes and behavior,
and typically work in university psychology departments or teach in other
academic settings (e.g., medical schools, hospitals). Some are employed in
industrial and organizational settings, or in other areas such as human
development and aging, sports, health, and the media, as well as in forensic
investigation and other characteristics of law.

HISTORY
The study of psychology in a philosophical context dates back to the
ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, and Persia. As early as the
4th century BC, Greek physician Hippocrates theorized that mental disorders
were of a physical, rather than divine, nature.

Structuralism

German physician Wilhelm Wundt is credited with introducing

psychological detection into a laboratory setting. Recognized as the "father of
experimental psychology", he founded the first psychological laboratory, at
Leipzig University, in 1879. Wundt focused on breaking down mental
processes into the most basic components, motivated in part through an
analogy to recent advances in chemistry, and its successful investigation of the
elements and structure of material. Although Wundt, himself, was not a
structuralist, his student Edward Titchener, a major figure in early American
psychology, was a structuralist thinker opposed to functionalist approaches.

Functionalism

Functionalism formed as a reaction to the theories of the structuralist

school of thought and was heavily influenced through the work of the
American philosopher, scientist, and psychologist William James. James felt
that psychology should have practical value, and that psychologists should
find out how the mind can function to a person's benefit. In his book,
Principles of Psychology, published in 1890, he laid the foundations for
several of the questions that psychologists would explore for years to come.
Other major functionalist thinkers incorporated John Dewey and Harvey Carr.
Other 19th-century contributors to the field contain the German
psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus, a pioneer in the experimental study of
memory, who urbanized quantitative models of learning and forgetting at the
University of Berlin, and the Russian-Soviet physiologist Ivan Pavlov, who
exposed in dogs a learning process that was later termed "classical
conditioning" and applied to human beings.
Starting in the 1950s, the experimental techniques urbanized through
Wundt, James, Ebbinghaus, and others re-appeared as experimental
psychology became increasingly cognitivist—concerned with information and
its processing—and, eventually, constituted a part of the wider cognitive
science. In its early years, this development was seen as a "revolution," as
cognitive science both responded to and reacted against then-popular theories,
including psychoanalytic and behaviorist theories.

Psychoanalysis

From the 1890s until his death in 1939, the Austrian physician Sigmund
Freud urbanized psychoanalysis, which comprised a method of investigating
the mind and interpreting experience; a systematized set of theories in relation
to the human behavior; and a form of psychotherapy to treat psychological or
emotional distress, especially unconscious conflict. Freud's psychoanalytic
theory was largely based on interpretive methods, introspection, and clinical
observations. It became very well recognized, largely because it tackled
subjects such as sexuality, repression, and the unconscious mind as general
characteristics of psychological development. These were largely measured
taboo subjects at the time, and Freud provided a catalyst for them to be openly
discussed in polite society. Clinically, Freud helped to pioneer the method of
free association and a therapeutic interest in dream interpretation. Freud had
an important influence on Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung, whose analytical
psychology became an alternative form of depth psychology. Other well-
recognized psychoanalytic scholars of the mid-20th century incorporated
psychoanalysts, psychologists, psychiatrists, and philosophers. Among these
thinkers were Erik Erikson, Melanie Klein, D.W. Winnicott, Karen Horney,
Erich Fromm, John Bowlby, and Sigmund Freud's daughter, Anna Freud.
Throughout the 20th century, psychoanalysis evolved into diverse schools of
thought, most of which may be classed as Neo-Freudian.
Psychoanalytic theory and therapy were criticized through psychologists
such as Hans Eysenck, and through philosophers including Karl Popper.
Popper, a philosopher of science, argued that psychoanalysis had been
misrepresented as a scientific discipline, whereas Eysenck said that
psychoanalytic tenets had been contradicted through experimental data.
Meanwhile, though, researchers in the emerging field of neuro-psychoanalysis
defended some of Freud's ideas on scientific grounds, while scholars of the
humanities maintained that Freud was not a "scientist at all, but ... an
interpreter."

Behaviorism

In the United States, behaviorism became the dominant school of thought

throughout the 1950s. Behaviorism is a discipline that was established in the
early 20th century through John B. Watson, and embraced and extended
through Edward Thorndike, Clark L. Hull, Edward C. Tolman, and later B.F.
Skinner. Theories of learning accentuated the methods in which people might
be predisposed, or conditioned, through their environments to behave in
certain methods.
Classical conditioning was an early behaviorist model. It posited that
behavioral tendencies are determined through immediate associations flanked
by several environmental stimuli and the degree of pleasure or pain that
follows. Behavioral patterns, then, were understood to consist of organisms'
conditioned responses to the stimuli in their environment. The stimuli were
held to exert influence in proportion to their prior repetition or to the previous
intensity of their associated pain or pleasure. Much research consisted of
laboratory-based animal experimentation, which was increasing in popularity
as physiology grew more sophisticated.
Skinner's behaviorism shared with its precursors a philosophical
inclination toward positivism and determinism. He whispered that the contents
of the mind were not open to scientific scrutiny and that scientific psychology
should emphasize the study of observable behavior. He focused on behavior–
environment relations and analyzed overt and covert (i.e., private) behavior as
a function of the organism interacting with its environment. Behaviorists
usually rejected or deemphasized dualistic explanations such as "mind" or
"consciousness"; and, in lieu of probing an "unconscious mind" that underlies
unawareness, they spoke of the "contingency-shaped behaviors" in which
unawareness becomes outwardly manifest.
Notable incidents in the history of behaviorism are John B. Watson's Little
Albert experiment which applied classical conditioning to the developing
human child, and the clarification of the difference flanked by classical
conditioning and operant (or instrumental) conditioning, first through Miller
and Kanorski and then through Skinner. Skinner's version of behaviorism
accentuated operant conditioning, through which behaviors are strengthened
or weakened through their consequences.
Linguist Noam Chomsky's critique of the behaviorist model of language
acquisition is widely regarded as a key factor in the decline of behaviorism's
prominence. Martin Seligman and colleagues exposed that the conditioning of
dogs led to outcomes ("learned helplessness") that opposed the predictions of
behaviorism. But Skinner's behaviorism did not die, perhaps in part because it
generated successful practical applications. The fall of behaviorism as an
overarching model in psychology, though, gave method to a new dominant
paradigm: cognitive approaches.

Humanistic

Humanistic psychology was urbanized in the 1950s in reaction to both

behaviorism and psychoanalysis. Through using phenomenology, inter-
subjectivity and first-person categories, the humanistic approach sought to
glimpse the whole person—not just the fragmented parts of the personality or
cognitive functioning. Humanism focused on fundamentally and uniquely
human issues, such as individual free will, personal growth, self-actualization,
self-identity, death, aloneness, freedom, and meaning. The humanistic
approach was distinguished through its emphasis on subjective meaning,
rejection of determinism, and concern for positive growth rather than
pathology. Some of the founders of the humanistic school of thought were
American psychologists Abraham Maslow, who formulated a hierarchy of
human needs, and Carl Rogers, who created and urbanized client-centered
therapy. Later, positive psychology opened up humanistic themes to scientific
manners of exploration.

Gestalt

Wolfgang Kohler, Max Wertheimer and Kurt Koffka co-founded the

school of Gestalt psychology. This approach is based upon the thought that
individuals experience things as unified wholes. This approach to psychology
began in Germany and Austria throughout the late 19th century in response to
the molecular approach of structuralism. Rather than breaking down thoughts
and behavior to their smallest element, the Gestalt position maintains that the
whole of experience is significant, and the whole is different than the sum of
its parts. Gestalt psychology should not be confused with the Gestalt therapy
of Fritz Perls, which is only peripherally connected to Gestalt psychology.
Existentialism

In the 1950s and 1960s, largely influenced through the work of German
philosopher Martin Heidegger and Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard,
psychoanalytically trained American psychologist Rollo May pioneered an
existential branch of psychology, which incorporated existential
psychotherapy, a method of therapy that operates on the belief that inner
conflict within a person is due to that individual's confrontation with the
givens of subsistence.
Existential psychologists differed from others often classified as
humanistic in their comparatively neutral view of human nature and in their
relatively positive assessment of anxiety. Existential psychologists accentuated
the humanistic themes of death, free will, and meaning, suggesting that
meaning can be shaped through myths, or narrative patterns, and that it can be
encouraged through an acceptance of the free will requisite to an authentic,
albeit often anxious, regard for death and other future prospects.
Austrian existential psychiatrist and Holocaust survivor Viktor Frankl
drew proof of meaning's therapeutic power from reflections garnered from his
own internment, and he created a difference of existential psychotherapy
described logo therapy, a type of existentialist analysis that focuses on a will to
meaning (in one's life), as opposed to Adler's Nietzschean doctrine of will to
power or Freud's will to pleasure.
In addition to May and Frankl, Swiss psychoanalyst Ludwig Binswanger
and American psychologist George Kelly may be said to belong to the
existential school.

Cognitivism

Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that studies mental

processes including problem solving, perception, memory, and learning. As
part of the superior field of cognitive science, this branch of psychology is
related to other disciplines including neuroscience, philosophy, and linguistics.
Noam Chomsky helped to launch a "cognitive revolution" in psychology
when he criticized the behaviorists' notions of "incentive", "response", and
"reinforcement". Chomsky argued that such ideas—which Skinner had
borrowed from animal experiments in the laboratory—could be applied to
intricate human behavior, most notably language acquisition, in only a
superficial and vague manner. The postulation that humans are born with the
instinct or "innate facility" for acquiring language posed a challenge to the
behaviorist position that all behavior, including language, is contingent upon
learning and reinforcement. Social learning theorists, such as Albert Bandura,
argued that the child's environment could create contributions of its own to the
behaviors of an observant subject.
Meanwhile, accumulating technology helped to renew interest and belief
in the mental states and representations—i.e., the cognition—that had fallen
out of favor with behaviorists. English neuroscientist Charles Sherrington and
Canadian psychologist Donald O. Hebb used experimental methods to link
psychological phenomena with the structure and function of the brain. With
the rise of computer science and artificial intelligence, analogies were drawn
flanked by the processing of information through humans and information
processing through machines. Research in cognition had proven practical since
World War II, when it aided in the understanding of weapons operation.
Through the late 20th century, though, cognitivism had become the dominant
paradigm of psychology, and cognitive psychology appeared as a popular
branch.
Assuming both that the covert mind should be studied, and that the
scientific method should be used to study it, cognitive psychologists set such
concepts as subliminal processing and implicit memory in place of the
psychoanalytic unconscious mind or the behavioristic contingency-shaped
behaviors. Elements of behaviorism and cognitive psychology were
synthesized to form the basis of cognitive behavioral therapy, a form of
psychotherapy customized from techniques urbanized through American
psychologist Albert Ellis and American psychiatrist Aaron T. Beck. Cognitive
psychology was subsumed beside with other disciplines, such as philosophy of
mind, computer science, and neuroscience, under the cover discipline of
cognitive science.

SUBFIELDS
Psychology encompasses a vast domain and comprises several different
approaches to the study of mental processes and behavior.

Biological

Biological psychology or behavioral neuroscience is the study of the

biological substrates of behavior and mental processes. There are different
specialties within behavioral neuroscience. For instance, physiological
psychologists use animal models, typically rats, to study the neural, genetic,
and cellular mechanisms that underlie specific behaviors such as learning and
memory and fear responses. Cognitive neuroscientists investigate the neural
correlates of psychological processes in humans using neural imaging tools,
and neuro-psychologists conduct psychological assessments to determine, for
instance, specific characteristics and extent of cognitive deficit caused through
brain damage or disease.

Clinical

Clinical psychology comprises the study and application of psychology for

the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically based
distress or dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal
development. Central to its practice are psychological assessment and
psychotherapy, although clinical psychologists may also engage in research,
teaching, consultation, forensic testimony, and program development and
administration. Some clinical psychologists may focus on the clinical
management of patients with brain injury—this area is recognized as clinical
neuro-psychology. In several countries, clinical psychology is a regulated
mental health profession.
The work performed through clinical psychologists tends to be influenced
through several therapeutic approaches, all of which involve a formal
relationship flanked by professional and client (usually an individual, couple,
family, or small group). The several therapeutic approaches and practices are
associated with different theoretical perspectives and employ different
procedures planned to form a therapeutic alliance, explore the nature of
psychological problems, and encourage new methods of thinking, feeling, or
behaving. Four major theoretical perspectives are psychodynamic, cognitive
behavioral, existential–humanistic, and systems or family therapy. There has
been a rising movement to integrate the several therapeutic approaches,
especially with an increased understanding of issues concerning culture,
gender, spirituality, and sexual orientation. With the advent of more robust
research findings concerning psychotherapy, there is proof that most of the
major therapies are in relation to equal effectiveness, with the key common
element being a strong therapeutic alliance. Because of this, more training
programs and psychologists are now adopting an eclectic therapeutic
orientation.

Cognitive

Cognitive psychology studies cognition, the mental processes underlying

mental activity. Perception, attention, reasoning, thinking, problem solving,
memory, learning, language, and emotion are areas of research. Classical
cognitive psychology is associated with a school of thought recognized as
cognitivism, whose adherents argue for an information processing model of
mental function, informed through functionalism and experimental
psychology.
On a broader level, cognitive science is an interdisciplinary enterprise of
cognitive psychologists, cognitive neuroscientists, researchers in artificial
intelligence, linguists, human–computer interaction, computational
neuroscience, logicians and social scientists. Computational models are
sometimes used to simulate phenomena of interest. Computational models
give a tool for studying the functional organization of the mind whereas
neuroscience gives measures of brain activity.
Comparative

Comparative psychology refers to the scientific study of the behavior and

mental processes of non-human animals, especially as these relate to the
phylogenetic history, adaptive significance, and development of behavior.
Research in this area addresses several different issues, uses several different
methods, and explores the behavior of several different species, from insects
to primates. It is closely related to other disciplines that study animal behavior
such as ethology. Research in comparative psychology sometimes appears to
shed light on human behavior, but some attempts to connect the two have been
quite controversial, for instance the Sociobiology of E. O. Wilson. Animal
models are often used to study neural processes related to human behavior,
e.g. in cognitive neuroscience.

Developmental

Mainly focusing on the development of the human mind through the life
span, developmental psychology seeks to understand how people come to
perceive, understand, and act within the world and how these processes
change as they age. This may focus on cognitive, affective, moral, social, or
neural development. Researchers who study children use a number of unique
research methods to create observations in natural settings or to engage them
in experimental tasks. Such tasks often resemble specially intended games and
activities that are both enjoyable for the child and scientifically useful, and
researchers have even devised clever methods to study the mental processes of
infants. In addition to studying children, developmental psychologists also
study aging and processes throughout the life span, especially at other times of
rapid change (such as adolescence and old age). Developmental psychologists
draw on the full range of psychological theories to inform their research.

Educational and school

Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational

settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of
teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. The work of
child psychologists such as Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget, Bernard Luskin, and
Jerome Bruner has been influential in creating teaching methods and
educational practices. Educational psychology is often incorporated in teacher
education programs in places such as North America, Australia, and New
Zealand.
School psychology combines principles from educational psychology and
clinical psychology to understand and treat students with learning disabilities;
to foster the intellectual growth of gifted students; to facilitate prosocial
behaviors in adolescents; and otherwise to promote safe, supportive, and
effective learning environments. School psychologists are trained in
educational and behavioral assessment, intervention, prevention, and
consultation, and several have extensive training in research.

Evolutionary

Evolutionary psychology examines psychological traits—such as memory,

perception, or language—from a modern evolutionary perspective. It seeks to
identify which human psychological traits are evolved adaptations, that is, the
functional products of natural selection or sexual selection. Evolutionary
psychologists suggest that psychological adaptations evolved to solve
recurrent problems in human ancestral environments. Through focusing on the
evolution of psychological traits and their adaptive functions, it offers
complementary explanations for the mostly proximate or developmental
explanations urbanized through other areas of psychology (that is, it focuses
mostly on ultimate or "why?" questions, rather than proximate or "how?"
questions).

Industrial–organizational

Industrial and organizational psychology (I–O) applies psychological

concepts and methods to optimize human potential in the workplace.
Personnel psychology, a subfield of I–O psychology, applies the methods and
principles of psychology in selecting and evaluating workers. I–O
psychology's other subfield, organizational psychology, examines the effects
of work environments and management styles on worker motivation, job
satisfaction, and productivity.

Personality

Personality psychology is concerned with enduring patterns of behavior,

thought, and emotion—commonly referred to as personality—in individuals.
Theories of personality vary crossways different psychological schools and
orientations. They carry different assumptions in relation to the issues as the
role of the unconscious and the importance of childhood experience.
According to Freud, personality is based on the dynamic interactions of the id,
ego, and super-ego. The number of proposed traits has varied widely. An early
model, proposed through Hans Eysenck, suggested that there are three traits
which comprise human personality: extraversion–introversion, neuroticism,
and psychoticism. Raymond Cattell proposed a theory of 16 personality
factors. Dimensional models of personality are getting increasing support, and
some version of dimensional assessment will be incorporated in the
forthcoming DSM-V.

Social

Social psychology is the study of how humans think in relation to the each
other and how they relate to each other. Social psychologists study such topics
as the influence of others on an individual's behavior (e.g. conventionality,
persuasion), and the formation of beliefs, attitudes, and stereotypes in relation
to the other people. Social cognition fuses elements of social and cognitive
psychology in order to understand how people process, keeps in mind, or
distort social information. The study of group dynamics reveals information in
relation to the nature and potential optimization of leadership, communication,
and other phenomena that emerge at least at the micro social level. In recent
years, several social psychologists have become increasingly interested in
implicit measures, mediational models, and the interaction of both person and
social variables in accounting for behavior. The study of human society is so a
potentially valuable source of information in relation to the causes of
psychiatric disorder. Some of the sociological concepts applied to psychiatric
disorders are the social role, sick role, social class, life event, culture,
migration, social, and total institution.

Positive

Positive psychology derives from Maslow's humanistic psychology.

Positive psychology is a discipline that utilizes proof -based scientific methods
to study factors that contribute to human happiness and strength. Different
from clinical psychology, positive psychology is concerned with improving
the mental well-being of healthy clients. Positive psychological interventions
now have received tentative support for their beneficial effects on clients. In
2010 Clinical Psychological Review published a special issue devoted to
positive psychological interventions, such as gratitude journaling and the
physical expression of gratitude. There is, though, a need for further research
on the effects of interventions. Positive psychological interventions have been
limited in scope, but their effects are thought to be superior to that of placebos,
especially with regard to helping people with body image problems.
METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology tends to be eclectic, drawing on knowledge from other fields
to help explain and understand psychological phenomena. Additionally,
psychologists create extensive use of the three manners of inference that were
recognized through C. S. Peirce: deduction, induction, and abduction
(hypothesis generation). While often employing deductive–nomological
reasoning, they also rely on inductive reasoning to generate explanations.
Psychologists may conduct basic research aiming for further understanding
in a scrupulous area of interest in psychology, or conduct applied research to
solve problems in the clinic, workplace or other areas. Masters level clinical
programs aim to train students in both research methods and proof -based
practice. Professional associations have established guidelines for ethics,
training, research methodology and professional practice. In addition,
depending on the country, state or region, psychological services and the title
"psychologist" may be governed through statute and psychologists who offer
services to the public are usually required to be licensed.

Qualitative and quantitative research

Research in most areas of psychology is mannered in accord with the

standards of the scientific method. Psychological researchers seek the
emergence of theoretically motivating categories and hypotheses from data,
using qualitative or quantitative methods (or both).
Qualitative psychological research methods contain interviews, first-hand
observation, and participant observation. Creswell (2003) identifies five main
possibilities for qualitative research, including narrative, phenomenology,
ethnography, case study, and grounded theory. Qualitative researchers
sometimes aim to enrich interpretations or critiques of symbols, subjective
experiences, or social structures. Similar hermeneutic and critical aims have
also been served through "quantitative methods", as in Erich Fromm's study of
Nazi voting or Stanley Milgram's studies of obedience to authority.
Quantitative psychological research lends itself to the statistical testing of
hypotheses. Quantitatively oriented research designs contain the experiment,
quasi-experiment, cross-sectional study, case-control study, and longitudinal
study. The measurement and operationalization of significant constructs is an
essential part of these research designs. Statistical methods contain the
Pearson product–moment correlation coefficient, the analysis of variance,
multiple linear regression, logistic regression, structural equation modeling,
and hierarchical linear modeling.

Controlled experiments

Experimental psychological research is mannered in a laboratory under

controlled circumstances. This method of research relies on the application of
the scientific method to understand behavior. Experimenters use many types
of measurements, including rate of response, reaction time, and several
psychometric measurements. Experiments are intended to test specific
hypotheses (deductive approach) or evaluate functional relationships
(inductive approach). A true experiment with random allocation of subjects to
circumstances allows researchers to infer causal relationships flanked by
different characteristics of behavior and the environment. In an experiment,
one or more variables of interest are controlled through the experimenter
(independent variable) and another variable is measured in response to
different circumstances (dependent variable). Experiments are one of the
primary research methods in several areas of psychology, particularly
cognitive/psychonomics, mathematical psychology, psychophysiology and
biological psychology/cognitive neuroscience.
Experiments on humans have been put under some controls, namely
informed and voluntary consent. After World War II, the Nuremberg Code
was established because of Nazi abuses of experimental subjects. Later, most
countries (and scientific journals) adopted the Declaration of Helsinki. In the
U.S., the National Institutes of Health established the Institutional Review
Board in 1966 and in 1974 adopted the National Research Act (HR 7724). All
of these measures encouraged researchers to obtain informed consent from
human participants in experimental studies. A number of influential studies
led to the establishment of this rule; such studies incorporated the MIT and
Fernald School radioisotope studies, the Thalidomide tragedy, the
Willowbrook hepatitis study, and Stanley Milgram's studies of obedience to
authority.

Survey questionnaires

Statistical surveys are used in psychology for measuring attitudes and

traits, monitoring changes in mood, checking the validity of experimental
manipulations, and for a wide diversity of other psychological topics. Most
commonly, psychologists use paper-and-pencil surveys. Though, surveys are
also mannered over the phone or through e-mail. Increasingly, web-based
surveys are being used in research for its convenience and also to get a wide
range of participants. Similar methodology is also used in applied setting, such
as clinical assessment and personnel assessment.

Longitudinal studies

Longitudinal studies are often used in psychology to study developmental

trends crossways the life span, and in sociology to study life events throughout
lifetimes or generations. The cause for this is that unlike cross-sectional
studies, longitudinal studies track the same people, and so the differences
observed in those people are less likely to be the result of cultural differences
crossways generations. Because of this benefit, longitudinal studies create
observing changes more accurate and they are applied in several other fields.
Because most longitudinal studies are observational, in the sense that they
observe the state of the world without manipulating it, it has been argued that
they may have less power to detect causal relationships than do experiments.
They also suffer methodological limitations such as from selective attrition
because people with similar characteristics may be more likely to drop out of
the study making it hard to analyze.
 Some longitudinal studies are experiments, described repeated-measures
experiments. Psychologists often use the crossover design to reduce the
influence of confounding covariates and to reduce the number of subjects.

Observation in natural settings

Just as Jane Goodall studied chimpanzee social and family life through
careful observation of chimpanzee behavior in the field, psychologists conduct
observational studies of ongoing human social, professional, and family life.
Sometimes the participants are aware they are being observed, and other times
the participants do not know they are being observed. Strict ethical guidelines
necessity is followed when covert observation is being accepted out.

Qualitative and descriptive research

Research intended to answer questions in relation to the current state of

affairs such as the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of individuals is
recognized as descriptive research. Descriptive research can be qualitative or
quantitative in orientation. Qualitative research is descriptive research that is
focused on observing and describing events as they occur, with the goal of
capturing all of the richness of everyday behavior and with the hope of
discovering and understanding phenomena that might have been missed if
only more cursory examinations have been made.

Neuropsychological methods

Neuropsychological research methods are employed in studies that

examine the relation of mental activity and behavior to the structure and
function of the brain. These methods contain testing (e.g., the several
Wechsler scales, Wisconsin Card Sorting Test), functional neuroimaging, and
transcranial magnetic stimulation.

Computational modeling

Computational modeling is a tool often used in mathematical psychology

and cognitive psychology to simulate a scrupulous behavior using a computer.
This method has many advantages. Since modern computers process
information very quickly, several simulations can be run in a short time,
allowing for a great deal of statistical power. Modeling also allows
psychologists to visualize hypotheses in relation to the functional organization
of mental events that couldn't be directly observed in a human.
Many different types of modeling are used to study behavior.
Connectionism uses neural networks to simulate the brain. Another method is
symbolic modeling, which represents several different mental objects using
variables and rules. Other types of modeling contain dynamic systems and
stochastic modeling.

Animal studies

In the 1890s, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov famously used dogs to

demonstrate classical conditioning. Non-human primates, cats, dogs, pigeons,
rats, and other rodents are often used in psychological experiments. Ideally,
controlled experiments introduce only one independent variable at a time, in
order to ascertain its unique effects upon dependent variables. These
circumstances are approximated best in laboratory settings. In contrast, human
environments and genetic backgrounds vary so widely, and depend upon so
several factors, that it is hard to control significant variables for human
subjects. Of course, there are pitfalls in generalizing findings from animal
studies to humans through animal models.

CRITICISM

Theory

Criticisms of psychological research often come from perceptions that it is

a "soft" science. Philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn's 1962 critique implied
psychology overall was in a pre-paradigm state, lacking the agreement on
overarching theory found in mature sciences such as chemistry and physics.
Because some areas of psychology rely on research methods such as
surveys and questionnaires, critics have asserted that psychology is not an
objective science. Other concepts that psychologists are interested in, such as
personality, thinking, and emotion, cannot be directly measured and are often
inferred from subjective self-reports, which may be problematic.
Some critics view statistical hypothesis testing as misplaced. Research has
documented that several psychologists confuse statistical significance with
practical importance. Statistically important but practically unimportant results
are common with large samples. Some psychologists have responded with an
increased use of effect size statistics, rather than sole reliance on the Fisherian
p < .05 significance criterion (whereby an observed difference is deemed
"statistically important" if an effect of that size or superior would occur with
5% -or less- probability in independent replications, assuming the truth of the
null-hypothesis of no difference flanked by the treatments). False positive
conclusions, often resulting from the pressure to publish or the author's own
confirmation bias, are an inherent hazard in the field, requiring a certain
degree of skepticism on the part of readers.
Sometimes the debate comes from within psychology, for instance flanked
by laboratory-oriented researchers and practitioners such as clinicians. In
recent years, and particularly in the U.S., there has been increasing debate in
relation to the nature of therapeutic effectiveness and in relation to the
relevance of empirically examining psychotherapeutic strategies.

Practice
Some observers perceive a gap flanked by scientific theory and its
application—in scrupulous, the application of unsupported or unsound clinical
practices. Critics say there has been an augment in the number of mental
health training programs that do not instill scientific competence. One skeptic
asserts that practices, such as "facilitated communication for infantile autism";
memory-recovery techniques including body work; and other therapies, such
as rebirthing and reparenting, may be dubious or even dangerous, despite their
popularity. In 1984, Allen Neuringer made a similar point concerning the
experimental analysis of behavior.

Ethical standards
Current ethical standards of psychology would not permit some studies to
be mannered today. These human studies would violate the Ethics Code of the
American Psychological Association, the Canadian Code of Conduct for
Research Involving Humans, and the Belmont Report. Current ethical
guidelines state that using non-human animals for scientific purposes is only
acceptable when the harm (physical or psychological) done to animals is
outweighed through the benefits of the research. Keeping this in mind,
psychologists can use on animals research techniques that could not be used
on humans.

An experiment through Stanley Milgram raised questions in relation to

the ethics of scientific experimentation because of the extreme
emotional stress suffered through the participants. It measured the
willingness of study participants to obey an authority figure who
instructed them to perform acts that conflicted with their personal
conscience.
Harry Harlow drew condemnation for his "pit of despair" experiments
on rhesus macaque monkeys at the University of Wisconsin–Madison
in the 1970s. The aim of the research was to produce an animal model
of clinical depression. Harlow also devised what he described a "rape
rack", to which the female isolates were tied in normal monkey mating
posture. In 1974, American literary critic Wayne C. Booth wrote that,
"Harry Harlow and his colleagues go on torturing their nonhuman
primates decade after decade, invariably proving what we all knew in
advance—that social creatures can be destroyed through destroying
their social ties." He writes that Harlow made no mention of the
criticism of the morality of his work.
 University psychology departments have ethics committees dedicated to
the rights and well-being of research subjects. Researchers in psychology
necessity gain approval of their research projects before conducting any
experiment to protect the interests of human participants and laboratory
animals.

Systemic bias
In 1959 statistician Theodore Sterling examined the results of
psychological studies and exposed that 97% of them supported their initial
hypotheses, implying a possible publication bias. Similarly, Fanelli (2010)
found that 91.5% of psychiatry/psychology studies confirmed the effects they
were looking for, and concluded that the odds of this happening (a positive
result) was approximately five times higher than in fields such as space- or
geosciences. Fanelli argues that this is because researchers in "softer" sciences
have fewer constraints to their conscious and unconscious biases.
In 2010, a group of researchers reported a systemic bias in psychology
studies towards WEIRD ("western, educated, industrialized, rich and
democratic") subjects. Although only 1/8 people worldwide fall into the
WEIRD classification, the researchers claimed that 60–90% of psychology
studies are performed on WEIRD subjects. The article gave examples of
results that differ significantly flanked by WEIRD subjects and tribal cultures,
including the Müller-Lyer illusion.

WORK OF PSYCHOLOGISTS
Psychologists have several skills and give several different types of
services.

Clinical Psychologists give counseling and psychotherapy. They work

with people who have life adjustment problems, and also with those
who have emotional disorders or mental illness. They give treatment
for people of all ages and to families and to groups. Psychologists give
treatment for depression, anxiety, phobias, panic disorders, eating
disorders, stress related problems, relationship problems, and severe
mental disorders.
Clinical Psychologists give diagnostic assessment or "testing" services.
Using interviews, questionnaires, and measurement tools, they can
chart an individual's skills, personality features and personality style,
emotional status and emotional style, or problems they may be having
in adjusting to life. These measurements are often essential for
clarifying the diagnosis of a mental illness or an addiction.
Educational Psychologists, School Psychologists, and Clinical
Psychologists give "psycho educational" testing. With the use of IQ
tests and tests of academic aptitude and achievement, they can identify
 academic strengths and weaknesses. Sometimes these tools are used to
identify "gifted" students, and sometimes they are used to identify
specific learning disorders or developmental learning problems.
Evaluations relating to learning issues also regularly involve the
assessment of Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) or Attention Deficit,
Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).
Health Psychologists and Clinical Psychologists seek to understand the
relationship flanked by medical complaints and psychological factors.
They assist in preparing patients to cope with surgery and to adjust to
medical problems. They work with patients who are having difficulty
meeting the social and emotional demands of their medical treatment.
They also give treatment to individuals whose medical problems are
related to psychological and emotional factors, or who are suffering
from chronic pain.
Neuropyschologists diagnose mental and behavioral problems that are
related to brain injuries. Using precise tests of mental functioning, they
can determine how the brain is functioning and how and where it might
have been injured as a result of trauma.
Forensic psychologists give consultation to Courts and attorneys in all
different types of legal proceedings. Several work as experts in the area
of criminal law. Others give expertise in personal injury suits, sexual
harassment cases, child custody matters, and workers compensation
cases.
Organizational Psychologists focus on the productivity of groups and
individuals in the workplace. They work to improve the functioning of
organizations, and to promote the health of individuals within the
organization. They also conduct research on "human factors" or the
interaction flanked by people and machines.
Sports Psychologists give training to enhance the performance of
teams and individual competitors.
Psychologists work to understand and improve the functioning of
human beings at home, at school, at work, at play, in their religious
pursuits, and in society in general. Psychologists are involved in every
aspect of human thought, feeling and behavior.

SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY

Early Schools of Psychology

Formal ideas in relation to behaviour and mind in western culture began

with the classical Greek philosophers and have sustained to this day as part of
the fabric philosophy. Psychology, as a separate area of study, split absent
from philosophy a little over 130 years ago. The successes of the experimental
method in the physical sciences encouraged some philosophers to think that
mind and behaviour could be studied with scientific methods. As we know, the
first psychological laboratory was set up through Wundt in 1879, at the
University of Leipzig, Germany.
In the United States, the first formal psychology laboratory was
established at John Hopkins University in 1883. Within a few years, most
major universities had psychology laboratories and departments. The well-
known text book in psychology titled ― The Principles of Psychology‖ was
written through William James in 1890. Wundt, James, and the then other
psychologists thought of psychology as the study of mind. They attempted to
find the laws relating to events in the physical world to a person‘s mental
experience of those external events. For this, they did several experiments in
the areas of imagery, memory, thinking, and emotion. Though, in the first
decades of the twentieth century, psychologists hold quite different views
concerning the nature of mind and the best methods to study mind. In relation
to the same time, fundamental questions were raised in relation to what should
be studied in psychology:
Should psychology be the study of mind, should it study behaviour, or
should both mind and behaviour be incorporated? Different influential
psychologists of the time held quite different views on the nature of mind and
the proper subject matter for psychology. Schools of thought formed
approximately these leaders, as their students adopted their ideas. These
schools of thought are recognized as the schools of psychology; they set the
direction for much of the research on mind and behaviour in the early years of
twentieth century. Given below are the early schools of thought: Structuralism,
Gestalt Psychology, Functionalism, Behaviorism, and Psychoanalysis.

Structuralism
This early school, the structural school of psychology grew up
approximately the ideas of Wilhelm Wundt, in Germany and was established
at Cornell University in the United States through one of Wundt‘s students,
Titchener. Structuralism emphasized that the subject matter of psychological
research consists of images, thoughts, and feelings, which are the elements,
forming the structure of consciousness. The goal of the structuralists was to
find the units, or elements, which create up the mind. They thought that as in
Chemistry, a first step in the study of the mind should be a description of the
basic, or elementary, units of sensation, image, and emotion which compose it.
For instance, the structuralists did experiments to find the elementary
sensations—such as red, cold, sweet and fragrant, for instance—which give
the basis of more intricate mental experiences. The main method used through
the structuralists to discover these elementary units of mind was introspection.
Participants were trained to report as objectively as possible, what they
experienced in connection with a certain incentive, disregarding the meanings
they had come to associate with that incentive. A respondent might, for
instance, be presented with a colored light, a tone, or an odor and asked to
describe it as minutely as possible. These experiments have given us a great
deal of information in relation to the kinds of sensations people have, but other
psychologists of the time, challenged the thought that the mind could be
understood through finding its elements and the rules for combining them.
Still others turned absent from describing the structure of the mind to study
how the mind functioned.

Gestalt Psychology
This school of Psychology was founded in Germany in relation to the1912
through Max Wertheimer and his colleagues Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang
Kohler. These pioneer psychologists felt that structuralists were wrong in
thinking of the mind as being made up of elements. They maintained that the
mind is not made up of a combination of simple elements. The German word
Gestalt means ― form‖ or ― configuration‖ and the Gestalt psychologists
maintained that the mind should be thought of as resulting from the whole
pattern of sensory activity and the relationships and organisations within this
pattern. For instance, we recognize a tune when it is transposed to another key;
the elements have changed, but the pattern of relationships has stayed the
same. Or, to take yet another instance, when you look at the dots in figure
below, your mental experience is not just the dots, or elements, but of a square
and a triangle sitting on a line.
It is the organisation of the dots and their relationships that determine the
mental experience you have. Therefore , the point made through the Gestalt
psychologists in their opposition to structuralism was, mental experience
depends on the patterning and organisation of elements and is not due simply
to the compounding of elements. In simpler words, according to the Gestalt
psychologists, the mind are best understood in conditions of the methods
elements are organized. Gestaltists were mainly concerned in relation to the
element of form or organisation which unifies behaviour, particularly
perceptual behaviour.

Functionalism
As the name implies, functionalists were interested in studying the
functions of mind and behaviour rather than limiting themselves to the
description and analysis of mind. They proposed that psychology should focus
on ― what mind and behaviour do‖ (function of mind) and not on the
―structure‖ of mind. Their interest was to study behaviour, as a dynamic,
integrated process. Influenced through Darwin‘s ideas and theory of evolution,
functionalists were, specifically, interested in the fact that mind and behaviour
were adaptive, as they enable us to adjust to a changing environment. They
did experiments on the methods in which learning, memory, problem solving
and motivation help people and animals adapt to their environments.

Behaviorism
This school of psychology was propounded through John B. Watson, who
was at Johns Hopkins University for several years. Watson rejected the
thought that mind should be the subject of psychology, and instead,
emphasized that psychology be restricted to the study of behaviour – the
observable (or potentially observable) activities of people and animals. There
are four significant characteristics of behaviorism.
First, its focus on behaviour, as the proper subject matter of
psychology.
Second, it emphasized on conditioned responses (learned responses) as
the elements or building blocks, of behaviour. Watson whispered that
intricate human and animal behaviour is approximately entirely made
up of conditioned responses.
A third closely related characteristic of behaviorism was its emphasis
on learned rather than unlearned, behaviour. It denied the subsistence
of any innate, or inborn, behavioral tendencies.
Finally, the fourth characteristic of behaviorism was its focus on
animal behaviour.

Watson argued that there are no essential differences flanked by human

and animal behaviour. He also whispered that we can learn much in relation to
our own behaviour from the study of what animals do.

Psychoanalysis
It was founded through the well-known psychiatrist Sigmund Freud, in
Vienna, Austria. Psychoanalysis has had an important impact on the thinking
and theorizing of several psychologists. So, several authors have incorporated
psychoanalysis in the early schools of psychology, even if, strictly speaking, it
is not a school of psychology. Freud urbanized a theory of behaviour and mind
(the psychoanalytic theory), on the basis of his practice with neurotic patients,
which held that much of what we think and do is due to our urges, drives , and
desires, which seek expressions in our thought and behaviour. It is significant
to note that, according to psychoanalytic theory, these urges and drives are
unconscious, i.e., they are hidden from our awareness. What is seen in
behaviour and thought of people is the expression of these unconscious drives,
urges, wishes, and desires. Therefore, the concept of unconscious motivation is
the key thought of psychoanalysis, which is still being utilized, as one of the
explanations of behaviour. The above schools of thought are part of the history
of psychology. We will now look at the modern perspectives of psychology.

Modern Perspectives of Psychology

Though the early schools of psychology are more than 100 year old, two of
them; behaviorism and psychoanalysis, are still surviving in customized
forms, among the current psychological perspectives. Beside with these two,
some new perspectives have come up in the last 130 years or so. In order to
understand and describe behaviour, psychologists now have a rich diversity of
viewpoints to choose from. The perspective taken depends on how the
psychologist is observing and interpreting a scrupulous behaviour and also on
what aspect of behaviour is being studied. Certain perspectives are more
appropriate for some scrupulous behaviour than others. Moreover, a
scrupulous behaviour may be described through one or more than one
perspective.
Let us now look at the following two examples and effort to understand
how the current perspectives deal with these behavioral observations: Some
relatives have come to Pappu‘s (a 5-year-old boy) house, throughout the
vacation. Pappu, his little sister Munni and their cousins were playing in the
courtyard. Pappu snatched absent the toy car from his sister. Mr. Kumar, a 59-
year-old man, realizes that he is forgetting the recent events and significant
meetings.

The Behavioural Perspective

The behaviour which is followed through reward or punishment is likely to
augment or decrease, respectively. A psychologist with behavioral perspective
might explain Pappu‘s behaviour that, he has learned to behave in this manner,
because such behaviour (snatching toys from younger children) paid off in the
past. Another form of learning is observational learning, which is an intricate
process far more intricate than mere imitation-and plays a significant role in
several characteristics of behaviour. A large body of research designates that
aggression may indeed be learned through observation. Given the fact that
several children spend more time watching television, playing violent video
games, and, more recently, surfing the Web than they do in any other single
activity, the potential influence of such experience on behaviour seems worthy
of careful attention. Studies show conclusively that if large groups of children
watch a great deal of televised violence, they will be more prone to behave
aggressively.
As distant as Mr. Kumar‘s problem is concerned, this perspective would
focus on an exact description of the changes in his behaviour. A psychologist
with behavioral perspective might also effort to teach behavioral skills to this
person, so that he might learn to deal with the problems caused through his
forgetfulness.

The Evolutionary and Biological Perspective

Psychologists are interested in the roles of evolution and heredity in
behaviour and mental processes such as psychological disorders, criminal
behaviour, and thinking. Usually speaking, our heredity gives a broad range of
behavioral and mental possibilities. Modern evolutionary psychologists focus
on the evolution of behaviour and mental processes. Charles Darwin argued
that in the age-old thrash about for subsistence, only the ― fittest‖ (most
adaptive) organisms manage to reach maturity and reproduce. Environmental
factors interact with inherited factors to determine specific behaviour and
mental processes. From this perspective, Pappu is behaving in a manner that
proves that he is strong and ―
fit‖; he can take any thing he likes to, irrespective
of whose belonging it is. Mr.Kumar‘s behaviour could also be explained from
this perspective. Because memory is very crucial for survival, it is a matter of
concern for him.

The Biological Perspective suggests that there are some biological

factors— particularly, the functions of nervous and glandular systems that
influence human behaviour. Studies show that males are usually more
aggressive than females; this may be related to male-female hormonal
differences. Though, the research on this, in humans, gives mixed results. So,
it cannot be conclusively said that Pappu, being a male, is behaving
aggressively. A psychologist with biological perspective would try to
understand Mr. Kumar‘s problem through linking this to brain problem. Due
to the ageing process much wear and tear takes place in the organs of the
body, including brain. May be, Mr. Kumar is in the early stages of
Alzheimer‘s disease and the chemistry of the brain is at fault. Alzheimer‘s
disease is a kind of primary degenerative dementia in which there is a cluster
of specific degenerative brain changes due to unknown causes.

The Cognitive Perspective

Explains how behaviour is determined through the method we keep in
mind, think, perceive, create decisions, solve problems and comprehend our
social environment etc. Cognition means perception of the world
approximately us. It also refers to the processing of information which we
receive through our senses. Our experience or mind is based on such
processing of information. A psychologist with this perspective would effort
to explain Pappu‘s behaviour in conditions of his perception of Munni, as a
weak little girl, who cannot fight back. Another possible explanation could
come from the social learning theory. He might have seen other little boys
getting absent with such aggression and may be modeling his behaviour on
their instance. Also, he perceives the situation and thinks; it is safe to behave
the method he did, as no adult was likely to be present in the courtyard.
Memory is the most significant focus of this perspective. So, Mr. Kumar‘s
problem could be dealt with properly, through finding what exactly was
forgotten and what was remembered, how the information processing had
changed. A psychologist with this perspective would also effort to help Mr.
Kumar through giving him new methods of processing incoming information
for storing in his memory and later, retrieving from his memory store.

The Socio-cultural Perspective

The profession of psychology focuses mainly on the individual and is
committed to the dignity of the individual. Though, several psychologists
today consider we cannot understand people‘s behaviour and mental processes
without reference to their diversity. Studying perspectives other than their own
helps Psychologists understand the role of a culture‘s beliefs, values, and
attitudes in behaviour and mental processes. It helps them perceive why
people from diverse cultures behave and think in different methods, and how
the science of psychology is enriched through addressing those differences.
This perspective addresses several of the methods in which people differ from
one another. It studies the influences of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socio-
economic status on behaviour and mental processes. This perspective has not
much scope to explain Pappu‘s behaviour. Mr.Kumar‘s forgetfulness is a
matter of concern, as this is not accepted in any culture, particularly, if a
person is in active service.

The Social Perspective

If a criminal gets recognition, position or respect in a society or
community, he/she is likely to be perceived as a role model through some
individuals. Pappu might have behaved in this manner to show off and get
recognition. Mr. Kumar‘s position in society and in his community is at stake,
because of his memory problem. The source of proof for social learning of
aggression is found in studies that reveal differences in violence, as a function
of cultural and social variables. There is, for instance, considerable proof of
systematic difference in the occurrence of violent acts crossways different
national cultures. Residents of some countries also show a more pervasive
tendency to think of violence as means of solving problems than persons
living in other countries.

Developmental Perspective
According to this perspective, behaviour is determined through the
physical growth and maturity. Certain characteristic changes occur in people
(i.e. the method they think), due to the process of maturation. Sometimes,
young children commit crimes but not deliberately. This may be because of
their cognitive egocentrism, which means that children have limited skill to
think in relation to the how things look or feel to others. They do not have any
intention to commit crimes in a planned method. Therefore, Pappu being a 5-
year-ld boy, he might not have realized how his behaviour might have hurt/has
hurt his sister. Even law also considers age as to whether a person will be
convicted or not. In the context of legal and social definitions of crime and the
criminal, Taft (1956) states that legally, a crime is an act made punishable
through law. A criminal is one who has committed such a legally forbidden
act. Yet there are other criteria which determine whether a person may be dealt
with as a criminal. He has pointed out 5 such criteria as competent age,
voluntary criminal act, criminal intent, degrees of intent, and injury to the
state. Concerning Mr. Kumar‘s memory problem, as we have already
explained in the biological perspective, it might be due to aging process.

The Humanistic Perspective

A criminal‘s behaviour might be seen as a part of his/her search for
personal competence, achievement, and self-esteem. People who commit
violent crimes may perceive that through committing such acts, they are going
to achieve some thing important, such as doing justice to the society or for the
cause of national security etc. In the case of Pappu, his behaviour has a little
scope to be explained from this perspective. Mr. Kumar‘s self-esteem is
though, at stake, because he might be feeling embarrassed for his
forgetfulness.

The Psychoanalytic Perspective

According to Sigmund Freud, who propounded the psychoanalytic theory
of personality, behaviour of human beings is largely guided through their
feelings, emotions, instincts and desires which are unconscious. They are born
with an aggressive drive. This innate motive gets expressed in action or
fantasy, in destructiveness, war and sadism. According to this viewpoint, any
impulse which is unacceptable, creates a person anxious, and then he/she uses
what is described ‗protection mechanism‘, to reduce anxiety. For instance,
when a person is angry at some higher authority or someone who is very
powerful, the person cannot express one‘s anger openly and so, may displace
that anger to someone, who is weaker. This is recognized as ‗displacement‘,
which is one of the protection mechanisms. Pappu might be angry with his
parents or teachers, for some reasons, and his anger is almost certainly
displaced towards his sister (displacement). Mr. Kumar might also be
forgetting his appointment to someone, whom he dislikes (motivated
forgetting). Any one or more than one of the above psychological
perspectives, may be used to explain behaviour

ATTENTION AND PERCEPTION—CONSCIOUS CLARITY

Definition of attention

Attention is a selective mental process through which the individual brings

the selected incentive in his/her focus of consciousness.

Ordinarily we speak of giving attention to objects, of concentrating

attention some object or shifting attention from one object to another. This
may provide the impression that attention is some faculty or power that we can
use at will. But it is better to speak of attending, the act, process or function of
attending rather than any power.

Psychology studies mental processes and activities but it is hard to do this

without attending to them. Attending to an object is to bring that object to
consciousness. To perceive an object is to bring that object to consciousness.
To perceive an object, to think in relation to it, to solve some problem in
relation to it, to keep in mind it and the like is not possible without attending
to it. Through attending to any thing we bring it within the realm of
consciousness. Attention is the heart of the conscious process and is basic to
all mental activity and behavior. Attention in a method precedes all mental
activity.

The field of attention is narrower than the filed of consciousness or

awareness. It is concentrated awareness of a selected aspect of our
environment. We are said to be attending to an object when our sense-activity
is focused on any scrupulous incentive. Such stimuli standout more
prominently from the rest of the environment and are more clearly perceived.

Attention is not always fixed. Shifting is the nature of attention. Attention

is always fluctuating and shifting, our interest and needs are changing and they
affect the process of attending, and then some outside objects through their
force and intensity compel attention.

Attention is not just looking on. It is an active process, involving provide-

and-take with the environment. When we attend to anything we are inclined to
do something in relation to it is it simply to keep it before our mind or to
remove it from consciousness.

Attention is a process of adjustment. Through attending the individual

adjust himself inner needs or to outer stimuli.
Importance of attention

It is often of great importance to the individual whether he attends to an

object cautiously or not. Accidents are the result of the failure or lack of
careful attention to small detail.

Through attending sensory discrimination is improved. We are exposed to

a large number of stimuli but attention separates its object from the rest and
enables us to observe it cautiously. This focused attention create fine
distinctions in perceive things which otherwise would have passed unnoticed.
Attention creates things clearer and more separate.

Attention also directs our energies. We respond to some and ignore others.
To be attentive is to concentrate one‘s efforts in a certain direction so that
things and ideas we attend to are relevant to our needs and purposes.

Attention increases efficiency. It helps us to get ready to meet any

situation. Attention is a preparatory adjustment and inattentive people are
seldom efficient and successful.

Lastly, attention helps us to keep in mind experiences more accurately and

fully. Those things to which we attend very cautiously are recalled with
vividness and in detail.

Bodily adjustment in attention

It is already mentioned that attention is an active process. It is selective,

purposeful, fluctuating. Within a span of attention we concentrate our
attention. The attended object is clearer than other objects. In the process of
attention we create certain bodily movements through method of adjustment.
While attending we prepare our body suitably for action. The changed body
posture enables the sense-organs to function best. It also helps to concentrate.
There is also some tension in the body muscles if the body is poised for action.
The mind is also very active to attend and respond to the attended object.

Characteristics of attention

mental process
selective process
 motivational process
always shifting
increases the clearness of the stimuli (figure and background)
Attention goes before perception and reaction
Purposive
Dynamic
Exploratory
Adjective in nature (for body and tension reduction)

Factors that affect attention

Laws of attention
Why people attend some objects and ignore others? To answer this
psychologists have laid down some laws or circumstances which decides what
to attend and what not to. Broadly, there are (1) internal circumstances, and (2)
external circumstances which determine what object will attract or compel
attention. Some psychologists call them as determinants of attention and
classify them as ‗subjective‘ (internal) and ‗objective‘ (external).

Subjective determinants of attention

It is a common experience that some person attends and other ignores to
any object. This is because of subjective or personal factor. In several
situations, individual determines what object to attend and not attend. The
subjective determinants in attention contain the following:
Aim/ goal
Attitudes
Basic needs (food deprivation)
Curiosity
Education and training
Emotion
Habit or practice
Individual‘s internal desire and needs
Interest
Meaning and understanding (traditional doctors and treatment)
Mental set
Mood
Past experiences
Purpose and goal, etc.
Social motives
Temperament (religious, musical, cool nature, etc.
Training (cloth makers, army,)
DETERMINANTS OF ATTENTION
Objective determinants of attention are concerned with the environmental
factors which contain the objects and its qualities and intensities.
One of the significant external or objective circumstances or
determinants of attention is change. Other things being equal, we are
approximately always more likely to notice a changing incentive than
an unchanging one. The suddenness of the change attracts our
attention.
Another factor of advantage is holding and securing attention is the
intensity of the incentive. A strong or intense incentive will attract
attention more readily than a weak one. A loud noise, bright color or
light draws attention. A bright color or light will draw attention while a
more subdued one would not.
The size of the incentive is more likely to get noticed than other
stimuli.
Repetition is another such condition that draws attention. Objects
presented again and again are sure to secure attention.

Newness or novelty and contrast also attract attention. Objects different

from the type we are accustomed to see are readily noticed. We do not pay any
attention to common or familiar objects in the context. Any newness or
contrast in the environment can draw our attention. Other external
determinants
Nature of incentive: all related to the sense organs
Intensity of the incentive: highly intense incentive is more attentive
than others
Size of the incentive: More than average is more attentive --
Advertisement.
Position of the incentive: Figure and background, etc.
Isolation of the incentive:
Duration of the incentive: the longer the attendance the longer the
influence to the sense organs – advertisement.
Repetition of the incentive: advertisement – jeevan lal
Change of the incentive: sudden change in the incentive, no sound etc.
Novelty of the incentive: in the environment attracts attention
Contrast of the incentive: female among the male,
Movement of the incentive
Rareness of the incentive
Strangeness or secrecy of the incentive
Kinds of attention

Types:
All attentions are not conscious and selective
Some attention is due to the nature of the incentive
Some attention is due to habitual reaction

According to Stout:

Voluntary attention
o interest, wishes, needs, purposes are related with voluntary
attention.
o controlled attention
o selective
o preparedness

Voluntary attention is on intentional nature. Whenever we intentionally or

deliberately look or listen, the process of attention is voluntary. For instance, if
some one says 0 look here, listen what is being said, and if we respond to these
commands accordingly, we are attending voluntarily.

Involuntary attention:
o Sudden change in the environment – big sound, intensity of
light, unique situation etc.
o less concern with motives, interest, and needs
o incentive is more significant that functional factors
o person is not prepared for the attention
o Not under the control of the individual

Sometimes, certain incentive force becomes so potential that our attention

is drawn towards that without any conscious effort or intention. For such
attentions, we are usually not mentally set but our attention is abruptly drawn
towards these stimuli. For instance, a pistol shot, an intense flash of light,
alarming siren sound, sudden cry of a child etc. have a force in them, to draw
our attention without any deliberate effort.

Habitual attention if attended due to nature, habit, practice, education,

and attitude it is described habitual attention.
Depends upon the nature and need, habit, attitude of the individual e.g.,
shoemaker and the shoes

Most often we attend to those objects more readily for which we have a
mental set of habitual nature. For instance, a young boy's readiness to notice a
beautiful girl and a girl's readiness to notice a handsome boy our readiness to
perceive good in the actions of our friends and evils in the actions of enemies,
showing recurring interest in scrupulous food and drink, etc. are the instance
of habitual sort of readiness, under the influence of which our attention is
automatically drawn. A chain smoker is seen suddenly drawn towards an
advertisement of cigarette. All these instances of our everyday life are the
examples of habitual attention.

Voluntary attention

Voluntary attention is that which is willingly directed to an object. An

analysis reveals elements of desire and interest, aim and social adjustment in
voluntary attention. In the foregoing instance the student directs his attention
because of some scrupulous aim like the passing of an examination, acquiring
knowledge or one of a number of other goals. He takes interest in studying.
Like other activities attention is just another form of adjustment. The
difference flanked by voluntary and involuntary attention is that while the
former is secured b the motivational elements in the individual, the motivating
elements exist outside in the latter case.

Involuntary attention

As has been explained above, involuntary attention is not only directed

through the individual's desire or motivation, it may even be against it. It
usually hinders the process of goal seeking. If, for instance, your attention is
attracted through a song while you are studying, your studies will suffer.
Social adjustment is similarly obstructed through involuntary attention. The
proper adjustment of a student can be the outcome, only of an undisturbed
attention to his studies. On account of the fact that one can pay attention to
only one thing at a time, the student will not be able to attend to his studies if
his attention continually wanders in other directions. Obviously, a person
forgets his goal owing to involuntary attention and cannot effect his
adjustment.

Habitual attention

Besides the two types mentioned above, there is third type, the habitual or
non-voluntary attention. The difference flanked by non-voluntary and in-
voluntary attention is that the former type is the result of some habit or
practice and the motivation is in the individual but the cause for the attention
in the latter type is in the object. Habitual attention is different from voluntary
attention because habitual attention has no need for a will as the latter does.
But sustained application of voluntary attention converts it into habitual
attention. For instance, a student pays voluntary attention to study in the
beginning but it is slowly transformed into habitual attention towards reading
and writing. Therefore the position of habitual attention is in flanked by
voluntary and involuntary types of attention.

Actually the above distinctions in attention are not very clear. The
difference flanked by voluntary and involuntary attention is often only just
discernible. No attention can be said to belong to any one of the three types
exclusively. A scholar has to exercise his will in spite of his involuntary
attention in reading. There is an unconscious desire to pay attention to an
object which involuntarily draws your attention. In this method the difference
in the types of attention is small though it is of great importance form the
psychological viewpoint.

The nature of attention permits of its concentration in only one direction at

one time. Direction of attention to two or more objects means either their
acceptance as one or such an oscillation of attention flanked by all of them as
provides the impression of sijulte\aneous attention.

Division of attention

Sometimes we claim doing two things simultaneously. For instance, one

may copy from a page and also listen to radio. Whether under such situations,
there is division of attention? Studies done on this aspect have revealed that if
one of the two tasks is of autonomic nature, it is possible to attend both the
task simultaneously with approximately equal efficiency. Autonomic tasks
usually require no conscious effort of attending. Only one of the tasks usually
requires conscious effort to attend. For instance, a student can simultaneously
read and listen radio; a typist can work on type machine and also listen to a
story. In such cases one of the tasks becomes so autonomic that they require
attention only in intervals and so all attention can be directed to another task.
Though, when both tasks require conscious efforts to attend, attention is
divided flanked by them and the tasks cannot be performed as efficiently as
those which are given attention separately. Therefore, attention has the
attribute of being divided when two stimuli simultaneously require focus.

Attention span

Of all the incentive approximately us, we attend to only a few. Attention

divides our field of conscious experience in to focus and margin. The objects,
things or events that exist in the focus stand out as separate and clear. Rest are
in the margin and we are either unaware of them or if at all, provide a very
dim, and ambiguous apprehension.

What number or amount of objects can simultaneously exist in the focus?

This question has been subjected to experimental investigation. The general
opinion is that in a single act of attention, one can attend to only one object.
Though, this statement need to be further analyzed. Objects may be simple or
intricate. For instance, you observe a house as a single unit or object. But this
house is a composite of many objects-windows, doors, number of floors, etc.
each one is a unit in itself. So, the singleness of the object varies according to
purpose in hand.

Experiments show that number of objects one can hold in his focus of
attention is usually limited. This is referred to span of attention - that is the
number of stimuli attended to in a single act of attention. Span of attention is
the number of objects that stand out distinctively clear in one single moment
of observation.

Fluctuation of attention

Fluctuation of attention is the length of time one can attend continuously to

a single object. Attention is not steady or concentrated throughout. At one time
the object come in our focus, at another time, it goes out from focus. Closely
related to fluctuation is shift of attention. In shift of attention our attention
passes from one incentive to another or from one part of an intricate incentive
to another part. The reversible figure is an instance where attention shifts from
one figure to another.

Attention is a mobile or dynamic activity, and it is hard to attend to one a

scrupulous object for any great length of time. When attention moves from
one object to another, it is described the shifting of attention. But even when
the attention persists with one object, it grows more or less in degree. This is
described fluctuation of attention.

The cause of fluctuation in attention has attributed to the temporary

slackness in the mental activities and sense organs. Some psychologists found
the fluctuation even when the muscles had been numbed. The fluctuation is
then whispered to be due to the changes in adjustment or version. Though
nothing can be said definitely in relation to the this matter but still, the
importance of the sense, mind, psychological state and environmental factors
in fluctuation of attention is undeniable.
DISTRACTION SENSORY DEPRIVATION
Distraction means the dividing of attentions or some interference in
attention. The object which causes the distraction is described the distracter. In
fact, broken attention is not the absence of attention because the distractor is
associated with the activity, often though not always, and it no longer
interferes with the activity.

Therefore, the notion that distraction invariably hinders work is

misleading. Experiments mannered through Morgan indicated that at first
distraction caused a drop in the speed of typewriting but constant pursuit of
the work in the disturbed condition increased this speed, and it again dropped
when distraction was removed. But distraction, in some experiments through

Weber caused harm. Though it cannot be definitely said that distraction

increases the speed of the work, it is possible, to say with some degree of
confidence, that a decrease in speed due to distraction is not inevitable.
Actually the effect of a distraction on some work depends in no small measure
upon the capability, interest, practice, ability and mental set of the worker. If
the distraction is favorable the speed will be increased but if it is unsuitable the
speed will drop.

Distraction can be divided into two forms

Continuous distraction a name suggests it is the continuous distraction

of attention. Some examples of it are the sound of radio played
continuously, the noise of the market place, etc. experiments have led
to the conclusion that adjustment to continuous distraction takes place
quickly.
Discontinuous distraction this type is irregular, being interspersed with
intervals e.g., hearing of somebody‘s voice every now and then. It
interferes with work because of the impossibility of adjustment

CHARACTERISTICS OF PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENTS

Touch

Touch is the very basis of interaction flanked by parents and the child.
Touching promotes early physical growth and also plays vital role in
emotional development. So sensitivity to touch is present at the time of birth.
Newborn babies react to touch particularly on palm, approximately mouth and
in the soles of feet. Infants are sensitive to sensation of pain though it has been
found when sugar nipples are inserted in mouth discomfort and crying is
quickly reduced in the young babies. When touch produces pleasure instead of
pain it increases child‘s responsiveness to the environment. For instance, you
might have noticed that when an infant is given soft soothing caresses he
smiles and pays attention to caregiver. Infants explore and investigate the
world approximately them. They run their hand on objects. When they
develop the capability of reaching out to things, babies first place any object
into their mouth and then have a good look at the object. This kind of
exploration reaches its peak throughout the middle of first year and declines
afterwards as babies create more use of hands to explore and investigate
objects from different angles. For instance infants of one year or more would
turn an object approximately, feel its surface, rub the surface to see what
happens and then again pick it up to view it with both hands.

Taste and Smell

Reactions to taste and smell are crucial for survival. Infants are innately
programmed for their taste preferences. Newborns are able to distinguish
many basic tastes in the manner of an adult. For instance, they respond to
sweetness through relaxing their facial muscles, and when the taste is sour
they react through distorting their lips and so on. Taste for salty objects is not
present at birth time. But through the time infant is four months old they prefer
salty water to plain water, a change that readies him for solid foods later on.
Like taste, certain smell preferences are innate. For instance young babies
provide relaxed facial expressions when confronted with pleasant smell but
express discomfort on smell of a rotten object, not only this they even express
skill to recognize the source of discomforting smell through turning head in
the other direction.

Hearing

Newborn babies can hear a diversity of sounds but they respond more to
some than other sounds. It seems they are innately programmed to respond to
auditory sensations. Throughout the first few days they are able to recognize
the difference flanked by sound patterns. For instance, a series of tones,
utterances of two three syllables etc. As the child grows up throughout the first
year it organizes sounds into elaborate patterns. A baby of 4 to 7 months
expresses a sense of musical and speech phrasing and through 12 months, the
baby can differentiate flanked by two slightly differing tunes. A 4 month old
baby can accurately turn its head in the direction of source of sound and this
skill and responsiveness to sound shows marked improvement over the after
that six months and continues to develop further throughout the second year.
Not only this, a 3 month old baby can fairly distinguish flanked by pleasant
and sad voices of adults. Responsiveness to sound promotes infant‘s visual
and tactile exploration of the environment. It also promotes attachment
flanked by infant and the caregiver. As parents talk to the baby, development
of language and emotions receive further impetus.
An infant‘s sensitivity to sound gives fundamental basis for perceptual and
cognitive development. So any impairment and loss of hearing can
detrimentally affect the child‘s development. Hearing loss can occur prior to
language acquisition, or following language acquisition. Degrees of hearing
loss are measured in decibels, the greater the decibel measure, the greater the
degree of hearing loss. For instance, a person with a mild hearing loss, 15-40
DB (decibel) has difficulty hearing whispers at a close range in a quiet setting;
a person with a moderate hearing loss 40-60 DB has difficulty hearing a
normal voice at close range in a quiet setting; a person with a severe hearing
loss cannot hear speech and can only hear loud noises such as those coming
from machinery, power tools, vacuum cleaners, lawn mowers etc. A person
with a profound hearing loss cannot hear speech and may only hear loud
vibrating noises such as airplanes. Any type of hearing loss can present unique
challenges and barriers in accessing environmental information.
Hearing loss influences children‘s preferences for gathering sensory
information that support and shape cognitive linguistic development. Since
varying degrees of auditory information are accessible for children with
hearing loss, a need exists to maximize visual and kinesthetic intake of
environmental information. Knowledge of these sensory modalities supports
an understanding of an infant‘s or toddler‘s skill to interpret, integrate and
respond to environmental information. Very often hearing loss results in
delayed language progress, reduced task persistence, social isolation in early
childhood and poor academic performance after school entry. Actually
children with auditory difficulties are less attentive to the speech of others and
less persistent at task and this difficulty may be due to repeated instances in
which they could not create out what people approximately them were saying.
When children have trouble paying attention they may reduce the quality of
interaction with them.

THEORIES OF PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT

The question is how to explain all these developments and inter relate
them. Answer to this was provided through Eleanor and James Gibson;
Gibsons put forward the theory of Differentiation.
This theory stated that infants actively search for invariant features of the
environment i.e. they look for those features which are stable in a changing
world. For instance, take the case of pattern perception, initially what babies
perceive is a mass of stimulation but they are looking for characteristic that
stand out to create contour or border of a incentive and begin to form some
image representing an object say face. After that they explore internal features
and stable relationships among these features. This principle applies to the
development of intermodal perception as well. Therefore we can assume that
infants have a built in capability or tendency to look for order and stability in
the environment that surrounds them and with augment in age it gets fine-
tuned.
Another concept given through Gibsons to explain perceptual development
was Affordances. It means action possibilities that a situation offers an
organism with certain motor capabilities. For instance, we know that we can
squeeze, roll and bounce a ball that means we are of possible actions that we
can perform with the ball. Awareness of affordances creates a child future
oriented and determines success. Affordances are acquired in the process of
exploration and investigation.

PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCIES
We see an object as we have image on our retina. When the object is closer
we have full image of it on the retina. But when it moves distant, the image
becomes different yet we see the object in the same shape, size, color and
brightness. We see a white, bright, big and rectangular table in our front; we
have an image of it on the retina. We move it further when only we can see
just vague image of it. What happens then? Yet we perceive it as a table of the
same size, shape, color and brightness. The tendency of the individual to
perceive characteristics of the world as unchanging despite changes in the
sensory input we receive from them is the phenomenon recognized as
perceptual constancy.
Hastorf, Schneider and Polefka have given an instance. You are sitting in a
chair in your living room. A man walks into your room, moves over to a table
through the window, picks up a news paper, and then goes crossways the room
to sit down and read. What are the successive patterns of visual stimulation
that register on your retina as you watch this scene? Every time the man
moves closer to you, the image on the retina gets superior. In fact, if the
person moves from 20 feet absent to 10 feet absent, the height of the image on
your retina doubles. The opposite occurs if the person moves absent from you.
In addition, as the person moves nearer the window, lighter is accessible, and
his image on your retina gets brighter. When the person moves absent from the
window, the image gets darker. Retina senses this method but what you
perceive? We see the person in the same method with no changes. This type of
adjustment is due to perceptual constancy.
Perceptual Constancy is of four types – size constancy, shape constancy,
color constancy and brightness constancy. Perceptual size of an object
remains the same when the aloofness is varied, even though the size of the
image it casts on the retina changes greatly. This is size constancy. Two
factors appear to produce size constancy – size aloofness invariance and
relative size. While estimating size of an object, we take into account both the
size of the image on the retina and the apparent aloofness of the object. This
characteristic is recognized as size distance invariance. When we are
estimating size of an unfamiliar object we take into account the relative size of
the object compared to objects of recognized size and it is the characteristics
of relative size. These two factors determine mainly our size constancy. You
take a coin of circular shape and throw it in the air. Keep on looking at it and
you will always see it circular although it casts different images on your retina.
This is due to the perception of shape constancy.
Similarly we perceive objects as constant in brightness and color, even
though they are viewed under different circumstances. Objects appear to be of
same brightness no matter what the lighting circumstances. Object maintains
its color no matter what the lightening or what other colors are close to.
Perceptual constancies are highly useful in our life. Had it not been so, we
would have been badly occupied in managing several sensations and their
impact on perceptual adjustment... This method, the gap flanked by our
sensations and the perception supervised through constancies is clearly
beneficial.

PERCEPTION OF FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICAL DIMENSIONS

When perception is an active process, where individual plays a significant
role in determining objects and reactions approximately environment, you may
be interested in knowing the main processes involved in it. How a person is
able to get one message, out of thousands of messages of different senses
active at a point of time, sent to the brain? The process of getting a small
portion of sensations in one‘s environment selected through the individual to
be transmitted to the brain for meaning is recognized as perceptual selectivity.
The first process to this effect is attention in which certain stimuli are selected
to be transmitted to the brain and others are suppressed. Individual has the
tendency to attend to certain sensations we expect to, while remaining
unaware of things we do not expect. This phenomenon is described perceptual
set. As early in 1935, Siipola demonstrated the phenomenon of perceptual set
in responses to words. He had two groups of subjects. One group was told that
they would be shown words that referred to animals. The other group was told
that they would be shown words relating boats. The two groups had different
responses as per their expectations. The letters forming words really did not
mean anything but the first group perceived words relating to different animals
and the second group pertaining to different characteristics of boat. Such a
type of response was there as they had perceptual set. So the perceptual set is
the tendency to perceive what one expect to. You may experience the
phenomenon of perceptual set with the help of an instance cited through
Leeper.
 You show picture A to your friend .Ask what the person sees? Then
present picture C and ask what the person sees. Your friend may say that
picture A is of an old woman and C is also the picture of the same women.
Ask another friend to see picture B and picture C one through one. Most likely
s/he may say that both the pictures are of young girl. They are all correct in
their perception. They see as they want to see. Again ask them to see each
picture cautiously. They may see changed face but the time taken to come over
to recognize changed face would be different in different cases. Perception, in
fact, is influenced through learning and experience. We perceive objects as per
our needs and values. Psychological and physiological needs allow us to
perceive things in our own method. A hungry person, for instance, may
perceive other objects as food items. Mc Clelland and Atkinson (1948), for
instance, have shown that persons who have not eaten for long periods display
the ‗mirage effect‖ of identifying hazy objects as food or eating utensils.
Further, our perception is determined through our values. People tend to
perceive an object superior that they value more. Bruner and Goodman (1947),
in a study, found that poor children estimated size of the coin superior than the
rich children. The phenomenon of perceiving valued objects as superior or as
more vivid than they actually are, is recognized as perceptual accentuation. It
will now be clear that how attention, perceptual set and perceptual
accentuation determine our perception through perceptual selectivity.

ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS OF PERCEPTION

In this world, for an organism there are three main perceptual questions
and answers to these are key to its survival. What is it? Where is it? What is it
doing? Gestalt Psychologists, first of all, studied perceptual organisation
systematically and attempted to answer such questions. The process through
which we structure the input from our sensory receptors is described
perceptual organisation. Gestalt Psychologists advocated that we have
tendency to perceive sensory patterns as well organized wholes rather than as
separate isolated parts. Perceptual organisation is recognized as figure –
background relationship. It means that we tend to divide the world
approximately us into two parts: figure, which has a definite shape and
location in space, and, ground, which has no shape, seems to continue behind
the figure, and has no definite location. The segregation of figure and
background can easily be seen in two dimensional pictures. You see the
following picture in which the bright splotch appears as the figure and darker
region is perceived as background. Figure is cohesive and articulated where as
background is relatively formless and appears to extend behind the figure.

Figure: The figure – background relationship helps clarify the distinction

flanked by sensation and perception. Gestalt psychologists described some of
the principles on which we group items together perceptually. These principles
are recognized as the laws of groupings. This shows as to how perception is
organized in daily life. Wertheimer (1923) regarded these laws as the laws of
perceptual organisations. Some of these are: law of proximity, law of
similarity, law of good continuation, law of closure, law of simplicity and law
of common region.
 Law of Proximity: We have a tendency to perceive objects situated
together as a group. The closer two figures are to each other (proximity) the
more they will tend to be grouped together perceptually. a b c d e f. The low
lines a, b, c, d, and e, f are perceived together as they are in proximity to each
other.
Law of Similarity: We have a tendency to group figures according to their
similarity.

Here, similar items as a group are perceived. This method, we organize

different objects approximately us on the basis of similarity of physical or
psychological properties.
Law of good continuation: The tendency to perceive stimuli as a part of
continuous pattern is recognized as law of good continuation. Our visual
system normally prefers contours that continue smoothly beside their original
course. Good continuation is a powerful organizational factor which prevails
even when pitted against prior experience. In military setting, camouflage is
achieved through using this law.
Law of closure: We have the tendency to perceive objects as whole
entities, even some parts may be missing or obstructed from view. See this
figure:

You will say it is triangle although it is not complete and lines at some
points are missing. This is due to the law of closure.
 Law of simplicity: The tendency to perceive intricate patterns in conditions
of similar shapes is recognized as the law of simplicity. Individuals have a
tendency to perceive objects and situations in a similar method so as to get
maximum meanings without strain out of them.
Law of common region: We have a tendency to organize materials
approximately us in a group to create them more meaningful and clear. This
tendency of perceiving objects approximately a group if they occupy the same
place within a plane is recognized as the law of common region.
These laws or principles of perceptual organisation are not hard and fast
rules. These simply explain as to how we perceive world approximately us.
We see objects in different forms. Perceptually, a form is experienced as a
Gestalt, a whole which is different from the sum of parts. To perceive a form,
we perceive certain relations among the component parts which remain intact
despite alterations of the parts of a figure. Perception of depth is mainly
explained through binocular disparity. Our two eyes look out on the world
from slightly different positions, providing somewhat different view of any
solid object they converge on. This binocular disparity normally induces
perception of depth. This explanation gives the answer to the question as to
how perception of third dimension takes place when we have image on our
retina in two dimensions only. Perceptual organisation also explains how a
light is seen traveling from one point to the other, even there is no stimulation
(let alone movement) in the intervening region. It happens where right time-
interval is placed among them. This phenomenon, apparent movement, is
produced through the sequence of optical events. For instance, light A flashes
at time 1, followed through light B at time 2, then back to light A at time 3. If
the time intervals are appropriately chosen, the perceptual experience will be
of a light moving from left to right and back. This is how, perception of
movement takes place.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
What is psychology?
Describe the methods of psychology
Explain the perceptual development
Write an essay on perceptual development and its characteristics.
What is perceptual selectivity?
Describe the process of sensation of taste. What is the importance of
taste buds?

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
STRUCTURE
Learning objectives
Learning: definitions and characteristics
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Principles of reinforcement
Cognitive learning
Individualized learning
Learner and learning memory
Kinds of memory
Processes of memory
Stages of memory
Forgetting
Thinking and language—thinking process and concepts
Review questions

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
Explain the Learning
Explain the classical and operant conditioning
Understand the cognitive learning;
Understand the Forgetting; and
Understand the thinking and language

LEARNING: DEFINITIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS

We develop different skills and adapt to changing circumstances of the
world approximately us. Our experience help in shaping our behaviour
appropriate to the needs. This experience we get through the process of
learning. Since birth several new features are added to our behaviour which
more or less forms the part of our life. This is approximately permanent in
nature. The learning is defined as ‗any relatively permanent change in
behaviour, or behavioral potential, produced through experience.‖ This
definition has the following characteristics:
Learning does not apply to temporary change in behaviour
The behavioral changes due to maturation process do not form part of
learning.
Learning can result from vicarious as well as from direct experience
Learning‘s are not always positive in nature. We learn bad habits as
well in the process
 Learning is the key factor in behavioral change of an organism. Through
learning we create changes in our behaviour. These are several processes
through which we get experience in life. Psychologists have found out such
processes. All modifications of behaviours are not learned. Some
modifications do take place due to physical maturity. In most of the cases the
distinction flanked by learning and maturation is very clear but in some places
this distinction is less obvious. You take an instance of infant‘s walking.
Normally, infant does not walk before the age in relation to the12-15 months.
They walk when they are physically fit and ready, perhaps, without learning.
So walking here does not have the role of learning. But in children recognition
of color is the outcome of learning. This method, the impacts of learning and
maturation on modification of behaviour are different. Learning plays a
significant role virtually in every activity we perform.
Psychologists consider that learning takes place in many basic forms. This
basic process is observations learning, classical conditioning and operant
conditioning. Observational learning is a form of learning where organisms
learn through observing behaviours and the consequences of behaviour of
others approximately them. Classical conditioning is a form of learning in
which two incentive events get associated in such a method that the
occurrence of one event reliably predicts the occurrence of the other. Classical
conditioning is a form of learning in which organisms learn association
flanked by behaviours and stimuli that precede them (antecedents) or follow
them (consequences) you will come to know in relation to the these basic
procedures of learning in paragraphs to follow. The classical conditioning and
the operant conditioning will form the portions of experimental learning as
these two forms have the characteristics of experimentation.

Observational Learning

While watching television you necessity have witnessed several aggressive

scenes. Several detective stories present as to how the murders and thefts are
committed in a planned manner. Several serials of social importance you may
have seen as well as television. There is a discussion that such serials or shows
need not be shown on televisions as children get influenced through it and
start behaving in the same manner. Several criminals, caught through police,
confessed that they committed crime through viewing a scrupulous movie or a
serial of the same type. Several researches are accessible in the literature
which reveals that young people learn aggression through watching the actions
of others.
Bandura et al; reported one study recognized as ‗Bobo doll‘ study. One
group of nursery-school children saw an adult occupied in aggressive actions
against a large inflated Bobo doll. The adult who was serving as model
knocked the doll down, sat on it, insulted it verbally, repeatedly punched it in
nose. Another group of children were exposed to another model who behaved
in a quiet, non-aggressive manner. Afterwards, both the groups of children
were put in a room where many toys including a Bodo doll were accessible.
The behaviours of children were observed cautiously and found that those
children, who had seen aggressive model, started behaving in the same
method. They punched the toy, sat on it and uttered verbal abuse similar to
those of the model. The control group children did not show any kind of
aggression and played peacefully. The results of this observation clearly
indicate that children do shape their behaviour through observing others in
social situations approximately us.
No doubt, observational learning exists where one adheres to the
behaviours of a model, the liked person. You may now be interested to know
as how and to what extent we acquire behaviours, information or concepts
from others. Bandura described the four circumstances which facilitate
behaviour change through observation. The four circumstances are —
attention, retention, production process and motivation. For learning through
observation one necessity pay attention to the persons performing activities
which one likes, people attractive to them, the behaviours which are desirable
in the eyes of the observer, suiting the needs and goals of the person observing
the behaviours. In other words, the extent to which one focuses on others‘
behaviour is attention. Another factor is remembrances i.e. the extent to which
one remembers what the other person has done or what did he say? More the
remembrance, more quick is the adoption of actions.
Suppose, you try to copy the tune of a song. It will be easily ready if you
correctly keep in mind the musical details of the song. The third factor is
production processes. You may keep in mind the song and its musical details
but if you can not perform due to voice disability or lack of knowledge of
musical principles, you can not create a change in your behavioral pattern.
Hence, observational learning does not take place. Production process, hence,
depends on two main bases — the physical skill of the person getting learning
and the capability to monitor the desired behaviour till perfection is achieved.
The fourth factor, motivation, is very powerful in behavioral learning. If the
action, information received through a model is not useful for the observer,
then it will not be used and easily forgotten. Motivation keeps the observer in
the state of readiness to accept the things they need. Only such behaviours are
borrowed from others in the world in relation to the the observers feel it is a
necessity for them. This motivation level results in increased efforts to achieve
success through observing others in the society. In most of the cases, some
people become role models due to this process:
Basic determinants

Both positive and negative behaviours are adapted through observational

learning. People easily get influenced through other people approximately
them. The social, moral and other values are mostly absorbed through
behavioral learning model. This is why, the parents see that their children
always play with good children, see only socially desirable behaviours. You
may keep in mind in joint families old ladies mostly used to tell religious,
moral, social stories so that in open environment children should try to follow
the same pattern and be good children. Suppose, you visit some friend‘s
house. You get a cup of tea. When the tea is over, you keep your cup yourself
on the table. Children are keen observers. If some child observes your
behaviour, on her visit to any other house, if sweet is given to her, she will try
to keep the empty plate on the table herself. This method, observational
learning takes place. Aggression, or normal behaviour, in higher degree is
supposed to be a negative behaviour. Several studies have shown that when
aggressive behaviour gets re-enforcement through observation in movie or
television, it is accepted through children or even adults. Aggressive is added
to their repertoire. Later when angry or frustrated they use such aggressive
behaviours towards others.
Observational learning is an intricate process - more intricate than mere
imitation. A child develops in a society which may have a different cultural-
social values than a place where, in adulthood, gets a job. To adjust in a new
situation is comparatively hard and sometimes gets a ‗culture shock‘. Such a
person may be given cross-cultural training through experimental approach
based on behavioral modeling. Here, trainees first watch films in which
models exhibit the correct behaviours in a problem situation. They, then, take
part in role-play exercises to test their knowledge. Finally, they receive
constructive criticism concerning performance in role-play. Studies have
found it very effective in altering behaviours in the desirable direction. The
concept of social learning is fully based on observational learning in which
one observes determined through cognitive processes. While deciding the
model, one considers the outcome from different angles. If cognitively one is
satisfied then scrupulous behaviour of the model is accepted. Such accepted
behaviour stays in the person for a long period. Observational learning, in a
method, shapes our lives effectively.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Whenever there is a lunch time you feel hungry, if you have a set-sleep
time you feel a sleeping mood. How is it felt? These activities do take place
when a scrupulous time is fixed and if the time-table for such purposes is
flexible and irregular, then feelings may not be strong enough. This type of
behaviour or similar one has been explained through the classical
conditioning. Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1936), while conducting
experiments on dogs in relation to the various digestive reflexes, found out
that salivary reflex could be set off through stimuli which at first were totally
neutral. The experiment he mannered was simple but controlled. The dog was
put in a laboratory with a system where the saliva discharged can he measured
through the dog each time. When hungry, saliva comes out in mouth if food is
present. He paired a buzzer sound to food i.e. a buzzer sound was produced
before the food was provided to the dog. After a few trials it was seen that
when buzzer was produced without food the salivation took place in the dog.
Repeated buzzer-food pairings led to salivation to the buzzer alone. This
process was recognized as classical conditioning. In most of the reflexes this
process explains the learning procedures. The whole experiment can be
explained in the following manner:
Relationship betweens CS, UCS, CR and UCR in classical conditioning

The first step in the experiment was to attract attention to a neutral

incentive such as buzzer. The dog had a reaction ‗what-is-it?‘ type, what
Pavlov described orienting reflex. The dog paid attention to it through turning
head towards the incentive i.e. buzzer. The after that step was the repeated
buzzer food pairing leading to salivation to the buzzer alone. In each trial the
buzzer was produced and then food. After a few trials only buzzer was
produced and no food. Yet salivation took place only with buzzer tone. Pavlov
explained the whole process through making a distinction flanked by
unconditioned and conditioned reflexes. Unconditioned reflexes, he held, to be
essentially inborn which can be elicited unconditionally through the
appropriate incentive, like salivating to food in the mouth. Conditioned
reflexes were acquired based on organisms past experience. In this case,
salivating to buzzer. Unconditioned reflex is based upon a connection flanked
by unconditioned incentive (UCS) and unconditioned response (UCR), in this
case, food-in-the mouth (UCS) and salivation (U.C.R.). Conditioned reflex, on
the other hand, are condition incentive (CS) and conditioned response(CR), in
this case, buzzer(CS) and salivation (CR.) The CS is initially a neutral
incentive (the buzzer) that is paired with UCS; the CR (salivation) is the
response elicited through the CS after some pairings of CS and UCS. The
pairing is said to reinforce the connection; trials on which UCS occurs and on
which it is omitted are described reinforced and unreinforced trials
respectively.
Classical conditioning in human‘s daily life is very common. You tend to
feel hungry at meal-times and less so throughout the periods in flanked by, this
is so even if you fast the whole day. It has a role in formation of several
emotional reactions and fear is the best examples. Fear is urbanized in children
through conditioning. Phobia, the intense fear, is the outcome of conditioning.
Normally, all basic needs of human are conditioned in nature.

OPERANT CONDITIONING
The customized behaviour theory was urbanized through B.F. Skinner.
Skinner underlines the distinction flanked by classical and instrumental
conditioning. Animal‘s behaviour is elicited through CS is classical
conditioning; the salivation appears to be set off from the outside, therefore
justifying the reflex analogy to some extent. But in instrumental conditioning,
the organism appears to be less at the mercy of external stimulation. It‘s
reactions are voluntary, as it seems to come from within. Skinner defined such
instrumental responses ― operant;‖ they operate on the environment to bring in
relation to the some change that leads to reward. He mannered experiments in
a properly controlled and monitored box named after him ― Skinner Box‖.
Animals in the box got reinforced if they peck or press and in return got some
food grain. In operant conditioning a given behaviour will occur on the
consequences that follow it. Some consequences will be positive that
strengthen the behaviour where as some negative which suppresses the
behaviour.
Strengthening the behaviour is described reinforcement and suppressing
the behaviour is described punishment. The operant conditioning is a process
through which organisms learn to repeat behaviours that yield positive
outcomes or permit them to avoid or escape from negative outcomes. Positive
reinforcement increases the probability that the action will occur again in the
future. Some positive reinforces are related to basic biological needs and
described primary reinforces. We need food when hungry, need water when
thirsty. Some other events acquire their capability to act as positive reinforces
through association with primary reinforces and described conditioned
reinforces viz., money, status, grades, trophies and praise from others.
Negative reinforces are those that strengthen responses that permit an
organism to avoid or escape from their attendance. Such negative reinforces
may be heat, extreme cold, electric shock. Positive reinforces are incentive
events that strengthen the responses that precede them, where as negative
reinforces are aversive (unpleasant) incentive events that strengthen responses
that lead to their termination or at least avoidance. The operant conditioning is
based on these principles.
If you summarize the difference flanked by the two significant methods of
conditioning through a rough description of what is learned in each; you will
find a difference. In classical conditioning the organism necessity learn in
relation to the relations flanked by two stimuli, the CS and the UCS: Given CS
and UCS will follow. In instrumental learning, the organism has to learn the
relation flanked by a response and a reward: Given this response, there will be
reinforcement. These two theories have accounted for all types of learning in
our life. On the basis of these theories several therapeutic procedures have
been urbanized where undesirable behaviours are eliminated and new
desirable behaviours are urbanized in humans.

PRINCIPLES OF REINFORCEMENT
In behavioral psychology, reinforcement a consequence that will
strengthen an organism's future behavior whenever that behavior is preceded
through a specific antecedent incentive. This strengthening effect may be
measured as a higher frequency of behavior (e.g., pulling a lever more
regularly), longer duration (e.g., pulling a lever for longer periods of time),
greater magnitude (e.g., pulling a lever with greater force), or shorter latency
(e.g., pulling a lever more quickly following the antecedent incentive).
Although in several cases a reinforcing incentive is a rewarding incentive
which is "valued" or "liked" through the individual (e.g., money received from
a slot machine, the taste of the treat, the euphoria produced through an
addictive drug), this is not a requirement. Indeed, reinforcement does not even
require an individual to consciously perceive an effect elicited through the
incentive. Furthermore, stimuli that are "rewarding" or "liked" are not always
reinforcing: if an individual eats at McDonald's (response) and likes the taste
of the food (incentive), but believes it is bad for their health, they may not eat
it again and therefore it was not reinforcing in that condition. Therefore,
reinforcement occurs only if there is an observable strengthening in behavior.
In most cases reinforcement refers to an enhancement of behavior but this
term may also refer to an enhancement of memory. One instance of this effect
is described post-training reinforcement where an incentive (e.g. food) given
shortly after a training session enhances the learning. This incentive can also
be an emotional one. A good instance is that several people can explain in
detail where they were when they found out the World Trade Center was
attacked.

Types of Operant Conditioning

The basic definition is that a positive reinforce adds a incentive to augment

or maintain frequency of a behavior while a negative reinforce removes a
incentive to augment or maintain the frequency of the behavior. As mentioned
above, positive and negative reinforcement are components of operant
conditioning, beside with positive punishment and negative punishment, all
explained below:

Reinforcement
Positive Reinforcement occurs when an incentive is presented as a result
of operant behavior and that behavior increases.

Instance: If a dog "sits" on command and this behavior is followed

through the reward of a dog treat, then the dog treat serves to positively
reinforce the behavior of "sitting."
Instance: A father provides candy to his daughter when she picks up
her toys. If the frequency of picking up the toys increases, the candy is
a positive reinforce (to reinforce the behavior of cleaning up).

Negative Reinforcement occurs when an aversive (unpleasant) incentive is

removed as a result of operant behavior and the rate of the behavior increases.

Instance: A child cleans his or her room, and this behavior is followed
through the parent stopping "nagging" or asking the child repeatedly to
do so. Here, the nagging serves to negatively reinforce the behavior of
cleaning because the child wants to remove that aversive incentive of
nagging.
Instance: A person puts ointment on a bug bite to soothe an itch. If the
ointment works, the person will likely augment the usage of the
ointment because it resulted in removing the itch, which is the negative
reinforce.

Punishment
Positive punishment is the adding of an aversive (unpleasant) incentive to
decrease a behavior or response.

Instance: A mother yells at a child when he or she runs into the street.
If the child stops running into the street, the yelling acts as positive
punishment because the mother presents (adds) an unpleasant incentive
in the form of yelling.

Negative punishment is the removal of a pleasant incentive to decrease a

behavior or response.

Instance: A teenager comes home after curfew and the parents take
absent a privilege, such as cell phone usage. If the frequency of the
child coming home late decreases, the removal of the phone is negative
 punishment because the parents are taking absent a pleasant incentive
(the phone) and motivating the child to return home earlier.

Simply put, reinforces serve to augment behaviors whereas punishments

serve to decrease behaviors; therefore, positive reinforces are stimuli that the
subject will work to attain, and negative reinforces are stimuli that the subject
will work to be rid of or to end.
Further Ideas and Significant Concepts to Keep in mind:

Distinguishing flanked by positive and negative can be hard and may

not always be necessary; focusing on what is being removed or added
and how it is being removed or added will determine the nature of the
reinforcement.
A negative reinforce is not a punishment. The two, as explained above,
differ in the addition or removal of an incentive.
The augment in behavior is independent of (i.e. not related to) whether
or not the organism finds reinforce to be pleasant or aversive. Instance:
A child is given detention for acting up in school, but the frequency of
the bad behavior increases. Therefore, the detention is a positive
reinforce even if the detention is not a pleasant stimuli, perhaps
because the child now feels like a "rebel" or sees it as an opportunity to
get out of class.
Some reinforcement can be simultaneously positive and negative, such
as a drug addict taking drugs for the added euphoria (a positive feeling)
and eliminating withdrawal symptoms (which would be a negative
feeling). Or, in a warm room, a current of external air serves as
positive reinforcement because it is pleasantly cool and as negative
reinforcement because it removes uncomfortable hot air.
Both positive and negative reinforcement augment behavior. Most
people, especially children, will learn to follow instruction through a
mix of positive and negative reinforcement.

Primary reinforces
A primary reinforce, sometimes described an unconditioned reinforce, is
an incentive that does not require pairing to function as reinforce and most
likely has obtained this function through the evolution and its role in species'
survival. Examples of primary reinforces contain sleep, food, air, water, and
sex. Some primary reinforces, such as certain drugs, may mimic the effects of
other primary reinforces. While these primary reinforces are fairly stable
through life and crossways individuals, the reinforcing value of different
primary reinforces varies due to multiple factors (e.g., genetics, experience).
Therefore, one person may prefer one type of food while another abhors it. Or
one person may eat lots of food while another eats very little. So even though
food is a primary reinforce for both individuals, the value of food as reinforce
differs flanked by them.

Secondary reinforces
A secondary reinforce, sometimes described a conditioned reinforce, is an
incentive or situation that has acquired its function as reinforce after pairing
with an incentive that functions as reinforce. This incentive may be a primary
reinforce or another conditioned reinforce (such as money). An instance of a
secondary reinforce would be the sound from a clicker, as used in clicker
training. The sound of the clicker has been associated with praise or treats, and
subsequently, the sound of the clicker may function as reinforce. As with
primary reinforces, an organism can experience satiation and deprivation with
secondary reinforces.

Other reinforcement conditions

A generalized reinforce is a conditioned reinforcer that has obtained

the reinforcing function through pairing with several other reinforces
(One instance of this is money because it is paired with several other
reinforces).
In reinforcer sampling, a potentially reinforcing but unfamiliar
incentive is presented to an organism without regard to any prior
behavior.
Socially-mediated reinforcement (direct reinforcement) involves the
delivery of reinforcement that requires the behavior of another
organism.
The Premack principle is a special case of reinforcement elaborated
through David Premack, which states that a highly-preferred activity
can be used effectively as a reinforcer for a less-preferred activity.
Reinforcement hierarchy is a list of actions, rank-ordering the most
desirable to least desirable consequences that may serve as a
reinforcer. A reinforcement hierarchy can be used to determine the
relative frequency and desirability of different activities, and is often
employed when applying the Premack principle.
Contingent outcomes are more likely to reinforce behavior than non-
contingent responses. Contingent outcomes are those directly
connected to a causal behavior, such a light turning on being
contingent on flipping a switch. Note that contingent outcomes are not
necessary to demonstrate reinforcement, but perceived contingency
may augment learning.
Contiguous stimuli are stimuli closely associated through time and
space with specific behaviors. They reduce the amount of time needed
to learn a behavior while increasing its resistance to extinction. Giving
a dog a piece of food immediately after sitting is more contiguous with
 (and so more likely to reinforce) the behavior than a many minute
delay in food delivery following the behavior.
Noncontingent reinforcement refers to response-independent delivery
of stimuli recognized as reinforces for some behaviors of that
organism. Though, this typically entails time-based delivery of stimuli
recognized as maintaining aberrant behavior, which decreases the rate
of the target behavior. As no measured behavior is recognized as being
strengthened, there is controversy nearby the use of the term
noncontingent "reinforcement".

Natural and artificial

In his 1967 paper, Arbitrary and Natural Reinforcement, Charles Ferster

proposed classifying reinforcement into events that augment frequency of an
operant as a natural consequence of the behavior itself, and events that are
presumed to affect frequency through their requirement of human mediation,
such as in a token economy where subjects are "rewarded" for certain behavior
with an arbitrary token of a negotiable value. In 1970, Baer and Wolf created a
name for the use of natural reinforces described "behavior traps". A behavior
trap requires only a simple response to enter the trap, yet once entered, the trap
cannot be resisted in creating general behavior change. It is the use of a
behavioral trap that increases a person's repertoire, through exposing them to
the naturally occurring reinforcement of that behavior. Behavior traps have
four characteristics:

They are "baited" with virtually irresistible reinforces that "lure" the
student to the trap
Only a low-effort response already in the repertoire is necessary to
enter the trap
Interrelated contingencies of reinforcement inside the trap motivate the
person to acquire, extend, and maintain targeted academic/social skills
They can remain effective for long periods of time because the person
shows few, if any, satiation effects

As can be seen from the above, artificial reinforcement is in fact created to

build or develop skills, and to generalize, it is significant that either a behavior
trap is introduced to "capture" the ability and utilize naturally occurring
reinforcement to maintain or augment it. This behavior trap may simply be a
social situation that will usually result from a specific behavior once it has met
a certain criterion (e.g., if you use edible reinforces to train a person to say
hello and smile at people when they meet them, after that ability has been built
up, the natural reinforcer of other people smiling, and having more friendly
interactions will naturally reinforce the ability and the edibles can be faded).
Intermittent reinforcements

Pigeons experimented on in a scientific study were more responsive to

intermittent reinforcements, than positive reinforcements. In other words,
pigeons were more prone to act when they only sometimes could get what they
wanted. This effect was such that behavioral responses were maximized when
the reward rate was at 50% (in other words, when the uncertainty was
maximized), and would slowly decline toward values on either side of 50%.
R.B Sparkman, a journalist specialized on what motivates human behavior,
claims this is also true for humans, and may in part explain human tendencies
such as gambling addiction.

Shaping

Shaping is reinforcement of successive approximations to a desired

instrumental response. In training a rat to press a lever, for instance, simply
turning toward the lever is reinforced at first. Then, only turning and stepping
toward it is reinforced. The outcomes of one set of behaviours starts the
shaping process for the after that set of behaviours, and the outcomes of that
set prepares the shaping process for the after that set, and so on. As training
progresses, the response reinforced becomes progressively more like the
desired behavior; each behavior becomes a closer approximation of the final
behaviour.

Chaining

Chaining involves linking discrete behaviors together in a series, such that

each result of each behavior is both the reinforcement (or consequence) for the
previous behavior, and the stimuli (or antecedent) for the after that behavior.
There are several methods to teach chaining, such as forward chaining
(starting from the first behavior in the chain), backwards chaining (starting
from the last behavior) and total task chaining (in which the whole behavior is
taught from beginning to end, rather than as a series of steps). An instance is
opening a locked door. First the key is inserted, and then turned, and then the
door opened.
Forward chaining would teach the subject first to insert the key. Once that
task is mastered, they are told to insert the key, and taught to turn it. Once that
task is mastered, they are told to perform the first two, and then taught to open
the door. Backwards chaining would involve the teacher first inserting and
turning the key, and the subject is taught to open the door. Once that is
learned, the teacher inserts the key, and the subject is taught to turn it, then
opens the door as the after that step. Finally, the subject is taught to insert the
key, and they turn and open the door. Once the first step is mastered, the
whole task has been taught. Total task chaining would involve teaching the
whole task as a single series, prompting through all steps. Prompts are faded
(reduced) at each step as they are mastered.

Persuasive communication & the reinforcement theory

Persuasive communication: Persuasion influences any person the

method they think, act and feel. Persuasive ability tells in relation to
the how people understand the concern, position and needs of the
people. Persuasion can be classified into informal persuasion and
formal persuasion.
Informal persuasion: This tells in relation to the method in which a
person interacts with his/her colleagues and customers. The informal
persuasion can be used in team, memos as well as e-mails.
Formal persuasion: This type of persuasion is used in writing customer
letter, proposal and also for formal presentation to any customer or
colleagues.
Process of persuasion: Persuasion relates how you influence people
with your skills, experience, knowledge, leadership, qualities and team
capabilities. Persuasion is an interactive process while getting the work
done through others. Here are examples for which you can use
persuasion skills in real time. Interview: you can prove your best
talents, skills and expertise. Clients: to guide your clients for the
achievement of the goals or targets. Memos: to express your ideas and
views to coworkers for the improvement in the operations. Resistance
identification and positive attitude are the vital roles of persuasion.
Persuasion is a form of human interaction. It takes place when one
individual expects some scrupulous response from one or more other
individuals and deliberately sets out to secure the response through the use of
communication. The communicator necessity realizes that different groups
have different values. In instrumental learning situations, which involve
operant behavior, the persuasive communicator will present his message and
then wait for the receiver to create a correct response. As soon as the receiver
creates the response, the communicator wills effort to fix the response through
some appropriate reward or reinforcement. In conditional learning situations,
where there is respondent behavior, the communicator presents his message so
as to elicit the response he wants from the receiver, and the incentive that
originally served to elicit the response then becomes the reinforcing or
rewarding element in conditioning.
COGNITIVE LEARNING
Cognitive learning is the study of mental processes such as "attention,
language use, memory, perception, problem solving, and thinking." Much of
the work derived from cognitive psychology has been integrated into several
other modern disciplines of psychological study including social psychology,
personality psychology, abnormal psychology, developmental psychology,
and educational psychology.

The mental processes

The main focus of cognitive psychologists is on the mental processes that

affect behavior. Those processes contain, but are not limited to, the following:

Attention
The psychological definition of attention is "A state of focused awareness
on a subset of the accessible perceptual information". The key function of
attention is to discriminate flanked by irrelevant data and filter it out, enabling
the desired data to be distributed to the other mental processes. The human
brain may, at times, simultaneously receive inputs in the form of auditory,
visual, olfactory, taste, and tactile information. Without the skill to filter out
some or most of that simultaneous information and focus on one or typically
two at most, the brain would become overloaded as a person attempted to
process that information. One major focal point relating to attention within the
field of cognitive psychology is the concept of divided attention. A number of
early studies dealt with the skill of a person wearing headphones to discern
meaningful conversation when presented with different messages into each
ear. Key findings involved an increased understanding of the mind's skill to
both focus on one message, while still being somewhat aware of information
being taken in from the ear not being consciously attended to. E.g. participants
(wearing earphones) may be told that they will be hearing separate messages
in each ear and that they are expected to attend only to information related to
basketball. When the experiment starts, the message in relation to the
basketball will be presented to the left ear and non-relevant information will
be presented to the right ear. At some point the message related to basketball
will switch to the right ear and the non-relevant information to the left ear.
When this happens, the listener is usually able to repeat the whole message at
the end, having attended to the left or right ear only when it was appropriate.

Memory
Modern conceptions of memory typically break it down into three main
sub-classes. These three classes are somewhat hierarchical in nature, in
conditions of the level of conscious thought related to their use.

Procedural memory is memory for the performance of scrupulous

types of action. It is often activated on a subconscious level, or at most
requires a minimal amount of conscious effort. Procedural memory
comprises incentive-response type information which is activated
 through association with scrupulous tasks, routines, etc. A person is
using procedural knowledge when they seemingly "automatically"
respond in a scrupulous manner, to a scrupulous situation or process.
Semantic memory is the encyclopedic knowledge that a person
possesses. Things like what the Eiffel Tower looks like, or the name of
a friend from sixth grade would be semantic memory. Access of
semantic memory ranges from slightly to very effortful, which depends
on a number of variables including but not limited to: regency of
encoding of the information, number of associations it has to other
information, frequency of access, and levels of meaning (how deeply it
was processed when it was encoded).
Episodic memory is the memory of autobiographical events that can be
explicitly stated. It contains all memories that are temporal in nature,
such as when you last brushed your teeth, where you were when you
heard in relation to a major news event, etc. Episodic memory typically
requires the deepest level of conscious thought, as it often pulls
together semantic memory and temporal information to formulate the
whole memory.

Perception
Perception involves both the physical senses (sight, smell, hearing, taste,
touch, and proprioception) as well as the cognitive processes involved in
interpreting those senses. Essentially, it is how people come to understand the
world approximately them through interpretation of stimuli. Early
psychologists like Edward B. Titchener, began to work with perception in
their structuralist approach to psychology. Structuralism dealt heavily with
trying to reduce human thought (or "consciousness," as Titchener would have
described it) into its most basic elements through gaining understanding of
how an individual perceives scrupulous stimuli.
Current perspectives on perception within cognitive psychology tend to focus
on scrupulous methods in which the human mind interprets stimuli from the
senses and how these interpretations affect behavior. An instance of the
method in which modern psychologists approach the study of perception
would be the research being done at the Center for Ecological Study of
Perception and Action at the University of Connecticut (CESPA). One study at
CESPA concerns methods in which individuals perceive their physical
environment and how that influences their navigation through that
environment.

Language
Psychologists have had an interest in the cognitive processes involved with
language that dates back to the 1870s, when Carl Wernicke proposed a model
for the mental processing of language. Current work on language within the
field of cognitive psychology varies widely. Cognitive psychologists may
study language acquisition, individual components of language formation (like
phonemes), how language use is involved in mood, or numerous other related
areas. Important work has been done recently with regard to understanding the
timing of language acquisition and how it can be used to determine if a child
has, or is at risk of, developing a learning disability. A study from 2012
showed that while this can be an effective strategy, it is significant that those
making evaluations contain all relevant information when making their
assessments. Factors such as individual variability, socioeconomic status,
short term and long term memory capability, and others necessity be
incorporated in order to create valid assessments.

Metacognition
Metacognition, in a broad sense, is the thoughts that a person has in
relation to the own thoughts. More specifically, metacognition comprises
things like:

How effective a person is at monitoring their own performance on a

given task (self-regulation).
A person's understanding of their capabilities on scrupulous mental
tasks.
The skill to apply cognitive strategies.

Much of the current study concerning metacognition within the field of

cognitive psychology deals with its application within the area of education.
Being able to augment a student's metacognitive abilities has been shown to
have an important impact on their learning and study habits. One key aspect of
this concept is the improvement of students' skill to set goals and self-regulate
effectively to meet those goals. As a part of this process, it is also significant
to ensure that students are realistically evaluating their personal degree of
knowledge and setting realistic goals (another metacognitive task).

Modern cognitive psychology

Modern perspectives on cognitive psychology usually address cognition as

a dual process theory, introduced through Jonathan Haidt in 2006, and
expounded upon through Daniel Kahneman in 2011. Kahneman differentiated
the two styles of processing more, calling them intuition and reasoning.
Intuition (or system 1), similar to associative reasoning, was determined to be
fast and automatic, usually with strong emotional bonds incorporated in the
reasoning process. Kahneman said that this kind of reasoning was based on
formed habits and very hard to change or manipulate. Reasoning (or system 2)
was slower and much more volatile, being subject to conscious judgments and
attitudes.
Cognitive psychology vs. cognitive science

The line flanked by cognitive psychology and cognitive science can be a

blurry one. The differentiation flanked by the two is best understood in
conditions of cognitive psychology's relationship to applied psychology, and
the understanding of psychological phenomena. Cognitive psychologists are
often heavily involved in running psychological experiments involving human
participants, with the goal of gathering information related to how the human
mind takes in, processes, and acts upon inputs received from the outside
world. The information gained in this area is then often used in the applied
field of clinical psychology. One of the paradigms of cognitive psychology
derived in this manner is that every individual develops schemata which
motivate the person to think or act in a scrupulous method in the face of a
scrupulous circumstance. E.g., most people have a schema for waiting in line.
When approaching some type of service counter where people are waiting
their turn, most people don't just walk to the front of the line and butt in. Their
schema for that situation tells them to get in the back of the line. This then
applies to the field of abnormal psychology as a result of individuals
sometimes developing faulty schemata which lead them to uniformly react in a
dysfunctional manner. If a person has a schema that says "I am no good at
making friends", they may become so reluctant to pursue interpersonal
relationships that they become prone to seclusion.
Cognitive science is better understood as predominantly concerned with
gathering data through research. Cognitive science envelopes a much broader
scope, which has links to philosophy, linguistics, anthropology, neuroscience,
and particularly with artificial intelligence. It could be said that cognitive
science gives the database of information that fuels the theory from which
cognitive psychologists operate. Cognitive scientists' research mostly involves
non-human subjects, allowing them to delve into areas which would come
under ethical scrutiny if performed on human participants. I.e., they may do
research implanting devices in the brains of rats to track the firing of neurons
while the rat performs a scrupulous task. Cognitive science is highly involved
in the area of artificial intelligence and its application to the understanding of
mental processes.

Criticisms

In its early years, critics held that the empiricism of cognitive psychology
was incompatible with its acceptance of internal mental states. Though, the
sibling field of cognitive neuroscience has provided proof of physiological
brain states that directly correlate with mental states - therefore providing
support for the central assumption of cognitive psychology.
As cognitive psychology gained momentum as a movement, through the
1970s, the complexity of the processes involved in human thought, in the
opinion of several, fractured studies of cognition so greatly that the field lost
cohesion. John C. Malone poses the assertion, in his book: Psychology:
Pythagoras to Present, that "Examinations of late twentieth-century textbooks
dealing with 'cognitive psychology', 'human cognition', 'cognitive science', and
the like quickly reveals that there are several, several diversities of cognitive
psychology and very little agreement in relation to the exactly what may be its
domain". The information processing approach to cognitive functioning is
currently being questioned through new approaches in psychology, such as
dynamical systems, and the embodiment perspective.
INDIVIDUALIZED LEARNING
Individual Learning is the skill of individuals to experience personal
growth in their interactions with the world approximately them.

Individual Learning Plan

Individual Learning Plan or ILP is a user (student) specific program or

strategy of education or learning that takes into consideration the student's
strengths and weaknesses. While normal classroom or aloofness education is
based on the premise that all should get equal attention (a democratic
principle), be exposed to same curriculum and evaluated on the same pattern
('One size fits all'), ILP presumes that the needs of individual students are
different, and therefore, necessity be differently addressed. Emphasis on the
student's role in the learning experience has been shown in research to be
crucial to a productive learning experience.
The Individual Learning Plan can also be used through an individual on
their own or as part of a community of interest, a team or an organization to
manage learning over the course of their life. This is explored further in the
article "Learning Plan."
Adopted through several institutes as a teaching methodology, ILP for a
student is generated after interaction flanked by the student and the teacher,
and is based upon assessment made therein. Further, ILP:
Incorporates long-term goals of the student
Synthesizes with the superior educational framework
Provides credence to the student's aspirations - cultural, artistic, social,
or personal

LEARNER AND LEARNING MEMORY

In psychology, memory is the process in which information is encoded,
stored, and retrieved. Encoding allows information that is from the outside
world to reach our senses in the forms of chemical and physical stimuli. In this
first stage we necessity change the information so that we may put the
memory into the encoding process. Storage is the second memory stage or
process. This entails that we maintain information over periods of time.
Finally the third process is the retrieval of information that we have stored. We
necessity locate it and return it to our consciousness. Some retrieval attempts
may be effortless due to the type of information.
From information processing perspective there are three main stages in the
formation and retrieval of memory:

Encoding or registration: getting, processing and combining of

received information
Storage: creation of a permanent record of the encoded information
Retrieval, recall or recognition: calling back the stored information in
response to some cue for use in a process or activity

The loss of memory is described as forgetfulness, or as a medical disorder,

amnesia.

Techniques used to study memory

Techniques used to assess infants’ memory

Infants do not have the language skill to report on their memories, and so,
verbal reports cannot be used to assess very young children‘s memory.
Throughout the years, though, researchers have adapted and urbanized a
number of measures for assessing both infants‘ recognition memory and their
recall memory. Habituation and operant conditioning techniques have been
used to assess infants‘ recognition memory and the deferred and elicited
imitation techniques have been used to assess infants‘ recall memory.
Techniques used to assess infants‘ recognition memory contain the
following:

Visual paired comparison procedure (relies on habituation): infants are

first presented with pairs of visual stimuli, such as two black-and-white
photos of human faces, for a fixed amount of time; then, after being
familiarized with the two photos, they are presented with the ― familiar‖
photo and a new photo. The time spent looking at each photo is
recorded. Looking longer at the new photo designates that they keep in
mind the ― familiar‖ one. Studies using this procedure have found that
5- to 6-month-olds can retain information for as long as fourteen days.
Operant conditioning technique: infants are placed in a crib and a
ribbon that is linked to a mobile overhead is tied to one of their feet.
Infants notice that when they kick their foot the mobile moves – the
rate of kicking increases dramatically within minutes. Studies using
this technique have revealed that infants‘ memory considerably
improves over the first 18-months. Whereas 2- to 3-month-olds can
retain an operant response (such as activating the mobile through
kicking their foot) for a week, 6-month-olds can retain it for two
 weeks, and 18-month-olds can retain a similar operant response for as
long as 13 weeks.

Techniques used to assess infants‘ recall memory contain the following:

Deferred imitation technique: an experimenter shows infants a unique

sequence of actions (such as using a stick to push a button on a box)
and then, after a delay, asks the infants to imitate the actions. Studies
using deferred imitation have shown that 14-month-olds‘ memories for
the sequence of actions can last for as long as four months.
Elicited imitation technique: is very similar to the deferred imitation
technique; the difference is that infants are allowed to imitate the
actions before the delay. Studies using the elicited imitation technique
have shown that 20-month-olds can recall the action sequences twelve
months later.

Techniques used to assess older children and adults' memory

Researchers use a diversity of tasks to assess older children and adults'
memory. Some examples contain the following:

Paired associate learning - when one learns to associate one specific

word with another. For instance when given a word such as "safe" one
necessity learn to say another specific word, such as "green". This is
incentive and response.
Free recall - throughout this task a subject would be asked to study a
list of words and then sometime later they will be asked to recall or
write down as several words that they can keep in mind. Earlier items
are affected through retroactive interference, or RI, which means the
longer the list, the greater the interference, and the less likelihood that
they are recalled. On the other hand, items that have been presented
lastly suffer little RI, but suffers a great deal from proactive
interference, or PI, which means the longer the delay in recall, the
more likely that the items will be lost.
Recognition - subjects are asked to keep in mind a list of words or
pictures, after which point they are asked to identify the previously
presented words or pictures from among a list of alternatives that were
not presented in the original list.
Discovery Paradigm - Individuals are shown a number of objects and
color samples throughout a certain period of time. They are then tested
on their visual skill to keep in mind as much as they can through
looking at testers and pointing out whether the testers are similar to the
sample, or if any change is present.
Memory failures

Transience - memories degrade with the passing of time. This occurs in

the storage stage of memory, after the information has been stored and
before it is retrieved. This can happen in sensory, short-term, and long-
term storage. It follows a general pattern where the information is
rapidly forgotten throughout the first couple of days or years, followed
through small losses in later days or years.
Absentmindedness - Memory failure due to the lack of attention.
Attention plays a key role in storing information into long-term
memory; without proper attention, the information might not be stored,
making it impossible to be retrieved later.

Cognitive neuroscience of memory

Cognitive neuroscientists consider memory as the retention, reactivation,

and reconstruction of the experience-independent internal representation. The
term of internal representation implies that such definition of memory contains
two components: the expression of memory at the behavioral or conscious
level, and the underpinning physical neural changes. The latter component is
also described anagram or memory traces. Some neuroscientists and
psychologists mistakenly equate the concept of anagram and memory, broadly
conceiving all persisting after-effects of experiences as memory; others argue
against this notion that memory does not exist until it is revealed in behavior
or thought.
One question that is crucial in cognitive neuroscience is how information
and mental experiences are coded and represented in the brain. Scientists have
gained much knowledge in relation to the neuronal codes from the studies of
plasticity, but most of such research has been focused on simple learning in
simple neuronal circuits; it is considerably less clear in relation to the neuronal
changes involved in more intricate examples of memory, particularly
declarative memory that requires the storage of facts and events.

Encoding. Encoding of working memory involves the spiking of

individual neurons induced through sensory input, which persists even
after the sensory input disappears. Encoding of episodic memory
involves persistent changes in molecular structures that alter synaptic
transmission flanked by neurons. Examples of such structural changes
contain long-term potentiation (LTP) or spike-timing-dependent
plasticity (STDP). The persistent spiking in working memory can
enhance the synaptic and cellular changes in the encoding of episodic
memory.
 Working memory. Recent functional imaging studies detected working
memory signals in both medial temporal lobe (MTL), a brain area
strongly associated with long-term memory, and prefrontal cortex,
suggesting a strong relationship flanked by working memory and long-
term memory. Though, the considerably more working memory signals
seen in the prefrontal lobe suggest that this area play a more significant
role in working memory than MTL.

Consolidation and reconsolidation. Short-term memory (STM) is

temporary and subject to disruption, while long-term memory (LTM),
once consolidated, is persistent and stable. Consolidation of STM into
LTM at the molecular level presumably involves two processes:
synaptic consolidation and system consolidation. The former involves
a protein synthesis process in the medial temporal lobe (MTL),
whereas the latter transforms the MTL-dependent memory into an
MTL-independent memory over months to years. In recent years, such
traditional consolidation dogma has been re-evaluated as a result of the
studies on reconsolidation. These studies showed that prevention after
retrieval affects subsequent retrieval of the memory. New studies have
shown that post-retrieval treatment with protein synthesis inhibitors
and several other compounds can lead to an amnesic state. These
findings on reconsolidation fit with the behavioral proof that retrieved
memory is not a carbon copy of the initial experiences, and memories
are updated throughout retrieval.

Factors that influence memory

Influence of odors and emotions

In March 2007 German researchers found they could use odors to re-
activate new memories in the brains of people while they slept and the
volunteers remembered better later. Emotion can have a powerful impact on
memory. Numerous studies have shown that the most vivid autobiographical
memories tend to be of emotional events, which are likely to be recalled more
often and with more clarity and detail than neutral events.
The part of the brain that is critical in creating the feeling of emotion is the
amygdale, which allows for stress hormones to strengthen neuron
communication. The chemicals cortisone and adrenaline are released in the
brain when the amygdale is activated through positive or negative excitement.
The most effective method to activate the amygdale is fear, because fear is an
instinctive, protective mechanism which comes on strong making it
memorable. Sometimes the feeling can be overwhelming. This is when a
memory can be hazy yet vivid, or haunting with perfect clarity. This detection
led to the development of a drug to help treat posttraumatic stress disorder
(PTSD). When someone is in a heightened emotional state, the events causing
it become strong and ground in the memory, sometimes disrupting daily life
for years.
An experiment done with rats helped make the drug for treating this issue.
Dr. Kerry Ressler at Emory University, used tones and shocks to test an
existing drug described dicyclomine used commonly for tuberculosis. Rats
would hear a tone and receive a mild shock, training them to fear the tone.
Then the drug was given to one set of rats, and the tests were done again. The
rats that did not receive the drug froze in fear. When the tone was heard, the
rats given the drug ignored the tone and sustained on. The drug can effectively
allow for new receptor connections flanked by neurons and relaxing of the
amygdale when it comes to fear, allowing patients to have a chance of
recovery from PTSD.
Dr. Barbara Rothbaum at Emory University conducts experimental
treatments for PTSD using the knowledge that exactly the same neurons are
active when remembering an event as when it was created. Her administration
of the drug dicyclomine is planned to help patient‘s foster new connections
flanked by neurons, providing a window to lessen former traumatic
connections. Rothbaum decided to use the drug in a therapy session that
utilizes virtual reality to provide PTSD suffers a second chance. Once the
events that have caused the PTSD are recognized, the process can begin. The
surroundings of the events are recreated in a virtual reality helmet (for
instance, in a combat vehicle in the desert). This would help to recall the target
memories in a safe environment, and activate the neurons without activating
the fear response from the amygdale. When the dicyclomine is in the patient's
system and the same neurons are active that were active throughout the event,
the patient can now have a chance to re-form neural connections, with less
chemicals present from the amygdale. This does not erase the memory, but
rather lessens the strength of it, giving some relief so that people suffering
from PTSD can try to move on and live their lives.
Recall is connected with emotion. If pain, joy, excitement, or any other
strong emotion is present throughout an event, the neurons active throughout
this event produce strong connections with each other. When this event is
remembered or recalled in the future, the neurons will more easily and
speedily create the same connections. The strength and longevity of memories
is directly related to the amount of emotion felt throughout the event of their
creation. This understanding helps the future of healthy and effective solutions
to memory problems like PTSD.

Interference from previous knowledge

At the Center for Cognitive Science at Ohio State University, researchers
have found that memory accuracy of adults is hurt through the fact that they
know more, and have more experience than children, and tend to apply all this
knowledge when learning new information. The findings appeared in the
August 2004 edition of the journal Psychological Science.
 Interference can hamper memorization and retrieval. There is retroactive
interference, when learning new information creates it harder to recall old
information and proactive interference, where prior learning disrupts recall of
new information. Although interference can lead to forgetting, it is significant
to keep in mind that there are situations when old information can facilitate
learning of new information. Knowing Latin, for instance, can help an
individual learn a related language such as French – this phenomenon is
recognized as positive transfer.

Improving memory

A UCLA research study published in the June 2006 issue of the American
Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry found that people can improve cognitive
function and brain efficiency through simple lifestyle changes such as
incorporating memory exercises, healthy eating, physical fitness and stress
reduction into their daily lives. This study examined 17 subjects, (average age
53) with normal memory performance. Eight subjects were asked to follow a
"brain healthy" diet, relaxation, physical, and mental exercise (brain teasers
and verbal memory training techniques). After 14 days, they showed greater
word fluency (not memory) compared to their baseline performance. No long
term follow up was mannered; it is so unclear if this intervention has lasting
effects on memory.
There are a loosely associated group of mnemonic principles and
techniques that can be used to vastly improve memory recognized as the Art
of memory.
The International Longevity Center released in 2001 a report which
comprises in pages 14–16 recommendations for keeping the mind in good
functionality until advanced age. Some of the recommendations are to stay
intellectually active through learning, training or reading, to keep physically
active so to promote blood circulation to the brain, to socialize, to reduce
stress, to keep sleep time regular, to avoid depression or emotional instability
and to observe good nutrition.

Levels of processing
Craik and Lockhart (1972) proposed that it is the method and depth of
processing that affects how an experience is stored in memory, rather than
rehearsal.

Organization - Mandler (1967) gave participants a pack of word cards

and asked them to sort them into any number of piles using any system
of categorization they liked. When they were later asked to recall as
several of the words as they could, those who used more categories
remembered more words. This study suggested that the organization of
memory is one of its central characteristics.
 Distinctiveness - Eysenck and Eysenck (1980) asked participants to
say words in a distinctive method, e.g. spell the words out loud. Such
participants recalled the words better than those who simply read them
off a list.
Effort - Tyler et al. (1979) had participants solve a series of anagrams,
some easy (FAHTER) and some hard (HREFAT). The participants
recalled the hard anagrams better, presumably because they put more
effort into them.
Elaboration - Palmere et al. (1983) gave participants descriptive
paragraphs of a fictitious African nation. There were some short
paragraphs and some with extra sentences elaborating the main
thought. Recall was higher for the ideas in the elaborated paragraphs.

Methods to optimize memorization

Memorization is a method of learning that allows an individual to recall
information verbatim. Rote learning is the method most often used. Methods
of memorizing things have been the subject of much discussion over the years
with some writers, such as Cosmos Rossellius using visual alphabets. The
spacing effect shows that an individual is more likely to keep in mind a list of
items when rehearsal is spaced over an extended period of time. In contrast to
this is cramming which is rigorous memorization in a short period of time.
Also relevant is the Zeigarnik effect which states that people keep in mind
uncompleted or interrupted tasks better than completed ones. The so-described
Method of loci uses spatial memory to memorize non-spatial information.
KINDS OF MEMORY
Researchers distinguish flanked by recognition and recall memory.
Recognition memory tasks require individuals to indicate whether they have
encountered an incentive (such as a picture or a word) before. Recall memory
tasks require participants to retrieve previously learned information. For
instance, individuals might be asked to produce a series of actions they have
seen before or to say a list of words they have heard before.

Classification through information type

Topographic memory involves the skill to orient oneself in space, to

recognize and follow an itinerary, or to recognize familiar places. Getting lost
when traveling alone is an instance of the failure of topographic memory. This
is often reported among elderly patients who are evaluated for dementia. The
disorder could be caused through multiple impairments, including difficulties
with perception, orientation, and memory.
Flashbulb memories are clear episodic memories of unique and highly
emotional events. Remembering where you were or what you were doing
when you first heard the news of President Kennedy‘s assassination or in
relation to the9/11 are examples of flashbulb memories. Anderson (1976)
divides long-term memory into declarative (explicit) and procedural (implicit)
memories.

Declarative memory
Declarative memory requires conscious recall, in that some conscious
process necessity calls back the information. It is sometimes described explicit
memory, since it consists of information that is explicitly stored and retrieved.
Declarative memory can be further sub-divided into semantic memory,
which concerns facts taken independent of context; and episodic memory,
which concerns information specific to a scrupulous context, such as a time
and place. Semantic memory allows the encoding of abstract knowledge in
relation to the world, such as "Paris is the capital of France". Episodic
memory, on the other hand, is used for more personal memories, such as the
sensations, emotions, and personal associations of a scrupulous place or time.
Autobiographical memory - memory for scrupulous events within one's own
life - is usually viewed as either equivalent to, or a subset of, episodic
memory. Visual memory is part of memory preserving some characteristics of
our senses pertaining to visual experience. One is able to place in memory
information that resembles objects, places, animals or people in sort of a
mental image. Visual memory can result in priming and it is assumed some
kind of perceptual representational system underlies this phenomenon.

Procedural memory
In contrast, procedural memory (or implicit memory) is not based on the
conscious recall of information, but on implicit learning. Procedural memory
is primarily employed in learning motor skills and should be measured a
subset of implicit memory. It is revealed when one does better in a given task
due only to repetition - no new explicit memories have been formed, but one is
unconsciously accessing characteristics of those previous experiences.
Procedural memory involved in motor learning depends on the cerebellum and
basal ganglia.
A characteristic of procedural memory is that the things that are
remembered are automatically translated into actions, and therefore sometimes
hard to describe. Some examples of procedural memory contain the skill to
ride a bike or tie shoelaces.

Classification through temporal direction

A further major method to distinguish different memory functions is

whether the content to be remembered is in the past, retrospective memory, or
whether the content is to be remembered in the future, prospective memory.
Therefore, retrospective memory as a category comprises semantic, episodic
and autobiographical memory. In contrast, prospective memory is memory for
future intentions, or remembering to keep in mind. Prospective memory can be
further broken down into event- and time-based prospective remembering.
Time-based prospective memories are triggered through a time-cue, such as
going to the doctor (action) at 4pm (cue). Event-based prospective memories
are intentions triggered through cues, such as remembering to post a letter
(action) after seeing a mailbox (cue). Cues do not need to be related to the
action (as the mailbox/letter instance), and lists, sticky-notes, knotted
handkerchiefs, or string approximately the finger all exemplify cues that
people use as strategies to enhance prospective memory.
PROCESSES OF MEMORY
Memory is essentially the capability for storing and retrieving information.
Three processes are involved in memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval. All
three of these processes determine whether something is remembered or
forgotten.

Encoding

Processing information into memory is described encoding. People

automatically encode some types of information without being aware of it. For
instance, most people almost certainly can recall where they ate lunch
yesterday, even though they didn‘t try to keep in mind this information.
Though, other types of information become encoded only if people pay
attention to it. College students will almost certainly not keep in mind all the
material in their textbooks unless they pay close attention while they‘re
reading.
There are many different methods of encoding verbal information:

Structural encoding focuses on what words look like. For instance, one
might note whether words are long or short, in uppercase or lowercase,
or handwritten or typed.
Phonemic encoding focuses on how words sound.
Semantic encoding focuses on the meaning of words. Semantic
encoding requires a deeper level of processing than structural or
phonemic encoding and usually results in better memory.

Storage

After information enters the brain, it has to be stored or maintained. To

describe the process of storage, several psychologists use the three-stage
model proposed through Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin. According to
this model, information is stored sequentially in three memory systems:
sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
Sensory Memory
Sensory memory stores incoming sensory information in detail but only
for an instant. The capability of sensory memory is very large, but the
information in it is unprocessed. If a flashlight moves quickly in a circle inside
a dark room, people will see a circle of light rather than the individual points
through which the flashlight moved. This happens because sensory memory
holds the successive images of the moving flashlight long enough for the brain
to see a circle. Visual sensory memory is described iconic memory; auditory
sensory memory is described echoic memory.

Short-Term Memory
Some of the information in sensory memory transfers to short-term
memory, which can hold information for almost twenty seconds. Rehearsing
can help keep information in short-term memory longer. When people repeat a
new phone number over and over to themselves, they are rehearsing it and
keeping it in short-term memory.
Short-term memory has a limited capability: it can store in relation to the
seven pieces of information, plus or minus two pieces. These pieces of
information can be small, such as individual numbers or letters, or superior,
such as familiar strings of numbers, words, or sentences. A method described
chunking can help to augment the capability of short-term memory. Chunking
combines small bits of information into bigger, familiar pieces.

Working Memory
Psychologists today consider short-term memory to be a working memory.
Rather than being just a temporary information storage system, working
memory is an active system. Information can be kept in working memory
while people process or examine it. Working memory allows people to
temporarily store and manipulate visual images, store information while trying
to create decisions, and keep in mind a phone number long enough to write it
down.

Long-Term Memory
Information can be transferred from short-term memory to long-term
memory and from long-term memory back to short-term memory. Long-term
memory has an approximately infinite capability, and information in long-term
memory usually stays there for the duration of a person‘s life. Though, this
doesn‘t mean that people will always be able to keep in mind what‘s in their
long-term memory—they may not be able to retrieve information that‘s there.

Organization of Memories
Imagine what would happen if a psychology textbook weren‘t organized
through section, through chapter, or in any other method. Imagine if the
textbook didn‘t have a table of contents or an index. If the textbook just
contained lots of information in a random order, students would have
difficulty finding a scrupulous concept, such as ― encoding of memory.‖
They‘d know the information was in there somewhere, but they‘d have trouble
retrieving it.
Long-term memory stores much more information than a textbook, and
people would never be able to retrieve the information from it if it weren‘t
organized in some method. Psychologists consider one method the brain
organizes information in long-term memory is through category. For instance,
papaya may be organized within the semantic category fruit. Categories can
also be based on how words sound or look. If someone is struggling to keep in
mind the word papaya, she may keep in mind first that it‘s a three-syllable
word that it begins with the letter p or that it ends with the letter a. Long-term
memory organizes information not only through categories but also through
the information‘s familiarity, relevance, or connection to other information.

Where Were You When...?

Flashbulb memories are vivid, detailed memories of significant events.
Older people may have very clear memories of where they were and what they
were doing when they heard President John F. Kennedy had been assassinated.
Several people today may have a similar kind of memory of where they were
when they heard the Pentagon and the World Trade Center had been attacked
through terrorists.

Retrieval

Retrieval is the process of getting information out of memory. Retrieval

cues are stimuli that help the process of retrieval. Retrieval cues contain
associations, context, and mood.

Lost Memories
The fact that people can often recall lost memories when hypnotized
suggests that information in long-term memory is usually not lost— it may
just be hard to retrieve.

Associations
Because the brain stores information as networks of associated concepts,
recalling a scrupulous word becomes easier if another, related word is recalled
first. This process is described priming. Instance: If Tim shows his roommate
a picture of sunbathers on a nude beach and then asks him to spell the word
bear, the roommate may be more likely to spell bare because the picture
primed him to recall that form of the word.
Context
People can often keep in mind an event through placing themselves in the
same context they were in when the event happened. Instance: If a woman
loses her car keys, she may be able to recall where she put them if she re-
makes in her mind exactly what she did when she last came in from parking
her car.

Mood
If people are in the same mood they were in throughout an event, they may
have an easier time recalling the event.
STAGES OF MEMORY
Classically, memory can be thought of as a series of time based stages.
Each succeeding stage contains fewer items than the preceding one. Also,
movement of items from one stage to another is accomplished through
separate memory processes.
The sensory store is the first stage. Basically, everything you perceive
enters sensory memory but very little remains. Partial report experiments for
visual stimuli have shown that items are retained for two seconds or less.
Here, subjects can keep in mind any of 16 letters that were flashed in front of
them for a fraction of a second if they are asked to report within two seconds.
After two seconds they cannot keep in mind any of the letters.
Short term memory (STM) is the after that stage. Pure STM lasts
approximately 20 seconds. Pure STM occurs when subjects are prevented
from rehearsing. One method to prevent rehearsing is to have subjects count
backwards from 100 through threes (e.g,. 100, 97, 94,...) after you show them
a word. In real contexts, rehearsal creates STM last longer. Think of the
following instance. Your car breaks down in an unfamiliar place. You walk to
a phone booth, look up Al's Garage, dial the number, it's busy. A minute later
you want to call again, but you have to look up the number again. Why?
Because you did not rehearse it. If you had said "555-4231" over and over to
yourself for that minute, you would not have had to look it up. That is a form
of rehearsal.
STM is limited in size. George Miller described it as 7 items + or - 2 items.
That finding is now referred to as the "magic number 7" for STM. Most people
can easily hold 7 items in STM. Notice that telephone numbers have seven
places. Do you keep in mind ZIP + 4, the new ZIP code? It is nine numbers
long. Most people refuse to use 9 digit ZIP codes. Do you know yours? Mine
is 71752-6231, SAU's is 71753-5000. What do you think is going to happen
when telephone numbers get longer? Have you heard of (500) telephone
numbers? You get to keep those no matter where you move to.
Long-term memory (LTM) lasts from minutes to years. Consolidation is
the name of the process that puts items into LTM. Little is recognized of the
details of how consolidation works. LTM can also be broken down into parts.
Procedural memories are memories in relation to the how to perform activities,
for instance, riding a bicycle. Semantic memories are basically the same as
knowledge. For instance, 3 X 7 = 21, or knowing the capital of France.
Semantic memories are not time tagged, meaning you cannot usually keep in
mind when you learned those items. Finally, episodic memories are personal
and are time tagged: the day a relative died, the time the dog bit you, where
you met your spouse, for instance. Think of them as the episodes of your life.
Working memory is a newer concept proposed through Baddeley to better
describe the workings of short term memory. According to Baddeley, working
memory comprises: the rehearsal loop, the visuospatial sketchpad, and the
executive control system. The rehearsal loop is essentially the same as the
traditional view of STM. The visuospatial sketchpad component allows for the
handling of images. The executive control system is in charge of making
decisions based on the limited amounts of information that exist in STM.

FORGETTING
Forgetting (retention loss) refers to apparent loss of information already
encoded and stored in an individual's long term memory. It is a spontaneous or
gradual process in which old memories are unable to be recalled from memory
storage. Problems with remembering, learning and retaining new information
are a few of the most common complaints of older adults. Memory
performance is usually related to the active functioning of three stages. These
three stages are encoding, storage and retrieval. Several different factors
influence the actual process of forgetting. An instance of one of these factors
could be the amount of time the new information is stored in the memory.
Events involved with forgetting can happen either before or after the actual
memory process. The amount of time the information is stored in the memory,
depending on the minute‘s hours or even days, can augment or decrease
depending on how well the information is encoded. Studies show that
retention improves the increased rehearsal. This improvement occurs because
rehearsal helps to transfer information into long term memory. - practice
creates perfect.
It is subject to delicately balanced optimization that ensures that relevant
memories are recalled. Forgetting can be reduced through repetition and/or
more elaborate cognitive processing of information. Emotional states are just
one of the several factors that have been found to effect this process of
forgetting. As a disorder or in more severe cases this may be described as
amnesia.
Forgetting functions (amount remembered as a function of time since an
event was first experienced) have been extensively analyzed. The most recent
proof suggests that a power function gives the closest mathematical fit to the
forgetting function.
types of forgetting

According to Paul Connerton, a sociologist and a scholar at the University

of Cambridge, there are seven types of forgetting. He argues that 'forgetting' is
not necessarily a failing, but it is a combination of actions that lead to one term
- forgetting. The seven types of forgetting, in his view, are:

Repressive erasure
This is the type used through government or states to remove the image or
an event from someone's mind through totally getting rid of every artifact that
reminds anyone of the image or the event. It does not need to only be used
through government or states, but can be used through anyone to remove all
memories from people of a certain event.

Prescriptive forgetting
This type of forgetting is an act of state. It does not depend on one person's
forgetting, but acts as a communal forgetting, where all members of a party
decide on forgetting a specific memory in order to continue to function more
efficiently. An instance of prescriptive forgetting is when the whole student
body forgets an event of breaking and entering into the school to continue to
have a sense of a safer atmosphere throughout school time.

Forgetting that is constitutive in the formation of a new identity

This type refers to the thought of forgetting the past identity in order to
continue to live with a new one. For instance, if a person has exposed to be a
homosexual, they can use this type of forgetting to their advantage in order to
limit their confusion as they will have no recollection of their past
heterosexual lifestyle. This type of forgetting can be used to discard memories
of past identity that serve no real purpose within the context of new identity.

Structural amnesia
This type states that a person only remembers those people who are
socially significant. This was exposed through John Barnes in his writings of
genealogy.

Forgetting as annulment
This type of forgetting results from a surplus of information, where useless
information is discarded.

Forgetting as planned obsolescence

This type of forgetting happens when a product or any type of good has a
limited functionality and is not meant to last long, and so, the product keeps
being bought through customers who use planned obsolescence forgetfulness.
For instance, buying a microwave that lasts only two months, and when it is
not functioning anymore, going out to get the same microwave which lasts
two months, forgetting its previous failure.

Forgetting as humiliated silence

Humiliated silence takes place when a mishap occurs, resulting in
embarrassment that is favored to be forgotten.

Theories of forgetting

The four main theories of forgetting apparent in the study of psychology

are as follows.

Cue-dependent forgetting
Cue-dependent forgetting (also, context-dependent forgetting) or retrieval
failure, is the failure to recall a memory due to missing stimuli or cues that
were present at the time the memory was encoded. Encoding is the first step in
creating and remembering a memory. How well something has been encoded
in the memory can be measured through completing specific tests of retrieval.
Examples of these tests would be explicit ones like cued recall or implicit tests
like word fragment completion. Cue-dependent forgetting is one of five
cognitive psychology theories of forgetting. This theory states that a memory
is sometimes temporarily forgotten purely because it cannot be retrieved, but
the proper cue can bring it to mind. A good metaphor for this is searching for a
book in a library without the reference number, title, author or even subject.
The information still exists, but without these cues retrieval is unlikely.
Furthermore, a good retrieval cue necessity is constant with the original
encoding of the information. If the sound of the word is accentuated
throughout the encoding process, the cue that should be used should also put
emphasis on the phonetic quality of the word. Information is accessible
though, just not readily accessible without these cues. Depending on the age of
a person, retrieval cues and skills may not work as well. This is usually
common in older adults but that is not always the case. When information is
encoded into the memory and retrieved with a technique described spaced
retrieval, this helps older adults retrieve the events stored in the memory
better. There is also proof from different studies that show age related changes
in memory. These specific studies have shown that episodic memory
performance does in fact decline with age and have made recognized that
older adults produce vivid rates of forgetting when two items are combined
and not encoded.
Trace decay
Trace decay theory explains memories that are stored in both short term
and long term memory system. According to this theory, short term memory
(STM) can only retain information for a limited amount of time,
approximately 15 to 30 seconds unless it is rehearsed. If it is not rehearsed, the
information will start to slowly fade absent and decay. Donald Hebb proposed
that incoming information causes a series of neurons to make a neurological
memory trace in the brain which would result in change in the morphological
and/or chemical changes in the brain and would fade with time. Repeated
firing causes a structural change in the synapses. Rehearsal of repeated firing
maintains the memory in STM until a structural change is made. So, forgetting
happens as a result of automatic fading of the memory trace in brain. This
theory states that the events flanked by learning and recall have no effects on
recall; the significant factor that affects is the duration that the information has
been retained. Hence, as longer time passes more of traces are subject to decay
and as a result the information is forgotten. One major problem in relation to
the this theory is that in real-life situation, the time flanked by encoding a
piece of information and recalling it, is going to be filled with all different
kinds of events that might happen to the individual. So, it is hard to conclude
that forgetting is a result of only the time duration.

Organic causes
Forgetting that occurs through physiological damage or dilapidation to the
brain is referred to as organic causes of forgetting. These theories encompass
the loss of information already retained in long term memory or the inability
to encode new information again. Examples contain Alzheimer's, Amnesia,
Dementia, consolidation theory and the gradual slowing down of the central
nervous system due to aging.

Interference theories
Interference theory refers to the thought that when the learning of
something new causes forgetting of older material on the basis of competition
flanked by the two. In nature, the interfering items are said to originate from
an over stimulating environment. Interference theory exists in three branches:
Proactive, Retroactive and Output. Retroactive and Proactive inhibition each
referring in contrast to the other. Retroactive interference is when new
information (memories) interferes with older information. On the other hand,
proactive interference is when old information interferes with the retrieval of
new information. Output Interference occurs when the initial act of recalling
specific information interferes with the retrieval of the original information.
This theory shows an astonishing contradiction: a very intelligent individual is
expected to forget more hastily than one who has a slow mentality. For this
cause, an intelligent individual has stored up more memory in his mind which
will cause interferences and impair their skill to recall specific information.

Decay theory
Decay theory states that when something new is learned, a neuro-chemical,
physical "memory trace" is formed in the brain and over time this trace tends
to disintegrate, unless it is occasionally used. Decay theory states the cause we
eventually forget something or an event is because the memory of it fades with
time. If we do not effort to look back at an event, the greater the interval time
flanked by the time when the event from happening and the time when we try
to keep in mind, the memory will start to fade. Time is the greatest impact in
remembering an event.
THINKING AND LANGUAGE—THINKING PROCESS AND
CONCEPTS

The nature of thinking

Thinking has been defined as the process involved in manipulating

information, either composed through the senses or stored in memory from
previous experience, so as to be able to respond to the immediate situation. In
this section, we shall examine several models of thinking. These contain
Freudian approaches, distinctions flanked by autistic and rational thinking,
Piaget's view of thinking and that of the behaviorists and the Gestalt
psychologists.

Autistic and rational thinking

McKellar (1972) draws a distinction flanked by autistic thinking and

rational thinking. Autistic thinking has notational purpose. It is the brain's
manipulation of the information accessible to it, from the senses or from
stored material, without any scrupulous purpose. Daydreaming is an instance
of autistic thinking. Rational thinking, on the other hand, is logical and
rational and directed towards a purpose. When you are solving the clues in a
crossword puzzle you are engaging in rational thinking.

A Freudian view of thinking

For Freud and the psychoanalysts, thinking is closely related to their view
of basic human motives. For them, the basic human motive is the satisfaction
of bodily needs. Where these needs are not fully satisfied, memory of them is
brought into play. This memory is associated with the kind of excitation that
actual food, warmth and get in touch with evoke. For instance, a hungry infant
hallucinates in relation to the food, but this hallucination is not in itself
satisfying. Some of the energy released is devoted to solving the problem, to
changing the environment so that the food, the warm the get in touch with is
obtained. This is essentially autistic thinking, driven through emotional rather
than through rational processes. Freud creates a distinction flanked by primary
and secondary thought processes. While secondary thought embraces rational
conscious thought of which we are normally aware, primary thought processes
are normally unconscious. There seem to be three separate levels of thinking:
Preconscious thought, which comprises those thoughts and ideas which
are not engaging our consciousness at the moment, to which we are
currently not paying attention but which nevertheless exist for us.
Conscious thought, to which we are currently paying attention and on
which we are engaging our minds.
Unconscious thought, which remains inaccessible to our consciousness
but which nevertheless plays a part in determining our behaviour.

Piaget's view of thought

The building blocks of an individual's intelligence Piaget termed schemata.

They are continually being customized or added to through get in touch with
the environment so that the individual's version to that environment becomes
more complete. The process involved is one of equilibration. When something
new manifests itself in an individual's environment his or her mind is thrown
into a state of imbalance or disequilibrium. This is uncomfortable, so there is
motivation to find a new balance. This new balance occurs through version,
which takes the form either of assimilation or else of accommodation. With
assimilation, an object or a thought is understood in conditions of the concepts
or actions (schemata) which the child already possesses.

A Gestalt model of thinking

There is a classic account of a German psychologist Wolfgang KoÈhler,

interned on the island of Tenerife throughout the First World War, who set
problems for a chimpanzee named Sultan. KoÈhler saw the principle
concerned here as one of isomorphism the notion that the mind always
attempts to restructure the elements of a problem so that the brain fields adopt
good form, or PraÈgnanz, as the Gestalt psychologists described it. There is an
inborn tendency within the brain to seek order out of chaos.
A behaviorist model of thinking

Behaviorists found some difficulty in explaining thinking. It did not seem

to accord well with their principle that all mental processes were essentially
the forming of associations flanked by stimuli. Watson (1913) viewed thinking
as sub vocal speech. The process of thinking inevitably involved inner
language. This was a motor theory of thought. Some work was done with deaf
mutes. It might be expected under Watson‘s theory that they would move their
fingers more than a normal group of adults when they were thinking: they
used their fingers for sign language, after all. There did seem to be a higher
correlation flanked by motor activity in the fingers and thinking than in a
hearing group of adults. Skinner later viewed thinking as private behaviour as
opposed to overt behaviour, and whispered that it was similarly subject to
incentive control and reinforcement. In his book Verbal Behavior (1957) he
attempted to show that both overt behaviour and thinking were controlled
through operant conditioning. In overt behaviour, there was an interaction with
someone else, while, with thinking, individuals are their own listeners. There
is in effect an interaction with themselves.

Cognitive approaches to thinking

Cognitive approaches to thinking have attempted to examine the mental

processes which occur throughout thinking. Miller et al. (1960) recognized
what they referred to as heuristic strategies. These were models which enabled
them to simulate the method in which the mind solved problems. The
complexities of a problem might be simplified through working out a series of
rules of thumb. These could then be applied one at a time. Though this did not
guarantee that a solution to the problem could be found, it reduced the
problem to manageable proportions. A computer could then be programmed to
deal with it. For instance, in programming a computer to play chess, a set of
instructions had to be devised such as `check that the king is safe' or `create
sure that the queen cannot be taken'. Newell and Simon (1972) attempted to
mirror human problem solving and behaviour in a heuristic method. To
validate the models set up, they relied on individuals' verbal reports of what
was going on in their heads while they attempted to solve problems. In this
method, computer models were constructed of how problems were solved.
Within these models the program was analogous to the set of rules or
instructions within which a person operated; the computer memory was
analogous to the memory of the individual, and the input and output from the
computer represented the problem posed and the solution found.
Though, because human brains are not computers and cannot be so rigidly
controlled there were difficulties, including the following:
 It is not very useful to think of human beings as machines. Any
analogy is bound to be partial only, as we do not fully understand the
principles on which the human brain operates.
Computers, while they are very accurate and efficient calculators and
solvers of logical problems, are not capable of original and creative
thinking.
Computers are not susceptible to human emotions. They do not get
tired, anxious, angry or afraid.

The structure of knowledge

There is also quite extensive work through cognitive psychologists into the
structure of knowledge. Generalized knowledge can be encoded in what have
been described schemata. Unlike Piaget's use of the term, schemata here
represent similar items of knowledge. This is related to the use of the term in
the context of social cognition. They give expectations in relation to should
occur in relation to procedures, sequences of events and social situations and
allow us to create predictions in relation to the new situations. These are also
extensively referred to in Part 6 of this book. To take an instance used through
Eysenck (1984), suppose you were in an unfamiliar house and needed to use
the toilet. The schemata you possess in relation to the houses would lead you
to rule out the living room as a place to look. Though, it is just possible you
might be in error and the toilet might be after that to the living room.
Scripts are a scrupulous kind of schema. They are standard sequences of
events which through repetition have become predictable. Someone might
develop a script related to going to work in the morning. You kiss your family
goodbye, pick up your briefcase and a neatly furled umbrella, go out of the
door and create for the station. On the method you stop at the news agent and
buy a copy of the Guardian before arriving at the station two minutes before
the train is due to leave. This is a relatively strong script in that the order of
events is rigidly programmed. Weak scripts do not necessarily prescribe a
rigid order of events, yet the events are sufficiently stereotyped to give
expectation that they will occur.

Concept formation

When individuals form concepts, they are abstracting the essential

characteristics from something they perceive. They can then place it in a
category alongside other items with similar characteristics, label it and
respond appropriately. Walking alongside a river, I saw in the water an animal
moving in relation to the occasionally a black head appeared. The appearance
and characteristics of what I saw enabled me to place it in a category. It was
clearly a mammal, not a fish, and furthermore its behaviour, size and
appearance mademesuppose it necessity have been an otter. Accordingly, my
appropriate response was to tell my companions that there was an otter in the
river. From descriptions, definitions and previous encounters I had formed the
concept of an otter and this conceptualization had enabled me to respond in an
appropriate method. Without concepts every encounter with everything in our
environment would have to be on a trial and error basis. Concept formation
can be seen as rational thinking. An assortment of information, either
perceived through the senses or stored in memory from previous experience, is
directed towards a clear goal (the attainment of the concept) according to
preordained rules.

Language and thinking

This section is concerned with the relationship flanked by thought and

language. There are essentially four views taken on this relationship:
That language determines thought;
The behaviorist view that thought is internal speech;
That thinking determines linguistic development;
That the two are independent of one another, but each has an influence
upon intellectual development.

The first of these viewpoints is represented through the Whorf±Sapir

linguistic relativity hypothesis, the behaviorist view is represented through
Watson, the third is Piaget's viewpoint and the fourth represents Vygotsky's
view. Additionally, this section will examine the theses of Bernstein and
Labov which relate to language and social class in the first case and language
and race in the second.

Linguistic relativity
The linguist Benjamin Lee Whorf and the anthropologist Edward Sapir
suggested that the language people used determined their perception of the
world and consequently their thought. As proof, they cited the language of the
Hopi Indians in North America. Unlikemost European languages the Hopi
language has no grammatical forms, constructions or words for time. This
suggests that the Hopi do not think in relation to the time in the method we do.
They also have no separate words for insect, aeroplane or pilot. Is it feasible to
suggest that they do not differentiate flanked by them? Eskimos have a great
several different words for snow, differentiating snow appropriate for making
igloos from snow appropriate for sledging, for instance. Whorf suggests that
this is proof that their thinking in relation to the snow is more intricate than
ours is.
Proof for linguistic relativity
Some support for linguistic relativity comes from a study of the Navajo
Indians through Carroll and Casagrande (1958). They studied three groups of
participants:
Those who spoke only Navajo;
Those who spoke Navajo and English;
American children of European descent who spoke nothing but
English.
The form of things is very significant to the Navajos and this is reflected in
their language. Different verbs are used for handling long, flexible objects
from those used for handling long rigid objects, for instance. American
children develop object recognition in this order; size, then color and finally
form or shape. If Whorfand Sapir is right, you would predict that Navajo-
speaking children would develop recognition of objects through their format
an earlier stage than American children. This is what Carroll and Casagrande
found. The difficulty with linguistic relativity is a chicken and egg problem.
There is no method of being sure which comes first, the environment or the
language. Whorf and Sapir assumed that in the beginning there was language
and it was language which determined the method in which people perceived
and thought in relation to the things. But it could equally well have been the
other method approximately. The hundreds of camel-related words in Arabic
or the 92 words for rice used through the Hanuxoo people of the Philippines
simply reflect the nature of the worlds they live in and the things that are
significant to them. It is likely that language simply highlights differences in
the environments of different people and gives labels to store these differences
in memory.
There is also a problem which relates to the flexibility of language. It is
not static, but new conditions, relating perhaps to new technology or perhaps
to the use of jargon, are continually being introduced. This seems to indicate
that thought is the parent of language rather than the other way around. If it
were not so, but if thought always needed to reflect language there would be
no means to introduce fresh thinking. Changes in language use would not
through themselves suffice to bring in relation to the change. The spur, as in
new technology, necessity be original thinking.

Restricted and elaborated codes of language

Hess and Shipman (1965) have proposed that there are differences in the
methods in which language is used in low status and high status families. They
suggested that in high status (middle class) family‘s language conveys
meaning. It describes, explains and expresses feelings. In low status (working
class) families language tends to be used more to provide orders to the child,
who is therefore deprived of the same access to meaning as higher status
children. Bernstein (1961) claimed that working-class and middle-class
children use different language codes:
Restricted code of language, used through working-class children, is
syntactically crude, has short, grammatically simple sentences, a
restricted vocabulary and is context-bound (that is to say, meaning
depends to a high degree upon the context in which it is used).
Elaborated code of language, used through middleclass children,
employs a superior vocabulary, more intricate and flexible grammar
and syntax and allows abstract thought to be expressed more easily.

Aparent of children on a bus, who insist upon getting up and walking

approximately, might simply say `Sit down and keep quiet!' or, if they
persisted, `Sit down and keep quiet or I'll hit you!' but if using an elaborated
code of language might say` You had better sit down in your own seats or the
bus might suddenly stop and you would be thrown violently on the floor and
hurt yourselves'. This seems to point to there being a link flanked by the kind
of language used through individuals and the thought processes and
intellectual development of these individuals. Bernstein claimed that the lack
of an elaborated code of language is a barrier to working-class children
developing their full intellectual potential. Additionally, the pattern of learning
in schools is based upon the use of an elaborated code. Teachers are, after all,
usually middle-class and certainly equipped with elaborated codes of
language. They may not communicate adequately with some of the working-
class children in their charge.
It has been suggested that the conditions `restricted' and `elaborated' are
value-laden and that middle-class language is in some method regarded as
superior. This is perhaps misleading. It is likely that most people employ what
Bernstein would regard as a restricted code for some of the time. There is
certainly some upper-class language usage which is just as restricted.
Educated people have access to an elaborated code which they can use when
they need to. Some less well educated people do not. This places them at a
disadvantage intellectually. In a similar method, researchers such as Labov
(1970), Houston (1970) and Williams (1972) have studied the dialects used
through black Americans. They have found them to be profoundly different
from `standard' English. Children often employ two separate manners of
speech, one for home, one for school. The school mode is not well urbanized
and thoughts are not so easily expressed. Consequently, it has been regularly
asserted that the children are intellectually inferior. Though, Williams (1972)
urbanized a Black Intelligence Test, written in a dialect in which black
children were more skilled. They performed much better on this test, while
Genshaft and Hirt (1974) found that white children performed poorly on it.
Thought as sub vocal speech
A more extreme view has been taken through behaviorists and in
scrupulous by Watson (1913). His suggestion was that thinking was sub vocal
speech. The assumption was made that when someone attempted to solve a
problem it necessarily involved some kind of inner language. When
individuals thrash about with a problem, especially in stressful circumstances,
they regularly talk to themselves. If you enter an infant classroom, there will
often be a buzz apparent, of children vocalizing their thoughts. But this is not
the same as saying that it is necessary for them to vocalize in order to think.
study accepted out through Smith et al. (1947) would seem to indicate that it is
not. Smith was given an unusual derivative which paralyzed him totally. He
was kept alive on an artificial respirator. Sub vocal speech was impossible.
Thought should also (according to Watson's hypothesis) have been impossible.
Nevertheless, he later reported that he was able to understand and think in
relation to the people were saying while he was paralyzed.

The influence of thought upon language

Language as one of a number of functions

Piaget claimed that language was just one among a number of symbolic
functions. Others incorporated symbolic play and imagery. He maintained
that: `Language and thought are connected in a genetic circle... in the last
analysis, both depend upon intelligence itself, which antedates language and is
independent of it'.
Piaget has taken an opposite view of the relationship flanked by thought
and language to Whorf and Sapir. For him, intellectual development comes
first, and without it language is little more than meaningless babble. As an
illustration of this, Sinclair-de-Zwart (1969) studied children who had
acquired the concept of conservation of volume (a level of intellectual
development where children can appreciate that the volume of a liquid
remains constant even when it is poured from a tall slender container to a short
squat one). He found that they understood the meaning of words such as
`more', `bigger', `as much as'. Those children who had not reached the stage of
conservation of volume found it hard to use such words correctly even when
given specific linguistic training.

Language and thought as separate

For Bruner, language and thought are separate. He postulated three
methods in which a child can retain and use information from the
environment:
 Through enactive representation: that is to say, through means of
physical manipulation of the environment.
Through iconic representation: that is, picturing the environment
mentally.
Through symbolic representation, particularly through language.

Nonlinguistic thought comes first (what he conditions enactive or iconic

representation of the world). After language has urbanized, thought is
amplified and accelerated in symbolic representation.

Thought and language as independent

Vygotsky (1962) held that language had two separate characteristics:
As a monitor and controller of a person's private thoughts (inner
speech).
As a means of communicating those thoughts to others (external
speech).

He whispered that in infancy, thinking and language are independent. To

begin with, a child's attempts to use language represent purely social speech,
with no inner thought. Simultaneously, the child is developing primitive forms
of thinking and reasoning, which do not involve language. Then, at in relation
to the age of two the social speech and the primitive thinking begin to come
together. Words begin to act as symbols for thoughts. Vygotsky would agree
with Piaget that the earliest thought is independent of language but where they
part company is that Vygotsky whispered that language plays an essential part
in a child's intellectual development after in relation to the age of two. Later,
after in relation to the age of seven, language and thought again separate, with
language having two separate functions:
Internal language for the child itself as an aid to thought (egocentric
speech). But children under in relation to the four or five regularly
express this egocentric speech aloud, as do older people in situations of
stress.
External language as a means of communicating thought to others.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
Explain the meaning, definitions and characteristics of Learning.
What is cognitive learning?
What is individualized learning?
Explain the Kinds of memory.
Describe the memory processes.
What is forgetting?
 INTELLIGENCE AND MOTIVATION

STRUCTURE
Learning objectives
Intelligence
Motivation
Review questions

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
Understand the intelligence; and
Understand the motivation.

INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence has been defined in several different methods including logic,
abstract thought, understanding, self-awareness, communication, learning,
having emotional knowledge, retaining, planning, and problem solving.
Intelligence is most widely studied in humans, but has also been observed in
other animals and in plants. Artificial intelligence is the simulation of
intelligence in machines. Within the discipline of psychology, several
approaches to human intelligence have been adopted. The psychometric
approach is especially familiar to the general public, as well as being the most
researched and through distant the most widely used in practical settings.

Definitions

The definition of intelligence is controversial. Some groups of

psychologists have suggested the following definitions:
From "Mainstream Science on Intelligence" (1994), an editorial
statement through fifty-two researchers: A very general mental
capability that, among other things, involves the skill to cause, plan,
solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend intricate ideas, learn
quickly and learn from experience. It is not merely book learning, a
narrow academic ability, or test-taking smarts. Rather, it reflects a
broader and deeper capability for comprehending our surroundings—
"catching on," "making sense" of things, or "figuring out" what to do.
From "Intelligence: Known‘s and Unknowns" (1995), a report
published through the Board of Scientific Affairs of the American
 Psychological Association: Individuals differ from one another in their
skill to understand intricate ideas, to adapt effectively to the
environment, to learn from experience, to engage in several forms of
reasoning, to overcome obstacles through taking thought. Although
these individual differences can be substantial, they are never entirely
constant: a given person's intellectual performance will vary on
different occasions, in different domains, as judged through different
criteria. Concepts of "intelligence" are attempts to clarify and organize
this intricate set of phenomena. Although considerable clarity has been
achieved in some areas, no such conceptualization has yet answered all
the significant questions, and none commands universal assent. Indeed,
when two dozen prominent theorists were recently asked to describe
intelligence, they gave two dozen, somewhat different, definitions.

Theories

Intelligence theorists fall into two categories. In one group are those who
argue for a "general intelligence" that characterizes a person's actions and
thinking in all areas. Their critics consider that intelligence is composed of
several separate types of aptitudes and abilities, and that a person who excels
in one area will not necessarily excel in all areas.

Early Theories: Spearman and Thurstone

Spearman whispered that intelligence is general: People who are bright in
one area are bright in other areas as well. Thurstone disagreed: He whispered
that intelligence encompasses seven mental abilities that are relatively
independent of one another.
In contrast, Cattell divided mental abilities into two clusters. The first is
crystallized intelligence, or abilities such as reasoning and the verbal and
numerical skills that are stressed in school. The second is fluid intelligence, or
skills such as spatial and visual imagery, the skill to notice visual details, and
rote memory.

Contemporary Theories: Sternberg and Gardner

In the mid-1980s, Yale psychologist Robert Sternberg proposed a triarchic
theory of intelligence that comprises a much broader range of skills and
abilities. According to this theory, intelligence consists of three overarching
characteristics: componential intelligence, the traditional mental processes or
skills accentuated through earlier theories of intelligence, such as the skill to
acquire new knowledge and perform tasks efficiently; experiential
intelligence, characterized through insight and creative adaptability as well as
efficient and quick processing of information without conscious thought; and
contextual intelligence, marked through responsiveness to the environment.
Intelligent people, according to Sternberg, are adept at making the most of
their strengths and compensating for their weaknesses. Howard Gardner has
proposed his theory of multiple intelligences, which asserts that what we refer
to as intelligence actually consists of several separate abilities, each of which
is relatively independent of the others.
Formal theories of intelligence serve as the foundation for the design and
administration of intelligence tests. And because experts do not view
intelligence in exactly the same method that non-experts do, it is
understandable that most tests of intelligence do not contain items that several
non-experts think of as part of intelligence.

Measures of Intelligence

Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon, commissioned through the French

government to devise a test that would differentiate flanked by children who
could not learn because of low skill and those who would not learn because of
poor motivation, created the first intelligence test in 1905. Binet did not really
have a theory of mental skill, but he thought that intelligence could be best
expressed in and assessed through intricate cognitive tasks. The first
intelligence test consisted of items that assessed memory, knowledge, and
reasoning skills arranged in a sequence of increasing difficulty and grouped
into age levels, or when the ―average‖ child could accomplish them. This first
test has undergone numerous revisions and is now recognized as the Stanford-
Binet Intelligence Scale, Fifth Edition.

Currently, the most widely-used intelligence tests are the Wechsler Scales.
Intended through David Wechsler, a clinical psychologist who used the test to
help identify cognitive strengths and weaknesses in his clients and assist in
diagnoses, the tests were based on his definition of intelligence as ― the
aggregate or global capability of the individual to act purposefully, to think
rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment‖. Because the test
seemed to be a valid measure of general intelligence, its use expanded to other
populations. There are three separate Wechsler scales:
Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, 3rd ed.
(WPPSI-III)
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 4th ed. (WISC-IV)
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, 3rd ed. (WAIS-III)

The WISC-IV is intended for use with children and adolescents ages 6 to
16 years 11 months and will be the focus of this section. Sample items from
many of the 10 core subtests are presented below:
Similarities. In what method are wool and cotton alike?
Vocabulary. What does corrupt mean?
 Comprehension. Why do people buy fire insurance?
Digit Span. I am going to say some numbers. Listen cautiously and
when I am through, say the numbers right after me: 734186
Coding. In the top row, each figure is shown with a number. Fill in the
number that goes with each figure in the second row
Matrix Reasoning. For each item the child looks at a partial matrix and
selects the missing portion from five response options.
Picture Concepts. The child identifies objects that share some common
property.

Some of the items in this test require children and adolescents to arrange
materials rather than talk with the test administrator. This procedure allows
non-English-speaking children, as well as youth with speech or language
disorders, to demonstrate their intellectual capabilities. Some professionals
find the division flanked by verbal and performance items very useful for
assessment purposes. The items create up four index scores—Verbal
Comprehension, Perceptual Organization, Freedom from Distractability, and
Processing Speed—that are combined to provide an overall skill score. When
the four index scores are added together, they produce a total skill score, or
intelligence quotient (IQ). On the Wechsler scales, the mean total IQ is set at
100 with a standard deviation of 15. Most other major intelligence tests have
set the same mean so it is easy to compare the IQ score from one intelligence
test to another.

Determines

Heredity
Historically, research on the determinants of intelligence has focused on
identical twins—some reared together; others reared separately in separate
households. The correlation flanked by the IQs of all identical twins is usually
very high, indicating that their identical genetic inheritance is a more powerful
determinant of intelligence than their experiences. But critics of this research
create many strong points: (1) It is hard to find identical twins who have been
separated at birth, so that there are only a few such studies; (2) identical twins
tend to be placed in households similar in socioeconomic background to those
of their biological parents; and (3) even twins separated at birth have had
almost identical prenatal experiences.
Environment
Research on rats as well as on humans strengthens the case for
environment as a factor in the development of superior intellectual skill.
Therefore , even though certain mental abilities are inherited, without the
necessary stimulation a child's intelligence will not develop. This finding is
significant because lower-income families don't have access to the kinds of
resources that other families do. Significantly, when they are placed in more
stimulating environments, economically deprived children show an
improvement in their level of intelligence. For instance, lower-income
children raised in middle-class homes display important gains in IQ compared
with their counterparts rising up in low-income households. Similarly,
children who participate in intervention programs such as Head Start regularly
exhibit improvements in cognitive abilities, although the long-term effects of
such programs have yet to be confirmed.

The IQ Debate: A Continuing Controversy

Accounting for group differences in IQ poses a vexing problem in
psychology. A milestone in this debate was the 1969 publication of an article
through psychologist Arthur Jensen, claiming that overall differences in IQ
scores flanked by the races are largely inherited. Jensen's article raised a storm
of controversy, which swelled up again in 1994 with the publication of a book
on this topic through Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray. Significantly,
most participants in this debate agree that both heredity and environment
affect IQ scores.

Testing for special Aptitudes

Aptitude
An aptitude is a component of a competency to do a certain kind of
work at a certain level, which can also be measured "talent". Aptitudes
may be physical or mental. Aptitude is not knowledge, understanding,
learned or acquired abilities (skills) or attitude. The innate nature of
aptitude is in contrast to achievement, which represents knowledge or
skill that is gained.

Intelligence
Aptitude and intelligence quotient are related, and in some methods
opposite views of human mental skill. Whereas intelligence quotient sees
intelligence as being a single measurable characteristic affecting all mental
skill, aptitude refers to one of several different characteristics which can be
independent of each other, such as aptitude for military flight, air traffic
control, or computer programming. This is more similar to the theory of
multiple intelligences.
Concerning a single measurable characteristic affecting all mental skill,
analysis of any group of intelligence test scores will almost always show them
to be highly correlated. The U.S. Department of Labor's General Learning
Skill, for instance, is determined through combining Verbal, Numerical and
Spatial aptitude subtests. In a given person some are low and others high. In
the context of an aptitude test the "high" and "low" scores are usually not
distant separately, because all skill test scores tend to be correlated. Aptitude is
better applied intra-individually to determine what tasks a given individual is
more skilled at performing. Inter-individual aptitude differences are typically
not very important due to IQ differences. Of course this assumes individuals
have not already been pre-screened for aptitude through some other process
such as SAT scores, GRE scores, or finishing medical school.

Combined aptitude and knowledge tests

Tests that assess learned skills or knowledge are regularly described
achievement tests. Though, certain tests can assess both types of constructs.
An instance that leans both methods is the Armed Services Vocational
Aptitude Battery (ASVAB), which is given to recruits entering the armed
forces of the United States. Another is the SAT, which is intended as a test of
aptitude for college in the United States, but has achievement elements. For
instance, it tests mathematical reasoning, which depends both on innate
mathematical skill and education received in mathematics.
Aptitude tests can typically be grouped according to the type of cognitive
skill they measure:
Fluid intelligence: the skill to think and cause abstractly, effectively
solve problems and think strategically. It‘s more commonly recognized
as ‗street smarts‘ or the skill to ‗quickly think on your feet‘. Examples
of what employers can learn from your fluid intelligence in relation to
the your suitability for the role for which you are applying
Crystallized intelligence: the skill to learn from past experiences and
relevant learning, and to apply this learning to work-related situation.
Work situations that require crystallized intelligence contain producing
and analyzing written reports, comprehending work instructions, using
numbers as a tool to create effective decisions, etc

The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale

The Binet-Simon Scale, the first test of intelligence, was urbanized in
France through Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon for testing children.
Originally issued in 1908, it consisted of 30 tests arranged in order of
increasing difficulty. From the average scores of children, Binet urbanized the
concept of mental age.

The best-recognized Binet version, created through Stanford University's

L. M. Terman in 1916, is the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. Terman
introduced the term intelligence quotient (IQ), which is a numerical value
given to scores on an intelligence test (a score of 100 corresponds to average
intelligence). The Stanford-Binet is intended to measure skills in four areas:
verbal reasoning, abstract/visual reasoning, quantitative reasoning, and short-
term memory.

The Wechsler Intelligence Scales

The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Third Edition (WAIS-III) was
urbanized through David Wechsler especially for adults. The test measures
both verbal and performance abilities. Wechsler also created the Wechsler
Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition (WISC-III), which is meant to be
used with school-aged children. It measures verbal and performance abilities
separately, though it also yields an overall IQ score.

Group Tests
Group tests are administered through one examiner to several people at
one time. Group tests are most commonly used through schools. The
California Test of Mental Maturity (CTMM) and the SAT are group tests.
Group tests aim to overcome the problems of time and expense associated
with individual tests and to eliminate bias on the part of the examiner. Though,
in a group setting the examiner is less likely to notice whether an individual
test taker is tired, ill, or confused through the directions. Emotionally disturbed
children and people who have less experience taking tests usually do better on
individual tests than on group tests.

Performance and Culture-Fair Tests

Some intelligence tests may discriminate against members of certain
cultural or ethnic groups. Performance tests are intelligence tests that do not
involve language, so they can be useful for testing people who lack a strong
command of English. The Seguin Form Board, the Porteus Maze, and the
Bayley Scale of Infant Development are performance tests. Culture-fair tests
are intended to eliminate cultural bias through minimizing skills and values
that vary from one culture to another. The Good enough-Harris Drawing Test
and the Progressive Matrices are examples of culture-fair tests.
MOTIVATION

Motives as inference

There is some reference (be it conscious or unconscious) underlying our

behavior as it is not random or purposeless. So, motivation plays a role of
energizing behavior from inside. A motivated individual initiates and
accomplishes several responses in the environment, and achieves his/her goals
faster, more vigorously, and more persistently than does one who is less
motivated. Motivation is noted to be long lasting. It accounts for performed
behaviors and explains the why of behavior. We can so say that motivation has
direct impact on behavior as it creates behavior much more goal and purpose
oriented.
Through nature, most motives go cyclically. There is usually a start point,
which ends to become itself after some time laps. (Here, note that there are
few motives that do not go in cycles). In explaining the cycle of motives, let us
first describe motivation. ― Motivation refers to states within a person or
animal that drive behavior toward some goal.‖ In this definition, there are
three points that need emphasis;
Motivating state- (this state could also be described the ‗drive.‘) It
arouses the motivating behavior. The arousal could start to function
mainly through three factors;
o Internal bodily needs,
o External sensory stimulation, and
o Cognitive experiences
The behavior that is aroused through the drive - this one is
instrumental in satisfying our drive. This behavior is a means to an
end. It is going to settle the unsettled feelings in us.
The goal (end) - depending on the drive that activates (incites) the
present motivating state, this is the reduction of the drive. This one is
an end through itself hence it is the satisfaction of the need we
experienced at the first stage.
Depending on the motivating state that is moving us at a certain point in
time, goals could be positive or negative. We approach positive goals and try
to satisfy them. On the other hand, we avoid or escape from negative goals
that frustrate or endanger us. Both satisfy a certain motive though we approach
the positive as pleasant and avoid the negative as unpleasant.

Theories Of Motivation

Drive-reduction theory (‗push‘ theory) – states that the reduction of

biological drives, like hunger, thirst, oxygen, pain avoidance, …, is
pleasure producing. A drive is an internal states of tension that
motivates (pushes) an organism to engage in activities that should
reduce this tension. This theory is simple with several limitations since
the source of pleasure is not always associated with biological drive
reduction. But it has significance in explaining the fact that when we
lack something that is significant for our survival, there is the ‗drive‘
that motivates us to satisfy it.
Incentive (‗pull‘) theory – this is described ‗pull‘ theory because the
goal objects pull behavior toward them. In contrast from the drive
theory, this theory says that the response to what is motivating us at a
certain point in time is valued more than anything in the environment.
This is so because people expect pleasure from the attainment of what
are described positive incentives, and from avoidance of negative
incentives. So, the response is acting as a goal (incentive) to our
motivating behavior. Experiments on the proof of this theory show that
organisms tend to like the goal they achieved when they really wanted
it and when it is something they like more.
 Arousal Theory – this theory tells us in relation to the things arouse
(excite) organisms to respond in a certain manner to their nearby. It
says that both high and low arousal states do not create our
performance effective. So, to become effective, it is good to be in an
intermediate state of arousal.

There are four general sources of arousal;

Physiological (internal) drives and incentives are arousing,
Intensity of environmental stimuli affect our arousal,
Surprising or new events arouse curiosity,
Drugs arouse people to act in an excited manner.

Self-actualization theory (lh2)

A. Maslow put what drive human beings from the bottom to the higher in
order of hierarchy. The most significant ones are found at the base.
Human beings necessity first satisfies their needs for survival – named
physiological needs. After being able to eat, to drink, to sleep, … ,
(after securing survival), people continue to care in relation to their.
Safety needs that are avoidance of accidents and painful sensations.
They contain concern for long-term survival, job security, pension,
buying insurance, saving money, and the like.
Love and belongingness (social) needs continue through having
someone to love and through affiliating with others as a contributing
member in the society. Here, an individual is able to identify his/her
personal being.
Esteem (ego) needs are the fourth elements in the hierarchy that
Maslow described human beings get motivated through. People want
to report their success to get prestige. This is the feeling of self-worth
through knowing that others are aware of one‘s competence and value.
At the top of Maslow‘s hierarchy comes the last of the motivating
states for human beings, i.e. self-actualization. Through this we
explore and understand our potentialities to the full and influence the
world. This is the state of self-fulfillment. Getting motivated through
the self-actualization needs ultimately goes in making us actualize who
we really are. At this stage, people feel satisfied of their current state of
affairs. This fifth need is highly influenced through the society we live
in. This is because a urbanized society helps one get facilitated through
the materials (the infra-structure) one can use in the process of
actualizing his/her own self (inner potentialities), while less urbanized
societies are not conducive places to satisfy this need.

Of these five hierarchies, Maslow labels the last three as psychological

states while the first two are basic physiological ones.
Biological Motives

Biological Motives to a large extent, rooted in the physique (body). Since

they are innate and internal, their arousal is basically unlearned. Most of them
necessity be met for survival. They may show up in our behavior starting from
birth, or they may come in relation to the maturation. The most significant
primary motives contain hunger, pain avoidance, a need for oxygen, sleep,
elimination of wastes, and regulation of body temperature. Several of these
motives are triggered through departures from balanced state of equilibrium
described homeostasis in their internal physiological processes. Homeostasis,
body equilibrium, works automatically to maintain balance among internal
physiological circumstances.

Social Motives

These are motives that are learned and satisfied in the context of others. As
they are the wellsprings of several of human actions, they are intricate motive
states. These human motives can be looked upon as general states that lead to
different kinds of scrupulous behaviors. Not only do they help to determine
much of what a person does, they persist, never fully satisfied, over the years.
No sooner is one goal reached than the motive is directed to another one.
These motives are significant components of personality. As they are learned,
they also have different strengths from one person to another.

Motives to know and to be effective

Motives to know and to be effective just like the physiological drives,

these ones are also innate or unlearned. They are persistent and seem to exist
to one degree or another in everyone. But their root is not the physique. Drives
under this category highly contribute to the normal behavioral development of
human beings. In some instances, there could be some interconnection flanked
by the physiological needs and the ones in this classification. These motives,
though, are motives that drive a person to seek diversity in stimulation, to
process information in relation to the nearby world, to explore, and to be
effective in mastering challenges from the environment. So, they seek out
sensory stimulation through continual interaction with the environment.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
Explain the concepts of intelligence in psychology.
Describe the theories and measurement of intelligence.
 What is aptitude?
Explain the concepts of motivation in psychology
Explain the biological motivation.

EMOTIONS AND PERSONALITY

STRUCTURE [MH]
Learning Objectives
Emotion
Personality
Review questions

LEARNING OBJECTIVES [MH]

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
Understand the emotions; and
Understand the personality.

EMOTION [MH]

In psychology and philosophy, emotion is a subjective, conscious experience

characterized primarily through psycho physiological expressions, biological
reactions, and mental states. Emotion is often associated and measured
reciprocally influential with mood, temperament, personality, disposition, and
motivation, as well as influenced through hormones and neurotransmitters
such as dopamine, noradrenaline, serotonin, oxytocin, cortisol and GABA.
Emotion is often the driving force behind motivation, positive or negative. An
alternative definition of emotion is a "positive or negative experience that is
associated with a scrupulous pattern of physiological activity."

The physiology of emotion is closely connected to arousal of the nervous

system with several states and strengths of arousal relating, apparently, to
scrupulous emotions. Although those acting primarily on emotion may seem
as if they are not thinking, cognition is a significant aspect of emotion,
particularly the interpretation of events. For instance, the experience of fear
usually occurs in response to a threat. The cognition of danger and subsequent
arousal of the nervous system (e.g. rapid heartbeat and breathing, sweating,
muscle tension) is an integral component to the subsequent interpretation and
labeling of that arousal as an emotional state. Emotion is also connected to
behavioral tendency.

Research on emotion has increased significantly over the past two decades
with several fields contributing including psychology, neuroscience, medicine,
history, sociology, and even computer science. The numerous theories that
effort to explain the origin, neurobiology, experience, and function of
emotions has only fostered more intense research on this topic. The current
research that is being mannered in relation to the concept of emotion involves
the development of materials that stimulate and elicit emotion. In addition
PET scans and MRI scans help study the affective processes in the brain.

Physiology and Emotions [h]

In the human brain, learning, memory and emotions are housed in the limbic
system nearby the brainstem. Within the limbic system, emotional impulses
originate in the amygdale, an almond-shaped structure that triggers the
physiological reactions associated with emotions. The amygdale is also
responsible for imprinting emotions onto memories through releasing some of
the same neurochemicals when an event is recalled as when it occurred. A
network of neural pathways connects the amygdale to the neocortex, the
"thinking brain," allowing us to reflect on our feelings and to think before
acting. In times of perceived crisis, though, those pathways are bypassed and
impulse overrides cause. When the man succumbs to road rage and yells at his
wife over an innocent remark, he is experiencing what Goleman dubbed "an
emotional hijacking," in which the amygdala takes over the brain. Sometimes,
emotions and their physiological effects can seem indistinguishable. Intuitive
"gut feelings," or somatic markers, develop simultaneously in the limbic
system and the body. These steer us toward one course of action or another,
whether it be avoiding danger or seizing opportunity.

Each emotion sparks a distinctive physiological reaction, the body‘s program

for dealing with the different situations that arise in our emotional lives.
Happiness cues the brain to suppress worrisome or negative feelings and
increases the body‘s energy level. Sadness does the opposite, slowing down its
metabolism, and manifests itself most visibly in tears. Research has
substantiated the age-old theory that crying releases harmful toxins through
showing that tears of sadness have a different chemical composition than tears
of joy or those caused through irritants. Cardiologists have also found that
crying can reduce stress and the harmful physiological reactions associated
with it. Anger floods the brain with catecholamines–hormones that prime the
body for action–and stimulates the nervous system, putting it on a general
state of alert. This explains why someone who is already in a foul mood will
remain edgy and more easily aroused to anger than someone who is not.
Stress and anxiety set off the nervous system‘s "flight-or-fight" response, a
chain of physiological events in which the blood pressure rises and muscles
contract. In chronic cases, they can lead to headaches, cramps and insomnia,
as well as to more serious ailments, such as heart disease, colitis and
gastrointestinal disorders. According to the American Medical Association,
stress contributes to 75 per cent of all cases of illness in the United States.
People can also engage in certain behaviours to induce the release of
neurotransmitters, causing them to have the sensation of an emotional
experience without having to identify and process their feelings.

On the surface, this might seem like a good strategy for dealing with hard
situations. But such behaviours can quickly become addictive and serve as
false substitutes for true emotional wellness. Moreover, like most addictions,
their potency slowly wears off as the body‘s tolerance level increases, forcing
the people who resort to them to seek ever-greater levels of stimulation.

Ultimately, it is less the physiological effects of emotions than how we deal

with them that affects our overall health. A decade-long study through Ohio
State University researchers tracked both men and women who had been
diagnosed with depression, but appeared free from cardiac problems. Over the
course of the study, 46 per cent of the men eventually died from heart disease,
compared to only 16 per cent of the women. The researchers theorized that the
male tendency to bury feelings and avoid examining or expressing them might
have led to the difference in mortality rates. So the man‘s wife is almost
certainly right: it does help to talk.

Mood swings–rapid fluctuation from one emotion to another–can also wreak

havoc on the body. A 1999 study mannered at Duke University Medical
Center found that people prone to moodiness were four times more likely to
develop ischemia, a condition that reduces the flow of blood to the heart, than
those whose emotional highs and lows tended to stay stable.

Neurotransmitters [sh]
Neurotransmitters are chemicals that send messages within the brain to
regulate our mental and bodily functions. Emotions or emotional behaviour
can trigger their release. Among the most significant neurotransmitters are:
Acetylcholine (ACTH): Significant for memory. It also lowers blood
pressure and reduces cholesterol. Stress reduces the enzyme that
converts choline to acetylcholine.
Vitamin B5 is needed to convert choline to acetylcholine. Lecithin is
also used to create choline. Food sources contain soybeans, fish,
seaweed, oatmeal, brown rice, peas, lentils, cabbage and kale.
Mothers‘ milk is high in acetylcholine.
 Dopamine: Provides us our sense of pleasure and motivation through
regulating the release of endorphins. It improves mood, sex drive and
memory. People with low levels of dopamine often try to compensate
through caffeine, sugary foods, cigarettes, alcohol and other drugs,
which also induce the release of endorphins, or activities like
gambling, work or exercise.
Without Vitamin B6 the body may not produce dopamine, endorphins,
and serotonin, norepinephrine.
Endorphins: Natural pain killers released through exercise. Many
studies have shown that they can also be released when we listen to
music with a strong beat.
GABA: Needed for sleep and relaxation, as well as enabling us to
withstand craving. People with low levels of GABA, including
alcoholics and other addicts, can be tense, anxious and aroused to
anger with little provocation.
Glutamate: Facilitates long-term learning and retention. It also plays a
role in our tolerance for pain. GABA balances glutatamate‘s effects in
the brain.
Norepinephrine: A hormone that acts like a neurotransmitter and is
released in response to low blood pressure. It enhances our memory,
creates us more alert and provides us a sense of power and control.
Noradrenaline is the commercial form of norepinephrine.
Serotonin: The body‘s natural tranquilizer, it relaxes us, regulates body
temperature and appetite, sets our internal clock for sleep, and creates
us feel peaceful and contented. It also acts as a natural counterbalance
to dopamine. People with low levels of serotonin tend to act rashly and
aggressively and to become easily depressed.

Expression of Emotions [h]

Emotional expressions in psychology are observable verbal and nonverbal

behaviors that communicate an internal emotional or affective state. Examples
of emotional expression are facial movements such as smiling or scowling, or
behaviors like crying or laughing. Emotional expressions can occur with or
without self-awareness. Presumably, individuals have conscious control of
their emotional expressions; though, they need not have conscious awareness
of their emotional or affective state in order to express emotion. Over the last
200 years, researchers have proposed different and often competing models
explaining emotion and emotional expression, going all the method back to
Charles Darwin. Though, all theorists in emotion agree that all normal,
functioning humans experience and express emotions with their voices, faces,
and bodies. The expression of romantic feelings is shaped through cultural and
social factors.
Models of emotion [sh]

There are several different theories in relation to the nature of emotion and the
method that it is represented in the brain and body. Of the elements that
distinguish flanked by the theories of emotion, perhaps the most salient is
differing perspectives on emotional expression. Some theories in relation to
the emotion consider emotions to be biologically basic and stable crossways
people and cultures. These are often described "basic emotion" perspectives
because they view emotion as biologically basic. From this perspective, an
individual's emotional expressions are enough to determine a person's internal,
emotional state. If a person is smiling, he or she is happy. If a person is crying,
he or she is sad. Each emotion has a constant and specific pattern of
expressions, and that pattern of responses is only expressed throughout that
emotion and not throughout other emotions. Facial emotional expressions are
particularly salient stimuli for transferring significant nonverbal signals to
others. For that cause, emotional expressions are the best direct indicators of
affective attitudes and dispositions. There is rising proof that brain regions
usually occupied in the processing of emotional information are also activated
throughout the processing of facial emotions

Some theories of emotion take the stance that emotional expression is more
flexible, and that there is a cognitive component to emotion. These theories
account for the malleability in emotion through proposing that humans
appraise situations and, depending on the result of their appraisal, different
emotions and the corresponding expressions of emotion are triggered. The
tendency to appraise certain situations as one emotion or another can vary
through person and culture; though, appraisal models still maintain that there
are basic responses that are specific and constant to each emotion that humans
feel.

Other theories of emotion propose that emotions are constructed based upon
the person, situation, culture, and past experiences, and that there are no preset
emotional responses that are constant and specific to one emotion or another.

Basic model [ssh]

The basic model of emotions finds its roots in Charles Darwin's The
Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals. Darwin claimed that the
expression of emotions involves several systems: facial expression, behavioral
response, and physical responses, which contain physiological, postural, and
vocal changes. Most importantly, Darwin claimed that emotional expression
was constant with his theories on evolution and therefore , the expression of
emotion is universal and should so be expressed similarly crossways race or
culture. This is recognized as the universality hypothesis. Lastly, primates and
animals exhibit precursors of muscle actions of the facial expressions of
humans.

Several researchers have expanded on Darwin's original theories on emotional

expression. Paul Ekman, Carroll Izard and colleagues were the first to test
Darwin's theory. These psychologists, through cross-cultural empirical tests
found that there were a number of basic emotions that were universally
recognized. Later studies suggested that facial expressions are unique to each
emotion and are signals that convey information of one's internal state, and
this information is used to coordinate social interactions. Overall, the basic
emotion perspective assumes that emotions are unique events that occur as a
result of special mechanisms, and each emotion has its own respective specific
brain circuit. Moreover, the expression of each emotion has its own respective
response, manifestation in face, voice, and body. The basic emotion view
Ekman to make the Facial Action Coding System (FACS) and Facial
Expression Awareness Compassion Emotions (F.A.C.E). FACS is a database
of compiled facial expressions, wherein each facial movement is termed an
action unit (AU). F.A.C.E explains how to become keen at observing emotion
in the faces of others. It consists of the Micro Expression Training Tool
(METT), which trains individuals to disambiguate flanked by emotional
expressions through recognizing separate facial expressions that are unique to
each emotion. The second part of this training program trains individuals to
read micro-expressions; a face elicits an emotion very quickly and the
individual is prompted to report which emotion was seen. The Subtle
Expression Training Tool (SETT) trains individuals to be able to recognize the
subtle changes in a person's facial expression due to slight changes in
emotional experiences. These subtle expressions can occur at the onset of
emotions, or when an individual is actively suppressing the emotion.

Appraisal model [ssh]

Appraisal models of emotion state that emotions are triggered through mental
states that are truly unique in both form and function. Appraisal models are
similar to the basic model of emotion in that both views consider that, once an
emotion is triggered, emotional expressions are biologically predetermined
and are displayed only in one emotion and every time that emotion is
expressed. The main difference flanked by basic emotion models and appraisal
models is that appraisal models assume that there is a cognitive antecedent that
determines which emotion is triggered. Traditional appraisal theories consider
appraisals to be universal and like a set of switches that can be turned on
through biological and environmental triggers. When a person creates an
appraisal, an individual will react with an appropriate, emotional response that
can contain an external, emotional expression. More recent appraisal models
account for difference in emotional expression through suggesting that
cognitive appraisals are more like themes that can be triggered through a
number of different actions and situations. Emotional expressions arise from
these appraisals, which essentially describe the context of the situation. One
appraisal model has urbanized the law of situational meaning, which states
that emotions tend to be evoked through certain kinds of events. For instance,
grief is elicited through personal loss. In this case, personal loss would be the
appraisal and one can express grief through emotional expressions.

Psychological construction model [ssh]

Another model of emotion, described psychological construction, describes

emotion as a construction that results from more basic psychological
processes. In a psychological construction model, basic psychological
processes like affect (positive or negative feeling combined with some degree
of physiological activation), previous experiences, language, and executive
functioning combine to form a discrete emotion experience. While some
discrete emotions tend to have typical responses (e.g. crying when sad,
laughing when happy) a psychological construction model can account for the
wide variability in emotional expression (e.g. crying when very happy;
laughing when uncomfortable). Psychological construction models call into
question the assumption that there are basic, discrete emotion expressions that
are universally recognized. Several basic emotion studies use highly posed,
stereotypical facial expressions as emotional signals such as a pout, which
would indicate one is feeling sad. These facial expressions can be better
understood as symbols of emotion rather than signals. While these symbols
have undeniable emotional meaning and are uniformly observed throughout
day-day emotional behavior they do not have a 1-to-1 relationship a person's
internal mental or emotional state. For instance, not everyone furrows their
brow when they are feeling angry. Moreover, these emotional symbols are not
universal due to cultural differences. For instance, when Western individuals
are asked to identify an emotional expression on a specific face, in an
experimental task, they focus on the target's facial expression. Japanese
individuals use the information of the nearby faces to determine the emotional
state of the target face. This challenges experiments that solely use a
presentation of an isolated emotional expression in experiments because it is
reflecting just a Western notion of emotion.

Social construction model [ssh]

Social construction models usually say that there is no biological circuitry for
emotions since emotions are solely based on experience and context. Some
even suggest that certain emotions can only exist in the reciprocal exchanges
of a social encounter. Since there are unique local languages and local moral
orders, cultures can use the same emotion and expression in very different
methods. Therefore , emotional expressions are culturally-prescribed
performances rather than internal mental events. Knowing a social script for a
certain emotion allows one to enact the emotional behaviors that are
appropriate for the cultural context. Emotional expressions serve a social
function and are essentially a method of reaching out to the world.

Emotional regulation [sh]

Several researchers have highlighted the importance for an individual of being

able to successfully regulate emotions. Methods of doing this contain
cognitive reappraisal (interpreting a situation in positive conditions) and
expressive suppression (masking signs of inner emotional states). Emotions
are apparent through facial expressions. Humans can express their own
emotions and understand others as well. Humans can quickly identify happy
expressions whereas the disgust expression takes longer to identify.

Emotional intelligence [sh]

Theorists such as Gardner and Sternberg have each presented different

definitions and categories of intelligence. Gunderman refers to emotional
intelligence as a type of intelligence, in addition to the commonly used
definition. He has defined it as "the skill to understand and respond to
emotions in daily life". For instance, a person who does not face his or her
emotions and tackle them may be constantly frustrated. This person will face
troubles moving on with his or her life. Consequently, emotionally intelligent
individuals are better at expressing and identifying their emotions and those of
the people approximately them. Those who are adept at handling their
emotions tend to live an easier life than those who are not. Since people with
better emotional intelligence are sensitive to emotions, they are measured
better team players and are family-oriented.

Some researchers argue that emotional intelligence is biological, while others

say it is innate. Gunderman states that emotional intelligence is a learned and
an instinctual ability. According to him, it can be cultivated through three
means: learning more in relation to it, drawing attention to it for oneself and
others, and reading the works of authors he considers to be emotionally
intelligent, such as Jane Austen and Leo Tolstoy. Through engaging in
emotional expressions and regulation, it is contemplated more than before and
brings forth considerable changes in life and attitude. Sy and Cote mannered a
study that proved emotionally intelligent is more competent and performs
better. So, several companies are using "EI training programs" to augment
matrix performance.
Theories of Emotions [h]

The major theories of motivation can be grouped into three main categories:
physiological, neurological, and cognitive. Physiological theories suggest that
responses within the body are responsible for emotions. Neurological theories
propose that activity within the brain leads to emotional responses. Finally,
cognitive theories argue that thoughts and other mental activity play an
essential role in the formation of emotions.

The James-Lange Theory of Emotion [sh]

The James-Lange theory is one of the best-recognized examples of a

physiological theory of emotion. Independently proposed through psychologist
William James and physiologist Carl Lange, the James-Lange theory of
emotion suggests that emotions occur as a result of physiological reactions to
events.

According to this theory, you see an external incentive that leads to a

physiological reaction. Your emotional reaction is dependent upon how you
interpret those physical reactions. For instance, suppose you are walking in the
woods and you see a grizzly bear. You begin to tremble and your heart begins
to race. The James-Lange theory proposes that you will interpret your physical
reactions and conclude that you are frightened ("I am trembling, so I am
afraid").

The Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion [sh]

Another well-know physiological theory is the Cannon-Bard theory of

emotion. This theory states that we feel emotions and experience physiological
reactions such as sweating, trembling and muscle tension simultaneously.
More specifically, it is suggested that emotions result when the thalamus sends
a message to the brain in response to an incentive, resulting in a physiological
reaction.

Schechter-Singer Theory [sh]

Also recognized as the two-factor theory of emotion, the Schechter-Singer
Theory is an instance of a cognitive theory of emotion. This theory suggests
that the physiological arousal occurs first, and then the individual necessity
identify the cause behind this arousal in order to experience and label it as an
emotion.
Frustration and Conflict [h]

In psychology, frustration is a common emotional response to opposition.

Related to anger and disappointment, it arises from the perceived resistance to
the fulfillment of individual will. The greater the obstruction, and the greater
the will, the more the frustration is likely to be. Causes of frustration may be
internal or external. In people, internal frustration may arise from challenges
in fulfilling personal goals and desires, instinctual drives and needs, or dealing
with perceived deficiencies, such as a lack of confidence or fear of social
situations. Conflict can also be an internal source of frustration; when one has
competing goals that interfere with one another, it can make cognitive
dissonance. External causes of frustration involve circumstances outside an
individual, such as a blocked road or a hard task. While coping with
frustration, some individuals may engage in passive–aggressive behavior,
making it hard to identify the original cause(s) of their frustration, as the
responses are indirect. A more direct, and common response, is a propensity
towards aggression.

Causes [sh]

To the individual experiencing anger, the emotion is usually attributed to

external factors that are beyond his or her control. Although mild frustration
due to internal factors (e.g. laziness, lack of effort) is often a positive force
(inspiring motivation), it is more often than not a perceived uncontrolled
problem that instigates more severe, and perhaps pathological anger. An
individual suffering from pathological anger will often feel powerless to
change the situation they are in, leading to and, if left uncontrolled, further
anger.

It can be a result of blocking motivated behavior. An individual may react in

many different methods. He/she may respond with rational problem-solving
methods to overcome the barrier. Failing in this, he/she may become frustrated
and behave irrationally. An instance of blockage of motivational energy would
be the case of a worker who wants time off to go fishing but is denied
permission through his/her supervisor. Another instance would be the
executive who wants a promotion but finds he/she lacks certain qualifications.
If, in these cases, an appeal to cause does not succeed in reducing the barrier
or in developing some reasonable alternative approach, the frustrated
individual may resort to less adaptive methods of trying to reach the goal.
He/she may, for instance, attack the barrier physically, verbally, or both.
Symptoms [sh]

Frustration can be measured a problem–response behavior, and can have a

number of effects, depending on the mental health of the individual. In
positive cases, this frustration will build until a level that is too great for the
individual to contend with, and therefore produce action directed at solving
the inherent problem. In negative cases, though, the individual may perceive
the source of frustration to be outside of their control, and therefore the
frustration will continue to build, leading eventually to further problematic
behavior (e.g. violent reaction).

Stubborn refusal to respond to new circumstances affecting the goal, such as

removal or modification of the barrier, sometimes occurs. As pointed out
through J.A.C. Brown, severe punishment may cause individuals to continue
nonadaptive behavior blindly: "Either it may have an effect opposite to that of
reward and as such, discourage the repetition of the act, or, through
functioning as a frustrating agent, it may lead to fixation and the other
symptoms of frustration as well. It follows that punishment is a dangerous
tool, since it often has effects which are entirely the opposite of those desired".

PERSONALITY [MH]

Personality is the scrupulous combination of emotional, attitudinal, and

behavioral response patterns of an individual. Different personality theorists
present their own definitions of the word based on their theoretical positions.
Psychologists such as Freud, and Erik Erikson have attempted to come up with
personality theories.

Personality psychology is a branch of psychology that studies personality and

its difference flanked by individuals. Its areas of focus contain:

Construction of a coherent picture of the individual and his or her

major psychological processes
Investigation of individual psychological differences
Investigation of human nature and psychological similarities flanked
by individuals

"Personality" is a dynamic and organized set of characteristics possessed

through a person that uniquely influences his or her cognitions, emotions,
motivations, and behaviors in several situations. The word "personality"
originates from the Latin persona, which means mask. In the theatre of the
ancient Latin-speaking world, the mask was not used as a plot device to
disguise the identity of a character, but instead was a convention employed to
represent or typify that character.

Personality also refers to the pattern of thoughts, feelings, social adjustments,

and behaviors uniformly exhibited over time that strongly influences one's
expectations, self-perceptions, values, and attitudes. It also predicts human
reactions to other people, problems, and stress. There is still no universal
consensus on the definition of "personality" in psychology. Gordon Allport
(1937) described two major methods to study personality: the nomothetic and
the idiographic. Nomothetic psychology seeks general laws that can be applied
to several different people, such as the principle of self-actualization or the
trait of extraversion. Idiographic psychology is an effort to understand the
unique characteristics of a scrupulous individual.

The study of personality has a broad and varied history in psychology with an
abundance of theoretical traditions. The major theories contain dispositional
(trait) perspective, psychodynamic, humanistic, biological, behaviorist,
evolutionary and social learning perspective. Though, several researchers and
psychologists do not explicitly identify themselves with a certain perspective
and instead take an eclectic approach. Research in this area is empirically
driven, such as dimensional models, based on multivariate statistics, such as
factor analysis, or emphasizes theory development, such as that of the
psychodynamic theory. There is also a substantial emphasis on the applied
field of personality testing. In psychological education and training, the study
of the nature of personality and its psychological development is usually
reviewed as a prerequisite to courses in abnormal psychology or clinical
psychology.

Determinants Of Out Personality [h]

Personality does not evolved through a single factor. It is a mixture of a lot of

things. Some of those factors are psychological, some are physical, some are
biological and some are even hereditary.

Brain [sh]

Brain is one of the most significant factors of personality determinant. It is

usually whispered that the father and the child adopt approximately the same
type of brain stimulation and the later differences are the result of the
environment in which the child has been grown up. Electrical Stimulation of
the Brain (ESB) and Split Brain Psychology (SBP) and the outcomes of
genetic transmissions and are the tools that are used through the management
of any organization to mould and amend the employee‘s behavior to a more
positive and proper one.
Physical Factors [sh]

One of the most significant factors in determining personality is the ‗Physical

Characteristics‘ of an individual. It is whispered that this factor plays a vital
role in determining one‘s behavior in any organization. Physical features may
involve the height of a person (short or tall), his color (white or black), his
health status (fat or skinny) and his beauty (handsome or ugly). These factors
are involved when interacting with any other person and therefore contribute
in the personality development in several methods.

Social Factors [sh]

Social factors also play a vital role in determining one‘s personality. The
things that revolve and evolve approximately us on a regular basis determine
our personality. The society that we live in, the cultural environment that we
face daily, the community we get interacted to, all are incorporated in this
factor. Relationships, co-ordination, co-operation, interaction, environment in
the family, organizations, workplaces, communities, societies all contribute in
method or another as personality determinants.

Cultural and Religious Factors [sh]

The culture in which one life in that may involve traditional practices, norms,
customs, procedures, rules and regulations, precedents and values, all are
significant determinants of personality. Moreover, the creed, religion and
believes are also very significant factors of personality determinants.

Heredity Factor [sh]

Perhaps, the most surprising and astonishing factor (at least in my eyes) is the
―Heredity Factor‖. When I first read in relation to the, I was quite stunned and
really gave a bow to nature. The instance which I read was really motivating,
and I am writing the same extract that I read.

Theories of personality [h]

Psychodynamic [sh]

Several psychologists have proposed theories that try to explain the origins of
personality. One highly influential set of theories stems from the work of
Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud, who first proposed the theory of
psychoanalysis. Collectively, these theories are recognized as psychodynamic
theories. Although several different psychodynamic theories exist, they all
emphasize unconscious motives and desires, as well as the importance of
childhood experiences in shaping personality.

Sigmund Freud’s Theory of Psychoanalysis [ssh]

In the late 1800s and early 1900s, Freud urbanized a technique that he
described psychoanalysis and used it to treat mental disorders. He formed his
theory of psychoanalysis through observing his patients. According to
psychoanalytic theory, personalities arise because of attempts to resolve
conflicts flanked by unconscious sexual and aggressive impulses and societal
demands to restrain these impulses.

The Conscious, the Preconscious, and the Unconscious [sssh]

Freud whispered that most mental processes are unconscious. He proposed

that people have three levels of awareness:

The conscious contains all the information that a person is paying

attention to at any given time. Instance: The words Dan is reading, the
objects in his field of vision, the sounds he can hear, and any thirst,
hunger, or pain he is experiencing at the moment are all in his
conscious.
The preconscious contains all the information outside of a person‘s
attention but readily accessible if needed. Instance: Linda‘s telephone
number, create of her car, and several of her past experiences are in her
preconscious.
The unconscious contains thoughts, feelings, desires, and memories of
which people have no awareness but that influence every aspect of
their day-to-day lives. Instance: Stan‘s unconscious might contain
angry feelings toward his mother or a traumatic incident he
experienced at age four.

Freud whispered that information in the unconscious emerges in slips of the

tongue, jokes, dreams, illness symptoms, and the associations people create
flanked by ideas.

The Freudian Slip [ssh]

Cathy calls up her mother on Mother‘s Day and says, ― You‘re the beast,
Mom,‖ when she consciously planned to say, ― You‘re the best, Mom.‖
According to psychoanalytic theory, this slip of the tongue, recognized as a
Freudian slip, reveals her unconscious anger toward her mother.
The Id, the Ego, and the Superego [sssh]

Freud proposed that personalities have three components: the id, the ego, and
the superego.

Id: a reservoir of instinctual energy that contains biological urges such

as impulses toward survival, sex, and aggression. The id is
unconscious and operates according to the pleasure principle, the drive
to achieve pleasure and avoid pain. The id is characterized through
primary process thinking, which is illogical, irrational, and motivated
through a desire for the immediate gratification of impulses.
Ego: the component that manages the conflict flanked by the id and the
constraints of the real world. Some parts of the ego are unconscious,
while others are preconscious or conscious. The ego operates
according to the reality principle, the awareness that gratification of
impulses has to be delayed in order to accommodate the demands of
the real world. The ego is characterized through secondary process
thinking, which is logical and rational. The ego‘s role is to prevent the
id from gratifying its impulses in socially inappropriate methods.
Superego: the moral component of personality. It contains all the moral
standards learned from parents and society. The superego forces the
ego to conform not only to reality but also to its ideals of morality.
Hence, the superego causes people to feel guilty when they go against
society‘s rules. Like the ego, the superego operates at all three levels of
awareness.

Conflict [sssh]

Freud whispered that the id, the ego, and the superego are in constant conflict.
He focused mainly on conflicts concerning sexual and aggressive urges
because these urges are most likely to violate societal rules.

Anxiety [sssh]

Internal conflicts can create a person feel anxious. In Freud‘s view, anxiety
arises when the ego cannot adequately balance the demands of the id and the
superego. The id demands gratification of its impulses, and the superego
demands maintenance of its moral standards.

Protection Mechanisms [sssh]

To manage these internal conflicts, people use protection mechanisms.

Protection mechanisms are behaviors that protect people from anxiety. There
are several different kinds of protection mechanisms, several of which are
automatic and unconscious:
 Repression: keeping unpleasant thoughts, memories, and feelings shut
up in the unconscious. Instance: Nate witnessed his mother being
beaten through a mugger when he was seven years old. As an adult, he
does not keep in mind this incident.
Reaction formation: behaving in a method that is opposite to behavior,
feelings, or thoughts that are measured unacceptable. Instance: Lisa
feels sexually attracted to her roommate‘s boyfriend but does not admit
this to herself. Instead, she constantly creates very disparaging
comments in relation to the boyfriend and feels disgusted through the
method he acts.
Projection: attributing one‘s own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to
someone else. Instance: Mario feels angry toward his father but is not
aware of it. Instead, he complains that he cannot be approximately his
father because his father is such an angry man.
Rationalization: using incorrect but self-serving explanations to justify
unacceptable behavior, thoughts, or feelings. Instance: Sylvia runs a
red light while driving. She justifies this through telling herself she was
already in the intersection when the light changed to red.
Displacement: transferring feelings in relation to a person or event onto
someone or something else. Instance: Seth is angry at his professor for
giving him a bad grade. He leaves class and shouts angrily at a
passerby who accidentally bumps into him.
Denial: refusing to acknowledge something that is obvious to others.
Instance: Kate‘s use of alcohol starts to affect her academic
performance, her job, and her relationships. Though, she insists that
she drinks only to relieve stress and that she does not have an alcohol
problem.
Regression: reverting to a more immature state of psychological
development. Instance: When six-year-old Jameel gets less attention
from his parents because of a new baby brother, he suddenly starts to
wet his bed at night.
Sublimation: channeling unacceptable thoughts and feelings into
socially acceptable behavior. Instance: Priya deals with her angry
feelings toward her family through writing science-fiction stories in
relation to the battles flanked by civilizations.

Psychosexual Stages of Development [ssh]

Freud whispered that personality solidifies throughout childhood, largely

before age five. He proposed five stages of psychosexual development: the
oral stage, the anal stage, the phallic stage, the latency stage, and the genital
stage. He whispered that at each stage of development, children gain sexual
gratification, or sensual pleasure, from a scrupulous part of their bodies. Each
stage has special conflicts, and children‘s methods of managing these conflicts
influence their personalities.

If a child‘s needs in a scrupulous stage are gratified too much or frustrated too
much, the child can become fixated at that stage of development. Fixation is
an inability to progress normally from one stage into another. When the child
becomes an adult, the fixation shows up as a tendency to focus on the needs
that were over-gratified or over-frustrated.

Freud whispered that the crucially significant Oedipus intricate also urbanized
throughout the phallic stage. The Oedipus intricate refers to a male child‘s
sexual desire for his mother and hostility toward his father, whom he considers
to be a rival for his mother‘s love. Freud thought that a male child who sees a
naked girl for the first time believes that her penis has been cut off. The child
fears that his own father will do the same to him for desiring his mother—a
fear described castration anxiety. Because of this fear, the child represses his
longing for his mother and begins to identify with his father. The child‘s
acceptance of his father‘s authority results in the emergence of the superego.

Throughout his lifetime, Freud had several followers who praised his theory,
but his ideas, particularly his emphasis on children‘s sexuality, also drew
criticism. Some of Freud‘s followers broke absent from him because of
theoretical disagreements and proposed their own theories. These theorists are
described neo-Freudians. Some significant neo-Freudians were Carl Jung,
Alfred Adler, and object-relations theorists.

Penis Envy and Womb Envy [ssh]

Freud whispered that the successful resolution of the Oedipus intricate played
a crucial role in the formation of the superego and the personality. Though, he
did not have a plausible account of how this developmental phase applied to
girls. Freud whispered that because girls do not have a penis, they don‘t have
the same motivation to develop a strong superego. Instead, they develop penis
envy, or a sense of discontent and resentment resulting from their wish for a
penis. This gender-biased thought has raised strong criticism from several
psychologists, including the psychoanalyst Karen Horney. Horney proposed
that it was more likely that men have womb envy because of their inability to
bear children.

Carl Jung’s Analytical Psychology [ssh]

Until the 1910s, Carl Jung was a follower and close friend of Freud‘s. Like
Freud, Jung whispered that unconscious conflicts are significant in shaping
personality. Though, he whispered the unconscious has two layers: the
personal unconscious, which resembled Freud‘s thought , and the communal
unconscious, which contains universal memories of the common human past.

Jung described these common memories archetypes. Archetypes are images or

thoughts that have the same meaning for all human beings. Jung said that
archetypes exist in dreams as well as in art, literature, and religion crossways
cultures. Instance: The archetype of the ―powerful father‖ can be seen in the
Christian conception of God, the Zeus of Greek mythology, and popular
movies such as The Godfather.

Alfred Adler’s Individual Psychology [ssh]

Alfred Adler, another follower of Freud and a member of his inner circle,
eventually broke absent from Freud and urbanized his own school of thought,
which he described individual psychology. Adler whispered that the main
motivations for human behavior are not sexual or aggressive urges but
strivings for superiority. He pointed out that children naturally feel weak and
inadequate in comparison to adults. This normal feeling of inferiority drives
them to adapt, develop skills, and master challenges. Adler used the term
compensation to refer to the effort to shed normal feelings of inferiority.

Though, some people suffer from an exaggerated sense of inferiority, or

inferiority intricate, which can be due either to being spoiled or neglected
through parents. Such people overcompensate, which means that rather than
try to master challenges, they try to cover up their sense of inferiority through
focusing on outward signs of superiority such as status, wealth, and power.

Object-Relations Theories [ssh]

The object-relations school of psychoanalysis appeared in the 1950s, led

through a group of psychoanalysts that incorporated D. W. Winnicott and
Melanie Klein. The term object relations refers to the relationships that people
have with others, who are represented mentally as objects with certain
attributes. Object-relations theorists consider that people are motivated most
through attachments to others rather than through sexual and aggressive
impulses. According to these theorists, the conflict flanked by autonomy and
the need for other people plays a key role in shaping personality.

Criticisms of Psychodynamic Theories [ssh]

Freud‘s original ideas have little popularity today, but several psychologists do
adhere to neo-Freudian ideas. Though, other psychologists criticize
psychodynamic theories for several reasons:
 Some critics argue that psychodynamic theories are not falsifiable and
so unscientific. In response to this criticism, proponents of
psychodynamic theories point out that empirical proof does support
some psychodynamic concepts. For instance, empirical research shows
that there are unconscious mental processes, that people have mental
representations of other people, and that people use unconscious
protection mechanisms to protect themselves from unpleasant
emotions such as anxiety.
Other critics argue that psychodynamic theories are made through
generalizing from a small number of patients to the whole human
population. Relying only on case studies can lead to faulty conclusions.
Still others argue that most psychodynamic theories are not based on
studies that follow people from childhood to adulthood. Instead,
psychodynamic theorists listen to descriptions o f an adult patient‘s
past and draw conclusions in relation to the relevance of childhood
experiences. Though, as described on pages 172–174, memories are
not always reliable.

Trait [sh]

According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American

Psychiatric Association, personality traits are "enduring patterns of perceiving,
relating to, and thinking in relation to the environment and oneself that are
exhibited in a wide range of social and personal contexts." Theorists usually
assume that a) traits are relatively stable over time, b) traits differ among
individuals, and c) traits influence behavior. They uniformly are used in order
to help describe people as a whole. Traits are relatively constant; they do not
usually change. Traits are also bipolar; they vary beside a continuum flanked
by one extreme and the other (e.g. friendly vs. unfriendly).

The most common models of traits incorporate three to five broad dimensions
or factors. All trait theories incorporate at least two dimensions, extraversion
and neuroticism, which historically featured in Hippocrates' humeral theory.

Gordon Allport delineated different kinds of traits, which he also

described dispositions. Central traits are basic to an individual's
personality, while secondary traits are more peripheral. Common traits
are those recognized within a culture and therefore may vary from
culture to culture. Cardinal traits are those through which an
individual may be strongly recognized. In his book, Personality: A
Psychological Interpretation, Gordon Allport (1937) both established
personality psychology as a legitimate intellectual discipline and
introduced the first of the modern trait theories.
 Raymond Cattell's research propagated a two-tiered personality
structure with sixteen "primary factors" (16 Personality Factors) and
five "secondary factors." In Cattell's lengthy career, he had written 50
books, 500 journals, and 30 different types of standardized tests. For
Cattell, personality itself was denned in conditions of behavioral
prediction. He denned personality as that which permits a prediction of
what a person will do in a given situation.
John Gittinger's theory and its applications (the Personality Assessment
System (PAS)) use the Wechsler intelligence tests, which are well
standardized and objective instruments rather than self-report tests.
PAS factors out personality traits (primitivity) and two additional
levels, Based and Surface, which are adaptations through
environmentally induced presses and learning. Gittinger's multivariate
personality descriptions exceed 500 data-based outcome descriptions.
Hans Eysenck whispered just three traits—extraversion, neuroticism
and psychoticism—were enough to describe human personality.
Differences flanked by Cattell and Eysenck appeared due to
preferences for different forms of factor analysis, with Cattell using
oblique, Eysenck orthogonal rotation to analyze the factors that
appeared when personality questionnaires were subjected to statistical
analysis. Today, the Big Five factors have the weight of a considerable
amount of empirical research behind them, building on the work of
Cattell and others. Eysenck, beside with another contemporary in trait
psychology named J. P. Guilford (1959), whispered that the resultant
trait factors obtained from factor analysis should be statistically
independent of one another —that is, the factors should be arranged
(rotated) so that they are uncorrelated or orthogonal (at right angles) to
one another.
Lewis Goldberg proposed a five-dimension personality model,
nicknamed the "Big Five":
o Openness to Experience: the tendency to be imaginative,
independent, and interested in diversity vs. practical,
conforming, and interested in routine.
o Conscientiousness: the tendency to be organized, careful, and
disciplined vs. disorganized, careless, and impulsive.
o Extraversion: the tendency to be sociable, fun-loving, and
affectionate vs. retiring, somber, and reserved.
o Agreeableness: the tendency to be softhearted, trusting, and
helpful vs. ruthless, suspicious, and uncooperative.
o Neuroticism: the tendency to be calm, secure, and self-satisfied
vs. anxious, insecure, and self-pitying
The Big Five contain significant dimensions of personality. Though, some
personality researchers argue that this list of major traits is not exhaustive.
Some support has been found for two additional factors: excellent/ordinary
and evil/decent. Though, no definitive conclusions have been established.
 Michael Ashton and Kibeom Lee, in 2008, proposed a six dimensional
HEXACO model of personality structure. The HEXACO personality
traits/factors are: Honesty-Humility (H), Emotionality (E),
Extraversion (X), Agreeableness (A), Conscientiousness (C), and
Openness to Experience (O). The three dimensions - Extraversion,
Conscientiousness and Openness to Experience are measured to be
basically the same as their counterpart dimensions in the Big Five
Model. Though, in the HEXACO model, Honesty-Humility,
Emotionality and Agreeableness differ from the Neuroticism and
Agreeableness factors of the Big Five Model. Ashton and Lee
especially emphasize the Honesty-Humility (H) factor as
differentiating the HEXACO model from other personality
frameworks. Specifically, the H factor is described as sincere, honest,
faithful/loyal, modest/unassuming, fair-minded, VERSUS sly, deceitful,
greedy, pretentious, hypocritical, boastful and pompous. The H factor
has been connected to criminal, materialistic, power-seeking and
unethical tendencies.

Trait models have been criticized as being purely descriptive and offering little
explanation of the underlying causes of personality. Eysenck's theory, though,
proposes biological mechanisms as driving traits, and modern behavior
genetics researchers have shown a clear genetic substrate to them. Another
potential weakness of trait theories is that they may lead some people to accept
oversimplified classifications—or worse, offer advice—based on a superficial
analysis of personality. Finally, trait models often underestimate the effect of
specific situations on people's behavior.

Traits are measured to be statistical generalizations that do not always

correspond to an individual's behavior. The importance that genetic influences
have on personality characteristics can change crossways a five-year period.
Age differences make more variables even within a family, so the best
comparisons are found using twins. Twins typically share a family
environment described a shared environment because they may share other
characteristics like teachers, school, and friends. A non-shared environment
means totally different environment for both subjects. "Biologically related
children who are separated after birth and raised in different families live in
non-shared environments." Identical twins separated at birth and raised in
different families constitute the best cases for heredity and personality because
similarities flanked by the two are due only to genetic influences.
Vulnerability was a factor in this study that was taken into consideration
concerning the issue of genetic influences on vulnerability. The study
concluded that the monozygotic co-twins would be more similar than
dizygotic co-twins in change over time. The data concluded that there were no
important differences for either variances flanked by the monozygotic and
dizygotic co-twins.
Another current open question is whether genetic influences are significant for
the likeliness of co-twins to change in the same method over a period of time.
A link was found flanked by the personality trait of neuroticism and a
polymorphism described 5-HTTLPR in the serotonin transporter gene, but this
association was not replicated in superior studies. Other candidate gene studies
have provided weak proof that some personality traits are related to AVPR1A
("ruthlessness gene") and MAOA ("Warrior gene"). Genotypes, or the genetic
create up of an organism, influence but don't fully decide the physical traits of
a person. Those are also influenced through the environment and behaviors
they are bounded through. For instance, a person's height is affected through
genetics, but if they are malnourished growth will be stunted no matter what
their genetic coding says. Environment is also not totally responsible for an
outcome in personality. An instance from Psychobiology of Personality
through Marvin Zuckerman is alcoholism: Studies suggest that alcoholism is
an inherited disease, but if a subject with a strong biological background of
alcoholism in their family tree is never exposed to alcohol, they will not be so
inclined regardless of their genome.

It is also a question open to debate whether there are genetic influences on the
tendency of the co-twins to change, without keeping in mind the direction of
the change. Another factor that can be addressed is biological versus adoptive
relatives, and can be clearly seen in what is a real-life experiment, adoption.
This makes two groups: genetic relatives (biological parents and siblings) and
environmental relatives (adoptive parents and siblings). After studying
hundreds of adoptive families, the detection was that people who grow up
together, whether biologically related or not, do not much resemble one
another in personality. In characteristics such as extroversion and
agreeableness, adoptees are more like their biological parents than to their
adoptive parents. Though, the minute shared-environment effects do not mean
that adoptive parenting is ineffective. Even though genetics may limit the
family environment's influence on personality, parents do influence their
children's attitudes, values, faith, manners and politics. In adoptive homes,
child neglect and abuse and even divorce flanked by the parents is uncommon.
In accordance to that, it is not surprising, despite a somewhat greater risk of
psychological disorder, most adopted children excel, especially when they're
adopted as infants. In fact, seven out of eight have reported feeling a strong
connection with one or even both of their adoptive parents.

Type [sh]

Personality type refers to the psychological classification of different types of

people. Personality types are distinguished from personality traits, which come
in different levels or degrees. For instance, according to type theories, there
are two types of people, introverts and extroverts. According to trait theories,
introversion and extroversion are part of a continuous dimension, with several
people in the middle. The thought of psychological types originated in the
theoretical work of Carl Jung, specifically in his 1921 book Psychologische
Typen (Psychological Types) and William Marston.

Building on the writings and observations of Jung throughout World War II,
Isabel Briggs Myers and her mother, Katharine C. Briggs, delineated
personality types through constructing the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. This
model was later used through David Keirsey with a different understanding
from Jung, Briggs and Myers. In the former Soviet Union, Lithuanian Aušra
Augustinavičiūtė independently derived a model of personality type from
Jung's described Socionics.

The model is an older and more theoretical approach to personality, accepting

extroversion and introversion as basic psychological orientations in connection
with two pairs of psychological functions:

Perceiving functions: sensing and intuition (trust in concrete, sensory-

oriented facts vs. trust in abstract concepts and imagined possibilities)
Judging functions: thinking and feeling (basing decisions primarily on
logic vs. considering the effect on people).

Briggs and Myers also added another personality dimension to their type
indicator to measure whether a person prefers to use a judging or perceiving
function when interacting with the external world. So they incorporated
questions intended to indicate whether someone wishes to come to conclusions
(judgment) or to keep options open (perception).

This personality typology has some characteristics of a trait theory: it explains

people's behaviour in conditions of opposite fixed characteristics. In these
more traditional models, the sensing/intuition preference is measured the most
basic, dividing people into "N" (intuitive) or "S" (sensing) personality types.
An "N" is further assumed to be guided either through thinking or feeling, and
divided into the "NT" (scientist, engineer) or "NF" (author, humanitarian)
temperament. An "S", through contrast, is assumed to be guided more through
the judgment/perception axis, and therefore divided into the "SJ" (guardian,
traditionalist) or "SP" (performer, artisan) temperament. These four are
measured basic, with the other two factors in each case (including always
extraversion/introversion) less significant. Critics of this traditional view have
observed that the types can be quite strongly stereotyped through professions
(although neither Myers nor Keirsey occupied in such stereotyping in their
type descriptions), and therefore may arise more from the need to categorize
people for purposes of guiding their career choice. This among other
objections led to the emergence of the five-factor view, which is less
concerned with behavior under work circumstances and more concerned with
behavior in personal and emotional circumstances. (It should be noted, though,
that the MBTI is not intended to measure the "work self", but rather what
Myers and McCaulley described the "shoes-off self.") Some critics have
argued for more or fewer dimensions while others have proposed entirely
different theories (often assuming different definitions of "personality").

Type A and Type B personality theory: Throughout the 1950s, Meyer

Friedman and his co-workers defined what they described Type A and Type B
behavior patterns. They theorized that intense, hard-driving Type A
personalities had a higher risk of coronary disease because they are "stress
junkies." Type B people, on the other hand, tended to be relaxed, less
competitive, and lower in risk. There was also a Type AB mixed profile.

John L. Holland's RIASEC vocational model, commonly referred to as the

Holland Codes, stipulates that six personality types lead people to choose their
career paths. In this circumplex model, the six types are represented as a
hexagon, with adjacent types more closely related than those more distant. The
model is widely used in vocational counseling.

Learning [sh]

In cognitive theory, behavior is explained as guided through cognitions (e.g.

expectations) in relation to the world, especially those in relation to the other
people. Cognitive theories are theories of personality that emphasize cognitive
processes, such as thinking and judging.

Albert Bandura, a social learning theorist suggested the forces of memory and
emotions worked in conjunction with environmental influences. Bandura was
recognized mostly for his "Bobo Doll experiment". Throughout these
experiments, Bandura video taped a college student kicking and verbally
abusing a bobo doll. He then showed this video to a class of kindergarten
children who were getting ready to go out to play. When they entered the play
room, they saw bobo dolls, and some hammers. The people observing these
children at play saw a group of children beating the doll. He described this
study and his findings observational learning, or modeling.

Early examples of approaches to cognitive style are listed through Baron

(1982). These contain Witkin's (1965) work on field dependency, Gardner's
(1953) discovering people had constant preference for the number of
categories they used to categories heterogeneous objects, and Block and
Petersen's (1955) work on confidence in line discrimination judgments. Baron
relates early development of cognitive approaches of personality to ego
psychology. More central to this field have been:
 Attributional style theory dealing with different methods in which
people explain events in their lives. This approach builds upon locus of
control, but extends it through stating we also need to consider whether
people attribute to stable causes or variable causes, and to global
causes or specific causes.

Several scales have been urbanized to assess both attributional style and locus
of control. Locus of control scales contain those used through Rotter and later
through Duttweiler, the Nowicki and Strickland (1973) Locus of Control Scale
for Children and several locus of control scales specifically in the health
domain, most famously that of Kenneth Wallston and his colleagues, The
Multidimensional Health Locus of Control Scale. Attributional style has been
assessed through the Attributional Style Questionnaire, the Expanded
Attributional Style Questionnaire, the Attributions Questionnaire, the Real
Events Attributional Style Questionnaire and the Attributional Style
Assessment Test.

Achievement style theory focuses upon identification of an individual's

Locus of Control tendency, such as through Rotter's evaluations, and
was found through Cassandra Bolyard Whyte to give valuable
information for improving academic performance of students.
Individuals with internal control tendencies are likely to persist to
better academic performance levels, presenting an achievement
personality, according to Cassandra B. Whyte

Recognition that the tendency to consider that hard work and persistence often
results in attainment of life and academic goals has influenced formal
educational and counseling efforts with students of several ages and in several
settings since the 1970s research in relation to the achievement. Counseling
aimed toward encouraging individuals to design ambitious goals and work
toward them, with recognition that there are external factors that may impact,
often results in the incorporation of a more positive achievement style through
students and employees, whatever the setting, to contain higher education,
workplace, or justice programming.

Walter Mischel (1999) has also defended a cognitive approach to personality.

His work refers to "Cognitive Affective Units", and considers factors such as
encoding of stimuli, affect, goal-setting, and self-regulatory beliefs. The term
"Cognitive Affective Units" shows how his approach considers affect as well
as cognition.

Cognitive-Experiential Self-Theory (CEST) is another cognitive personality

theory. Urbanized through Seymour Epstein, CEST argues that humans
operate through method of two independent information processing systems:
experiential system and rational system. The experiential system is fast and
emotion-driven. The rational system is slow and logic-driven. These two
systems interact to determine our goals, thoughts, and behavior.

Personal construct psychology (PCP) is a theory of personality urbanized

through the American psychologist George Kelly in the 1950s. Kelly's
fundamental view of personality was that people are like naive scientists who
see the world through a scrupulous lens, based on their uniquely organized
systems of construction, which they use to expect events. But because people
are naive scientists, they sometimes employ systems for construing the world
that are distorted through idiosyncratic experiences not applicable to their
current social situation. A system of construction that chronically fails to
characterize and/or predict events, and is not appropriately revised to
comprehend and predict one's changing social world, is measured to underlie
psychopathology (or mental illness.) From the theory, Kelly derived a
psychotherapy approach and also a technique described The Repertory Grid
Interview that helped his patients to uncover their own "constructs" with
minimal intervention or interpretation through the therapist. The Repertory
Grid was later adapted for several uses within organizations, including
decision-making and interpretation of other people's world-views.

Behavioral and self [sh]

Behaviorists explain personality in conditions of the effects external stimuli

have on behavior. The approaches used to analyze the behavioral aspect of
personality are recognized as behavioral theories or learning-conditioning
theories. These approaches were a radical shift absent from Freudian
philosophy. One of the major tenets of this concentration of personality
psychology is a strong emphasis on scientific thinking and experimentation.
This school of thought was urbanized through B. F. Skinner who put forth a
model which accentuated the mutual interaction of the person or "the
organism" with its environment. Skinner whispered children do bad things
because the behavior obtains attention that serves as a reinforcer. For instance:
a child cries because the child's crying in the past has led to attention. These
are the response, and consequences. The response is the child crying, and the
attention that child gets is the reinforcing consequence. According to this
theory, people's behavior is formed through processes such as operant
conditioning. Skinner put forward a "three term contingency model" which
helped promote analysis of behavior based on the "Incentive - Response -
Consequence Model" in which the critical question is: "Under which
circumstances or antecedent 'stimuli' does the organism engage in a scrupulous
behavior or 'response', which in turn produces a scrupulous 'consequence'?"

Richard Herrnstein extended this theory through accounting for attitudes and
traits. An attitude develops as the response strength (the tendency to respond)
in the presences of a group of stimuli become stable. Rather than describing
conditionable traits in non-behavioral language, response strength in a given
situation accounts for the environmental portion. Herrstein also saw traits as
having a large genetic or biological component as do most modern
behaviorists.

Ivan Pavlov is another notable influence. He is well recognized for his

classical conditioning experiments involving dogs. These physiological studies
led him to discover the foundation of behaviorism as well as classical
conditioning.

Measurement and Personality [h]

The Personality and Measurement area gives the graduate program in

psychology with a strong theoretical and applied orientation through offering
training in both the theory and measurement of individual differences. The
curriculum emphasizes the integration of sound measurement principles and
substantive psychological research. Area faculty members have widely-
varying areas of expertise and offer courses in both personality (e.g.,
personality theory, personality assessment, person perception, intelligence,
evolutionary issues) and measurement (e.g., statistics and research design,
factor analysis and multidimensional scaling, psychometric theory and test
construction, computer-assisted test interpretation, structured equation
modeling, cognitive psychometrics). Graduates of the Personality and
Measurement area have a comprehensive understanding of individual
difference and their assessment and have the skills to critically evaluate
empirical research data.

REVIEW QUESTIONS [MH]

Describe the emotions.
Explain the physiology of emotion.
Discuss the emotional expression.
Explain the emotional theories.
What is frustration.
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