Also, did I see the things, which one brought to the King from the new golden land…

all sorts of
wonderful things for various uses, that are much more beautiful to behold than things of which
miracles are made. These things were all so precious that one estimated their worth at a hundred
thousand guilders. And I have seen nothing in all my livelong days which so filled my heart with
joy as these things. Then I saw there wondrous artful things and I was astounded at the subtle ge-
nius of the people in foreign land.

The artist Albrecht Dürer, 1520

“It is these opulent objects which attracted the early Spanish Conquistadores and led to the whole-
sale sacking of sacred sites and tombs proved to be the first forms of appropriation of gold by the
Europeans. These magnificent objects were melted into ingots and sent to Seville. The Spanish
crown was heavily in debt as a result of the 780 years of the Reconquista wars (718-1498) to rid
the Moors from the Iberian Peninsula. These debts were paid in metal, not money, and therefore
the accumulation of precious metal motivated the crown to develop colonies in the New World,
specifically for sending gold back to the Spanish Treasury.”

Jose Lopez Arellano, Gold in the Americas, Quebec, 2008

1
 Introduction
This exhibition represents a survey of goldworks created for the pre-Colombian elite, Kings, Rulers and
Shamans from South America, including Panama and Costa Rica, dating from as early to 1500 BC to AD
1500. It is ironic that gold was perceived as magical, spiritual and transformative by the New World kings
only after the gold was fashioned into cultural totems, whereas the kings of Spain and their European neigh-
bors only valued the gold when it was melted down into simple bars for their treasuries.
In ancient times, gold was found in nature mostly in mountain streams, known as “alluvial gold. More often
than not, these golden nuggets were alloyed naturally with copper, silver, and minor amounts of other miner-
als. The Pre-Hispanic people were not interested in gold for its economic function but rather for the belief in
the power imbued in the golden images they created. Jose Arellano writes, “pre-historic gold was continually
used in the production of personal ornaments and votive objects – emblems of social rank and material sup-
ports for complex religious and shamanistic iconography. These golden objects and other worldly goods ac-
companied their owner to the tomb. It is these uncovered objects, buried over the centuries, that are referred
to as Pre-Columbian Gold. In addition to using gold to create personal objects, the ancient Pre-Columbian
people decorated palaces and royal ceremonial spaces with golden plaques and assorted golden totems.”
This varied collection of golden treasures comprises over 40 examples of unique objects fashioned by the an-
cient metal smiths. Many of these works were owned, worn, and buried with high-status individuals such as
kings, shamans, and elites, to ensure their status in the afterlife. The decoration of gold objects was used as a
medium to convey messages beyond wealth and status. Complex motifs played a symbolic and sacred role in
the links between the rulers and the deified forces of nature.

28

Many pieces in this collection have either been published, or are similar to published examples in the litera-
ture, and are comparable to objects in museum collections in the United States and Europe. This exhibition
introduces collectors and enthusiasts to a sampling of the range of gold objects produced in the New World
prior to the arrival of Europeans.
I have acquired the collection in the U.S. from old collections and dealers over the past 30 years in compli-
ance with the Memorandum of Understanding between the governments of Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru with
the United States. Many of the pieces come from the estate of Jan Mitchell, known for his exhibition and ac-
companying catalog, The Art of Pre-Columbian Gold, published in 1985.
This catalog is arranged into three broad areas: (1) Peru and Ecuador, (2) Columbia, and (3) Panama and Cos-
ta Rica. Within these groups, the works are arranged chronologically with the earliest works first.

2
Pre-Colombian Gold Defined In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias, representing Portugal,
rounded the Cape of Good Hope in Africa, opening up
Pre-Colombian gold refers to the spectacular body of trade routes to the East. Developments in navigation,
objects wrought from this precious metal and produced including the use of a compass, the sternpost rudder,
by the indigenous cultures of the Americas prior to the and the smaller caravel, resulted in the success of Co-
arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1492. lumbus’ voyages seeking new trade routes to India.
Queen Isabella personally financed Columbus’ voyag-
The cultural period before the Spanish Conquest is es in hopes of besting Portugal’s routes around Africa
known as the PRE-COLOMBIAN ERA. The Ameri- to the rich trades in Asia.
can continent was originally populated over 17,000
years ago by people who migrated between Asia and We know the story of Columbus’ arrival in the New
North America across the Bering Strait land bridge. World, and his description of the inhabitants as
Waves of migration followed the Woolly Mammoth “Indians”. The amount of gold found in the New
(Mastodon Mammuthus), travelling down the North World doubled the amount of gold in the entire known
American continent, through the Isthmus of Panama, world up to that time. Precious metal was the only
all the way to the southernmost tip of South America. way for a government to pay debts at that time.
These early peoples established settlements in a wide
range of diverse habitats, from wet tropical lowlands The abundance of gold in El Dorado, the New World,
and arid deserts to the Andean highlands. excited a frenzy amongst the Spanish conquistadors.
While the finely wrought objects excited admiration
From these origins, the Pre-Colombian people devel- and awe, much of what the conquerors could plunder,
oped organized societies built on the previous develop- seize, or trade in Peru, Columbia and elsewhere in the
ments, covering a period of 4,000 years, beginning Americas was melted down in the 16th and 17th centu-
with the emergence of cities around 2500 BC. These ries and shipped back to Spain for the Church and
developments included a highly sophisticated and ex- Royal coffers. The indigenous peoples could not un-
tensive network of drainage and irrigation canals, built derstand the reasons why the Spanish melted down and
to manage the extremes of weather. In the Andean destroyed these spiritually imbued golden objects into
highlands, they developed earthworks, terraced farm- ingots, bars and coins. The invaders were not, howev-
ing, and raised-field agriculture. Along the coast of er, aware of the centuries-worth of gold buried in
Peru and the Caribbean coast of Colombia, they culti- tombs and cemeteries. This hidden treasure only came
vated rich alluvial soils with the use of the most ingen- to light beginning in the late 1800s, as territories ex-
ious hydraulic systems developed in ancient times. panded. The extensive plowing of fields and building
of roads in the modern era led to the accidental discov-
The stability and prosperity afforded by mixed econo- ery of cemeteries containing ancient gold artifacts.
my of agriculture and trade gave rise to complex socie-
ty. This in turn allowed for the flourishing of Pre-
Colombian art and craftsmanship, especially metallur-
gy, to satisfy the growing demand by the ruling class
for high status totems and adornments. Pre-Colombian
gold shares common themes throughout the different
cultural phases of development.
Towards the end of the fifteenth century, the world
was in a state of flux with multiple events contributing
to the fierce competition between Spain and Portugal
in the quest for new trade routes. The historical events
started with the fall of Christian Constantinople to the
Ottoman Empire in 1453, blocking the land routes
from Europe to Asia. The Ottoman victory was due to
the discovery of gunpowder in China. In 1498, the 700
-year Reconquista Wars ended, which led to the expul-
sion of the Moors from the Iberian Peninsula, leaving
Spain with overwhelming war debts. The Catholic
Church was under pressure to change its views on
profiteering, culminating in the Peace of Westphalia in
1648. Protestantism became a power catalyst for the
rise of mercantile class and a modern economy.
3
Cosmology and Iconography physical transformation and shamanic metamorphosis,
in combination with hallucinogenic rituals. Many of
Gold was a form of ceremonial adornment as well as the animal figures represented in Pre-Colombian
an essential medium for expressing social, religious, goldwork reinforced this theme. The motifs include
and ritual themes. Naturally, it was also inherently jaguars, water birds, crocodiles, frogs, deer and other
emblematic of rank and prestige. Early tribes devel- symbolic fauna that had a mythical and symbolic role
oped into formal societal and cultural groups that were in Pre-Colombian cosmology. Animals that were em-
hierarchical, ruled by a lord, or cacique, or group of blematic of water and fertility were especially promi-
such chieftains, whose authority was supported by the nent, reflecting the peoples' environment as well as
essential figure of the shaman-priest. Undoubtedly, their cosmological beliefs. There is a conspicuous lack
competition among the many chieftains for worldly of emphasis on battle themes, but a pronounced focus
and spiritual power, as well as for riches and status, on fecundity and female symbolism on the other hand.
resulted in exploitation and conflict to seek out valued
resources, especially gold. This in turn spurred the Modern day ethnography among the descendants of
production and acquisition of beautifully crafted ob- the pre-Colombian people offers some insight into
jects. earlier cultural traditions and ideas. The cosmos was
conceived as having three
Gold - mythologically associ- levels: human beings,
ated with the sun and its gold- along with certain ani-
en rays - was believed to be a mals like deer and fe-
source of sacred and celestial lines, occupied the terres-
power for both ruler and trial plane, while the up-
shaman. The greater the status per and lower worlds
of a person, the greater his were the domains of the
wealth of gold, which ensured spirits. The underworld
his status in the afterlife. was envisaged as a realm
Craftsmen (goldsmiths, weav- of water, inhabited by
ers, potters) represented a spe- mythical animals who
cialized class that was ranked governed its paths and
above the ordinary people. caves. The most im-
The goldsmith's status, in par- portant of these water
ticular, was linked to a seem- spirits was a golden croc-
ingly supernatural ability to odile– a being that is fre-
transform metal into precious, quently represented in the
ritually significant, objects ancient iconography. In-
that gave tangible form to deed, in some traditions,
symbolic and cosmological gold is emphatically as-
ideas. sociated with the powers
and spiritual forces of the
The splendid, heavy assem- lower world. In other tra-
blages of gold adornment and ditions there is a propen-
insignia that bedecked im- sity to represent raptors
portant Pre-Colombian per- with their wings spread
sonages – both living and open. Geometric symbols
dead, male and female – were are popular in all the cul-
intended to project their divine 29 tures. In Pre-Columbian
ancestry, elite status, power, mythology, the only ani-
and wealth, in this world and mals who can move between worlds are the puma, and
the afterlife. The glitter of gold attracted ancient Pre- terrestrial animals that can climb trees and also swim.
Columbians, who believed that gold came from the Other animals that undergo metamorphosis, such as
sun. Possessing gold provided the ancients with direct frogs and butterflies, are symbolic of transformative
access to the power of the sun. In reality, gold atoms states. Birds and raptors, creatures of the air, are often
are in fact byproducts of supernovas, so in essence, anthropomorphized with human traits, symbolizing
the ancient beliefs were correct. spiritual or psychic flight.
Being richly attired in gold, a material of spiritual es-
sence and efficacy, was, above all, a vehicle for meta-
4
SELECTED ANIMAL MOTIFS

39 43

9 8

5
44 21
 Adornment

This exhibition features luxury adornment, ceremonial paraphernalia, and votive offerings fabricated for high
ranking individuals. There are also several totems and other of unknown purpose or use. These varied objects
also represent different goldworking techniques such as annealing, soldering, casting, granulation, fusion
welding, and a variety of surface enhancements. Casting techniques developed over the centuries from simple
sand cast objects to delicate lost wax casting.

Pre-Columbian golden adornments include:

Helmets and crowns. Headgear had an early presence as far back as
6,000 BC in Chile and was one of the first symbols used to estab-
lish status. The earliest headdresses were made of textiles, but the
same styles were later adopted in gold, starting with simple gold-
en headbands. Golden headdress ornaments with simple bands
and cut-out shapes resembling feathers first appeared during
Chavin times. The Moche created elaborate headdresses with
beautiful ornamentation. In Colombia and Panama crowns
evolved into full helmets.
Masks. What are referred to as masks in Pre-Colombian times are
actually embellishments for mummy bundles. True masks have
eye openings and were used in dances to depict different charac-
ters. In Chimu times, the masks reached an apex in scale, ranging
over 30” in width.

43

Nose and ear ornaments and labrets. The Spanish called the na-
tives “Orejones” (large-eared people), because of their practice of
stretching their earlobes with large earrings. Like other body or-
naments, the ear ornaments represented status and wealth. Nose
ornaments also portrayed a individual’s personal animal totems.
Labrets were more common to Ecuador and Mexico.
25

Necklaces and beads. Beads used in necklaces were among the first
jewelry in cultures from around the word, and were created from
all kinds of materials. Across all of the Pre-Columbian cultures,
elaborate costumes included beaded necklaces varying in size.
Aside from plain spherical beads, beads were also crafted to re-
semble a wide range of motifs, especially animals.

6
Breastplates and pectorals. Part of the costume for very
high status individuals can include pectorals, primarily in
round or semi-circular shapes. The Cocle culture in Pana-
ma had the most elaborate disc pectorals with deep em-
bossed designs, while Colombian cultures employed both
circular and heart shaped pectorals, some with and some
without designs. Warriors would often wear highly pol-
ished pectorals intended to intimidate their adversaries.

42

Pendants. These appear in all the cultures in a large variety

of motifs of figurative and animal forms. Almost all of
them have suspension devices such as loops or other at-
tachments. The larger and more elaborate pendants were
for the wealthier high status individuals.

40

Bracelets and finger rings. Personal adornments such as

bracelets, cuffs, and finger rings could be included as part
of an elaborate costume. These objects are found in all
the cultures, especially in the Sinu culture of Colombia.
15

Cloak pins and dippers for lime containers. These were

personal items and ranged in simple to elaborate in style.
Cloak pins were also known as tupus, and were used to
fasten tunics. Lime dippers could be finely detailed cast-
ings of amazing quality. The dippers were usually at-
tached to a lime container with a cord, and were used in
the coca ceremony.

33

Ceremonial beakers. Beakers were crafted in metals, includ-

ing gold, as well as ceramics and even carved wood. Dur-
ing the Chimu period and the subsequent Inca period, gold
and silver vessels were produced in large quantities. The
Chimu beakers tended to be made of a single hammered
gold sheet over a wooden form, while the Inca would sol-
der additional elements onto the beaker.

18

7
Goldworking Technologies
Pre-Colombian metallurgy is particularly noted for its long tradition of evolving techniques - from hammering,
annealing, granulation, filigree, soldering, and gilding, culminating in the lost wax casting tradition.

Annealing involves hammering ingots of metal in-

to larger sheets with fine-grained stone hammers and
polished stone anvils. With repeated hammering,
the gold sheets would become hardened, springy,
and eventually brittle. The annealing technique con-
sists of alternating fire-heating with wet-drenching in
order to render the metal more malleable so that it
could be used to create ornaments with large, bright,
reflective surfaces.
35

Granulation is the process of heating small gran-

ules of similar metals and using a copper compound
with organic glue to attach the small granules to a
larger piece. The granules are applied in an ordered
manner to create a decorative surface. In early Ecua-
dor, metalsmiths were even able to attach platinum-
gold alloy beads to an ornament using this technique.
Platinum has a very high melting point, making this
a sophisticated process. 26

Filigree is a technique using thin wire to create a

decorative pattern. Gold is the ideal material for fili-
gree work because of its ductility—the ability to
draw wire from heated ingots. The wire designs
were soldered onto a larger piece for decorative pur-
poses. The Pre-Colombians were able to create
highly delicate spirals, chains, and twisted coils us- 14
ing filigree. Another technique, false filigree, in-
volved making a casting that imitated the look of
authentic filigree. The earring on right is an example
of using the combination of granulation and filigree.

Soldering and welding was perfected in Peru by the

Moche artisans. They took great care to master the
technique without collapsing the hollow spheres by
over-heating them. These artisans were so talented
that they could solder large beads without the seam
being seen by the naked eye. In order to solder two
pieces together, a flux is necessary. This flux would
have been created from mineral salts and naturally
occurring sulfides, whereas today, zinc is used.
20

8
Lost wax casting (cire-perdue), another quintessential Pre-Colombian
technique, was primarily practiced in Colombia and the Central Ameri-
ca, and entailed a multi-step process.
An exact model of fine charcoal and clay, the armature, was crafted
into the intended form. After this, skillfully applied sheets of beeswax
were used cover the armature to create a negative impression. A fine
clay slurry was then applied over the wax. Once dried, another thicker,
course clay casing was applied over the entire model. Wood pins, or
chaplets, were pushed through the outer clay and wax, and into the ar-
mature, to maintain alignment. Then the entire casing was heated so
that the wax would melt and could be poured out, leaving a negative
impression of the original modeled charcoal clay armature. Molten
gold mixture was then poured into the sprue (a small funnel shaped
channel for pouring the gold into the mold). When the gold cooled
down, the outer clay casing was broken, revealing the gold image that
had replaced the wax, leaving a gold replica of the original armature.
The excess gold that had filled the chaplets and sprue was then snipped
off of the gold casting, leaving behind small circular holes in the final
gold object. The hole left behind by the sprue and chaplets was covered
with a gold patch, and polished to conceal the hole. One piece in this
collection clearly illustrates the hardly visible plug used to fill in the 44
hole left by chaplet or sprue.
Finally, the gold artifact would be embellished by polishing or other surface enhancements. Such enhance-
ments include burnishing, carving, or even hammering the appendages - for example a frog’s hind flippers or
an eagle’s wings. The most skillful master goldsmiths had the dexterity to cast complicated works, sometimes
with multiple adjoining figures.

Gilding and surface enhancement involved producing a gold surface on silver or copper objects. One gilding
technique was to add gold to cover the surface of a bronze, copper or silver object, and apply high heat to me-
chanically join the metals. A more sophisticated gilding technique, known as the mise-en-couleur process, was
the high point of Pre-Columbian metallurgy. In order to enrich these surfaces, the metalsmiths first heated the
alloy and used natural acids to reveal a thin layer of gold on the surface. Below is a Recuay cast bronze scepter
with a rich layer of gold gilded to the bronze. See the next page for greater discussion of gilding.

9
 ANCIENT METTALURGY

10

Gold Alloys and Tumbaga

Much of the early gold came from alluvial nuggets found in the vast numbers of river beds downstream from
the Andes. Starting around the 7th century, mines were dug along rich veins of minerals near the surface. These
deposits naturally contained a mixture of gold, silver, and copper in various proportions. Small amounts of oth-
er impurities are also present in the metal. Some Pre-Columbian ornamentation is made from tumbaga, a Span-
ish term for an alloy of gold, silver, and copper. The composition of tumbaga can vary widely, and in fact,
many of the cast tumbaga ornaments in this collection that have been XRF (X-ray fluorescence) tested and re-
veal a high gold content (in some cases more than 90 percent, and in other cases as little as 13 percent).
Native metalsmiths deliberately manipulated the variable components of both naturally-occurring and man-
made alloys to produce a range of surface color and tonal contrast, which could be further enhanced by deple-
tion gilding, also known as mise-en couleur. Mise-en-couleur involved heating an alloy, which formed copper
oxides on the surface. Those copper oxides were removed with natural acids such as oxalic and/or uric acid to
reveal a microscopically thin layer of gold. Similarly, silver present in the alloy could be attacked by acid as
well, allowing the metalsmith to control the tones of the finished object.
Pre-Colombian cultures ascribed symbolic and spiritual significance to subtle distinctions in the colors and tex-
tures of the metal, as well as to the different light-reflective properties of matte and shiny surfaces. Reddish
tones were also admired by the ancient people.
While tumbaga objects tend to be more brittle than those worked and hammered from high-grade gold (such as
plaques, discs, or bands), the properties of the gold/copper alloy allowed for lowering the melting point to cast
in greater detail. This freedom stimulated the artistic imagination and creativity of the goldsmiths, who fabri-
cated fantastical three-dimensional images of birds, amphibians, and other creatures found in the wetlands and
jungles, in addition to anthropomorphic forms and intricate geometric designs.
The conditions under which an object was originally buried often influence the appearance of the gilding over
time. The state of preservation and the mineral profile of the soil affect whether the golden tone of a surface
remains stable or deteriorates, thus developing a green oxidized color.
10
A critical essay by MIT Professor Heather Lechtman, To improve the color, the Chimu took the surface
Andean Value systems and the Development of Pre- gilding technique to the next level. Low gold alloys
historic Metallurgy, stressed the importance of were gilded to enrich the surface, and used to create
"essences" in Andean metallurgy. The “essence” was large masks (see below), crowns, and beakers. These
transformative and spiritual, and it was up to the arti- objects appeared golden on the surface but were es-
san to “magically” bring the true essence to the sur- sentially high copper alloys.
face from within the nature of the metalwork and wo-
ven textiles. Over the centuries these metalsmiths Often, a vermillion colored natural pigment known as
employed an array of metalworking techniques to cinnabar (mercury sulfide) was painted on top of
achieve rich and colorful golden surfaces. Heather golden surfaces to decorate the intrinsic color tone of
Lechtman writes: “revealing its [the metal’s] inner the alloy. The red pigment was thought to be protec-
structure [is] related to these fundamental Andean tive, preventing the escape of the gold’s metaphysical
concepts of the divine animation of all material essence. This Chimu mask shows rich traces of cin-
things”. nabar which would have originally been painted on
the entire surface. This practice can be seen as early
By the 9th century, the larger Chimu Kingdom ex- as with the Chavin culture (circa 800 BC).
panded and took over the Moche, who declined due to
a fifty-year period of climate change. This new, larg-
er population required more golden objects to fulfill
the needs of the ruling class. Gold-rich ore became
scarce due to fulfilling this demand. The Chimu met-
alsmiths were obligated to use a lower gold content
ore, the color of which needed to be improved.

17
11
 The Golden Route from Peru To Mexico

The Americas 1587 Map by Abraham Ortellius

It is believed that gold working started in the high- many of the same styles while still having its own
lands of Peru around 1500 BC. A tomb was found at styles that are unique. An interesting development
Wayaka, buried with hammered gold foil sheets. The known as the “International Style” combines the ico-
largest sheet was found within the mouth of the in- nography from the route from Northern Colombia
terred. Goldworking spread North through Colombia thru Panama, to Costa Rica. The people from all
onto the isthmus, and finally to Mexico. Simultane- these areas shared the belief that there was an afterlife,
ously, it travelled South through Peru and Bolvia. At and that goods buried with them would serve them
first the gold technology evolved slowly from around and maintain their status in the next world.
200 BC, then increased more rapidly through the
fourth century, when most of all the metalworking THE ANDES AND PERU
technologies were known. The last technical develop-
ment arrived with the Inca in the 13th century whe In the Andes, gold flowed down from the mountain
metal inlays were used to combine different colored streams. Gold is among the rarest of metals and can
metals. occur in nuggets, unattached to rock, that are easily
The next section covers the major gold working areas worked. It is easily mined from mountain streams by
associated with the collection: Andes, Columbia and panning, a technique using running water to separate
the Isthmus of Panama and Costa Rica. In the An- the grains of gold from the river sand.
des, the majority of pieces come from Peru with ex-
amples from Chile and Ecuador. Bolivian and Argen- Metalwork and textiles were the two most important
tine works in gold are scarce. The second division is signs of status and wealth, and they helped to define
Colombia-Ecuador, with a rich variety of gold work- relations among people. Peru was the richest of all
ing traditions spread over many different parts of the the New World Kingdoms.
country. The third area, Panama and Costa Rica shares 12
High status tombs have yielded important finds of fueled the charcoal. Blow tubes, several feet in
metal objects and other luxury goods; it was the prac- length, used human-generated forced air to stoke the
tice in every culture to bury high-status individuals fire as opposed to billows, which were used in Europe.
with their luxury possessions, including many objects These tubes were used were used by three or four peo-
made solely to accompany the dead. ple at a time. A scientific analysis of the charcoal left
behind in these kilns reveals the use of gold, copper,
The living had to amass their own wealth, and the de-
and tumbaga, with concentrations of gold as much as
sire for accessories such as staffs, rattles, goblets, war
16 times that of other ceramics. (See ceramic model
clubs, knives, jewelry and headdresses seems to have
below).
been insatiable.
The ornaments them-
selves, created from
noble metals such as
gold, silver and
bronze, were thought
to have had magical
properties, and to
encase the body with
such accessories sug-
gested that the indi-
vidual came from the
sacred, celestial
world of the sun, the
moon and powerful
spirits.
Smelting (depicted
at right) only be-
came known by the
late Moche Period.
Prior to this time,
the only way to
achieve a high gold
content was
through repeated
hammering and
heating the metal
into thin sheets.
Early Chavin gold
works were mainly
flat, with incised or
cutout designs and
sometimes orna- Underground mining was only practiced after the 7th
mented with dangles or inlayed with shell details. As century in Peru and Colombia. Gold was mined by
time passed, trial and error motivated the goldsmiths, digging long, shallow trenches along veins near the
similar to Middle Ages alchemists who were search- surface. The Incas considered the mountains to be
ing to find ways to turn basic metals into gold. This living spirits, and believed these mountain spirits were
resulted in a variety of techniques including laminat- the source of the gold. Gold was endowed with spir-
ing copper with thin layers of gold, but most objects itual and symbolic meaning. The kings were the own-
acquired a golden or silver surface color through de- ers of the gold. Only kings were entitled to gift gold
pletion gilding. During the Late Moche / Early Chimu objects to their subjects, who performed tasks of brav-
Period, we find evidence of the use of an ingenious ery or extreme service.
and simple form of kilns, also known as chimneys, to
create sufficient heat for smelting metals. These
chimneys had as many as four levels upon which to
Following is a brief survey of the metalworking tradi-
place the metallic ores, and a source of heat generated tions from Peru to Costa Rica, in which each region is
by charcoal and forced air. At first, these chimneys explored in chronological order...
were placed on cliffs with strong updrafts, which 13
Chavin (1800 - 200 BC)

The earliest civilization of Peru, the Chavin, estab-

lished itself in the deep river valleys in the Peruvian
Andes circa 1800 BC. By 800 BC the Chavin culture
spread to the North Coast of Peru and brought their
metal working skills with them, taking advantage of
the abundance of the alluvial gold on the coast. Alt-
hough the Chavin excelled at stone carving and
ceramics, they made elite ornaments using hammered
sheets of gold or alloys of gold and copper. Since gold
cracks easily with cold-hammering, artisans devel-
oped rudimentary pit furnaces that allowed for suffi-
cient temperatures to make the metals malleable
enough to make relatively large gold sheets. Thus,
Chavin gold objects are single gold sheets that were
cut to make ornaments such as crowns, ear and nose
ornaments and pectorals decorated with incised, re-
pousse and/or cutout designs. These artworks are tes-
tament to the skills of early metalworkers because
great skill was required to prevent the thin sheets from
cracking or melting while heat was applied in order to
keep the metal soft and workable. In this collection
we have several nose ornaments, hammered and em-
bossed in gold with shell eyes. Although these orna-
ments are small, they display a command of the mate-
rial to create simple but attractive compositions.
1

The most notable Chavin objects are a set of three

hammered gold feathers that would have been worn
attached to a band as a headdress ornament. The
broad, highlighted surfaces were intended to reflect
the golden rays of the sun and announce a person of
high status.

14
 Paracas diadem Nasca mouth ornament

Paracas (400 - 200 BC) Nasca (AD 0 - 700)

Towards the end of the Chavin period, the Chavin Under the Nasca, the consolidation of the South coast
feline cult spread to the South Coast and influenced amounted to a real statehood. This large desert area is
the Paracas and Nazca art. The Paracas embroideries famous for the Nasca Lines drawn on the desert floor.
are considered the finest in all of antiquity. Their ce- These lines can only be seen from high above. Nasca
ramics were decorated with colorful post-fired resin ceramics are known for their colorful slip designs,
pigments. There were very few gold objects pro- and their weavings employed every known technique,
duced. Their gold objects took on their own local including some which cannot be reproduced today.
style, and were primarily limited to flat gold sheets These cultures produced few gold objects, and their
with cut-out designs. They were mostly made into textiles are known for their remarkable preservation
mouth masks and diadems or headdress ornaments. due the dry the desert.

Recuay (AD 100 – 600)

In the Central Andes of Peru, the
Recuay, a short-lived culture of
500 years, heavily interacted with
the Moche along the coast. The
Recuay built stone homes and
ceremonial centers, and primarily
created ceramics known for their
use of kaolin, a white clay. These
ceramics are a well-known fea-
tures in many museum collec-
tions. The Recuay did not work in
pure gold, because it wasn’t abun-
dant, but they did leave evidence
of technically advanced metallur-
gy with an emphasis on bronze
objects coated with thick gold
foil. The majority of these ob-
jects were fashioned into elabo-
rately constructed tupu pins. A 4
ceremonial center where these
objects were found is one of the few Recuay sites that have been studied. The Recuay culture thrived due its
strategic location in relation to the rest of Peru, while at the same time, it was easily defendable in the moun-
tains with its stone structures. As a result, the Recuay greatly benefited from long distance trade. In the col-
lection is a unique and important Recuay gold foil covered scepter depicts a deer flanked by two standing pu-
mas, all three of which are standing on flayed animal skins. There is only one object with some similarity, and
not as elaborate, that is in the Volkerkunde Museum of Berlin.
15
Moche (100 BC to AD 700) Surface enrichment was another skill developed by the
Moche. They were able to cause low alloy gold to
The Moche lived in small chiefdoms in the fourteen appear very rich in color by bringing either the gold or
river valleys on the north coast of Peru. Warfare must the silver to the surface. Some Moche pieces have
have been constant, as chiefs vied for power. Indeed, both silver and gold designs on the same surface. The
bellicose scenes are a significant segment of Moche collection has a group of nose ornaments that illustrate
pottery. The Moche did not have written language, this technique, one being pure gold, another pure sil-
but they did have an extremely sophisticated system of ver, and the third and fourth, gold and silver designs.
symbolic communication, primarily expressed through
painted pottery. Moche Warrior Priests were outfitted
with elaborate costumes and accoutrements when they
went into battle, and were also buried with their
worldly goods. This forced the next generations of
rulers to expand their holdings so as to produce even
more elaborate golden costumes and grave goods.
Generations of rulers from a particular river valley
were buried in pyramids stacked atop one another, re-
sulting in tombs with untold riches.
The Moche artisans were known as the
“Mastercraftsmen,” excelling in ceramics, weaving
and metalsmithing. They advanced the known metal- 4
lurgy techniques in the Andes and began to create
three-dimensional objects, while the Nazca neighbors The collection also contains two unusual pincers, one
in the South coast continued to create simple shapes with a decorative filigree design and the other with an
from hammered sheets of gold. embossed feline face. Gold pincers are found in the
In order to create these three dimensional works, the Moche through the Inca cultures and were used for
Moche employed techniques such as soldering and slit depilation of male facial hair.
-tab construction. One example is a gold hoverfly
(below). The hammered upper body and lower body
are tabbed together, and the separate wings were in-
serted with tabs into slits on the body. The Moche
also were able to solder pieces together.

To make a large hollow bead, they would take two

hemispheres and attach them along their edges with a
perfectly soldered seam - often unable to be detected
by the naked eye. This gave the Moche a wide varie-
ty of design ideas. Controlling the heat and using sol-
ders took great skill, as too much heat could collapse
the piece being worked. The Moche understood how
to use the naturally occurring alluvial gold alloys to
create a variety of colors utilizing depletion gilding, 8
slow and challenging process.
16
Another feature devised by the Moche was the use of
dangles, which reflected light as they moved. As sim-
ple as this sounds, it took great care to suspend these
small, flat, golden discs on thin wires, and they would
move with the slightest vibration. This innovation
was incorporated through the Inca Empire and influ-
enced all the Pre-Colombian cultures. It is clear that
reflective light possessed qualities of great im-
portance, like the reflections from the sun’s power.

13

Moche Mirrors

An outstanding example of reflective power is the

Moche Loma Negra mirror. Polished anthracite mir-
rors were found in Chavin underground temples,
which allowed the shamans to bring outside light into
the dark tunnels. The Moche chose to use polished
pyrite to reflect light. The concept of controlling
light with mirrors was a powerful and symbolic meth-
od to channel and express the power of the sun. There
are only a handful of Moche mirrors, and most of the
known ones have wooden handled frames. There are
only two known metal mirror frames. One is in the
Metropolitan Museum of Art in the Rockefeller Col-
lection, and the other is in this collection.

12

17
 Wari (AD 600 - 1000)

The Wari emerged from the Peru-

vian highlands near Ayacucho by
about the the 7th century AD, and
were contemporary with the Tiwa-
naku from lake Titicaca, Bolivia.
The Wari empire spread from
Northern Chile to the central coast
of Peru. They were famous for
their spectacular weavings of beau-
tiful tapestried ponchos. Not much
of the Wari metalwork survived.
What is known is usually elabo-
rately decorated flat surface orna-
ments such as the feather in this
collection. This gold feather is
decorated, incised, and reticulated
(cut out) and is a lovely example
featuring a pair of condors holding
serpents in their mouths. It was
meant to be inserted into a gold
headband.

16

Chimu (AD 900 – 1350)

With a fifty year drought in the 8th century, the Moche de-
clined. Significant political changes occurred in the North
Coast region. The local Sican culture, also called Lam-
bayeque (AD 900 - 1100) was eventually conquered by the
rising Chimu kingdom to the South. At the height of the
Chimu empire, it is believed that the city of Chan Chan sup-
ported a population of close to 70,000 inhabitants. The
Chimu took control and imported Sican metalsmiths to
work in their capital of Chan-Chan. The Chimu period (AD
1100-1450) was characterized by the enormous amount of
gold and silver ornaments for the society.
The large demand for golden costumes, masks, and beakers
among the Chimu nobility necessitated the metalsmiths to
find ways to satisfy the demand. One innovation, depletion
gilding, was to take abundant copper-gold alloys and alter
and enrich their surface appearance to make them look
golden. In the 1950’s, when a road was being constructed
in the Chimu heartland at Hacienda Batan Grande, an ex-
tremely large amount of golden artifacts was uncovered,
yielding tons of low carat gold. Among these artifacts in-
cluded stacks of beakers, multiple masks of different sizes,
and thousands of small textile appliques.
In the exhibition, there is a classic gold Sican mask (page
18
12) and a high karat gold beaker with embossed designs of
masks and frogs. 18
Inca (AD 1400 - 1532)

The Inca Empire at its height lasted just over 100 Pizzaro and his group of around 200 soldiers
years, from around 1430 to 1532, when Pizzaro con- kidnapped Inca King Atahualpa in exchange
quered the Incas. The empire covered an area of for the Inca gold as ransom. As a result,
2,500 miles in length from Chile to Colombia. In all there is very little Inca gold art that survived,
history, only the Roman Empire outsized the Inca as most of it was melted down. According to
Empire. The Inca won the fealty of local chieftains Cieza de Leon, who describes the splendors
in exchange for gifts of gold, silver, and tapestries of of the Inca Empire in his Chronica del Peru,
outstanding quality. 1553, “the temple of the sun, in Cuzco had
its stone walls sheathed in gold, and a garden
The Inca conquered the Chimu on their Northern ex- planted with golden plants (replicas)”.
pansion to Colombia. They admired the Chimu met-
alsmiths, and relocated them to work at the Inca cap-
ital, Cuzco. Inca gold art was created with the belief
that the Inca were direct descendants of the sun gods.

The collection of such large amounts of gold depend-

ed upon gathering resources from across the entire
empire. Everyone was required to give a portion of
their labor over to the empire. This was called mita,
which was a tax on the labor. The empire depended
upon this tax to mine gold from across the region.
Fabulous amounts of gold were brought to Cuszco,
where the Inca covered their temples’ stone walls
with gold sheets, and even had gardens made of
gold.
23
The Inca gold workers were not free artisans but ra-
ther were employees of the state, and therefore were
beholden to the prevailing Inca style. There is very
little known lost-wax gold casting done by the Inca.
One rare example is two gold figures wearing head-
dresses. This lack of known cast gold objects shows
that the Inca favored fabricating sculptures from flat-
tened gold sheets. An example of this gold sheet
technique is a standing llama, nicely sculpted and as-
sembled from several molded sheets of gold. These
llamas are also associated with hollow figurines, both
male and female. The Inca fashioned complete outfits
of gold and silver plaques including golden sandals.

Many of the Inca gold objects were crafted into head-

dresses, large ear ornaments, figurines, llamas, plat-
ters and beakers. 21

19
Ecuador (400 BC - AD 1300)

26
26
small group of gold-platinum alloyed ornaments
The early La Tolita culture of Ecuador produced
(bottom left). In general, Ecuadorian gold is quite
lovely miniature gold ornaments with traces of plati-
rare. Many ancient Ecuadorian figurines are shown
num, which is unique to Ecuador. The platinum was
wearing ornaments, which represented real-life gold
worked by hammering it into very small parts and
ornaments that people would have worn.
adding it to a larger molten gold mixture. This ena-
bled the gold workers to work the platinum without The region between the Northern border of Ecuador
the high amount of heat normally required. The later and the adjacent border of Colombia shares the same
cultures in Ecuador continued in the tradition of cre- art style known in Ecuador as Capuli (9th to 13th centu-
ating personal ornaments such as nose rings, ear ry). In Columbia it is referred to as Narino. There is
spools, diadems, and necklaces. There are only a few also an embossed gold disc with a feline mask in high
known larger works such as masks and pectorals in relief - this type of disc is associated with both ear or-
museum collections. The University Museum in naments and pectorals.
Philadelphia has the largest masks in the US. Upon
the Inca expansion into Ecuador, the objects con-
formed to the rigid Inca style. The collection has a

27

25

20
 The Quimbaya culture (AD 400-1450) evolved over
a millennium, up until the Inca conquest, continually
producing gold and ceramic art. Their early figural
poporos are considered the finest examples of lost wax
castings in South America. The Museo del Oro in Bo-
gota houses over 55,000 gold objects from all over Co-
lombia, testifying to the abundant varied goldworking
traditions.

Uruba (AD 400-1000). The Uruba region, which bor-

ders Southern Panama, has a rich mix of early styles:
Quimbaya, Calima, Darien, Sinu, and Tolima. Each of
these cultures was within a 75 mile radius of the Gulf
of Uruba. Uruba’s strategic geographic location, and
the narrow passage between Colombia and Panama
30 encouraged the trade of goods and alluvial gold. This
resulted in not only extraordinary amounts of trade,
but also produced a mixture of artistic influences
Colombia - (500 BC - AD 1450) which led to the Uruba style, developed as early as AD
Named Nueva Granada by the Spaniards, Colombia 400. Uruba archaeology is the least studied among all
covers a large area of varied landscapes, ranging from the cultures of Colombia because of difficult and dan-
Coastal plains to rugged Andean mountains. This ter- gerous terrain, which is heavily forested and unsafe to
rain resulted in seven primary gold working cultures travel.
covering a span of over 2,000 years, to include
Quimbaya, Calima, Uruba,Tolima, Muisca, Tairona,
Sinu and Narino. These primary cultures had tribes
that also evolved into multiple distinct artistic styles,
all portraying similar categories of objects including
masks, headdresses, ear ornaments, nose ornaments,
labrets, pectorals, pendants, necklaces, bracelets, liga-
tures, finger rings, lime containers (poporos), lime dip-
pers, and other assorted items like trumpets and assort-
ed animal figurines. A consistent stylistic theme is the
portrayal of shamans and rulers that transition into dei-
ties or animal totems for passage into other worlds.
The earliest examples of Colombian goldwork were
crafted by the Calima, c. 100 BC, into large golden
sheet ornaments such as masks, and especially breast
ornaments or pectorals which
could cover a king or ruler’s
entire chest. These objects
were made of a high content 28
gold and were annealed with
stone hammers and chisels and An excellent example of Uruaba goldwork (above)
meticulously burnished surfac- portrays a combination of a Sinu shaman with
es. By the 4th century the Cali- Quimbaya features.
ma were using the lost wax
casting technique to make
smaller ornaments such as ear
and nose ornaments. Early on,
the Quimbaya championed lost
wax casting technique, making
the most sublime figural con-
tainers which unequalled any-
where in the Americas. 33
21
 36

Tairona (AD 600-1500)

When the Spaniards arrived in the Tairona heartland, 38
the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta was sparsely populat-
ed. Only in 1973 did archaeologists start to find more Muisca (AD 800-1600)
than 200 Tairona sites, ranging from small settlements The most notable feature of Muisca gold work is
to large towns. The Tairona had great engineering their cartoon-like imagery. The Muisca people pri-
skills, constructing canals, agricultural terraces for marily worked with low-relief molds, producing vo-
crops, and stone stairways and roads. There was trade tive figurines known as tunjos. The figurines depict
in small scale gold objects between the Tairona and the people and animals conducting a wide variety of
Sinu, but the main trading was with the Muisca, to activities. The Musica also favored depicting every-
whom the Tairona sent nose ornaments, beads, and sea day and ceremonial scenes. They are known as the
shells in exchange for emeralds. people from El Dorado because of a ceremony cele-
Tariona gold work combines mastery of casting and brating their king, who would be covered in golden
attention to detail using braided bands of cast wire, spi- ornaments and floated on a golden raft across the
rals, and elaborately ornamented figures and animals. sacred lagoon of Guatavita to offer his treasure into
Most of the Tairona gold work was made in the final the lagoon.
centuries before the Spanish conquest, but earlier stages
date back to the sixth century. Tumbaga, an alloy of Sinu (AD 1000 - 1500)
gold and copper with minor amounts of silver, was a When the Sinu first greeted Columbus in their canoes,
Tairona achievement which allowed for the creation of they were wearing large, golden, circular pectorals. At
lost–wax castings with fine details (see below). Tum- that point Columbus had a Eureka moment and knew
baga also lowers the melting point of gold, allowing for
that there was much gold to be had in the New World.
the casting of finer details. The Sinu thrived because they lived near large flood-
The Kogi Indians of the Sierra Nevada mountains are plains and created a canal system that produced abun-
direct descendants of the Tairona and maintain many of dant agriculture. and alluvial gold. They also created a
their customs. The Kogi have been studied in order to large range of gold objects that employed the false fili-
better understand their ancient ancestors. gree technique, specializing in earrings. The Sinu
amassed more gold for the afterlife than any other peo-
ples. The only Sinu item in this collection is a cast gold
whistle (below).
To view 100 other Sinu objects, click on the graphic of
the catalog to open a link to the PDF catalog.

37
22
 THE ISTHMUS: PANAMA & COSTA RICA

The biological and geographical diversity of the isthmus between Uruba in Northwest Colombia through
Panama, to the gulf of Nicoya in Costa Rica, is divided into three primary archeological zones: the Cocle
zone, on the isthmus in Panama, the Atlantic Watershed, along the Caribbean Coast, the Guanacaste-Nicoya/
Diquis region west of Costa Rica along the Pacific Coast.

The people of Panama and Costa Rica who looked for gold
believed that collecting gold was a sacred activity and that
ritual fasting would ensure success. The streams were so
rich in gold nuggets that some nuggets were reported to be
the size of an egg. The primary type of gold objects from
this area are usually of a high gold content and they are ei-
ther hammered into large flat pectorals or solid lost wax cast
pendants. The majority of these pendants are either figura-
tive, anthropomorphized deities, powerful birds, or amphibi-
ans, mostly in the form of frogs. One example of a large
cast gold frog from the Veraguas culture in this collection
displays saurian (small crocodile) heads emanating from its
mouth. These saurian forms are a typical embellishment
found on casting in the isthmus. Another characteristic Vera-
guas feature was to embellish, by hammering, details such as
wings and/or flippers after an object has been cast.

39
Panama (Cocle Zone) AD 750-1000. In the 1930’s, Har-
vard University and University of Pennsylvania excavated
the newly found cemetery of Sito Conte and found the richest treasure in Panama to date. The universities
made a deal to share the treasure with the Conte family. The universities paid only for the gold content of
their portion, which was $35 per ounce. Today this arrangement be considered controversial, as excavated
property belongs to its host country. On the other hand, the University of Pennsylvania has diligently pub-
lished and exhibited the Conte treasure for the benefit of the public and has brought global attention to Pana-
ma’s rich pre-history.

The phenomenal treasure uncovered in this cemetery provided the

first descriptions of how these chiefdoms were organized, revealing
insights to Cocle society. Cocle chiefs were chosen by hereditary
lines, giving them power, wealth and military rule. Unique to Pana-
ma are its elite burial rites, in which the deterred are confined to clus-
tered burials arranged according to status, with only a small stone
marker to indicate the presence of the group. In addition, chiefs were
given certain privileges - the most important being that chiefs were
the only class entitled to own and wear gold in both this life and the
life hereafter.

On Columbus’ fourth voyage, near Panama, he and his men traded

with the Indians coming out in canoes to meet him. These Indians
wore “mirrors” round their necks. The “mirrors” were actually con-
cave gold disks with suspension holes (right). Many Cocle objects
were meant as ornaments for the body, and include pendants, collars, 42
gold beaded necklaces, and hammered disks of all sizes. Cocle orna-
ments were decorated with richly embossed iconography of deities and intricate lost wax casting.

23
Because of the rarity of Cocle gold objects, we only
have one example in the collection, a set of twin
shamans . These shamans are perhaps deities in trans- Guanacaste-Nicoya/Diquis Region (AD 1000 -1500)
formation, depicted as anthropomorphized animal hy-
brids with human torsos and appendages. Many of By comparison to the Atlantic Watershed and Diquis
these themes are found in other parts of the isthmus, areas, the Guanacaste-Nicoya archeological area to
and it is hard to distinguish the origins of each object, the west of Costa Rica produced less goldwork. What
as well as to determine which geographic group influ- has been found is entirely eclectic, with apparently no
enced the others. definitive local style. For example: small gold frog
pendants, eagles, crocodiles, and human figures.

The Diquis zone of the Pacific Coast has provided

more golden objects, apparently due to the availability
of gold from mountain streams. Most of these items
were found in tombs with hardly any wear, apparently
intended for the afterlife.

The most distinctive of these items include pendants

shaped like humans or humans with animal qualities,
and seem to be crafted using strictly controlled
themes. Many of these themes are taken from the ani-
41 mals in the area such as frogs, alligators, jaguars, pec-
caries, turtles, armadillos, scorpions, spiders, and
birds - including eagles and other raptors. Many of
The Atlantic Watershed (AD 800 - 1519) these creatures have a composite form, for example
human arms and legs incorporated with animal faces
On Columbus’ fourth voyage, he dropped anchor at
and features.
Amirante Bay, just inside the Panamanian Coast,
where more than 80 canoes came to exchange gold for It becomes clear that the Diquis pendants are not
Spanish copper bells and trinkets. Columbus saw In- simply representations of nature, but the outward
dians extracting large grains of gold from the rivers, signs of a complex world of symbolism, with its own
and manufacturing hammered breastplates of high system of beliefs and mythology. Most of the subjects
quality gold for trade along the coastal chiefdoms of depicted in gold are fierce, noxious, or dangerous –
Talamancas. The greatest concentration of gold finds they nip, sting, bite or are poisonous. Predatory habits
on the Atlantic slope comes from the Linea Vieja area. are emphasized – such as a raptor holding a fish in its
It appears that this was a great trading center, as im- mouth. The Diquis’ preoccupation with supernatural
ported golden artifacts were found here from all over forms suggest that their pendants may have served as
Costa Rica, Panama, and Northern Colombia, buried indicators of rank and family status, and should not be
in tombs. considered merely as ornamental jewelry. (Bray, Be-
tween Continents /Between Seas: Pre-Columbian Art
In Costa Rica in 1871, Minor C. Kieth, founder of
of Costa Rica).
United Fruit Company, built a railroad from San Jose
to the Atlantic coast, primarily to transport bananas
and coffee for export. The railroad, now known as
Linea Vieja (meaning “old railroad”) passed through
Las Mercedes, a large Late Period archeological site
rich with artifacts – as many as 16,000 objects of gold,
jade, stone, and ceramic. During the construction of
his banana plantations at La Mercedes, Minor Keith’s
workers first came across golden artifacts, which in-
spired Keith to amass a collection of over 16,000 ob-
jects over a 20 year period.

According to Kate Taylor in the New York Times,

(Dec. 31, 2010) over 5,000 of these objects were later
donated to the Brooklyn Museum of Art, while others
were donated to the American Museum of Natural
History, and the Smithsonian Museum of the Ameri- 40
can Indian. 24
Guatamala & Mexico (AD 900-1600)

From the Codex Mendoza, c.1541

(Maya, AD 900-1200) (Mixtec, c.1500 AD) (Aztec, AD 1300-1500)

The story of gold in the Pre-Columbian Americas ends in Mexico. During the Early Classic period (5th centu-
ry) the Maya were importing gold from the isthmus, through trade with the Diquis people. Since gold had to be
imported from distant regions, it always remained scarce among the Mayans. What remains of the the Mayan
gold work are sheets with beautifully incised designs, based on mythical images described in the Popol Vuh (the
Mayan Book of Dead). There were cenotes that became pilgrimage centers, and gold offerings were thrown
into these great natural wells, mostly located in the Yucatan peninsula. A famous cenote of sacrifice in Chichen
Itza, used over a 500 year period, produced 16 pounds of gold objects. These objects were brought to the cenote
from as far away as northwest Colombia. By the 17th century we find the Mixtec continuing the gold working
tradition, and by the 10th century the Mixtec were making exquisite quality cast gold objects. Mixtec gold ob-
jects are extremely rare and in few private collections. Before the arrival of Cortes, the Aztec Empire controlled
most of Mexico as we know it today, from its center Tenochtitlan in the Valley of Mexico. The Aztecs de-
manded gold as a tribute from their subjects, especially those from the Pacific and Gulf coasts. Montezuma was
the last Aztec lord who presided over the Aztec Empire at the time of the Spanish conquest.

Cortes demanded gold from Montezuma, who pretended to have very little gold. By luck Cortes discovered
Montezuma’s treasury, melted down the gold objects into bars, and sent it back to Spain to finance European
armies. The intact objects were sent to Spain as part of the royal fifth, subsequently to be destroyed due to pres-
sures from the church because the objects were considered sacrilegious. Hardly any of the gold and feather ob-
jects survive from Mexico. Most of these objects are in museum collections in Vienna and Madrid. Smallpox
and the use of gunpowder allowed Cortes to finally defeat the Aztec Empire in 1521 with the fall of Tenoch-
titlan.

This concludes our brief history of Pre-Columbian gold traditions, which brings us to our next section: Con-
noisseurship and Authentication of Pre-Colombian gold artifacts.

*** 25
 CONNOISSUERSHIP & COLLECTING

31

C onnoisseurship, the understanding of technique, details, and subtlety of an art form, becomes paramount
when collecting rarified ancient objects. One should think about how an object fits into the range of artistic
output from a particular area or culture. The most useful tool for collecting is a broad image base of known arti-
facts from the culture in question. It is important to see as much work as possible: in museums and galleries in
person, in books, and online. Understanding the techniques used to accomplish a particular style is also critical
in making judgments about the quality of a piece. Art specialists also provide insights that are helpful to under-
standing a piece’s character. Ultimately it is the individual collector’s heartfelt response to an object that
should determine whether a piece should be included in a collection. There are several types of collections. An
“encyclopedic” collection is a collection containing one example of each culture, type, or technique. A collec-
tion specializing in a specific style, time frame, or media is another type. Finally, the last type of collection is a
collection based on someone’s personal taste without any limitations. It can be hard for a collector to go against
popular trends and choose what he or she personally values. These types of collections are the most difficult to
achieve, but the result can be the most gratifying.

The collector should distinguish between whether one’s goal is to create a personal collection, or to make a
good financial investment. Sometimes these two goals coincide, but most often, this is not the case. It is very
difficult to know whether you are overpaying for a masterpiece. An experienced collector knows that some-
times paying a high price for a masterpiece can be a bargain in the long run. Collectors often say that their big-
gest mistake was passing up a special piece that was thought to be expensive at the time. On the other hand, a
collection need not be full of expensive masterpieces in order to have significance. In fact, the creative impetus
behind the collection often leads to its distinctive character, as you’ll see in the next two examples.
26
One collector was attracted to Pre-
Colombian miniature gold animal pen-
dants, and over time, she amassed a
menagerie of animals. The criteria
were that they were small, under two
and a half inches in size, and they had
suspension loops. At first she only in-
tended to collet a dozen or so ani-
mals—birds, amphibians, reptiles and 25
mammals. However over the years, the
collection grew to over 300 unique animal pendants, as she discovered far more unique animal species than
originally imagined. Everyone who came to visit the menagerie marveled at the variety of creatures and the
imagination of the Pre-Colombian goldsmiths.

Another collector was fascinated with zoomorphic transformation

figures. These images would display either animals with human
attributes, or humans with animal attributes, such as a bat with croc-
odile tail and human hands and feet, as seen to the left, or a shaman
with wings. These pendants illustrate the transformation themes that
were so important to the Pre-Colombian belief system, such as spir-
itual flight, or descent into the animal underworld.

43

Pitfalls in Collecting

Making mistakes is a part of collecting, and unintentionally purchasing forgeries comes with the territory.
Understanding why a work is fake can allow a collector to learn an immense amount about a specific culture
and style. Usually these type of mistakes occur when a person is trying to acquire a bargain, or to buy a
“masterpiece” that is more elaborate or larger than other pieces from that time period. It’s also possible, but
less likely, that this “masterpiece” is real. In general, forgers will make the effort and take the time to create
a forgery that is enticing to a collector for both its size and rarity. When tempted by such a piece, a collector
should use skepticism and research to determine if in fact it is actually a rare and important piece, or the
product of a forgers’ imagination. As authentic masterpieces are published for the first time, forgers will al-
most always follow suit and attempt to recreate these masterpieces. In addition, obscure masterpieces pub-
lished decades ago also become targeted pieces for fakers. A logical first step is to look through the literature
and study museum collections on the culture from which a piece in question is purported to originate. Also,
people take advantage of novice collectors attracted to secondary auctions by falsely claiming authenticity.
Distinguishing between a fake “masterpiece” and a genuine object that is widely published requires scientific
testing, expert analysis, and connoisseurship. An understanding of the ancient styles, techniques, tools, and
materials available are essential to discerning fakes from genuine pieces. This requires time and costly scien-
tific tests. There is no shortcut for proper authentication. Beware of expertise that is provided quickly and at
modest expense.

Another pitfall is when a seller warns the buyer “not to show the piece to certain experts”. The seller will
claim that these experts say that objects are fake if they don’t originate from dealers within their own circle.
Expertise is subject to specific fields, and when experts go beyond their field, their statements are subject to
question. Therefore, selecting one or more experts to examine a piece is essential. It is not always easy to
determine who those experts should be. For example, an expert in Andean Pre-Colombian art should not be
asked to assess at a piece that is Mesoamerican. In addition, expertise can be found for different media (e.g.
metallurgy, gold vs. bronze, ceramics, stone, or wood). Reviewing an expert’s cv will show where his or her
strengths lie, based on his/her published articles.
27
 44

Authentication of Pre-Colombian Gold

I have selected these works with over 35 years of experience buying, selling, and collecting Pre-Colombian
gold. I have often consulted with other Pre-Colombian experts and scientists over the years to discuss a variety
of issues. Many of the works in this collection have also been scanned by XRF (X-Ray Fluorescence) for ele-
mental analysis, which measures the percentage of each element present in the gold alloy.
Collecting Pre-Columbian gold can be satisfying and informative, and at the same time challenging. Growing
interest in archeological gold has contributed to an increasing amount of forgeries. However, it can be assuring
to know that the issue of forgeries can be addressed through the advances in the field of archaeometallurgy.
At first glance, someone with a reasonable amount of experience can tell from a photograph if a piece has merit
or not. If it is believed that the piece is genuine, then one has to conduct further analysis, both stylistic and
technical.
Experts rely on two complementary approaches––Scientific and Stylistic––to determine whether a work might
be a modern forgery. In authentication of Pre-Columbian gold, technical proof begins with looking for evi-
dence of age. It also includes observations such as spotting the wrong alloy or element that was not used in
production in the ancient world, such as zinc. It is crucial for both stylistic and scientific approaches to be used
together, as one is not sufficient without the other. In fact, if a purely scientific result concludes that an object
is genuine, the result may be misleading and not sufficient as a guarantee of authenticity. It’s entirely possible
for a forger to find a discarded piece of ancient metalwork and repurpose it into a fake. An example of this
would be a flat sheet of ancient gold that a forger embossed with a Pre-Columbian motif. The material is an-
cient, but the art is modern.

Scientific Analysis
As summarized by Andre Emmerich, the venerable Pre-Columbian art dealer and author of the seminal cata-
logue Sweat of the Sun and Tears of the Moon (1965), common technical proofs for detecting works of forgery
include 1) the use of alloys that were unknown in Pre-Hispanic times 2) the use of modern goldsmithing tech-
niques and modern tools (which leave microscopic traces), or conversely, the evident lack of pre-Columbian
techniques of manufacture, and 3) the application of acids or other methods (such as burying the object) to pro-
duce an artificial patina, aging, corrosion, weathering or faked wear and tear.
In the past scientists only had access to binocular microscopes and could only detect obvious modern tool
marks and surface enhancements. This surface examination can be conducted with as little as 20x - 40x mag-
nification. Metallurgical professionals have at their disposal multiple sophisticated scientific tools in addition
to visual examination to authenticate archaeological gold. Over the past fifty years, there have been dramatic
advances in Pre-Columbian archaeology and its scientific techniques and equipment.
28
Heather Lechtman of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and a MacArthur fellow, has done pio-
neering work on Pre-Colombian gold, analyzing the inventive methods of fabrication devised by pre-Hispanic
artisans and metalsmiths. The variety of complex techniques employed to fashion such magnificent pieces are
represented in this collection. Warwick Bray examined the gold traditions of Columbia and the Panama isth-
mus. David Scott did pioneering work on the gold and platinum technology of early Ecuador. Scientists are
using the latest equipment to be able to date when the golden objects were made, and locate the geographic
source of the gold.
Thermoluminescence testing (TL) is a well-known technique, which can measure the age of carbon core sam-
ples taken from cast lost-wax gold objects. However, it can only be used for those cast metal objects that still
retain uncontaminated traces of the original clay core model. It is not impossible for a forger to place an old
discarded core into a modern forgery. An experienced examiner usually can tell how legitimate the core sam-
ple is.
Another methodology employed to examine a selection of objects from this collection, uses energy dispersive
X-ray fluorescence (ED-XRF). ED-XRF analyzes elemental composition. XRF can detect a higher than nor-
mal presence of certain modern elements not used in Pre-Columbian times, such as zinc and aluminum, which
would indicate modern fabrication. However, since forgers have learned how to manipulate and re-work
shards of ancient gold, the results are not infallible, and must be supported by other evidence.
Helium is also trapped in the process of heating gold. Over long periods of time, the helium atoms decay.
The amount of helium lost over time can be measured. Once the helium loss is measured, it is then possible to
determine time period when the gold was last heated. A twofold process developed by Olivier Bobon and
Hervé Guegan at the CIRAM and ARCANE laboratories in France takes advantage of this atomic decay by
combing scanning electron microscopy (SEM-EDX) with external particle-induced X-Ray emission (PIXE).
This combination is used to study the object's surface microstructure and determine the process by which the
gold was fashioned (e.g. ancient depletion gilding as opposed to modern electroplating). Unfortunately, this is
an expensive test and therefore should be used only for expensive items.
This information is integrated with a PIXE analysis to define the “trace element” composition of the alloy and
determine whether it is consistent with the geographic area that the goldwork is purported to be from. Trace
elements refers to minute amounts of less than 1/100th of a percent of all elements found in an alloy, such as
Ruthenium (44) and Palladium (46). It is impossible to replicate a given matrix of trace elements.
Stylistic Assessment
Stylistic proof is found in the artist’s approach to the overall design of the piece. Often, an expert will notice
a stylistic error which in turn would need to be confirmed with technical testing. Stylistic analysis is best re-
alized by professionals with long-term, hands-on experience with artifacts from a given culture. Also im-
portant is one’s visual memory of museum pieces and published objects, which serves as a frame of reference
for observing questionable objects. After seeing thousands of objects, a professional can understand many
stylistic nuances attributed to a particular culture. This knowledge includes understanding the art form, its
iconography, its historical evolution, and its cultural chronology. Many mistakes and irregularities of style
and iconography can be unmasked and used to conclusively establish an object's fraudulence. Ellen Howe,
formerly a researcher at the Sherman Fairchild Center for Objects Conservation at the Metropolitan Museum
of Art, has successfully merged both scientific expertise along with a vast image base of ancient metalwork.
It is insightful to place a questionable object next to a known ancient object with similar motifs for reference.
Upon close examination, an expert could be able to spot subtle differences in design, which could reveal a for-
gery, using stylistic criteria alone. For example, some forgers craft an object with either too few or too many
compositional elements, relative to the authentic object.
A professional can also distinguish between an authentic rendering and a caricature. For example, if a certain
culture always depicts its figures frontally, and an object is found purported to be from that culture with a fig-
ure depicted in profile, then it is likely that this could be the work of a forger.
In many cases a scientific analysis could support a stylistic conclusion. An expert in ancient ceramics may
not have the same knowledge as an expert in ancient metal work. Therefore, it is important to get the help of
the appropriate expert.
29
 Spotting Fakes
Below is an example of a piece that was crafted
from ancient gold but is not authentic. The piece
on the right is an authentic artifact from the Gold
Museum in Bogota, and the piece on the left is a
forged imitation. The iconography is misunder-
stood by the forger and the scale is incorrect; the
forged piece is one third the size. By comparing
the forgery to the authentic piece, one can see sev-
eral iconographic discrepancies. The first and
most obvious difference is the way the face is
drawn on the fake, lacking details in the nose and
mouth. Additionally, the fake animal’s torso and
tail are not skillfully drawn the original’s. The
original has one set of suspension holes, while the
fake has two sets, without any reason for the sec-
ond set.

Another example of a forgery is this side-by-side comparison of a fake Chimu gold tumi (below, right) with a
standing figure in a posture with hands facing outward. When placed next to the original (below, left), one
notices that they are both very similar - in fact, they are too similar.
In the forged piece, the artist had trouble making the toes. The punctuated design is crisp on the genuine piece
and sloppy on the fake. Finally, the fake is pushed in in several areas, including the crucial nose. The
“pushed-in” technique is a way to disguise an artist’s lack of ability to replicate an intricate part of the origi-
nal. It’s possible that the metal used to create the fake could very well be ancient, as there were many discard-
ed gold fragments form the Batan Grande cemeteries, so stylistic assessment is of paramount importance.

30
Continuing with side-by-side comparison, another type of fake is a pastiche. Pastiche involves combining
parts from different objects to create a forgery. Sometimes the parts are from the same culture, or more often,
from the same tomb. Forgers may even combine two pieces from entirely different cultures into a “new and
never seen before masterpiece”. Another type of pastiche involves combining ancient and modern parts to
form one object.
In this example below, a forger took an ancient pair of earspools that lost their inlays, and crafted in a new set
of figures inspired by a well-known authentic pair of earspools from the Larco Museum in Lima.

The forger (left) tries to embellish the iconography by adding a trophy head, which is uncharacteristic of Mo-
che iconography. In addition, the scattered placement of the blue shells in the background is also inconsistent
with Moche craftsmanship. This forgery would fool most people without a knowledge of Moche iconogra-
phy.
The pastiche on the right is an example of placing a Moche subject inside a Chimu earspool. When you com-
pare the Moche earspool decoration to the Chimu decoration, the Moche border has solid gold balls surround-
ing a circular rim, whereas the Chimu border has gold balls surrounding a ring of spirals. To make it more
confusing, the profile of the figure is holding both a trophy head and a weapon in his right hand. The Moche
profile has a cumbersome headdress. These discrepancies reveal a lack of understanding of Moche iconogra-
phy on the part of the forger. It is entirely possible that some of the carved shell inlays may be genuine and
mixed with modern inlays—another attempt to deceive the collector. This is a good example of taking a popu-
lar object and using a combination of both modern and ancient materials to create a tempting forgery.
Once any art form becomes popular and valuable, there is a natural tendency toward creating forgeries. In au-
thenticating art, ancient art has an advantage over modern art because it can be tested for evidence of its age.
In addition, each professional has his or her own secrets for detecting forgers, and these secrets cannot be re-
vealed lest forgers learn how to overcome their errors.
As forensic science advances, our ability to detect forgeries will continue to improve. The academic research
on Pre-Columbian art and in particular gold is also increasingly evolving. Ancient gold lends itself well to sci-
entific testing because of its unique elemental properties. There are no absolutes concerning authenticity, but
we can come to highly educated conclusions utilizing the best talent and tools available.
Ancient art is an appealing field for those who love antiquity and are curious about science. In fact, scientific
analysis allows one to conclusively authenticate whether an object is ancient. This is in contrast to 20th centu-
ry art, in which the subjective opinions of experts dominate the field.
***
Price List and Bibliography To Follow

31
 Price List Subtle Genius: Collecting Pre-Columbian Gold
An On-Line exhibition at www. Precolumbianart4sale.com
By David Bernstein Fine Art, New York
Items 1-45

1 Three Chavin Gold Plumes for Headdress

Height: 9", 11", 12"- Weight for the three 90 grams
XRF: Au.81, Ag. 9.5%, Cu. 10.1%, average for the 3
Peru, Chavin, Tembladera, Late Phase, North Coast, c. 900 - 200 BC
These were used as headdress or turban ornaments with solid, tapering
shafts and were each fabricated by repeatedly hammering and
annealing. They are illustrated in TRUJILLO Precolumbino, Odebrecht-
Lavalle, Editores 1990, pg. 293. Other similar examples are illustrated
in Parodi, pl. 51. * These plumes are considered very large for early
Peruvian goldwork. intact with a small tear to the largest one, original
surface
94192 $21,000.00
.
2 Salinar-Early Moche Gold Nose Ornament With Dangles in
the Form of Bird Feathers
Width 4" x Height 1 3/4"
Peru, Viru, North Coast, c. 200 BC - AD 200
Unusual and rare nose ornament from the Salinar culture with stylized
bird heads at each end and six dangles imitating feathers. A similar
example is illustrated in Lavalle, pl. 94.*
96164 $2,400.00

.
3 Recuay Gilt Copper Pin Decorated with the Moon Animal
Length: 3 1/2" x Width at top: 5/8"
Xrf: Ag. 0.89, As. 3.92, Cd. 0.05, Cu. 83.08, Fe. 0.01, Ni. 0.02,
PbL. 3.72, Sb. 0.08, Se.0.04, Sn. 0.61, Zn. 0.73
Peru, Recuay, North Highlands, c. 300 BC - AD 700
This is a short tupú with a filigree design of the Moon creature, a North
Coast deity conceived by the Recuay and adopted by later societies.
The Recuay and Moche associated the Moon Animal with the crescent
moon, stars and human sacrifice. There is a turquoise bead in the eye;
other recessed areas of the casting also had inlays, which have been lost.
A similar pin was found at a Recuay site and is on display at the AMNH.
M2029A $1,700.00

4 A Rare Recuay Gilt Scepter with Accompanying Pair of Gilt .

Tupus
Scepter Length: 9" x Width:# 3"
Longer tupu: Length: 8 ½ x diameter: 1 ½”
Shorter tupu: Length: 7 ½” x diameter: 1"
Peru, Recuay, North Highlands, c. 300 BC - AD 700
This scepter is very rare with an unusual motif of three animals
standing on three flayed feline skins. The central animal is a deer
flanked by a feline four-legged animal. Each channel has a suspension
hole towards the top. This scepter must have belonged to a high stat-
us us individual as its manufacture is very elaborate and technically
sophisticated. Only one other known similar Recuay scepter is
illustrated in Kultur Von Peru by Max Schmidt, pg. 392. The
accompanying two tupus with decorated tops (longer and shorter) each
have a different motif. Four tupus excavated at Pashash, the earliest
known Recuay site, are illustrated in Grieder, figs. 114-117, and fig. 7. *
These tupus were originally sold by Alan Lapiner in the early 1970s
along with a classic Recuay vessel of a lord flanked by felines.
M3023 $24,000.00

32
 .
5 Vicus Gold Necklace of Soldered Discs and Rolled Oblong
Beads
Length: 23 inches without clasp. Height: 2 inches at center. Weight: 88
grams
Peru, Vicus, Ayabeca, North Coast, c. 100 BC - AD 300
The necklace has been restrung, similar to other ancient necklaces.
The different beads were strung so that the necklace hangs flat. The
roundels each have 2 sets of holes on each edge. The oblong beads are
made from hemispheres and rolled, creating the elongated oblong
shape. A necklace with similar shaped beads was found at the early
Vicuse site of Ayabaca in the far north of Peru and illustrated in Paroti,
pg. 91. *
88121 $8,750.00
.
6 Vicús Gilt Copper Mace Head with four Levels of Six Pointed
Stars
Diameter: 3" x length 3 5/8"
Peru, Vicus, Far North Coast, c. 300 BC - AD 300
The mace has a richly gilded surface with traces of malachite corrosion
inside and out. A similar mace with only three layers of stars and less
intact gilt is illustrated in Mufareche (1999: #132). Mace heads were
attached to wooden shafts and used as weapons. This is a particularly
fine example from the early Vicús culture.
M3053 $6,500.00

.
7 Moche Gold Nose Ornament with Hummingbird in a Tree
Width: 1 1/2"
XRF: Au. 78.7%, Ag. 14.6%, Cu. 6.5% & Ga. Gallium .05%, Pt. .06%
Peru, Moche, North Coast, c. AD 100 - 300
Delicately crafted hummingbird figure with inlaid turquoise eyes and
danglers. This is an example of Moche soldering and filigree
workmanship.
90166 $12,000.00

.
8 Moche Gold Pincer With Embossed Large Eared Bat Face
Length: 2 3/8" x Width: 1 1/2" Weight: 16.6 grams
XRF: Au62.5%, Ag. 34.7%, Cu. 2.5%
Peru, Moche, North Coast, c. AD 200 - 700
Pincers have been found from as early as the Vicus period (pre-Moche),
circa 300 BC and were thought to be used to pluck facial hair. Few are
known from the Moche period and most of the pincers that have been
found were from the Chimu and Inca periods. This particular pincer
has an embossed face of a bat with fanged teeth. This pincer was made
from one hammered sheet of high carat gold and embossed twice on a
carved wood form of a bat face and bent in the middle. There is also a
suspension hole in the middle. The blades of the pincer flare out in the
form of a Moche back flap.
n7012 $9,750.00

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www.precolumbianart4sale.com/Exhibitions

33
9 Early Moche Gold Owl Ornament or Necklace Element
Height: 1 1/4" X 1 1/4"/ Weight: 10 grams
Peru, Late Chavin/Early Moche, Transitional Phase, North Coast, c.
200 BC - AD 200
This ornament portrays a stylized horned owl. The owl was revered by
the ancient people for its special characteristics, such as silent flight,
strong talons, and its ability to rotate its head 180 degrees. This gold
owl has two suspension holes to the lower rear, which would have
allowed it to hang looking downward. The eyes are made from
Spondylus beads.
M7015 $4,750.00
.
10 Five Moche Bi -Metallic Nose Ornaments
Width 4 3/4" Weight 24 grams
Width 3 5/8" Weight 13.8 grams
Width 3 7/16" Weight 14.8 grams
Width 3 3/8" Weight 10.9 grams
Width 3 1/8" Weight 11.3 grams
Peru, Moche, North Coast, c. AD 100 - 600
These ornaments are excellent examples of the Moche's ability to use
depletion gilding and vary the surface area with both gold and silver
decoration. The Moche believed that metal was magical, and that
bringing out the silver and gold colors to the surface proved this. A
similar nose ornament is illustrated in Lavelle, pg. 15. *
M5027 $14,600.00
.
11 Loma Negra Gilt Copper Pair of Hoverflies
Length: 4 1/2" Width with wings: 4" Height :1 1/2"
Peru, Moche, Loma Negra, North Coast, c. AD 100 - 400
Hoverflies are among the largest flies and have colorful bodies and are
harmless. They often imitate bees or wasps as a survival technique to
appear dangerous to their predators. The Peruvian favored animals
that metamorphose, (eggs, large, maggots to flies) as proof that humans
can transcend into spirits. The flies are examples of a highly skilled
gilding technique over copper. The construction is of tab and
hammered and shaped parts to create a three-dimensional body. This
was preferred in Peru over lost wax casting. A similar construction is
illustrated in Lapiner, fig. 376. * There is a Loma Negra fly in the Met
Museum ref 1981.459.28 in poor condition. Since hoverflies have
colorful yellow and black bodies they connect with gold of the sun.
These flies are considered large for Loma Negra creatures and have no
apparent function aside from being a totem or grave furnishings. The
shell eyes have been faithfully restored from ancient shells. Three of
the wings have been made from the one original that survived.
M9067 $15,000.00
.

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www.precolumbianart4sale.com/Exhibitions
34
12 Moche Cast Copper Gilt Handled Mirror Surrounded by Ten
Pumas
Height: 9 1/4"(23.5cm) Width: 5"(12.6cm)
Peru, Loma Negra, North Coast, c. AD 100 - P300
Hand-held mirrors are rare from any Peruvian cultures, and those few
that are known are carved from wood, except one other gilt copper one
that is in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Both were made by the
same workshop. Mirrors were important objects for high status
individuals and symbolized the power of the sun. Both mirrors were
found at the Loma Negra site of far North Peru. The mirrors have
different themes: the Met’s with birds, and this one with felines.
Each mirror was constructed in the same manner - cast frames are
mechanically attached to the handle with a separate sheet of copper
backing to hold pyrite mirror sections in place. The Met’s mirror has
lost most of its original gilding. This mirror has more of the original
gilt surface intact and has a reconstructed mirror of ancient pyrite,
whereas the Met’s mirror was restored with wax and coated with silver
foil. Only the Met’s mirror has been cited by both Dr. Christopher
Donnan (image 33)* and Alan Lapiner (plate 370)* both experts on
Moche art. The felines surrounding the frame were individually
modeled and cast as one with the frame, an extremely difficult technical
accomplishment. Each puma has carved turquoise eyes. There are no
other known mirrors with metal frames according to Dr. Christopher
Donnan. The mirror has been reconstructed using ancient pyrite.
n7005 Price on request
.
13 Early Moche/Vicus Head of a Toucan with Dangles
Length: 3 3/4" Weight: 32.8 grams
Peru, Vicus, Far North Coast, c. 300 BC - AD 300
This object is quite rare and is from Northern Peru, by the Maranon
river valley where other Vicus style objects have come from. It is
fashioned from a heavy sheet, bent, soldered, and has dangles. It
would have fit front and center onto a headdress, attached using the
tabs at the back. A similar object is illustrated in Parodi.*
91055 $6,500.00
.
14 Early Nasca Gold Pair of Earrings with Filigree Decoration
Width: 1 3/8" Weight: 3.8 grams for the pair
Peru, Nasca, South Coast, c. AD 400 - 800
A matched set of Nasca gold earrings with true filigree work and
original archaeological patina. The wire is skillfully soldered to the
central disc. With the original patina.
87044 $1,975.00

.
15 Late Nasca Gold Cuff with Embossed Faces
Height: 2 1/4' Weight: 40 grams
Peru, Nasca, South Coast, c. AD 400 - 800
A hammered and repousse gold cuff decorated with two rows of faces,
probably masks. I have not seen many cuffs embossed as most art
simple wrought gold or occasionally with a geometric pattern. These
embossed masks are quite rare. There are two tie holes on each edge.
Similar Nasca gold cuffs are illustrated in the THE GOLD OF PERU,
MUJICA GAILLO COLLECTION.
M5078 $6,250.00
.

For larger images and additional views and references, please visit our webpage at
www.precolumbianart4sale.com/Exhibitions
35
16 Wari Double-headed Gold Plume with Embossed and Cutout
Decoration
Height: 10 1/2" Weight: 27.1grams
XRF Au 80.2%, Ag 18.8, Cu.9
Peru, Wari, Central Coast, c. AD 650 - 1100
The feather plume is worked with embossed designs of two cutout birds
standing on Puma heads and holding serpents in their beaks. The Puma
Head can also be seen as a Condor head facing in the downward
direction and seen in the classic Wari Tunics. The surfaces are
beautifully burnished. A similar plume in the Berlin Museum measures
8 ¾” and is illustrated in Bergh, fig. 216.* This plume is unusual in
that it has two "branches" and is worked with both cutout and
embossed designs while the others only have embossed work.
M7122 $12,000.00
.
17 Sican Gold Mask of the Third Type
Height: 7.75" x Width: 10 1/8"
Peru, Sican, c. AD 800 - 1100
A classic type of mask from the 3rd Phase, constructed in 3 parts and
held together by ancient gold staples. The eyes have turquoise bead
pupils with gold hemispheres. Traces of the original cinnabar remain.
Sicán masks are discussed in Jones, p.66. * in the the Jan Mitchell
collection. The Sicán culture was wealthy and built the largest city in
the Americas, Chan- Chan. The Sicán were excellent gold workers, and
when the Incas conquered them, they brought the metalsmiths to the
Inca capital of Cuzco. Similar masks are illustrated in Mujica.* Ancient
turquois eyes have been restored.
n4001 $25,000.00
.
18 Sican Gold Beaker with Mask and Frog Motif
Height: 5. 1/8" Diameter at top: 4 3/8" Weight: 184 grams
Peru, Sican, Batan Grande, North Coast, c. AD 850 - 1150
The Sican cache of gold came from the largest burial in the Americas at
hacienda Batan Grande near the Chimu City of Chan Chan. These
beakers were used to drink the ceremonial Chicha (Corn Beer). The
buried masks and flared beakers were the most notable objects from
this burial. The beakers came in various designs from frogs to
Warriors. This beaker is unusual in that it has both masks and frog
motifs. Illustrated in Jones, pg.227. * Exhibited in 1964, Met
Museum # 202. Ex-Jan Mitchell collection, prior to 1980.
The embossed relief is well defined.
n7054 $24,000.00
.
19 Chimu Gold Cuff with 3 bands of 4 Repousse Stars Each
Height: 4 1/2" Weight: 65.5 grams
Peru, Chimu, Early Phase, North Coast, c. AD 900 - 1100
The cuff has two tie holes. A cuff with a similar star design is
illustrated in the Gold Museum of Peru page 127. Ex- collection, Camilla
Dietz Bergeron, N.Y.
N2064 $10,000.00

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36
20 Chimú Gold 29" Necklace of Large Hollow Beads
Necklace Length: 29"; largest bead 2 1/4" diameter - smallest 1 1/2"
Peru, Chimu, North Coast, c. AD 900 - 1350
The Chimú inherited a taste for hollow gold bead necklaces from their
Moche predecessors. In both cultures, each bead was cast and
hammered in two halves that were then together. In the Chimú
technique, the edges of the two halves were nested together. These
beads are extremely light with a greater percentage of silver than gold.
They used depletion gilding to bring the gold to the surface by using of
heats and mineral salts. This allowed the Chimu to make the gold
available for a large and growing ruling class.
M7991 $21,000.00
.
21 Inca Hollow Gold Standing Llama
Height: 2.5" Weight: grams 9.6
XRF: Au. 66.4%, Ag. 24.6%, Cu8.8%
Peru, Inca, Early Phase, South Highlands, c. AD 650 - 1250
Llamas, along with other miniatures in gold, silver and spondylus were
found at high altitude sacrificial burials sites, used in a ceremony
known as the Capac Hucha ceremony to praise the Inca. A similar
llama is illustrated in ANCIENT AMERICANS, Art From Sacred
Landscapes, p. 362.* This hollow llama was assembled from
hammered gold sheets which were soldered together. Ex-Jan Mitchell
collection, prior to 1980.
n7053 NFS
.
22 Inca Gold Pin Topped with Bird Perched on Corn Cob
Bone, Length: 5" Weight: 4.7 grams
Peru, Chimu, North Coast, c. AD 900 - 1350
Gold from the Inca period is rare as most has been melted down by the
Conquistadores. These pins are mostly found made of silver and were
used to pin a garment closed. What appears to be a simple pin is
complicated in its manufacture. The bird was then fitted over the top
to appear as one piece. A similar piece appears in Schmidt, p.396.*
MM625 $1,950.00

.
23 Two Inca Miniature Cast Gold Standing Figures
Height:1.5" and 1.75"
Weight: 24 grams for pair
Peru, Inca, c. AD 1400 - 1532
These two solid cast gold figures are highly unusual subjects. Each
figure has exaggerated hands and elongated legs. Both figures have
cast suspension holes above the ankles. The top of each figure has a
hollow shape that could have been used to insert feathers. The only
other example illustrated is in Lavalle, Oro del Antiguo Peru, lam. 210*.
Ex-Jan Mitchell collection, prior to 1980.
The castings have a very high gold content.
n7028 $6,500.00
.

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37
24 Diaguita Style Gold Mask with Repoussé Eyes, Mouth and
Border
Width 6" x Height 5 1/4" Weight: 4.6 grams
XRF Au.69%, Ag.26% Cu. 4%
Chile, Diaguita Culture, Northern region, c. AD 1200 - 1470
The eyes and mouth have pierced holes to attach turquoise eyes and a
shell mouth. The six holes on the side of the mask were for tying the
mask to the mummy. bundle. There are very few gold masks found in
Chile because partly because that there was little gold available from
rivers. The little-known gold that has been found in Chile was
probably traded with Bolivia or even Peru. This mask is one of three
that were supposedly found in Northern Chile near Arica. The
tradition of these simple masks goes back to the Chinchorro culture
(circa 7,000 BC) of Northern Chile. I have found one gold diadem now
in the American Museum of Natural History in New York which has a
similar nose design. It is safe to say that this mask most closely
resembles the same facial designs on the Diaguita ceramics from La
Serenna - the round eyes, straight vertical nose and the horizontal
mouth. With this mask came a gold headband or turban, measuring
36" x 3/8" in width. Original patina.
M7166 $20,000.00
.
25 Six La Tolita Gold with Platinium Miniature Ear Ornaments
with Turquoise
Approx. 1"each
Ecuador, La Tolita, c. 1500 BC
Each ornament has an inlayed turquoise and a suspension ring. These
are excellent examples of early granulation and sintering technique.
Similar examples are illustrated in Bray, p. 811*, and Klien, p.27.*
Sintering is the process of melting gold foil over platinum beads which
can then be reheated and annealed to fashion small objects.
94203 $5,600.00
.
26 Tolita Gold Ornaments
Diameters are 7/8 to 2 3/8 inches.
Ecuador, Jama Coaque, Northern Manabi Region, 500 BC - AD 500
4 gold ornaments, three nose ornaments with granulation and one lip
ornament with filigree that contains a rattle. A similar piece is
illustrated in Klien, pp. 53 and 55.*
As found.
99128 $4,500.00
.
27 Narino Gold Embossed Ornament Decorated with a Feline
Head
Diameter: 3.9" Weight: 26.7grams
Gold alloy: Gold 73.4%, Silver 17.9%, Copper 8.3% and Sn. Tin .01%
Ecuador, Narino, Capuli, Southwest, c. AD 700 - 1500
These ornaments have a suspension on the rim and were either ear
ornaments or pendants. The designs vary, from concentric circles to
heads in high relief, ranging from human to animal faces. The feline
face is the largest of the head types. Similar examples are illustrated in
El Dorado by Warwick Bray, p.213. Ex-Jan Mitchell collection, prior to
1980.
N7060 $8,250.00
.

For larger images and additional views and references, please visit our webpage at
www.precolumbianart4sale.com/Exhibitions
38
28 Quimbaya Style Gold Pendant of a Tumbling Shaman with
Two Rectangular Dangles
Width: 6.67 cm (2 5/8") x Height: 5.2cm x Depth: 3.68cm. Weight: 63
grams
Xre: Au. 58.45%, Ag. 9.76%, Cu. 31.6%, Pt. 1.94%
Colombia, Gulf of Uruba, c. AD 500 - 1000
Cast figural pendant of a feline-headed Shaman tumbling in a trance.
The shaman holds bars with large dangles in each hand. This pendant
is extremely well sculpted with curved limbs arching upward at the
back, legs bent, and toes curled, with suspension loops on each sole.
This subject has been more recently referred to as Tierradentro, c. 600-
900 A.D. This example was purported to be found in the Uruba region
of North West Colombia. The subject is a very rare for Colombian gold
work.
99120 $185,000.00
.
29 Quimbaya cast gold pendant of a Lord in a Trance
Height: 6 3/8" (16.3cm) Weight 91.4 grams
XRF Au. 62% Ag. 22%, Cu16%
Colombia, Gulf of Uruba, c. AD 500 - 1000
The personage is wearing a crown, elaborate nose ornament, and
necklace. The Uruba region is located on the Colombian/Panamanian
border and had received early influences from the Quimbaya people
and later influences from the Sinu. A similar pendant is illustrated in
the article THE DARIEN GOLD PENDANTS OF ANCIENT COLOMBIA
AND THE ISTHMUS, figure 35, and in the catalog of the Banco de Oro
de Colombia # 414, Lam 46.
Ancient "cast on" repair to the lower left knee.
n4033 $27,500.00
.
30 Uruba Style Bird Pendant with Square Plaque Dangles
Height: 3 1/2" x Width: 4 1/2" Weight 33.6 grams
XRF: Au 63%, Ag 26%, Cu 9.4%
Colombia, Gulf of Uruba, c. AD 500 - 1000
The bird has its wings arched to its sides, a flared tail, and four dangles
suspended on two bars. The small suspension holes are inside the back
of the neck. The bird has is a generalized composite of various birds.
This piece is well cast, with evidence of the carbon core intact. There is
a similar bird on display at The Gold Museum of Colombia in Bogota.
MM068 $12,500.00
.
31 Quimbaya Cast Gold Pendant in the form of Deity Head with
Fancy Spiral Headdress
Height 3 1/2" x Width 5" Weight: 81.4 grams
Colombia, Quimbaya, Cauca River Valley, c. AD 400 - 800
This deity is in a trance with tears coming down from his eyes. It was
created using the lost wax cast technique without any flaws. It is
illustrated in Johnson, pg. 112-B.* This unique pendant was found in
the Uruba region of Northwestern Columbia. This region is known to
have gold styles with influences from Quimbaya, Sinu and Darian and
must have been an active center of trade. Acquired from a New York
collector in 1998.
M7990 $175,000.00
.

For larger images and additional views and references, please visit our webpage at
www.precolumbianart4sale.com/Exhibitions

39
32 Calima Gold Tupú or Lime Dipper of a Deity Seated on a
Serpent
Length: 5 1/4" Weight: 34 grams
Colombia, Calima, Yotoco Phase, Cauca River Valley, c. AD 100 - 1000
Lime dippers were used to administer lime for the coca ceremony. The
deity has an elaborate face mask and he is holding the tail of the
serpent. This is a known motif but rarely seen with a human, as most
are found with a cayman/feline. According to the research, only
limited types of images were used for lime dippers, usually shamans or
warriors. See Cardale-Schrimpff, p. 116, plate 111.37.* As found.
M8031 $8,250.00
.
33 Calima Cast Gold Lime Dipper of a Warrior with Animal
Perched on Back
Length: 21/8cm (8 1/4") Weight: 15.9 grams
Colombia, International style, AD 700 - 1000
Finely executed lost wax casting with tapering shaft terminating at the
base of the figure. Elaborate helmeted warrior wearing a mask and
holding a staff with both hands, curving headdress and miniature
animal perched on back. See Cardale-Schrimpff, p. 115, plate 111.34.*
MM618 $14,750.00

.
34 Early Calima Gold Lime Dipper
Length: 21cm (8 1/2") Weight: 25grams
Colombia, Calima, Yotoco Phase, Cauca River Valley, c. AD 100 - 1000
A fine lost wax cast lime dipper with a mythological monkey deity on
the top. The monkey is wearing a helmet, ear spools, and an elaborate
headdress which falls down the back of his body. When viewed
horizontally, the figure morphs into a quadruped. A similar but not
exact motif is illustrated in ORFEBRERIA PREHISPANICA DE
COLOMBIA Vol. Estilo Calima - Laminas page 84. Num. 5232.
97146 $12,000.00

.
35 Calima Gold Kidney Shaped Mouth Ornament with Satin
Finish
Height: 6 1/2" x Width: 7 7/8" Weight: 53 grams
Colombia, early Calima. AD 600 - 800
This early example of Calima gold working displays a high degree skill
of annealing to create an even thickness. The Kidney shape is
continued during the entire Calima presence and becomes more
elaborate with time.
97228 $14,500.00
.
36 Tairona Pair of gold lost wax cast ear ornaments decorated
with braidwork
Width: 2 3/4" x Height: 2" Weight: 48.4 & 49.6 grams
XRF: Au. 49.1%, Ag. 7.6%, Cu. 42%
Colombia, Tairona, c. AD 1000 - 1500
This is a particularly strong and heavy pair of matched ear ornaments
from the Tairona people who were known for their fine casting work.
A very similar pair is illustrated in Bray, pg. 164. *
n8012 $9,500.00
.

For larger images and additional views and references, please visit our webpage at
www.precolumbianart4sale.com/Exhibitions

40
37 Sinu Lost Wax Cast Gold Whistle with a Condor Standing On
Top of a Shaman
Height: 4 1/2" Weight: 91.5 grams
XRF: Au.58%, Cu.0%, Ag, 10%
Colombia, Sinu, Santa Marta, c. AD 700 - 1500
This large gold Sinu whistle has a Condor standing on top of a Shaman
who is in transition from a personage into an animal with large feet and
hands. There are two suspension loops cast on the back which show
signs of wear. There are loops on both the noses, which once had gold
discs dangling which were lost. There are only a few known gold
whistles in the literature but none with this totem like subject.
N6005 $18,500.00
.
38 3 Muisca Cast Gold Snakes
Lengths: 1 7/8, 2 3/16 & 2 9/16 inches
Total Weight: 5.2 grams
Colombia, Muisca, c. AD 700 - 1500
The Musica people of Eastern Columbia were known for the famous
ritual of the Lord on a golden raft, known as El Dorado, because he was
covered in gold dust. The serpents come from the Muisca creation
myth of snakes emerging from the Iguaque lagoon as women and child.
Transmutation was an important theme to the Musica people. These
three snakes are all cast from a stone carved matrix, using different
gold/silver alloys which creates the three different tones of gold.
Similar examples are illustrated in Bray, fig. 342-343.
n8006 $1,700.00
.
39 Large Diquis Gold Frog With Wide Hind Flippers and
Bulbous Eyes
Length: 3 3/4" x Width: 3 1/2" Weight: 65 grams
XRF Au.68.5% Ag.03%, Cu. 31%
Panama, Diquis, c. AD 1000 - 1500
The Frog has a classic body with his front legs becoming the suspension
loops. From the mouth emanate two saurian heads back to back, with a
mythological significance. The eyes each have a solid pellet inside to
make noise when the frog is being worn. A similar example is
illustrated in the catalog, BETWEEN CONTINENTS/BETWEEN SEAS:
Precolumbian Art of Costa Rica, fig. 287. Similar frogs are also in the
Rockefeller Collection and the Denver Museum of Art.
n4028 $35,000.00
.
40 Diquis Cast Gold Figural Pendant With a Raptor Bird Mask
Height: 31/4" x Width: 31/2" Weight: 97 grams
XRF: Au. 90.6%, Ag.6.3%, Cu. 2.8%, Platinum 1.03%
Panama, Diquis, c. AD 1000 - 1500
The imposing figure has typical Diquis style “C”-shaped wings with
crocodile heads emanating from behind the head and feet. The figure is
probably a male shaman in transition for flight to the other world.
This pendant is illustrated in Jones, pg. 105*, and in Quilter, p. 72 f.*
Another similar example of a Diquis pendant with a bat's head is
illustrated in Between the Continents/Between Seas: PRECOLUMBIAN
ART OF COSTA RICA, plate 93. Another very similar piece is in the
Denver Art Museum. Ex-Jan Mitchell collection, prior to 1980.
n7055 $42,500.00
.

For larger images and additional views and references, please visit our webpage at
www.precolumbianart4sale.com/Exhibitions
41
41 Cocle Cast Gold Anthropmorphized Twin Warriors
Height: 2" x Width: 4" Weight: 62.5 grams.
Panama, Cocle, c. AD 800 - 1200
Each warrior has human bodies with bird-like facial features. They are
wearing headdresses with caimans in profile and holding a typical
paddle-like weapons. There are curved serpents emanating from each
of the warrior's mouths. The warriors have beaked noses, representing
transformation into condors. Ex. Jan Mitchell prior to 1980.
n7033 $16,000.00
.
42 Macaracas (Cocle) Circular Gold Disc With Concave Center
Diameter 5 3/8" Weight: 24.6 grams.
Panama, Macaracas, c. AD 800 - 1000
The disc is embellished with two bands of small bosses on the narrow
rim. There is a pair of suspension holes. On Columbus’ 4th voyage off
the coast of Panama, he and his men saw Indians wearing "Mirrors of
gold." Illustrated in THE ART OF PRECOLUMBIAN GOLD, p. 119.*
n7058 $6,500.00

.
43 Cocle Cast Gold Pendant of Pair Anthropomorphized Bats
Width 2 3/4" x Length: 3 1/8" Weight 100.6 grams
Panama, Diquis, c. AD 1200 - 1500
Lost Was cast depicting paired figures with bat faces, human hands, and
a crocodilian body and tail. Duality was a known belief of the natural
world: male and female, night and day, heaven and earth. Bats are
nocturnal creatures and ruled the darkness. There are two cast
suspension loops behind each shoulder. Ex-Jan Mitchell collection
n7027 $18,750.00

.
44 Diquis Style Cast Gold Figure of a Shaman Wearing an
Crocodile Mask
Height: 3" x Width: 2.85" Weight: 63 grams
XRF: Au. 89.7%, Ag. 9.9, Cu. .02%
Panama, Diquis, c. AD 1200 - 1500
This is a hollow lost wax cast figure that has a relatively thick wall. The
pointed upturned nose and sharp teeth are qualities of a crocodile.
This piece is illustrated and discussed by Ellen Howe in A
RADIOGTRAPHIC STUDY OF HOLLOW CAST GOLD PENDANTS
FROM SITIO CONTE in the 45th Congress of Americanists, Bogota
1985, pg. 190-200. Ex-Jan Mitchell collection, prior to 1980.
N7059 $35,000.00
.
45 Diquis Cast Gold Anthropomorphic Figure with a Cone
Shaped Crown
Height: 4 3/16" x Width:3 3/4", Weight: 99.6 grams
XRF: Au. 72%, Cu. 24%, Ag. 2.4%
Panama, Diquis, c. AD 1200 - 1500
The figure has a crocodilian nose and mouth with serpents emanating
from his head and wears a cone-shaped crown. His hands are held
outward with broad shoulders which could also be wings, and his
flipper-shaped feet are typical of the Diquis style. The earliest known
example of this type is illustrated by Holmes in 1887, p. 15*. A similar
figure is illustrated in Benson, Masters of the Americas.*
n7031 $28,000.00
.
***

Prices subject to change or prior sale.

*For references cited, see bibliography at end of catalog in alphabetical order by author.
42
BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Between Seas: Precolumbian Art of Costa Rica, Detroit: Detroit Insti-
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Praise of the Pre-Columbian Artists. Edited by Le Fort, Genevieve.
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Bergh, Susan E. "ISBN: 9780500516560." WARI: LORDS OF THE

ANCIENT ANDES. Cleveland: Cleveland Museum of Art, 2012.

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3912-5” in LES ESPRITS, L'OR ET LE CHAMANE, MUSEE DE
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Botero, Clara Isabel, "ISBN: 978-88-7624-776-7." The Art of Gold: The

Legacy of Pre-Hispanic Colombia. Milano: Fondo de Cultura Económi-
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Bray, Warwick. "ISBN: 0-7230-0226-6." The Gold of El Dorado. Lon-

don: Times Limited, 1978.

Cardale de Schrimpff, Marianne. Calima: Diez mil años de historia en el

Suroccidente de Colombia. Santafé de Bogotá: Fundación Pro Calima,
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de Lavalle, José Antonio. Oro Del Antiguo Peru: Coleccion Arte y

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CAS. Quebec: Les editions du Septentrion, April 30, 2008.

Donnan, Christoper. Moche Art of Peru. University of California, Los

Angeles, CA, 1976, image 33.
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43
Falchetti De Sanez, Anna Maria, The Darien Gold Pendants of Ancient
Columbia and the Isthmus, New York: Met Museum Journal 43 (2008),
p.39-71.

Grieder, Terrence. "ISBN: 0292703287." The Art And Archeology Of

Pashash. Texas: University of Texas Press, 1978.

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Treasures from Sitio Conte. Philadelphia: The University Museum of
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Holmes, William Henry. The Use of Gold and Other Metals Among
Ancient Inhabitants of Chiriqui, Isthmus, and Darien. Smithsonian
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Johnson, Harmer. “ISBN 0-8478-1597-8”.Guide to the Arts of the Ameri-

cas. Rizzoli International Publications, Inc. New York, NY, 1992.
Jones, Julie. "ISBN: 0-8212-1594-9." The Art of Precolumbian Gold:
The Jan Mitchell Collection, 1985. New York: Metropolitan Museum of
Art, 2011.

Jones, Julie Kg, Heidi. Gold of the Americas. New York: The Metropoli-
tan Museum of Art, 2002.

Klien, Daniel. ISBN “978-88-7439-591-0” CHARMS in pre-Columbian

Ecuador. Milan: 5 Continents Editions, 2007, p. 27 and 55.
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SOUTH AMERICA. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1976.

Lechtman, Heather. Andean Value systems and the Development of Pre-

historic Metallurgy. Technology & Culture, 1984, vol 25, p. 1-36.
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PRE-COLUMBIAN, INDONESIAN, AND AFRICAN GOLD. Hou-
ston: The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, 2011.

McEwan, Colin. "ISBN: 0714125342." Precolumbian Gold Technology,

Style and Iconography. Chicago: British Museum Press, 2000.

Mora, Marl Calvo. "ISBN: 0-295-97516-4." COSTA RICA: Gold, Jade,

Forests. Washgton, DC: The Trust for Museum Exhibitions, 1995.

44
 .

Mosely, Michael E. ”ISBN: 0914868039” Peru's Golden Treasures: An .

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Pillsbury, Joanne. "ISBN 9781606065488." GOLDEN KINGDOMS
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Verlag, 1929.

***

45