Burne, Charlotte Sophia: The Handbook of Folklore.

FOR COLLECTING AND PRINTING
RELICS OF POPULAR ANTIQUITIES,

ESTABLISHED IN
&c.
THE YEAR MDCCCLXXVIII.
PUBLICATIONS
OF
THE FOLK-LORE SOCIETY
LXXIII.
[1913]
THE HANDBOOK OF FOLKLORE
THE HANDBOOK OF
I
FOLKLORE
EDITION
REVL
AND ENLARGED
BY
CHARLOTTE SOPHIA BURNE

VICE-PRESIDENT,
AND SOMETIME PRESIDENT, OF THE FOLK-LORE SOCIETY
" But men may construe
things, after their fashion,
Clean from the purpose of the things themselves."

JULIUS
CSAR,
i.
3.
LONDON
fxrr
tht <J[o.lk-lo
SIDGWICK & JACKSON, LTD.

3
ADAM
STREET, ADELPHI, W.C.

1914
PREFACE.
THIS book
is
not written for the use of members of Anthropo-
logical Expeditions,
whose work demands
far
more thorough
acquaintance with the subject than could possibly be conveyed in a single volume. It is addressed to officers of the
public services, to missionaries, travellers, settlers, and others whose lot is cast among uncivilized or half-civilized populato to residents in country places at home medical men, philanthropic workers, and all educated persons whose lives and duties bring them into touch with the untions abroad
;
educated. Such persons have it in their power to contribute very greatly to the advance of an important study, the value
of which is as yet hardly fully appreciated and it is believed that they will be willing to do so, if only the way is pointed out to them. To do this is the aim of the Handbook of Folk;
lore.
The
genesis of the
book
is
scheme of
classification devised
somewhat complicated. The by Sir Laurence Gomme for
the original edition of 1890 has been retained, with only such modifications of detail as experience and extended knowledge have shown to be desirable. That its retention should
have been found possible, in spite of the great development of the study during the last quarter of a century, is no small testimony to the prescience of its author. Beyond this, a few passages here and there, and the list of Types of Indo-
European Folk-tales, represent all that has been preserved from the first edition. The earlier chapters are founded on a manuscript which Mr. E. Sidney Hartland began some years ago with a view to a new edition, but which for various reasons was never completed. This he generously placed at
vi
Preface.
the disposal of the Folklore Society, and the whole work has had the benefit of his wide range of reading, and of his
The debt it owes to his unwearied suggestions and advice. kindness can hardly be over-estimated.
of Chinese Ancestor-worship in chapter vi, that of the religious ; system of the North American tribes in chapter vii, (p. 115), by Miss Freire-Marreco ; that of the English Village Com(p. 87), is
The account
by Mr. A. R. Wright, F.S.A.
in chapter xi, (p. 188), by Mr. F. M. Stenton, M.A. Oxon., Professor of History at University College, Reading. Chapter xv, (Games), is by Miss Moutray Read and chapter
munity
based on a draft by Mr. Casson, formerly Secretary of the Oxford AnthropoStanley Dr. W. H. R. Rivers has kindly supplied logical Society. the material for the accounts of the Classificatory System of
xii,
(Rites of Individual Life),
is
Relationship and the Genealogical Method of Enquiry, (pp. 166-170) subjects peculiarly his own. For the rest I am
myself responsible. Dr. A. C. Haddon, Dr. R. R. Marett, Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, Dr. C. G. Seligmann, and Mr. W. Crooke have kindly read various portions of the work in MS., and have contributed valuable hints and criticisms. The whole Council of the
Folklore Society have had the opportunity of reading it in MS. notes received from these sources are in many proof.
cases indicated
by
initials.
But the
on
final responsibility of
may be found in the work, the blame must lie at my door, for I have throughout retained the woman's privilege of the last word. Omissions there doubtless are, but I would ask readers to
take the Questionary into consideration before making sure of this in any particular instance. Only the main points of
selection or rejection has rested for whatever flaws or weaknesses
my own
shoulders,
and
each topic are touched on in the text

designed to supplement each case.
it,
the Questionary
is
and
to suggest further details in
may be
Repetitions are unavoidable, however carefully one's matter Life is not lived in water-tight compartarranged.
Preface.
vn
ments, and the folklore which is its outcome and expression cannot be fitted into insulated pigeon-holes. One thing in
The most ordinary story folklore always involves another. of an apparition involves questions of the nature of the phantom itself, of the kind of place where it appeared, the person
to
whom
seen.
it
was
visible,
and the
"
witching hour
"
at
which
it
was
When
his
a gardener, in accordance with the traditional lore
and thrashes young walnut-trees, or sows his peas in the wane of the moon and his potatoes on Good Friday, and utterly declines to root up the parsley-bed, he is putting in practice timehonoured beliefs, not only about trees and plants, but about life and death and the influence of sacred days and of the heavenly bodies. When the mourners at the funeral feast tell the bees of their bereavement, they are acting on ancient imaginings as to the nature of a future life and on their own
of his craft, swears at his lettuce or radish-seed
actual beliefs as to the sagacity of the lower animals, as well as carrying out a traditional part of the funeral rites.
whole philosophy of Nature was bound up in the constitution of ancient Ireland when the Stone of Tara proclaimed the destined successor to the throne of Leinster. The more we
more the truth is borne in upon us an essential unity or, in other words, that " Social Anthropology new Presbyter is but old Priest writ " is not an arbitrary selection of unrelated large topics, but a homogeneous science which will some day come to its own.
look into the matter, the
is
that Folklore
C. S. B.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE
INTRODUCTION
I.
WHAT FOLKLORE
Is
II.
How
TO COLLECT AND RECORD FOLKLORE
PART
CHAPTER
I.
I.
BELIEF AND PRACTICE
THE EARTH AND THE SKY
II.
THE VEGETABLE WORLD

THE ANIMAL WORLD
III.
IV.
HUMAN BEINGS
MADE BY MAN
V. THINGS
VI.
VII.
THE SOUL AND ANOTHER LIFE

SUPERHUMAN BEINGS
Worship,
p. 99.
.... .... .... ....
23
3i
40
47
64
75
90
Cult as a Moral Sanction, (Australia,
p. 109. Rudimentary Worship of NaturePowers, (Bushmen), p. in. The Cult of Mystic Power, (North America), p. 115. Systematic Polytheism without Idolatry, (Uganda), p. 117. Heterogeneous Polytheism with Idolatry, (India), p. 121.
Andamans),
VIII.
OMENS AND DIVINATION
....
124 134
152
IX.
THE MAGIC ART
X. DISEASE AND LEECHCRAFT
Table of Contents.
PART
CHAPTER
II.
CUSTOMS
PAGE
.
XL
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS

The Tribe in Australia, North American Tribe, p.
p.
161
Mother-right in a in Europe, Aristocracy, (Polynesia), p. 178. Barbarian p. 176. Monarchy, (Bushongo), p. 179. Secret Societies, p. 183.
174.
175.
The Tribe
The
Village
Community
in Europe, p. 188.
. . .
XII. RITES OF INDIVIDUAL LIFE

XIII. OCCUPATIONS
193
AND INDUSTRIES
220 236 248
XIV. CALENDAR FASTS AND FESTIVALS
XV. GAMES, SPORTS, AND PASTIMES
PART
III.
STORIES, SONGS,
AND SAYINGS
(b)
XVI. STORIES; (a) TOLD AS TRUE, FOR AMUSEMENT

XVII. SONGS AND BALLADS
XVIII. PROVERBS AND RIDDLES
TOLD
261 271
.... ....
280
287
XIX. PROVERBIAL RHYMES AND LOCAL SAYINGS
APPENDICES
A.
TERMINOLOGY
295
301
B. QUESTIONARY
C.
TYPES OF INDO-EUROPEAN FOLKTALES
D. AUTHORITIES CITED
......
. .
344
356
INTRODUCTION.
I.
WHAT FOLKLORE
"
literally,
Is.
THE word Foik-Lore

was coined
in 1846
earlier expression
the learning oj the people
"
Thorns to replace the popular antiquities." It has established itself as the generic term under which the traditional Beliefs, Customs, Stories, Songs, and Sayings current among backward peoples, or retained by the uncultured classes of more advanced
"
by the
late Mr.
W.
J.
peoples, are
comprehended and included. It comprises early barbaric beliefs about the world of Nature, animate and and about human nature and things made by man inanimate
; ;
about a
spirit
world and man's relations with
it
about witch-
craft, spells,
charms, amulets, luck, omens, disease, and death.
It further includes customs and rites as to marriage and inheritance, childhood and adult life, and as to festivals, war-
fare,
hunting, fishing, cattle-keeping, etc.

ballads,
also
myths, legends,
and nursery In short, it covers everything which makes part of rhymes. the mental equipment of the folk as distinguished from their
folk-tales,
songs,
proverbs,
riddles,
technical
skill.
It is not the
form of the plough which excites

:
the attention of the folklorist, but the rites practised by the not the make of ploughman when putting it into the soil
the net or the harpoon, but the taboos observed by the fisherman at sea not the architecture of the bridge or the dwelling,
:
but the
sacrifice
which accompanies
its
erection
fact, is
and the
the exin
social life of those
who
use
it.
Folklore, in
pression of the psychology of
early
man, whether
the
Handbook of Folk-Lore.
philosophy, religion, science, and medicine, in social organization and ceremonial, or in the more strictly intellectual regions of history, poetry, and other literature.
fields of
Within
all
human
societies,
whether savage or
civilized,
we may
naturally expect to find old beliefs, old customs, old memories, which are relics of an unrecorded past. Such
sayings and doings, wherever found, wherever told or prac" note," that they are sanctioned tised, have this common and perpetuated, not by experimental knowledge or scientific-
law or authentic history, nor by the written record which is the necessary condition of any of these, but simply by habit and tradition.
ally-ascertained
facts,
not
by
positive
And
scientific
the scientific study of folklore consists in bringing modern methods of accurate observation and inductive
reasoning to bear upon these varied forms of Tradition, just as they have been brought to bear upon other phenomena.
The study of this traditional lore began with the observamong the less cultured inhabitants of all the countries of modern Europe there exists a vast body of curious beliefs, customs, and stories, orally handed down from generation to generation, and essentially the property of the unlearned and backward portion of the community. It was then noted that similar, and even identical beliefs, customs, and stories, are current among savage and barbaric nations. Numerous illustrations of this fact will be found
ation that
in the ensuing pages. This similarity may reasonably be accounted for by the hypothesis that such ideas and practices
must be derived, by inheritance or from a savage or barbaric state of society. They otherwise, " " have accordingly received the technical name of survivals " " and the establishment of the existence of survival in culture as an observable phenomenon may be taken as the first-fruits
among
civilized peoples
of the scientific study of folklore.
But the matter does not end there. Further study and examination of these traditional Beliefs, Customs, and Stories, in all their variations and in connection with their different
settings
and surroundings, ought
to
show us how
far their
Introduction.
characteristics are
common
to
are due to the influences of race
humanity and how far they and environment and should

;
thus advance the study of Ethnology. A careful record of the geographical distribution of folklore in the United King-
dom
should, for example, form a valuable contribution to our may knowledge of the Ethnology of our own islands.
We
look to learn what events or circumstances affect and modify racial folklore, what is the effect of contact, whether by way
of commerce or of conquest, between peoples of varying

degrees of civilization, and what amount of credit may be attached to tradition using the word in the common but restricted sense of unwritten history. Eventually we may
hope to adjust the balance between circumstance and character, and to arrive at the causes which retain some races in a state of arrested progress while others develop a highly-organized civilization. Thus a most important chapter will be added to the History of mankind. Further, the study of rudimentary economic and political forms should enable us to trace the
lines of
development of the several systems of civilized nations from their source, and to fathom the reasons of their strength or weakness and should thus contribute to the progress of
;
Sociology. finally, in the domain of Psychology we may look to ascertain far more clearly than at present the early
And
and nature, and how he reasons to discover what have been the processes by about them which religion, morals, philosophy, science, art, and literature have been developed from crude and barbaric beginnings nay, even perhaps what have been the very germs and origins out of which they have sprung. The conception of man's past history which has resulted from, and now directs, the study of folklore, has already made its impress on modern philosophical thought, and it would be difficult to over-estimate the additions to the sum of human knowledge which may be made in course of years by a continuance of the study on these lines. Meanwhile one very practical result should follow from it, namely, the
life
;
workings of the mind of man regards the facts of
man
to learn
how
unsophisticated
improved treatment by governing nations of the subjectraces under their sway. In the words of Sir Richard Temple " we cannot understand the latter rightly (FL.J., iv. 209), unless we deeply study them, and it must be remembered
that close acquaintance and a right understanding beget
sympathy, and sympathy begets good government and who there to say that a scientific study which promotes this, and indeed to some extent renders it possible, is not a practical " one ?
;
is
The
may
I.
subjects comprehended under the name of Folklore be arranged in three principal groups with sub-headings
:
as follows
Belief
(1) (2)
and Practice
relating to
(3)
The Earth and the Sky. The Vegetable World. The Animal World.
(4)
(5)
(6)
Human
Beings.
Life.
Things made by Man. The Soul and Another
(7) (8) (9)
(10)
II.
Superhuman Beings, (Gods, Codlings, and Omens and Divination. The Magic Art. Disease and Leechcraft.
Social
Others).
Customs.
(1)
(2) (3)
and
Political Institutions.
Rites of Individual Life.
(4)
(5)
Occupations and Industries. Calendar Fasts and Festivals.
III.
Games, Sports, and Pastimes. Stories, Songs and Sayings.

Stories
:
(1)
(a)
told as true
() told for amusement.
(2)
(3)
Songs and Ballads. Proverbs and Riddles.

Proverbial
(4)
Rhymes and Local
Sayings.
It will
be observed that this
classification is of a purely
is
objective character.
No attempt
made
to docket
any
of
Introduction.
the observances or sayings in accordance with what might be presumed to be their primary meaning or origin. The present Handbook is intended as an introduction for the student and a guide for the collector, and in such a work
necessary to avoid committing the novice to theories which the advance of knowledge may afterwards oblige him
it is
The attempt, therefore, has been made throughto unlearn. out the following pages to steer clear of theory as far as may be. Not that it is possible to study any subject without
becoming acquainted with some, at least, of the theories formed by previous students. But such theories as have been touched upon are either obvious inferences from
facts,
or points noted as requiring further investigation and as such, and not as proven foundations on which to erect further structures, the worker is invited to consider
;
them.
For above
all
things a collector of folklore should
work
independently of theory. The thought of a people finds its outward expression in manners and customs, in song and
these be carefully and literally recorded by an unprejudiced observer in the field, the thought which originally prompted them may often be more satisfactorily ascerstory.
If
tained
by the student from many lands, and And at his command.
at
home, who has access to evidence

at
first
so has a far wider area for induction

if
the meaning of the evidence
be misinterpreted, the record of observed facts nevertheless remains intact until the coming of some thinker of deeper
insight.
are
still
For instance, the relations of Religion and Magic under discussion. Everybody will agree that some
if
practices are magical ; as to others, theorists may differ. But they are simply set down as customs practised on certain occasions, without any attempt to refer them to their psychological source, the facts are put on record for future use, unobscured by the observer's personal prepossessions or opinions, and the settlement of the question is advanced far more than " " " if each item were labelled as or religious," and magical
perchance labelled wrong
The
first
point
is
to ascertain
and
;
record the actual concrete facts
the interpretation of them
must follow
later.
II.
How
TO COLLECT AND RECORD FOLKLORE.
Let it once more be emphatically said that this book is not intended for the members of scientific expeditions, but
for travellers or residents
among backward
is
folk at
home and
abroad.
The
field of
research
it
vast,
it is
and
"
cannot hope to cover

existence.
before
" Expeditions " out of developed

will
"
Anyone,
single
then,
who can and

is
observe and
record
science.
fact
accurately
doing
service
to
of operations, the first in collecting folklore is to enter into friendly relarequisite tions with the folk. Anything in the way of condescension,
Whatever country be the scene
patronage, or implied superiority will be a fatal barrier to success, and any display of wealth in dress or equipage should be avoided. A kindly, simple, genial manner, much patience
in listening, and quick perception of, and compliance with, the local rules of etiquette and courtesy are needful ; and
the inquirer must be as careful to do nothing that could be resented as an impertinence or a liberty as he would be in the company of friends or strangers of his own class and
nation. He must adopt a sympathetic attitude, and show an interest in the people themselves and their concerns generally, not merely in the information he wants to get from them. He should avoid any appearance of undue cariosity, should encourage them to talk, and should listen rather than ask questions. Incredulity and amusement must be concealed at all costs. The enquirer may not be able to rise to the height of a certain Somersetshire parson, and to perjure his soul with " " when assured that the Devil's footmark Ah, very likely in a certain rock emits blue lights in thunderstorms. But if he cannot refrain from sarcastic remarks when told that two friends after a convivial evening saw two horses in the stable where only one should be, or suppress smiles when he hears
!
Introduction.
that the necessary qualification for the office of town-crier of the Bushongo is that a man should have been born a twin, he
has mistaken his vocation and must not hope to succeed as a

practical folklorist.
Sympathy, a true "feeling with" and not merely "for," the people, is the main secret of success. The greatest possible respect should be shown to all their beliefs and opinions, even
the most trivial
;
and the
visitor should
endeavour to attain
to a certain passive and receptive frame of mind which will enable him to accept whatever marvels may be told him as if
they were true.
One must from the outset recognize the fact that the customs of the lower culture, at home and abroad, eccentric
though they may seem to us, are sensible and reasonable from the point of view of the folk who practise them. The
difficulty is to
lying idea, as Miss Kingsley puts
grasp that point of view, to discover the underit. She relates a case in
by bank suddenly fired at the party. She jumped ashore and " " demanded why he had behaved so exceedingly badly ? " the poor man was It turned out that, as she drolly puts it,
merely suffering under domestic affliction. One of his wives had run away with a gentleman from a neighbouring village, and so he had been driven to fire at and attempt to kill a
point from her own experience. African river in a canoe manned
When
natives, a
descending a West man on the
member
might
of
any canoe-crew from yet another
village that
pass his
the country, the
way men
;
because, according to the custom of of this village would thereby have to
join him in attacking the village of the man who his wife." This apparently unprovoked attack,
had
stolen
therefore,
was merely
a compliance with the native forms of
law (FL.
Fjort, p. in.),
Miss Kingsley draws the moral that the traveller labours under great disadvantages in forming a true opinion regarding native customs compared to the resident to whom they are
Residents in a locality have undoubtedly a great advantage over visitors not only from their familiarity with
familiar.
;
the speech, the ways, and the modes of thought of the people, and from their friendly acquaintance with individuals, but
because there
will
no doubt of their good however mysterious may be the Among savage peoples, an introduction curiosity they show. from a white man already known and respected is often of the
is
or there should be
and good
intentions,
importance to inspire the natives with confidence in the Again, the visitor must be stranger's integrity and good faith. indebted to the resident for a sketch of the carte du pays, and of
first
the local etiquette as to salutations, interviews, visits, presents, and the like. "It is such small matters as the mode of
salutation, forms of address,
and
politeness, as rules of pre-
cedence, hospitality, and decency, as recognition of super-
unreasonable which largely which no stranger can afford to ignore, govern and which, at the same time, cannot be ascertained and observed correctly without due study," says Sir Richard
stitions
however
apparently
social relations,
Temple, addressing the Anthropological Section of the British " Association at Birmingham, 1913. Nothing," he adds, " the administrator from his people more than estranges
mistakes on these points." Still visitor afford to disregard them.
less,
then, can a casual
it may happen that, given the requisite and understanding, a stranger may be able tact, sympathy, to penetrate to the confidence of the people more quickly than a resident who is too far removed from them by social
On
the other hand,
rank or official position. To take one instance out of many, Mr. Cecil Sharp in Somersetshire collected a number of traditional songs from the dependents of a family who were
utterly ignorant of their retainers' musical skill. The family in question welcomed the knowledge, and added the airs
own repertory, but it sometimes happens in such cases that the resident treats the revelations made to the " newcomer with surprise and incredulity. I've known soto their
sort."
and-so for thirty years, and / never heard of anything of the He does not realize his limitations, nor perceive that
they are the penalty he
pays
for
greatness
or perhaps
Introduction.
for incuriousness
and want
of observation.
At home, the
local pressman, the parish doctor, the veterinary surgeon,
the land-steward, the intelligent master-workman, are better situated for collecting folklore than the squire and the parson
;
and abroad, the trader and the
settler
much
are hidden from the missionary and valuable information about social institutions
learn things that the Civil Servant. Yet
may
and
cere-
monies
may be gained and recorded by those who cannot obtain personal confidences, and they should not easily neglect the opportunities they have because others are not
in the
open to them. There is great difference
comparative ease of
in-
vestigating the several groups of subjects included in folkThe collector will be wise to begin his own studies lore. with the Beliefs treated of in the first part of the present volume, so as to familiarize himself with the attitude of the
folk
learn
the
of thinking and reasoning, and to of the principles of animatism, animism, something " virtue/' sanctity, contagion, symunity of nature,
and
their
methods
pathy, and the
like,
which make up the natural philosophy
of the lower culture.
But
in the actual
work
of collection
*
he had better begin with Custom, with the social and political institutions and the rites connected therewith, (represented in
England by the
relics of the old village system and the local manorial customs). If the enquirer is judicious and takes care not to awaken fears of annexation or increased taxation,
the natives are not likely to resent enquiry into their social customs nor will European folk be affronted by interest
;
in their public festivals, their ancient monuments, and the legends connected therewith. In fact, their local pride is
shown
often flattered
by it ; and the local sports and ceremonies, as well as the children's games, may be investigated without Some hints on personal observation of local rites difficulty.
are given in chapter vii. The visitor should enquire for and take advantage of all opportunities of witnessing such things,
so as to be able to speak from personal knowledge. In this way a considerable body of notes on custom and legend may
io
may pave
the
be got together, and acquaintances formed which way for more.
more difficult matter. They crop up and unexpectedly, in a law-court, beside a sickand they must be bed, on a journey or a sporting expedition
But
Beliefs are a
incidentally
gathered just as occasion occurs. A lady living in Needwood Forest sent her garden-boy to the house with a branch of blackthorn in flower. It never arrived there. She did not
know it till afterwards, but it is held unlucky in that neighbourhood to take blackthorn into the house. Another lady, in the Punjab, was asked by her gardener to shoot a parrot that was destroying his best vegetables. By the time she had got her sun-hat on, the chuprassi had forestalled her. Called to order afterwards by his master, he explained in deep distress that he had had no alternative. He knew that the Memsahib " in hope," and had she taken life it would have enwas dangered the life of the unborn. In New Guinea one afternoon towards dusk Dr. Seligmann had occasion to send the native boy who was his companion back to a village about a mile The boy consented but asked that he might be distant. allowed to carry a knife as a protection, from what was not In such ways as these clear, but it was from no bodily foe. does belief betray itself, and there can be no more genuine
or unimpeachable kind of evidence.
also note the taboos and other prohibitions and enquire into the reasons for them. Every taboo observed, must have, or must formerly have had, a belief at the back
One may
of
it.
The importance
fully recognized.
of these little items of belief is not
We
always sometimes find them mentioned only
corroborative evidence of some important hypothesis arrived at on other grounds, whereas they are really the very foundation-stone of the whole structure of folklore. The
as
main
difficulty of instituting
is
the believer
his belief,
and
any direct quest for them is that often reserved in proportion to the reality of not merely friendly but confidential relations
are generally needed before he can be
drawn out on the
Introduction.
subject.
1 1
To betray previous and sympathetic knowledge on kindred subjects is the best key to the lock.
The magico-religious rites which are built upon these beliefs are for the most part shrouded in secrecy, and even payment Sometimes they will not always secure admission to them.
are the property of an esoteric circle not limited by nationality, and then a professor belonging to another race may be wel-
comed.
Dr. Hildburgh, hearing that a certain Sinhalese was a professional wizard, took the man into his service, made
his own interest in and acquaintance with sundry forms of magic art, and in consequence obtained much infor" " devil-dancers mation from him and other concerning " " The negro conjurer their secret rites. King Alexander went so far as to deny all knowledge of magic till Miss Owen " told him that she knew the ingredients of a trick that
known
could strike like lightning/'
one, too, fellow-professor, and agreed to give her the sort of information she desired
who
Instantly he recognized a could injure him if disobliged
(FL. Congr. 1891, p. 242). Still more sacred and jealously guarded are the rites and beliefs of clans and tribes, of local secret societies, and other
Mr. Sproat lived for two years in Vancouver " Island before he succeeded in discovering a whole char" acteristic system of religious doctrines which the people
social groups.
had carefully hidden from the white man up till then. It was twelve years before Mr. Batchelor discovered the serpentcult of the Ainu.
Sir E. B. Tylor gives
a list of similar instances
(Prim. Cult.
i.
422).
^pficElia mysteries. J through an initiation-rite in Australia, after which he was informed of the existence of a divinity whose very name had been concealed from him before, though he had already collected a mass of information about native customs (J.A.I. cf. Kurnai and Kamilaroi, 1881, p. 1885, p. 301 sqq. 192).
;
Only the initiated are admitted to the The late Dr. A. W. Howitt took
The unspoiled savage," says Dr. Haddon, " is firmly impressed with the sanctity of the more important ceremonies and of all that pertains to them, and he also possesses remark-
"
and self-control." And of the Hindoo, Mr. " Crooke says that he lives in a world of reticence and Even his own name and that of his wife mystery. and child he does not care to disclose, and he usually has a second name in reserve which no one but his Guru or spiritual
able reticence
. . .
knows. When you reach a higher grade than that of the mere rustic, the tendency to this kind of reticence is still more clearly marked." (FL. xiii. 307.) How to enter on the subject of folklore at all is a difficulty
adviser
.
. .
to many. stay in a
An
town
excellent
is
way
to haunt the stalls
of utilizing a necessarily short and little shops in the
by-streets in search of amulets sold there,
when enquiry and
comparison
naturally lead to further communications. (Some physiological knowledge is useful in collecting amulets.)
will
The
conversational gambits
to spill salt
express
feign annoyance, or to pick satisfaction. former President of
and
recommended by one expert are up a pin and

the Folklore
Society once successfully authenticated the existence of a " " belief by admiring an old oak cradle in a cottage kitchen, " as if to touch it, then recoiling, Oh, but I suppose making
you would not
like
me
to touch
"
it ?
"Eh
!
dear no
"
said
the owner, falling into the trap, I've had eleven already, and I've only been married fourteen years " the true in-
"
empty cradle brings a But ingenious and earnest collectors will baby make all roads lead to Rome. " You can begin talking about the weather and make the conversation lead up to anything you like," says Mr. S. Q. Addy (FL. xiii. 298). The mutual
is
wardness of which
to
fill
that rocking an
it.
misery of waiting helplessly for a train on the platform of a country railway station served Sir John Rhys as an opportunity for extracting fairy-tales from a Welsh market woman. Admiration of an old church may enable one to draw out
the sexton on bells and burial-customs, and interest in the
games leads to acquaintance with their parents. Hours spent in playing cats' cradle are not wasted," says Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, whose genealogical method described in chapter xi. is probably the best of all means of getting on
"
children's
Introduction.
friendly terms with
though there are a about relationships as highly imfew who regard questions proper. And in any country a stranger can put up at the village inn, or its equivalent, and join in friendly gossip with the loungers there. A light for a pipe, requested or offered,
of the lower races,
most
makes an
a
excellent opening,
and leads
easily to conversation
on the convenience of lucifer matches, other methods of getting

light, fires
kept continually burning, objections to giving
light or fire at certain times, stories of the origin of fire.
whole group of interested listeners would probably be attracted

before this stage was reached. Common sense is necessary in the choice of subjects of enquiry, for not every person knows every kind of folklore. Some customs are observed by men, others by women others
;
again are peculiar to special trades.

kills
life
of incessant toil
them.
games and sports, and irregular occupation encourages Household customs are best observed by old-estab-
lished families in solitary homesteads, but it needs a fairly large community to keep up public rites and festivals. Young
are the best authorities on love-songs, charms, omens, and simple methods of divination old women on nursery songs and tales, and all the lore connected with birth, death, and sickness. (A medical training is often very useful in obtaining their confidence.) Every man is more likely to be an authority on matters connected with his own craft than on anything else. One must talk to the hunter about birds and beasts, to the woodcutter about trees, to the gardener about plants, to the shepherd and the cowherd about sheep and cattle, to the housewife about baking and washing. The fundamental rule is to cultivate the habit of observation and work always from the concrete to the abstract. When an informant is once started it is best to listen as much and to talk as little as possible. When our friend has run himself down is the time to go back over the narration, asking for details on points which have not been made clear, and endeavouring as far as may be to ascertain the " What ? How ? When ? and Where ? " of each item. The " why ? "
;
women
14
of
Handbook of Folk- Lore.

"
any given observance is likely to be because my grand" " " father did so the what for ? is what is wanted above all, and it is not easy to discover this, unless the details of the rite itself reveal it on closer observation. The enquirer must not
;
cross-examine the witnesses too closely, for this offend them by implying doubt of their word, or
suspicious of his motives.
may
either
make them
He must avoid leading questions things they may be assented to in order to save trouble, or under the impression that assent is what is expected, or simply from want of comprehension and they have this
above
all
; ;
further disadvantage, that they enable the person to whom " they were addressed to say on a future occasion, I have heard " of such a thing ; i.e. from a previous interrogator. Questions in the negative form are especially apt to be misunderstood.
(N.B.
The Questionary
at the
end of
this
volume
is
meant
for the collector's private use, not for a set of examination papers for his informants.) It is necessary to be careful not to tire the witnesses, who are probably unused to continuous
mental exertion, and easily get confused. To test the credibility of a witness one may recur to the subject a few days " later What was it you were telling me the other day about " so-and-so ? and see whether his statement varies. Or, one may cautiously draw out another man on the same better,
subject.
Father Augustin de Clercq, speaking from many years' experience as a missionary in the Belgian Congo, tells us
respect
men of good standing, who are held in neighbours, make the best informants. Pupils at the mission schools have generally been removed from their surroundings too young to be fully informed
that intelligent free
by
their
about them
natives in the service of white
men have
often
forgotten a good deal, perhaps unconsciously to themselves. Information from professional interpreters and from natives
but belonging to other tribes should be rethey are apt to be imperfectly informed and to make mistakes. Mission pupils, he further warns us, should not be desired to write down information
locally resident
ceived with caution
Introduction.
in
words, as they will unconsciously give it a but they may be set to write out proverbs, songs, and even stories, until they are sufficiently aware of what you want to be able to reproduce accurately
their
own
Christian colouring
what they hear from uneducated neighbours. Trained natives working independently of each other in the different missions of a district might thus collect much matter of the highest
value (Anthropos, vol. viii. pp. 13/14, 19). As to the general trustworthiness of information
;
first, it
may
is
be taken as pretty nearly for granted that
all
uneducated
That tell lies if they are frightened. to say, they will feign ignorance and deny what they really know. The Hindoo peasant, afraid of being dispossessed of his heritage if he discloses the particulars of his title, or the
people will instinctively
old Englishwoman, afraid of putting herself within reach of the law if she avows acquaintance with a reputed witch,
will
take refuge in denials and negatives, equally with the
savage who lives in dread of vengeance, human or divine, if he discloses tribal secrets. Secondly, many people, especi" ally such as belong to obsequious subject-races, like to give
pleasant answers," and will complaisantly agree to any sugBut few are ingenious enough to gestion made to them. invent information, as it is sometimes suggested that they do, and as it seems the imaginative Celtic nations really do " " Fiona Macleod in Nineteenth Century, Nov. 1900) (see though their inventions appear to be directed to putting
;
the too-inquisitive Sassanach off the scent rather than to " " him. In fact, the suggestion of pleasing and surprising invention comes chiefly from persons to whom the whole
subject is new and startling. On the other hand, ignorance
may be real, not pretended. preserved by tradition alone, the fre" " our fathers knew more than we quent statement that
Where everything
is
may
crisis
life.
entirely correspond to facts, especially when some great of war or migration has recently affected the social
Among some
and
peoples there
is
a recognized ownership
of folk-tales
songs, or of certain customs,
and
it is
neces-
sary to go to headquarters for them. And again, it must be recognized that individual natives differ in talents and
men. There are clever people and stupid people among them as among ourselves people who interest themselves in the history and meaning of things, and people who give no heed to them. A man who is honestly ignorant will often direct the enquirer to a more likely informant. This is to some extent a test of good faith. Sooner or later, both at home and abroad, the proverbial
characteristics as well as white
;
"
intelligent native
"
will
turn up,
who
will
enquirer's purpose and may be employed

others.
comprehend the to collect from
The
collector
must be on
his
guard against assuming that
a practice does not exist, a story is not known, or a belief not held, because it has not come under his notice, but, on the
other hand, definite evidence of negation should always be " noted. It is as important to record what does not occur in
any district as to note what does occur. Savages rarely misinform in this respect. [One cannot always say as much for white men.] I have often been told, Me no savvy that, that fashion belong another fellow/ and the place where it occurs
'
may be
mentioned."
is
(A.
C.
H.).
Where the
tribal
or
caste organization
strong, local differences are especially
apparent. Observation should extend to the environment of custom

or belief.
If there are
many
taboos on women, note whether
any
special
magical powers are attributed to them, and

;
whether the people are markedly warlike if any persons are forbidden to touch the bare earth, or there is any horror of spilling blood upon it, note whether the community is specially
agricultural.
Where rain-making ceremonies are practised, are elemental deities acknowledged ? Where there is a hierarchy of gods, is the political organization elaborate ? If kings and
chiefs are
surrounded with taboos,
ditary
also
all
?
Where totemism
so on.
and
the chieftainship hereare secret societies found prevails, careful and intelligent observer will note
is
such things, and will also endeavour to find out anything he
Introduction.
can of the history of a rite or custom when it is supposed and what, to have been introduced, by whom, and whence, if any, modification in it has been made of late years.
Unless the witnesses fully comprehend the purpose of the enquiry it is unwise to produce one's notebook before them.
It
may
information.
render them suspicious and dry up the stream of So Mr. Crooke found in Northern India, though,
on the other hand, his native orderly liked to have folk-tales taken down from his dictation, like legal depositions, night
after night. "
Mr.
Addy recommends
;
That
it ?
is
Another very successful English collector, before " taking notes, always premised that what was told him would not be made game of, or put in the papers." And when permission has been obtained, the collector must be prepared
of
"
very interesting
do you mind
asking leave to write my making a note

:
to take
down
or to appear to take
down
a great deal of
irrelevant matter
which his informant thinks interesting, in addition to what he really wants. Each record should be made as nearly as possible in the
witness's
own
words.
Even
in
England
this is necessary, to
avoid mistakes and false impressions due to differences of dialect among other causes, e.g. the words to overlook and to
bewitch connote very different ideas, and in some counties " " to walk means to move in procession, while in others it means to return as a ghost. Native words which do not
exactly correspond to the English equivalents should be left untranslated such as, for instance, the Fiote word nkulu, soul or mind, which especially conveys the combined ideas
;
and voice (FL. xvi. 374, 379 .). The name, residence and status of the informant should be age, sex, appended to every note, and it should be stated whether he or she is bilingual. The names need not necessarily be pubof intelligence
lished
it
is
often desirable to use initials or
pseudonyms
only.
When an
uncivilized country
is
the scene of .action, the
observer will do well to provide himself with a copy of Anthropological Notes and Queries, (Royal Anthropological Institute,
50 Great Russell Street, London. 55.). In any part of the world he will find that a camera, and a phonograph for reits
cording songs, are invaluable additions to his kit. Besides primary purpose, the latter is extremely useful to attract
will often
their
and amuse the people, who own songs on it.

It is a
[or blue
come
for miles to hear
good plan to carry both a red ink and a black ink and black indelible pencils]. Notes of things personally witnessed, and the first or principal accounts obtained from informants, can be entered in black ink, and subsequent information added in red. When working up notes afterwards, this enables one to form an estimate of the com-
pen
(C. G. S.) parative value of conflicting statements. A notebook with detachable leaves is indispensable.
Every
item of evidence should have a leaf to itself, and the leaves can then easily be detached and sorted at leisure. The scheme
of classification used in this
ence,
and
will, it
it
may
volume has been tested by experibe hoped, be found a useful model.
show the collector and his readers how much he has covered and what still remains untouched. ground For it is not to be supposed that most collectors will be able to examine the whole range of the folklore of any locality, and no one should be deterred from doing a little because he cannot do much. The Editor of Folk-Lore, (the Folklore Society's Journal), is always ready to consider, and if possible
Especially
will
insert, short
communications from those who are unable to
offer
complete articles or volumes.

:
In preparing notes for publication, the following five points are of first-rate importance
State whether you communicated with the natives in " their own language, or by means of some form of pidgin
1.
English/' or through an interpreter. 2. Be scrupulously exact in terminology.

clan, a tribe
;
Do
;
not
call
fetish,
an
idol
spell,
a charm
and
so on.
Inaccurate and slovenly expression detracts enormously from the value of work which it has perhaps cost the worker im-
mense trouble to achieve.
Many
hints on Terminology will
Introduction.
be found throughout this volume, and a short terms is given in Appendix A, p. 295.
3.
list
of accepted
Relate actual incidents in preference to making general statements, and do not be afraid to use the first person singular
when
4.
giving your own evidence. Distinguish carefully between things which have come under your own observation and those which you have heard
of
from other people, or read

5.
in books.
Give exact references

all
to all printed authorities.
Keep your evidence entirely distinct from matter whatever, and give your own views
separately as an Introduction or Conclusion.
extraneous
or
comments
PART
I.
BELIEF AND PRACTICE.
rwv tpyw veKpd tan.
"La
th6orie sans la pratique devient la m^taphysique." v. GENNEP, Rites de Passage.
CHAPTER
I.
THE EARTH AND THE SKY.

THE
At
records of prehistoric archaeology teach us that man's early progress over the world must have been very slow.
first
unarmed and unclad, and subsequently but very inadequately armed and clad, he probably wandered along the banks of the rivers, surrounded by hills and mountains, by dense jungles, by fierce and often gigantic animals. He was exposed to heat and cold, to wind and weather, to storm and tempest. Forces outside himself and beyond his control caused him pain or pleasure, obliged him to move hither or thither for safety, shelter, or subsistence. Little wonder then, that he should attribute a mysterious life and power not
only to the heavenly bodies, the winds, the streams, or the waves, but even to silent motionless unchanging objects, such as mountains, crags, boulders, and pebbles nay, further,
;
he should think of them as beings endowed with will and consciousness or that finally he should suppose them to be the abodes or manifestations of beings more powerful
that,
;
than himself.
That such
beliefs
proved by the myths current races. Traces of similar ideas

of civilized Europe even
seen.
(i)
were actually held is amply among primitive and barbarous

in the folklore
may also be found
down
in
to the present day, as will be
Every here and there
England one may
still
meet
with agricultural labourers who believe that stones grow. Suffolk farmers have been heard to state that the earth pro-
24
"
duces them spontaneously, and a piece of pudding-stone," or conglomerate, has been pointed out as a mother -stone, the
parent of small pebbles (Bounty FL. vol. i. 2). Particular stones are credited with supernormal powers. The Manx
fishermen think that a white stone in the ballast brings ill luck to the fishing. Fossil belemnites, wherever found, are used to cure disease or to protect from lightning. Dr. Seligmann speaks of " charm-stones " used by the Koita tribe " of Port Moresby, British New Guinea, immanent in which (and in other natural objects) is a virtue communicable
' '
under certain circumstances to other objects with which they are brought into mediate or immediate contact. Either their
rarity, their peculiar
shape
(e.g.
naturally perforated stones),
some likeness of contour to the things they are to influence, causes them to be known for good charms. A stone shaped
or
like
the
a seed yam, for instance, planted in a garden will cause yams to produce a good crop. Certain charm-stones,"
" as far as
I
he writes,
know
these are always of quartz
are so highly charged with magical power that it is not considered safe for them to be touched with the hand, even by
about to bring their power into play. One which I saw was kept in a small bamboo out of which it was lifted by means of a bone fork, cylinder, the pointed end of which was thrust through a loosely netted covering which surrounded the stones." In the darkest corner of a Naga hut Mr. T. C. Hodson was once shown a
a
is
man who
charm
of this sort
war-stone for giving victory in battle.
It
was a rough
mass
if
of conglomerate, kept folded in many wrappings, for a woman were to see it, all its virtue would be lost
(Hodson, 117, 189, and oral information). A Men-an-tol or holed standing-stone is, or was, held in Cornwall to have the power of curing disease. Ricketty children are passed nine
times through the hole, with the sun from east to west and from right to left. A man stands on the one side, a woman on the other, a boy is passed from the woman to the
;
man, a
girl from the man to the woman (Courtney, 160). Scrofulous children are passed naked three times through the
The Earth and the Sky.
25
M&i-an-tol near Penzance, and then drawn on the grass three times against the sun (Hunt, 415). The Lia Fail, or coronation stone of the ancient Kings of Leinster, roared
when the
,
destined monarch stood on
it,
recognizing him
(it
would seem)
much
water.
as the
magnet turns to the Pole or the divining-rod to The Holy Stone of Mecca is the centre of religious
all
pilgrimage to (ii) In the
Islam.
large stones, as they naturally " a high place among the Dr. Codrington, lie, have," says sacred objects." Various tales are told of their origin. Some " have individual names others none. Some are vui (spirits)
;
New
Hebrides
"
who have turned
old times turned into stones
but stones, stones above the waterfall are called
some in the sea are men of some were never anything but have a vui connected with them some
into stones
; ;
'
dwellers in the land/
the native people of the stream, and these have all their names. They have much spiritual power, for they are in
a way the bodily presentment of the spirits to whom the stream belongs. When men go eel-fishing they secure success
by
offering a bit of the first they catch
upon the appropriate
stone."
(Codrington, 183).
Mr. (now Sir Everard) im Thurn, speaking of the Indians of Guiana, says that they believe that inanimate objects, such as plants, stones, and rivers, are compounded of body
and
"
spirit.
And
not only
many
rocks but also
many
water?
streams, and indeed material bodies of every sort are supposed to consist each of a body and spirit, as does a man ;l|
falls,
all inanimate objects have this dual nature attributed to them is probably due only to the avowedly chance that while all such objects may at any time .
.
and that not
signs of a spirit within them, this spirit has not yet been noticed in some cases." (Im Thurn, 355). can hardly expect to find the idea of personality in
show
We
rocks and stones in so crude a form in Europe. But the belief that great standing-stones are transformed human h
beings is common. The circle known as the Hurlers in Cornwall is believed to be a party of Sabbath-breakers turned
26
to stone. The King and the Whispering Knights among the Rollright Stones in Warwickshire would have conquered England could they have reached Long Compton. Listeners
may hear them whispering together, and on certain nights they go down to the spring to drink. (FL. vi. 5-51 xiii. 292.) (iii) We may next turn to the beliefs in superhuman inhabit;
ants of crags and mountain tops. Mr. Alldridge, District Com" missioner in Sierra Leone, mentions a mountain known as
the
Mamba
an isolated peak which, standing out
in bold
against the surrounding country, naturally produces a very awe-inspiring effect that makes it an object of terror to the people, who believe it to be the dwelling-place of the
relief
Nothing would induce the people to cut a track the dense brush at the foot of the mountain to enable through " Mr. Alldridge to ascend it. They would not even accept
devil."
the present that
rock
I hoped would procure me a little and they seemed uncommonly glad when
bit of the
I
turned
to depart without having aroused the anger of the local evil On the other side of the African (Alldridge, 202.) spirit."
continent, the Rev. J. Roscoe tells us that the natives of Uganda supposed that certain hills were possessed by the
ghosts of wild animals.

fear
The people approached them with
careful to appease the lion or leopard spirit when obliged to cross them. Neither the king nor any messenger from him might venture on any of these hills,
and were
so they were used as sanctuaries
amongst the peaks
his displeasure (Roscoe, 319). of the Nilgiris.
by persons who had incurred The gods of the Todas live

In Europe the hilltops
are usually the habitation of giants.
Polyphemus
lived
on
the Giant's Chair, the wonderful basaltic rocks on the north coast of Ireland are
Idris in
is
Mount Etna, Cader
Wales
places ; Devil's
the Giant's Causeway. In other cases the Devil owns such we have the Devil's Chimney at Cheltenham, the
Dyke on the Downs above Brighton. In these groups of examples, culled from hundreds that might be adduced from all parts of the world, we get the
three stages or varieties of belief glanced at in the opening
The Earth and
the Sky.
27
paragraphs of this chapter. The first group of beliefs cited above exhibits the mental attitude distinguished by Dr. R. R. Marett (Threshold of Religion) as Animalism namely, the
;
attribution of
life
and personality
or apparitional soul
but not of a separate to what, for us, are inanimate objects,
such as mountains, stones or rocks, or the ascription to such objects of mysterious awe-compelling power (termed " by M. van Gennep, dynamism "). In the two latter groups we are confronted with the doctrine of Animism or the belief
in spiritual beings pervading nature, so luminously by Professor Sir E. B. Tylor in Primitive Culture.
ii.
expounded In group
we have
iii.
spirit
is
rock or stream
In group
is
conceived of as immanent in matter, the the embodiment or manifestation of a spirit. the rock, crag, mountain, or other inanimate
the habitation of spirits object, their dwelling-place and visible,
more or
if
less separable
from
at
all,
in
other shapes.
These two forms of animistic belief must not be confounded. The native terms for the several kinds of spiritual beings locally and when recognized should be used whenever possible
;
translation
" " is best restricted spirit necessary the word to the spirit embodied in matter, and the separable being, capable of appearing apart from his or her habitation, may be
is
distinguished as the local daemon, or genius loci, or even as a godling (cf. chap. vii.). Not that the collector should
classify his notes
under the several headings of Animatism, but that he should endeavour to grasp and Animism, etc., express the native thought with as much precision as possible. The following examples of beliefs about springs, rivers, and the heavenly bodies, exhibit the same ideas, and show, moreover, how the conception of a living and powerful personality, transcending
human
personality
and power, may
overshadow the more analytic notion of a being compounded of body and spirit. A man was drowned in the (Derbyshire) " Derwent in January 1904. He didna know Darrant" commented an old neighbour, with a triumphant tone in her " He said it were nought but a brook. But Darrant voice, him got They never saw his head, he threw his arms up,
!
28

let him go. Aye, it's a sad But he shouldna ha' made so light
! !
but Darrant wouldna

seven children
rant.
!
pity, of Dar-
He knows Nought but a brook She talked of the river as if it were a living per" I could almost imagine sonage or deity/' wrote the narrator, the next step would be to take it offerings." (FL. xv. 99.) The reverence paid to the Ganges throughout Northern India and the rites performed on its banks, are too well known to " need more than a mention here. On l-dnsdra (Midsummer) Day," says Dr. Westermarck (FL. xvi. 31), "the people of " the Andjra," a district of Morocco, bathe in the sea or rivers for on that day all water is endowed with baraka," " " " which removes sickor benign virtue "), (" magic energy ness or misfortune. They also bathe their animals." We have in the British Isles numerous healing wells, to which sick persons resort for cure, and hang rags from their clothing " " on the surrounding bushes into which the wishing- wells " and votaries drop pins and pebbles, desiring boons holy " wells consecrated to some saint, generally a local saint. " " Wales is full of stories of spectral ladies, white," black,"
now
" "
!
He knows now
grey," and green," who appear beside wells, give mysterious hints of hidden treasure and vanish. The Lady of the Van
is a being of a more material type. She was the ancestress of a long line of distinguished physicians whose descendants are by no means yet extinct. She came out of the lake, and returned thither when her human husband
"
"
Pool in South Wales
broke the marriage compact. She is still said to appear at Lammastide gliding over the surface of the pool, and not
in the
years ago people used to go to the pool at that season hope of catching sight of her (Rhys, Celtic FL. i. p. 2). " fair The conception of the treacherous mermaid, the maid with a comb and a glass in her hand," is widely pretty
many
The Lorelei of the Rhine will occur to every reader. " water-demons were more repulsive. English Jenny Green" teeth lurked under the weeds of stagnant pools in Shropshire and Lancashire, and dragged in unwary children. Inland " " mermaids threatened floods if offended by projects of
spread.
The Earth and

drainage.
the Sky.
29
The Tees, the Skrine, the Kibble, and many other have each a spirit, who in popular belief demands human victims. Sometimes the water-demon appears in animal form, as the kelpie, water-horse, or water-bull, of
rivers
Celtic regions. The man in the
People in England bow to the new moon, or turn their money, or show it to her the first time of seeing her. It is very unlucky to see the new moon through glass,
in the
it is wicked to point the finger or try to count the stars. girl in Berkshire was said to have been struck dead after doing so (FL. xiii. On the continent of Europe, the Magyars forbid sweep419).
everywhere Far East.
in
moon, or a woman in the moon is known Europe and the hare in the moon is as familiar
and children are told that

at the
moon
ing towards the sun ; a girl who throws the sweepings in a married the direction of the sun will never be married
;
woman may
head.
not appear in face of the sun with uncovered The ancient Greeks held that at eclipses the heavenly
bodies were threatened
and
by demons, and they shook brass demons away. Even to-day in Greece the proper way to stop an eclipse of the moon is to cry out, " " I see you Similar beliefs and practices survive hi Judea and elsewhere. Among the Ojibways of North America, Peter Jones, himself an Ojibway, tells us that the sun, moon, and stars are " adored as gods. At the rising of the sun the old chiefs and warriors chant their hymns of praise to welcome his return and at his going thank him for the blessing of light and heat during the day. When a visible eclipse of the sun takes place, the poor Indians are thrown into the greatest alarm. They call it the sun's dying, and suppose that he In order to assist in bringing him to life actually dies.
iron to drive the
! :
again, they stick coals of fire on the points of their arrows and shoot them upwards into the air, that by these means
the expiring sun

I well
may be re-animated and re-kindled. remember when I was a little boy being told by our aged people that I must never point my finger at the moon,
. .
.
30
for
if I

did she would consider
it off."
it an insult and instantly bite (Jones, 84.) The Sun-dance is the great annual religious Vows made to the sun solemnity of the Blackfeet Indians.
danger are then paid, often at the vow-makers offerings are made, prayers uttered, and consecrated food shared by the par" The great Sun-god is our father," said Mad ticipants.
in times of trouble or
cost of severe torture to the
tribe
Wolf, the greatest orator of the Blackfeet, in dismissing the when the Sun-dance was over ; "he is kind, for he
trees to
makes the
grass to become green in the the people good hearts that they also gave springtime. might be kind and help each other." (M'Clintock, 322.) It will not escape the notice of an observant reader that
bud and the
He
the European beliefs on these subjects are of similar quality, indeed are sometimes identical, with those of uncivilized
peoples, always excepting the actual deification of the heavenly bodies or other material objects an idea which naturally is no longer to be met with here.
The Questions given

which
it is
in the
Appendix cover many points

.
not possible to develop in the text (see p. 302)
CHAPTER
II.
THE VEGETABLE WORLD.

from the earliest times have been indebted to and plants for food, shelter, fuel, and clothing. In the search for edible plants and fruits he could not fail to become acquainted also with the poisonous, narcotic, or medicinal qualities of other plants. Between need, fear, and the sense of mystery, the growth of myth and ritual would
trees
MAN must
And accordingly we find that in the lower stages of civilization trees and plants are almost more the objects of awe and reverence than are the sun and
be practically inevitable.
moon, storm and tempest, mountains and waters. Sensation, innate consciousness, and personality are ascribed to them magical or supernatural properties and powers are attributed to certain species. We meet with sacred trees, tree-gods,
;
myths
from
"
stories of human beings transformed into trees tree-worship of the descent of mankind, or of families or individuals,
;
trees.
The Malays
believe that the coco-nut has eyes,
fore will never fall
on anyone's head."
(R. V.
and thereH. Burne,
Drovers' sticks in England are Singapore, 6th Oct., 1913.) often made of holly, because it has the useful property of
bringing back
18, 236)
.
runaway cattle if thrown The sacred pole of the Omaha
after
is
them (FL. xxii. made partly of ash,

and and
partly of cotton wood, both of which they account sacred mystic trees. The cedar is also a sacred tree among them,
the Teton Dakota believe that the smell of cedar-wood or of
32
the smoke from

it
drives
away
ghosts.
The Japanese
believe
that a mulberry-grove will never be struck by lightning, and therefore repeat the word Kuwabara (mulberry plantation) during a thunderstorm, to deceive the Thunder-god and so
ward
the stroke (Hildburgh, 142). we find that certain trees and plants are credited with power to repel lightning, and are used
off
In most countries
accordingly.
Houseleek
is
and Germany
for this purpose
encouraged on roofs in France sprigs of yew are hung from

;
balconies in Spain with like intent, and are kept in houses in the Hebrides to protect from fire. Pieces of hawthorn
gathered on Ascension
Day
are used in England as a pro-
tection against lightning (FL, vii. 381). Many of the beliefs connected with trees
exactly analogous to the case of the " stones described in the last chapter.
New
Guinea
and plants are " charm-
Their mysterious virtue, like that of those stones, is often thought to be communicable to other bodies by contact. In Westphalia, on the ist of May, and in Dalecarlia, on or
about Ascension Day, the young heifers are ceremonially struck with a branch of the mountain-ash or rowan-tree, and in the former locality a formula is recited to the effect that
as sap comes into the birch and beech, and as the leaf comes upon the oak, so may milk fill the young cow's udder. The rod or sapling of mountain-ash is then set up over the cowhouse or on the haystack, to remain there through the summer.
similar
ceremony
is
prescribed in the Vedas, for use at

161).
The mountain-ash (rowan-tree, wicken-tree, or whitty-tree) is used as a protection against witchcraft throughout the British Isles, and in Scotland and
the
Shropshire it is used, as the hazel is in Somerset, for driving horses or cattle. Animals struck with either of these will
prosper, but if struck with a willow-rod they will be seized with internal pains ; and children beaten with broom or
new moon (Kuhn,
willow will cease to grow. For the broom never attains to the height of a tree, and the willow is " the very first tree to perish at the heart," to quote the West Midland ballad
The Vegetable World.

which
33
their qualities will
relates the mythical reason for its early decay ; and be communicated to the creatures struck
by them. The birch and the ash, no doubt, owe their repute as instruments of punishment to their tall and slender growth. " Hey, gaffer," said a Cheshire blacksmith to a schoolmaster " thou'st newly imported with his tawse from Scotland,
bin a-ammerin' our Turn wi' a strap wi' a 'ole in it, 'stead of a stick, an' A wunna 'ave it. Whoy, what dost think ash" (FL. xxii. 18.) plants was growedfur ?
Trees and plants themselves are sometimes threatened and beaten into good behaviour. In Guernsey it is held advisable to swear while planting small herbs, "to render. them
In England it (Guernsey FL. 425.) thoroughly efficacious." is said that a young walnut-tree must be thrashed to make
bear. The following ceremony was formerly used at Jugra, near Selangor, to make the durian-trees more productive. On a chosen day the villagers would assemble at the durianit
rest.
grove and would single out the most barren trees from the One of the local Pawangs (wizards) would then strike the trunk of the tree sharply several times with a hatchet,
saying,
of
shall fell you."
now bear fruit or not ? If you do not, I The tree would reply, through the mouth a man who had been stationed for the purpose in a mangoWill you
"
"
stin-tree
hard by, Yes, I will now bear fruit, I beg you not to fell me." (MM. 198 ; cf. FL. xxiv. 247 ff.) The following is from a private letter dated Rawal Pindi, " I heard the following story up at 13th November, 1911. Chamba (Punjab). The natives refused to fell a certain tree, because they said there was a Devi in it and that when it
it began to bleed, and cried out. They could not get anyone to touch it, so at last P., one of the assistants, who told me the story, ordered the Lohar (blacksmith) to
was cut
make him an
fell
The man asked him, did he want it to and when he said yes, refused to make it, saying that he did not want the Sahib's blood to be on his head. The result was that the tree was not felled at all."
axe.
this tree
?
(S.
F. Burne, R.F.A.)
In Balochistan c
"
zjdl
tree (Salvadora
34
Indicd)
in

was inhabited by a jinn which persecuted the family
My proposal to cut down the tree caused such horror that I gave it up, and a new house had to be built for the family, the old one being abandoned." (M. L. Dames.) Such animistic beliefs are often attached to species as well " as to individual trees. When an oake is falling," says
a house near.
Aubrey (Remaines, 247), "before it falles it gives a kind of shriekes or groanes that may be heard a mile off, as if it were the genius of the oake lamenting. E. Wyld, Esq., hath heard
it
severall times."
In Wales they say the elder bleeds
if it
cut (Trevelyan, 103). Burning elder-wood is frequently forbidden in England. In Needwood Forest they say that
is
to burn
it
would
raise the Devil (FL. vii. 380).
In Lincolnis
shire they believe that the Old
Lady
or Old Girl
offended
by cutting elder-wood without asking her leave, which may " be done thus Owd Gal, give me some of thy wood an Oi
:
will give thee
some
20.)
of moine,
(County FL.
elder-tree
v.
when I graws inter a tree." The Danish peasants believe that a

"
all injuries
Elder-mother," dwells in the done to it. Before they " cut it they ask her permission, thus Hyldemoer, Hyldemoer, permit me to cut thy branches." (Thorpe, ii. 168.) When the Bengali wood-cutters go to the jungle to cut
being called Hyldemoer, or
and avenges
wood they take with them a fakir (religious devotee), who performs ceremonies and makes offerings to the jungle-deities. The Maghs, a jungle tribe of Bengal, are most unwilling to
Nothing but positive orders and the presence of Europeans would induce them to do so. On felling any large tree, one of the party was always ready prepared with a green sprig which he ran and placed in the centre of the
fell
trees.
stump, when the tree fell, as a propitiation to (or rather as a new home for) the spirit which had been dislodged so roughly,
pleading at the same time the orders of the strangers for the work (Crooke, ii. 87). The tabak trees of the Malay Peninsula, which produce the rare and valuable gum called gharu or
eaglewood,
spirits,
are
it
and
under the care of certain hantu or woodwould be hopeless for the uninitiated to attempt

Even the to find gharu. to burn incense, to recite
35
Pawang has to be very careful, charms and invocations and offer sacrifices, to make sure that the eaglewood do not vanish " When the tree has been felled," before it can be secured. " must be exceedingly careful to see Mr. Skeat, you says that nobody passes between the end of the fallen trunk and whoever does so will surely be killed by the the stump eaglewood spirit/ who is supposed to be extremely powerful
; '
and dangerous. I myself received a warning to this effect from some Labu Malays when I saw one of these trees felled."
(MM. 211.)
a single tree
have sacred woods, where not be cut down, or the god of the place will may avenge the injury. In the midst of such a wood there is often a hut, or simply an altar, on which animals are offered
The Votiaks
of Eastern Russia
in sacrifice (Rev. des Trad. Pop., xi. 248, quoting Russ. Ethn.
Rev.}.
example of a sacred and inviolable comes from Shropshire. Near Oswestry there grew an " " oak tree known as the Mile Oak, which was already olde in 1635, and was popularly associated with the legend of the eponymous local saint, Oswald King of Northumbria, killed When it was cut down by the agent of in battle A.D. 642. " " made the lord of the manor in 1824, a ballad-lament was and circulated in which this noteworthy verse occurs
specially interesting
tree
:
"To
break a branch was deemed a sin,

sickness, or the like
A bad-luck job for neighbours,

For fire,
Would mar
their honest labours."
Shr. FL., 241.
Turning from negative to positive forms of veneration, the following account of a sacred tree on the Rio Negro of South " America (Darwin, p. 71) is worth quoting. Shortly after the first spring we came in sight of a famous tree passing which the Indians reverence as the altar of Wallechu. It is situated on a high part of the plain, and hence is a landmark visible at a great distance. As soon as a tribe of Indians
36
come in sight of The tree itself is
the root
itself
it

it,
they offer their adorations by loud shouts.
low, much-branched
and thorny
feet.
just
above
has a diameter of about three
It stands
by
we
without any neighbour, and was indeed the first tree saw afterwards we met with a few others of the same
;
kind, but they were far from common. Being winter the tree had no leaves, but in their place numberless threads,
various offerings, such as cigars, bread, meat, Poor Indians, etc., had been suspended. not having any tiling better, only pull a thread out of their ponchos, and fasten it to the tree. Richer Indians are accuspieces of cloth,
by which the
tomed
to pour spirits
and mate
into a certain hole,
and
like-
wise to smoke upwards, thinking thus to afford all possible To complete the scene, the tree gratification to Wallechu.
was surrounded by the bleached bones of horses which had been slaughtered as sacrifices. All Indians of every age and sex make their offerings they then think that their horses will not tire, and that they themselves shall be prosperous.
; . . .
The Gauchos
[half-castes] think that the Indians con-
sider the tree as the
god
itself,
but
"
that they regard it as the altar perhaps take leave to doubt.
it seems far more probable a conclusion which we may
The
greatest of the household gods of the Kacharis of

is
Eastern Bengal
Bathau, whose
"
living symbol," the siju
or hiju tree (Euphorbia Splendens), may be seen growing within a fence of split bamboo in many of the Kachari homesteads.
All offerings
made
within the house on the altar
Song Raja (another household god) are afterwards brought " The writer has outside and laid at the foot of Bathau.
of
often seen heads of goats, pigs,
and
fowls, etc., as well as
plantains, tdmul-imts, pan-leaves, gaizd (a mixture of rice and pulse) humbly laid down for Bathau's acceptance, and
to enlist his influence to preserve the household from disease, famine, and misfortune of all kinds." (Endle, 36.)
Another
life
set of beliefs connects trees
and plants with the
and death
of
man and
beast.
In years
when nuts
are plentiful, babies will
abound
also.

;
37
Primroses and willow catkins may not be gathered or, if plucked at all, it should be in large quantities, for the number of the poultry hatched in the early spring will be limited
by the number
Snowdrops
of spring flowers brought into the house. not be brought in at all, as they will make the cows' milk watery and affect the colour of the butter.
may
These are
common
cident of folk-tales
English country beliefs. A favourite inis the life-index, the tree or plant with
which the fate of an individual is bound up. If it withers he sickens, if it is cut down he comes to a violent end. This is a matter of actual belief and practice in West Africa, and
in
some of the Indo-Oceanic Islands
(see
G.B.
iii.
391)
Among
the English-speaking population on the eastern shore of the Chesapeake, when one of the family leaves home, a bit of " " live-for-ever is stuck in the ground. If the absent one prospers it will take root and grow, if not it will wither and
die (Hartland, L.P.
ii.
37).
In Europe
we sometimes
find it
supposed that if any injury should afterwards befall the split ash-tree through which a child has been passed for the cure
of infantile hernia, the child will suffer accordingly ; and the practice of planting a tree to commemorate the birth of a
child
may
be a
relic of
the same
belief.
The
to be
fate of the
" " sacred trees of India, had sprouted from the tooth-twig of a saint. The kingdom was to last till the day a monkey sat on the tree. This happened on the morning the Mutiny
broke out, which ended in the ruin of the dynasty (Crooke,
ii.
bound up
kingdom of the Rajas of Gonda was said with a Chilbil tree there which, like many
92).
In
many
villages in the district

its
between the upper Cross
is a large tree surrounded by a circle of rudely-carved stones. Of the stones the natives can give little account, except that they feed them every year at the feast of new yams, and believe that
River and
tributary the Aweyong, there
their forefathers offered

tree,
human
life
sacrifices to
them.
But the
they say,
is
the
cut, for
when a man
of the village. It may not be dies his spirit goes into it, even if he
"
"
38

;
have died away from home and when a woman wants a a sacrifice is offered to it. Each village has its own child, tree, and no village can sacrifice to another's tree. This, although they acknowledge numerous personal gods, and a
"
big
mankind to trees. A Scandinavian myth recorded in the Elder Edda relates that three of the gods found an ash and an elm lying on the seashore and transformed them into the first human beings. At Saa in the Solomon Islands, it is said that men sprang
attribute the origin of
god" over Some peoples
all
who
lives in the
sky (Partridge,
p. 273).
spontaneously from a particular sort of sugar-cane called tohu-nunu (Codrington, 21). The Andaman Islanders say the
same thing about the bamboo (oral inf.}

that the
first
The Amazulu believed
from a bed of reeds (Callaway, The English nursery fable that the new baby was 88, 97). found in the parsley-bed or under the gooseberry-bush, compared with these myths, illustrates at once the likeness and the difference between savage and civilized folklore.
broke
off
man
"
"
Conversely, transplanting parsley is often believed to cause a death in the family (Shr. FL. 249).
Totem-clans are often named from trees and plants, and

the members of the clan usually believe themselves to be descended from the plant in question, and pay respect to
the species accordingly (see Totemism in chapter iii.) Classical mythology is full of legends of the transformation of
.
beings into trees, such as the well-known story of Philemon and Baucis. Much more might be said on this subject, and on tree-marriage, tree-burial, the divining-rod, the magician's wand, the Maypole, the mistletoe-bough, the
human
use of plants in divination and in medicine. The principles of animatism, animism, sanctity, contagion, and sympathy run through them all, as they run through the whole gamut
But the foregoing examples are enough, it may he hoped, to illustrate not only the folklore of trees and plants, but the idea of the essential unity of the various manifestations
of folklore.
of
life
and
of the
pervades so
much
sympathy existing between them, which of the philosophy of the Lower Culture.

The
collector should
39
be careful to note and describe the
appearance of
to give its
any unfamiliar species of tree or plant, and botanical name if possible. If unversed in botany,
;
he should note the height of the species, and describe the the bark, growth, whether straight, curved, or angular or smooth the leaves, evergreen or deciduous, long, rough the fruit, nuts, rounded, serrated, pinnate, or pinnatified
; ;
or seed-vessels
fruit,
thorns or prickles ; colour of flowers or or leaves at the change of seasons and, if possible,
; ;
he should procure photographs or specimens of leaves and blossoms or seed-pods, which can be submitted to some expert
botanist for identification.
See Questionary, p. 306.
CHAPTER
III.
THE ANIMAL WORLD.

(Beasts, Birds, Reptiles, Fishes, Insects.)
ideas of the interdependence, the interchangethe essential unity, of all forms and manifestations ability, of life, which appear in the folklore of plants, underlie much
of the folklore of animals.
THE same
There
is,
for example, the well
known European belief in the werwolf, the man who is a human being by day and a wolf by night. This is still the
theme
of popular legends in
it
Wales (Trevelyan,
296).
Varied
appears in India and in the Malay Penin" sula as belief in the wer-tiger. For the time being, the
by environment,
is
man
Africa he
the tiger/' says Mr. Skeat (P.R. ii. 191). In South is the hyena, in Balochistan the black bear, and so on.
of the possibility of such transformation is practiThe Metamorphoses of Ovid are simply a collection of classical examples of it. Sometimes the power
cally universal.
The idea
of
"
faculty possessed
shape-shifting," as it has been called, occurs as a special by sorcerers ; sometimes, as in the tale of
change is the effect of a curse laid by a on a victim. In this form it is a familiar incident of European folk-tales, such as Beauty and the Beast and the Frog-Prince, little romances which turn on the reCirce's lovers, the
sorcerer or sorceress
covery by the hero of his proper shape.

wife and mother.
"
A Bushman
"
!
folk-
tale describes the sensations of the transformed heroine, a
her younger
"
sister,
Bring the child quickly

while
I
am
still
she says to conscious, for I feel as
The Animal World.

if
41
fall down."
should forget you, / feel as if my thinking-strings would (Bleek and Lloyd, 89.) In the folk-tales of many of the lower races the majority
I
who speak and act human beings to such an extent that it is plain that the narrators, who tell the stories in all seriousness, have no
of the characters are usually animals,
like
distinct idea of the
boundary
line
between
man and
beast.
a beast in one sentence, and a man in the next, without even the necessity for any ceremony of transformation.
The beast
in
is
And
Mota (Banks
Islands), certain persons are believed
actually to be animals or plants at the same time that they are human beings, in consequence of the mysterious influence
exercised
by some
living creature that has rested
on
their
mother's body, or some fruit that has fallen on her loinThe child when born shows cloth, during her pregnancy.
origin by its character, and it must never eat the animal or plant in question that would be a kind of cannibalism. (J. R.A.I, xxxix. 173.) Closely akin to this is the much more common belief in animal ancestors. This appears in European
its
;
A Gaelic version of Cinderella represents her as the daughter of a sheep (Cox, p. 534). But in Viti Levu, one of the Fiji Islands, the natives can state definitely which
folk-tales.
of their
own
eel or
was an
great-grandfathers in the eighth or ninth degree some other such creature (/ .R.A.I, xxxix. 158).
This brings us to the peculiar social institution
known
as
Totemism, which is so closely bound up with the subject of animal-beliefs that it must be considered here. The word
totem
comes to us from the Red Men of North America, where

-
the totemic system was first observed by a Mr. John Long in 1791. The essential feature of the system is the association
of a whole clan, or other definite social group,
species,
with a whole
or class, of other beings
sometimes inanimate things " " " augud," kobong," nyarong," siboko," or whatever it may be called, of the human group. The group is (a) known, with few exceptions, by the name of the totem, and in normal cases
plants,
generally animals, often " which forms the totem,"
"
its
members do not marry anyone
of the
same name,
i.e.
they
42
are exogamous (see chapter xi.). Exogamy cannot, however, be reckoned as an essential part or distinctive feature of the
totemic system.
Polynesia,
countries.
It
it
and
(6)
flourishes apart The members of the
does not occur in the totemic regions of from totemism in other

"
:
augud all same relation, he belong same family." (Torres Straits, v. 184.) Again, an Arunta of the Kangaroo totem-group, looking at his own photo" That one is just the same as me ; so is a graph, said
:
to be related to the totem, or of Mabuiag man said to Dr. Haddon
group believe themselves " one flesh with it. As a

"
kangaroo." (S. & G., Centr. Tribes,-^. 202.) Frequently, though not invariably, they believe themselves to be descended from the totem, (c) There is believed to be a magico-religious bond
between the human group and the totem. The members of the group look for protection from their totem, and at the same time show respect to it. The manner in which respect is shown varies, but the most usual way is by the prohibition to injure
the totem
unless, in
;
to kill
it, if
a living creature
to eat
it, if
edible
Sometimes totem-groups cases, ceremonially. contain similar lesser groups within themselves, in which case In individuals of course acknowledge two or more totems. social group, owns other cases, one clan, or corresponding more than one totem (see Appendix A, Terminology,
some
p. 297).
The totemic system is found not only in North America, but in Australia and many of the Oceanic Islands, among several of the Dravidian tribes of India, and of the Bantus of Africa. Whether it has ever been universal that is to say, whether all races have passed through a totemic stage
of development is a question still undecided. Single items of similar beliefs are to be found in every quarter of the globe, but whether they are fragmentary survivals of a vanished
totemism, or the raw material out of which some peoples have elaborated a totemic structure of society, cannot as yet be determined. Meantime, the collector should carefully
note every detail which may have a bearing on the subject such as, for example, prohibitions to injure certain birds
;
The Animal World.

and
their nests
43
the robin, wren, and swallow in England, the stork on the continent of Europe, etc. In some of the Australian tribes, together with the regular
totemic system, the men reverence a certain kind of bird " elder brother/' and refuse to injure any of the as their species, while the women do the same with another kind
as
their "elder sister" (Howitt, Native Tribes, 148).
An-
other practice sometimes found concurrently with totemism is that of acquiring animal protectors by individuals. Among the Omaha and allied tribes, a youth on arriving at manhood
to fast and pray to Wakonda a vision suited to his special needs. till he received in answer When this came in the form of an animal, as it frequently
was sent forth into the wilds alone
did,
he went forth again within a short time to find and kill one of that species, part of whose remains he preserved thenceand thereafter accounted forth as his most sacred treasure
;
and friend for life Wherever these con(Fletcher, Omaha Tribe, p. 128 sqq.}. " " " comitants of totemism the sex-patron and the guardian " as they have been happily termed by Dr. J. G. genius Frazer (Totemism and Exogamy, iii. 449 sqq.) are met with,
the species his
guide,
"
"
philosopher,
system should be carefully examined and recorded. The combined wisdom and power of animals implied in It reappears all these beliefs must not escape our notice. In the Banks Islands (non-totemic) in a variety of forms. a man can procure a tamaniu, an (actual) individual animalfamiliar, from any man who has, or possesses a stone which The tamaniu is has, mana (power), for this purpose. and employed to injure the owner's kept in confinement enemy for him. If it dies, the owner dies too (J. R.A.I.
their relation to the local totemic
xxxix. 176).
Somewhat analogous to these are the animalthe toads and black cats of Europe, the badgers of India, the wolves and hyenas of South Africa. Again, we meet with animal-gods, and with gods incarnated in the form of animals, as in Hindostan, Samoa, and
familiars of witches
ancient Egypt.
It
is
difficult
to distinguish between the
44
two classes. The thought of the lower culture is not clear on such points, or if clear is not easy to us to grasp. A remarkable case is that of the Ainu bear-sacrifice, as it is
usually termed, though it might perhaps be better described as a ritual feast. Bear-hunting is a regular and most important part of Ainu life, and the flesh of the bear is freely eaten.
bear-cub
is
sometimes taken alive and brought up in a hut
with the family until nearly full-grown, when it is ceremonially put to death by suffocation after being shot at with blunt arrows. The flesh is exposed for three days at the sacred east window of the hut, and then feasted on with much drunkenness. Before execution the victim's pardon is asked it is desired not to be for what they are about to do angry, and is assured that many inao and plenty of wine will be " O thou It is addressed as follows sent along with it. divine one, thou wast sent into the world for us to hunt.
;
:
O thou precious little divinity, we worship thee pray hear our prayer. We have nourished thee and brought thee up with a deal of pains and trouble, all because we love thee so. Now, as thou hast grown big we are about to send thee to thy father and mother. When thou comest to them,
;
please speak well of us and tell them how kind we have been ; please come to us again and we will sacrifice thee." (Batchelor, The Ainu believe that animals 487. Cf Harrison, pp. 87 sqq.)
.
and will enjoy a future life, but in spite of the epithets applied above to the bear, it does not appear from the evidence that the beast ranks as a god. The Ainu recognize a multiplicity of personal, functional gods, local and general, of varying rank, who are diligently worshipped by prayer and
possess souls
offerings of inao, or whittled willow-wands. Their favour is implored at every stage of a bear-hunting expedition and they
are thanked
if it is
successful.
intended bear-sacrifice, and hunting are placed with the
are formally notified of an the skulls of animals killed in
They
household inao offered to
them.
In other cases we find certain species of animals associated with certain gods, as in ancient Greece the owl with Pallas,
The Animal World.
45
the bear with Artemis, the mouse with Apollo, the pig with Demeter, etc. Tacitus tells of the sacred white horses kept by the ancient Germans in a sacred grove, and harnessed
periodically to a sacred chariot,
which they drew about the attended by priests, who found omens in the animals' country " starts and neighs, and thought themselves the servants, but the horses the confidants, of the gods." In England even to this day horses (and also dogs) are credited with
;
the power of seeing ghosts ; a wish formed on seeing a white the rider of a piebald horse will be fulfilled (Shr. FL. 208) horse knows how to cure whooping-cough, and the idea is " have more not unfrequently expressed that the animals "
knowledge than any Christian Perhaps hardly enough importance

!
has
hitherto
been
attached by students to this idea of the superhuman power and knowledge of animals. Yet it is widely spread. The Red Men of the Upper Amazon, it is true, are said to dislike and despise animals, and to regard them from much the
Brahman would a Pariah. But North American tribes think of animals as many bound together in tribes and communities like human beings, and acting like human beings, but wielding superhuman power.
same point
of view as a of the
In fact,
scientific anthropologists personally
acquainted with
them have not hesitated to speak of the animals as their " only less powerful gods. The Skidi Pawnee believed that
than the gods in the heavens were the gods of the earth,
by lodges of Nahurak or animals. ... In these the animals were wont to gather together in council lodges to make or mar the fortunes of men. To these lodges indiruled over
viduals favoured by the gods of the earth were conducted from time to time and were instructed in the mysteries of
earth-craft.
They
especially
are
the
patron-gods
of
the In
medicine-men and often of the warrior."

the traditional stories of
of the
(Dorsey, xix.)
American tribes, animals many are agents in the formation of the world and its adaptation to human needs, and are in some sort the Culture-Heroes of their peoples. The Helpful Animals (e.g. Puss in Boots),
46
so
common
in the folk-tales of the
Old World, belong to the
same stage of thought. The natives of Calabar, who practise a kind of pictographic writing, think that the art was taught to their forefathers
by the baboons
(J .R.A.I, xxxix. 211).
Often
it is
held that
animals have a language of their own, that men may learn it, that the animals also understand human speech, that on a certain night in the year they speak the language of men.
In Schleswig and Holstein it is believed that any one who goes to the cowshed on Christmas night may hear the oxen talking together and foretelling the deaths of those who are
fated to depart before Christmas comes again ; and sometimes the listener hears his own name among the list (Thorpe,
iii.
7).
has been said of beasts applies equally to birds, with the addition that, owing of course to their powers of
flight
What
and song, they figure more especially as messengers between earth and sky fire-bringers, soul-bringers, babyNeither must insects, reptiles, or fishes be omitted bringers. from the collector's investigations, though they cannot be specially dealt with here the folklore of the serpent alone would furnish matter for a volume.
Any
peculiarity of form,
cleft lip,
colour,
or habits
red fur or
hooked beak, migration, or hibernation, plumage, should be noted, as it may often throw light on the etc. Such association of particular beliefs with particular species. also often form the subject of stories accounting peculiarities
for their origin.
See Questionary,
p. 307.
CHAPTER
HUMAN
FROM
the ideas of uncultured
IV.
BEINGS.
man
about his surroundings
we turn
to his ideas about himself, both as an individual
and in relation to his fellow-man. Man's own personality and natural powers, their supposed extent, the precautions taken to preserve them from injury, the manner in which they are affected by food, clothing, contact or communication with other persons, must all be considered. This involves touching upon a great variety of practices, some very savage,
others very trivial.
Without unduly generalizing, some ideas found as living principles of action in the lower culture may be briefly menSpecial magic properties are attributed to particular or thought to reside in particular parts of the body. persons, Blood is looked upon as the essence of vital energy, and saliva as hardly less potent. Union between different persons
tioned.
be effected, or at least a mutual bond established, by mingling blood, or by sharing food together. The nature
may
and qualities of anything eaten are supposed to pass into, or to be imparted to, the eater. Magic virtue, either to hurt or to heal, may be communicated by touch, by breathing, by saliva, or even by a glance of the eye. The personal name is treated as an integral part of the personality, which
generally also includes shadows, reflections, portraits,
effigies
;
and and power may be gained over another by the
possession of anything that has belonged to him, or has in
48
"
I
any way formed part of his personality. or ruin you if I could get hold of so much
could save you
as one eye-winker
or the peeling of one freckle," said the Voodoo conjurer, " King Alexander," to Miss Owen (Trans. FL. Congr. 1891, Hence the care universally taken of stray hairs or p. 235).
For things that have once formed parts of a nail-parings. whole are held to continue in sympathy though separated. Early in the nineteenth century, a boy in New Hampshire, U.S.A., was badly scalded, and a piece of skin, fully an inch
across, sloughed off
from the wound.

treasures to the
His mother declared
that
it
it
would never decay during
his lifetime,
and preserved
;
carefully
among her
day
of her death in
and though 1843, after which his sisters continued to do so after he had once left home to begin life for himself his family
never heard of him again, they satisfied themselves that he
still living, as the bit of skin remained undecayed (Journ. Amer. FL. ii. 69). This sympathetic principle forms the basis of most of the common magical practice of every-day life. A mother wishing to wean her baby will be recommended in Shropshire to throw some of her milk into a running stream or into the fire. As it is carried away or consumed, so the rest of the milk will gradually disappear. The principle is even extended from the severed parts of a whole to separate things which have once been in contact with each other the best illustration of which, as Mr. Hartland observes, is the common form of wart-cure, in which the wart is rubbed with something a piece of meat, a bean-pod which is afterwards thrown away, and, as it decays, so wil! the wart. Thus sympathy may be set up by contagion.
:
was
Some All these principles recur continually in practice. instances of their working may be given here. Professor Haddon exchanged names with a chief in the
Torres Straits
himself
island.
tralia
who belonged
as
to the Crocodile clan,
and found
another
regarded
a brother crocodile-man on
of the
Every member
has his or her secret
Arunta tribe of Central Ausname, which may be either a new
one, or that of
some celebrated legendary man or woman.
Human
This secret
occasions,
Beings.
49
name
is
never uttered except on the most solemn

of
any particular individual is only known " To to the fully initiated men of his own local totem group. utter such a name in the hearing of women or of men of
and that
another group would be a most serious breach of tribal custom,
as serious as the
most flagrant case

at
white men.
When mentioned
all it is
of sacrilege amongst only in a whisper,
and then after taking the most elaborate precautions lest it should be heard by anyone outside the members of his own
group.
The native thinks that a name would have special power

of magic." (S.
stranger knowing his secret to work him ill by means

Sir
& G.,
op.
cit.
139.)
Everard im Thurn
(220)
says that although the Indians of British Guiana have an intricate system of names, it is of very little use, in that the
owners have a very strong objection to telling or using them, apparently on the ground that the name is part of the man, and that he who knows it has part of the owner of that name
in his
power.
Among
the Ainu
we
are told
"
the wife should
not pronounce her husband's name, for the bare fact of mentioning it is equal to killing him, for it surely takes away his life." A local goddess in India was (Batchelor, 252.)
They died
accustomed to climb a tree and ask the names of individuals. in consequence. A lid placed over her put a stop
to the mortality (FL. v. 280).
The
subject of
names and
effigies is fully
;
discussed
cf.
by Dr.
Tylor, Early History of
Mankind, 108-152
also Frazer,
G.B. i. 403 sqq., and Clodd, Tom Tit Tot, passim. The importance in the lower culture of the extended idea of personality which the practices connected with names imply can hardly be over-estimated.
To turn to the subject of food it is a common belief in the British Isles that pigs can see the wind, and the Shropshire folk say that anyone who drinks bacon-broth will acquire
:
the same power (Shr. FL. 210). In the Torres Straits, parts of the bodies usually the eyes, ears, or cheeks of enemies
killed in battle are given to
boys and young men to eat

"
or
blood or sweat
may be
given to a lad to drink,
to learn
50
him/'
"
"
to
make him
strong and like stone, no afraid
"
;
heart belong boy, no fright." (Torres Straits, v. 301, 302.) " In Mota, one of the Banks Islands, society is divided into two exogamous groups, the members of which are supposed
to have very different dispositions. Fathers and sons do not belong to the same group, and they are forbidden to eat together, lest the sons should acquire the disposition of their fathers' group.
In the same island there are secret societies for the practice of magic arts. The members on joining the society drink together from the same coco-nut. This forms a mutual bond
"
which pledges them never to exert their magic powers against one another." (W. H. R. R.) The solemn sharing of food together by the bride and bridegroom constitutes a typical form of marriage ceremony, the significance of which as a bond of union is very marked when, as among Servians, Santals, Niam-niams, and others, the marriage feast is the first and last time in their lives that a man and a woman eat together (Crawley, 379, 380). Among the Arabs of Moab, says P. Jaussen (Coutumes des
Arabes de Moab}, "the act of eating together something solemn and sacred" (p. 86). "To
'
is
considered
make
use of
an Arab expression, while the salt of the Sheikh of the Ka'abneh was in our belly (noire venire} we had a right to his protection, and he was obliged to protect us.
'
, .
This protection, projected in a sense outside the tent over the person who has taken the food, who has entered into
living
communion (communication de vie) with the family and the tribe, and who carries away in his belly the bread and salt, contributes no little to give security to the desert. The guest has a right to the protection of him who receives him into his tent but he is required in his turn to observe certain rules, especially to be loyal and to avoid everything like felony. An Arab who profits by hospitality to com.
.
mit by treachery a robbery or any other evil deed falls into supreme contempt and exposes himself to the utmost reprisals."
(pp. 87-89.)
Human
Beings.
51
The commingling of blood creates a more permanent bond than the above. Mrs. French Sheldon, F.R.G.S., made the " " with no less than thirty-five blood-brotherhood bond of tribal chiefs during her expedition in East Africa, and with
others in the course of her previous travels in the African " It makes the participants, as it were, one continent. " and commands recogshe writes to us (Oct. 1909), person," The ceremony among nition from every member of the tribe.
the Masai and neighbouring tribes consists of the sacrifice

of a perfectly white goat whilst the arms (if not the legs) of the two parties are scarified just below the elbow, and as the
blood flows the arms are put together, so that there is a (supposititious) fusion of blood, the while complete silence is maintained, whilst the witch-doctor or fetisher incantates,
and sometimes sprinkles over and about the wounds some magic powder. The wound really nothing more than a good pin-prick is bound up with a leaf of banana or some other glossy leaf. Then each party rolls up in his fingers a little pilule of meal provided by the chief and saturates it in the blood of the goat, which has been stuck in the throat, and although not quite dead, does not survive the ceremony, but provides an exclusive and highly prized viand for the These little pilules are exchanged, chief and the fetisher. and as soon as they have been swallowed, the brotherhood Then all the witnesses begin to sing and is a fait accompli. dance if cavorting round in a disorderly fashion can be The initiated is given certain emblems to called dancing.
tribal fraternity,
evidence the existence of his recognised entrance into the and sometimes there are also certain signs
imparted to be used in order to be recognized and to recognize.
The
details of the
ceremony
differ in different regions,
but the covenant ensured the same safety as far as I was concerned, and was never violated." Dr. Trumbull, in The Blood Covenant, gives details of a variety of similar rites.
Something of a sacred and mystic property

ascribed to blood.
is
generally
use blood for food.
The Esthonians, like the Jews, will not They think it contains the soul of the
52

who
tasted
it
animal, which would enter into anyone

i-
(G.B.
"
353)-
The "devil-dancers"
"
of
Southern India become

oracles
possessed
by a demon, and utter
and prophecies
after drinking the blood of a sacrificed goat (ibid. 134). The Maori notion is that blood is full of germs ready to turn into
malicious spirits (J.A.I, xix. 101). The Egyptian fellahin believe that if the blood of a murdered man, or one acciit
dentally killed, falls on the ground at the place of his death, gives birth to an afrit or local demon (C. G. S.).
Here we
(not
all)
may draw
It
attention to the use of blood in
some
of the Intichiuma rites of the
Arunta
tribe of Central
must be explained that, like all Australian blackfellows,the Arunta are totemic,but they are unacquainted with the natural process of the reproduction of species, and believe that every child is the reincarnation of some deceased
Australia.
His totem, therefore, is fixed, not by his imancestor. mediate parentage on either side, but by the totem of the ancestor whose spirit is thought to have entered into his mother desiring to be reborn. The Intichiuma are rites performed by men of each totem-group for the purpose of increasing the
numbers or quantity
of
the totem, and the
consequent food-supply of the tribe as a whole. Either at the close of the rites or afterwards, the totem-group eat their
totem
ritually
and
say, their
power
If they did not do so, they sparingly. of performing Intichiuma would fail. The
ceremonies vary considerably, but are always conducted with the utmost solemnity, secrecy, and silence, save for the sound
of the songs.
the ground and the
In the Emu-group a level space is cleared on men allow blood from their arms to drip
"
slab and good." upon it till they have made the surface They then draw on it representations of certain parts of the
Emu
the internal
fat,
the eggs in different stages
the
Churinga or ancestral soul-caskets are set up, and the men In the Hakea sit round the drawings singing magic songs. (the Hakea is a shrub of which the flowers are used to group
make a sweet
drink) the
men assemble under an
old and vene-
rated Hakea-tree, round a sacred stone, the soul-casket of a
Human
his
Beings.
53
Hakea ancestress, and a young man is chosen to open a vein in arm and let it bleed upon the stone, while the others seated round him sing their songs. The rendezvous of the Kangaroo
group is the death-stede of a famous legendary Kangaroo, whose tail, turned to stone, is still to be seen there. The rocky cliff side overhanging it is painted with kangaroo emblems, and some young men standing on it are bled in
the arm, so that the blood runs down upon the painting. The others meanwhile are grouped below, singing. After
"
"
they paint their bodies with kangaroo emblems and then hunt a kangaroo, which is killed and solemnly eaten and some of the fat is smeared on the bodies of the men.
this
^
On the second day the hunt and the feast are repeated. The men say that the cliff is full of the " spirit-parts " of animal
kangaroos, which are impelled by the blood-letting to leave it and be reborn as young kangaroos (S. & G. ch. vi.).
Returning to Europe, we find that in the early nineteenth century old Welsh people believed that the blood is the
soiil, and that if any haemorrhage were not quickly checked, the soul would pass away with the flowing blood (Trevelyan, 306). In the same line of thought is the well-
seat of the
known
of her
idea that drawing blood from a witch deprives her
power.
resides
also
Power
"
in
saliva.
violently and copiously " for Mr. C. G. Leland, to impart to it his
"
King Alexander spat " " the luck-ball he made upon
"
"
own
strong spirit,"
but when his pupil, Miss Owen, proposed to imitate his example he scornfully replied that she and Mr. Leland had nothing to
spit
out
To turn
the head
it is
(Trans. F.L. Congr. 1891, 233.) to other parts of the body. Many peoples account sacred. Throughout Polynesia and Further India
thought an indignity to have another person (literally) placed over one's head. The Burmese and Cambodians build their houses with only one story on this account, and Maori chiefs have been known to object to enter a ship's cabin for
the same reason (G.B. i. 363 sqq.). The Baganda think that the soul of a dead man clings to the lower jaw, and preserve
54
the
The jaw-bone accordingly (Roscoe, pp. 112, 113). Bihari and others in Eastern Hindustan believe that the " " water of life exists in the little finger (FL. xi. 433). Village
doctoresses in England say that the forefinger and forbid wounds or sores to be touched by it.
is
poisonous,
Much power is universally attributed to the eye. When the eyes are painted on a Sinhalese image, what was a lump " of stone or clay becomes a god," and a mirror may be held " to catch the first glance of the The (C. G. S.) up god." belief that some men can cause pregnancy in a woman by
breathing or by a glance of the eye has been noted in modern London (FL. ix. 83). A godparent's glance at the baptismal water makes the infant grow up like him or her (noted 1837, Shr. FL. 286). " Some persons' eies are very offensive," says Aubrey " there is aliquid divinum in it, more than (Remaines, 80) anyone thinks/' Of Tupai, the high priest of Samoa, we " read His very look was poison coco-nut died and bread;
:
fruit
withered at his glance" (Turner, p. 23). A certain Yorkshireman afflicted with this power attempted to mitigate " its ill effects. Look, sir," said his neighbour to the author " of Carr's Craven Glossary (i. 137), at that pear-tree, it wor
some years back,

ing, as
sir,
soon as he
first
a maast flourishing tree. Ivvry mornoppans the door, that he may not
on onny yan passin' by, he fixes his een o' that and ye plainly see how it's deed away." (The pear-tree, first act of any series is usually the important one, and the " " effect of any kind of is enhanced when the agent virtue or the object is still fasting.) Another Yorkshireman habitually walked with his eyes bent on the ground, lest his blighting gaze should fall on a little child or other living A Sinhalese chief was much thing (County FL. ii. 163). disturbed because Mrs. Seligmann drank some milk in He explained that some envious eye in the crowd public. was certain to rest upon the draught (C. G. S.). The glance
cast his e'e
of
envy or admiration is supposed in Oriental countries to have the effect of the Evil Eye hence it is injudicious to
;
Human
Beings.
55
express admiration of a child, horse, or anything else valued " " by the owner. (Compare forespeaking in Scotland.)
Perhaps there is no more widespread or better-known belief than this of the Evil Eye, maV occhio, jettatura. The subject has been dealt with in detail by Mr. F. T. Elworthy, The Evil " " Eye. It must be noted that it is not a matter of art-magic " or witch-craft," but a (supposed) natural power inherent in certain persons, whether voluntarily or involuntarily exerted. Collectors in the British Isles, especially, must be careful not
to confuse
wi' the
ill
"
" "
overlooking
e'e,"
blinking," or
"
giving a blink
" " bewitching," or putting a cursing," on a person or thing (or whatever the local phrase spell may be), which are feats of witchcraft. Powers of divination and prophecy also may be innate
with
"
however intentionally and maliciously done,

"
ill-wishing,"
"
as, e.g. the gift of second-sight among the Scottish Highlanders. " " Personal innate power or virtue (using the word in the sense in which it occurs in the Authorized Version of
and not acquired,
the Bible, and in which

is
it
still
lingers
among
the English
peasantry) frequently due to circumstances of birth. Innate healing powers are attributed to the seventh son born in unbroken succession throughout the British Isles. Twins, considered unlucky and even killed in West Africa (M. H. " children of the sky," and Kingsley, Travels, 324), are called
credited with rain-making powers by the Baronga of the eastern side of the continent (Junod, 412-16). In the Punjab, first-born sons are believed to have power over dust-storms
and
Much
hail-storms (FL, xiii. 278). attention has of late been directed to the idea of
;
the magical virtue inherent in persons or things of which " the New Guinea charm-stone," so powerful that it had
to be insulated from all contact, is our typical example. " " This virtue appears as nkici on the Loango Coast (Dennett, FL. of the Fjort, 135) as baraka in Morocco (FL. xvi. 28) ; as
;
gun
The Oceanic word mana has also been thought to be synonymous with virtue, and has been so used
in Hindustani.
56

;
but recent evidence shows that it is term known over a very wide area, and has no one English equivalent (v. Hocart in Man, vol. xiv., June, 1914). Barkat, or magical power, says Major Aubrey O'Brien,
by anthropologists
an
elastic
writing of the Punjab, varies according to the rank, the He himdescent, or the personal qualities of the individual. self had considerable reputation as a rainmaker, and on one
occasion, during a severe drought, the opening of some badlyneeded irrigation-works was put off for some days until he
could accomplish a tedious and lengthy journey to cut the dam in person and so secure a propitious beginning for the
undertaking.
Mohammedan
"
saints,
approved because of
their magical powers, not for their spiritual qualities," are venerated in their lifetime, and form an important element
Sanctity of this kind is heritable property, but there is a constant battle among the saintly family as to their inheritance. The eldest son tries to maintain
in the population.
the rights of primogeniture, while the younger brethren argue that sanctity is inherited by all the children alike, and that
they also are saints, competent to cure diseases, like their father, and have a right to share in the profits of their common
inheritance (J. R.A.I, xli. 509 sqq.}. As to the Hindoo population, the annoyance to which General Nicholson, of Delhi
fame, was subjected by the devotees who prostrated themselves before him, and welcomed blows from him, is a matter of history and the following extract from the Calcutta
;
Sulabh Samachar, referring to the visit of King George V. in 1911, shows the view which devout Hindoos take of the
"
royal
so
dignity.
He who
is
a ruler of rulers on whose
dominions the sun never
much
sets, under whose sway we enjoy and happiness, from the sight of him will be peace
procured the
fruit of
beholding a Deva,
who can doubt

made
it ?
It is written in the Scripture that the King in the shape of a Deity. The Creator has
roams the earth

the King
out of the esssences of Indra, Varuna, the moon, the sun, Therefore it is certain fire, air, Yama, and other deities.
that the sight of the King yields the same spiritual benefit
Beings.
57
as the sight of a Deva, and by the attainment of this holiness, so difficult to procure, His Majesty's Indian subjects will be delighted, and will feel that their life's purpose is fulfilled."
From this it is but a step to the exaltation of a living man into a deity, as in the cases of the Roman emperors, the Dalai Lama, the Mikado of Japan, and others cited by Dr.
G. Frazer. (Hist. Kingship, p. 142 ff.) In the South Sea Islands, this mysterious property of sanctity is supposed to hurt, not to heal, and excites fear,
J.
not adoration. In Polynesia especially, the sanctity inherent in a chief or a priest was thought so powerful that it was held dangerous to touch him or his property or anything that had
is
been in contact with his person. A slave in New Zealand recorded to have died on learning that he had unwittingly
eaten the remains of a chiefs meal (G.B. i. 321). On this idea of sanctity was based the famous Polynesian " institution of the Tapu or Tabu, by which the idols, temples,
persons,
and names
of the
King and members

;
of the reigning
canoes belonging to the gods ; houses, clothes, and mats of the King and priests ; and the heads of men who were the devotees of any particular
family
;
the persons of the priests
idol,
were always tabu or sacred.
The
flesh of hogs, fowls,
turtle,
and
several other kinds of fish, coco-nuts,
and almost
everything offered in sacrifice, were tabu to the use of the gods, and the men ; hence the women were, except in cases of particular indulgence, restricted from using them. Particular places
Ellis, iv. 387.)
were also rendered permanently tabu." (W. Sickness or misfortune would befall anyone
tabu.
who touched what was

Zealand
illustrates the
An
incident occurring in
New
working of these rules. Some blood from the wounded foot of a Maori chief fell on a canoe, which thereby became tapu to him, and the owner gave up possesi. 358). Again, in Fiji, Mr. Fison had a fine mat given to him by a man who durst not use it because the King's eldest son had sat upon it, and had Thus the tabu could thereby rendered it tapu (G.B. i. 318). be used as an engine of government and of political tyranny.
sion without hesitation (G.B.
58
The word tapu, (in Melanesia tambu), corresponds to the Latin sacer, used to express both holy and accursed a double meaning which is retained by the French derivative sacre,
though
it
things set apart, separated,
has been lost by the English sacred. Hence (a) not to be touched, because sacred,
consecrated, dedicated, or devoted, and (6) things set apart because thought to be defiling, or contaminating, such as corpses, and, in some circumstances, women, are both said to be tapu. It is a distinct word from rahui, prohibited, forin the
For instance, certain berries growing at Kirauea Sandwich Islands were said to be rahui, forbidden, because tabu na Pele, sacred to Pele, the goddess of the Volcano.
bidden.
Nevertheless, the Polynesian natives, according to Mr. Ellis, writing in 1835 of the state of things he and his missionary
companions had found existing in the early years
of the
century were accustomed in speaking to Europeans to apply the word tapu or tabu, not (as originally) to the prohibited things, but to the prohibition itself (Ellis, op. cit. iv. 385).
Hence we get the English substantive

(see
taboo,
which has been
defined as a prohibition resting on a magico-religious sanction
Appendix A,
explain.
p. 299).
things are forbidden merely by social convention, such as chaffing your paternal aunt in the Banks Islands, asking an Oriental after the health of his female rela-
To
Many
wearing shoes in a Mohammedan mosque, or a hat in the Such customary propresence of a European sovereign. whatever their several origins may have been, are hibitions,
tives,
not now taboos, strictly speaking. Disregard of them would " be little more than shocking bad form," entailing social
ostracism, or possibly physical chastisement, on the offender,
but not supernatural penalties nor even
legal
punishment.
The
sanction or force
legal, social,
is
by which each
prohibition
moral, or magico-religious supported should always be
carefully enquired into, and the expected consequences of " " and the term taboo should be condisobedience noted fined to prohibitions the breach of which is believed to cause
;
evil or disaster automatically, either (a) in the
shape of sick-
Human
"
Beings.
"
59
such
as, to give
bad luck ness, misfortune, or general European parallels, may befall the man
who grubs up
the
fairy thorn, destroys the prehistoric monolith, or burns the forbidden fuel due to the inherent sanctity either of the
desecrated object or its owner, or the wrath of an offended or (&) by the defilement caused by the contaminating god evil of the tabooed object, which infects the taboo-breaker
;
by its contagion, imposes the like state of taboo upon him, and generally necessitates ritual purification before he can For example, food-prohibitions rest on a rejoin his fellows. " " Taboos of commensality are usually variety of bases.
true
taboos,
entailing
either
magico-religious
penalty,
;
as in the case of the
Zealand slave already mentioned or the penalty of defilement, as among the Hindus, where caste is forfeited by taking food touched, cooked, or shared,
of lower caste.
New
by one
But prohibitions
sources.
;
of diet have
many
respect for the totem dead relatives. The English Gypsies often vow to abstain from the favourite food of the deceased for this reason. Among the Lushai of Assam, a man whose father has been killed by a wild beast may never eat the flesh of that species (FL. xx. 419). Other food-prohibitions depend on the principle of sympathy, and others again seem to be merely precautionary or prudential. Thus, Loango women married by the lemba rite, which ties a particularly firm knot, may not eat the fish xala, which is noted for struggling in the net when caught (Dennett, B.B.M.M. p. n). Young people in New Guinea abstain from eating certain rough-skinned leaves lest their own skins should become harsh and make them unattractive to the opposite sex but when older they cease to be so " " Medicine-men in India and Africa particular (C. G. S.). frequently prescribe abstinence from certain articles of diet to their patients, sometimes even for life. These are rather magico-medical than magico-religious prohibitions. Besides the things which were inherently tapu, the Polynesian priests could impose temporary taboos on things and
;
of particular articles are totemic, based on others are dictated by respect for
Some
60
and the fruits growing on them, which then might not be entered upon or eaten, under Such taboos were proclaimed pain of disaster or disease. by setting up taboo-marks or signs on the spots in question. Similar signs are used in other countries (e.g. Africa, Queensplaces, such as islands, districts,
land, New Guinea) to mark grounds, crops, or personal possessions reserved for special uses either by public authority or by the individual owner. They are often enforced by a
a curse laid on them by a wizard, in which case they rank as true taboos, otherwise they are merely equivamay " " lent to our Trespassers beware E.g. the giriba sign of New Guinea will bring pains and penalties even on the owner himself, should he touch the fruit before the spell has been removed by the wizard who laid it, but the hata sign only indicates that the thief will have to reckon with the owner, or with the village authorities, for his misdeeds (C. G. S.). A prohibition enforced merely by legal sanction cannot be ranked as a taboo.
spell or
!
The Polynesian
priests could also proclaim seasons of tapu,
which produced a state of things something like a combinaSuch seasons, under tion of a general fast and an interdict.
of genna (prohibition) are a regular part of the among the Nagas of Manipur. They occur both at the beginning and end of the two seasons periodically,
the
name
social order
into which the climate divides the year, at certain stages in the growth of the rice-crop, at the annual ear-piercing
of infants, the annual
like
commemoration of the dead, and the on events such as births, deaths, " The latter are as much epidemics, or hunting expeditions. part and parcel of the village customary law as the former." The length of the genna varies. A household may be genna
and
occasionally,
for as
much
as a
month
after the birth of a child
a village
Duronly, before clearing a patch of jungle. the genna the village or household affected is cut off from ing
for
single
day
the outer world
no one, whether an inhabitant or a stranger,
may
Within, the each sex cooking its separated,
go
in or out.
men and women are own food and eating
rigidly
apart
Human
the
rites
Beings.
61
until
and various food and other prohibitions are observed

proper to the occasion are completed.
breach
by one individual would bring disaster not only on himself but on the whole of the social group involved
of genna
(Hodson, 164-180).
is
as applied to anything separated, set apart, " " when speaking tabooed usually rendered in English by " " in a state of taboo of things, and (viz. separation of a
magico-religious character]
The word tapu
when
referring to persons.
Kings,
on the war-path, funeral parties, and women " in a state in childbirth and other natural crises, are usually of taboo," and are accordingly isolated from human contact by minute and elaborate prohibitions, any breach of which may lead to dire consequences. Thus, a whole Naga village " " may be described as being in a state of taboo during a genna. But when we enquire for whose sake the prohibition is imposed, and which party, the taboo-breaker or the one who is in a state of taboo, would be injured by its transgression, a difference reveals itself. The warrior returning from battle, or the mourner from the funeral rite, submits to quarantine for the sake of those whom he might contaminate
priests, warriors
uncleanness," to adopt the expression used in the Authorized Version of the Old Testament (Numbers xix. xxxi.)
by
his
"
in reference to these cases.
And
the innumerable restrictions
and occupations, imposed on women, the secrets kept .from them, the customs of avoidance between the sexes, are not intended, or very rarely so, for the women's
as to food, names,
own
the
protection, but for the benefit of the other sex.
It is
breaks the taboo, not the woman who is in a state of taboo, who will be injured by any transgression.
man who
Fear of the contagion of feminine weakness is generally assumed to be the cause of these prohibitions, but in view of the extreme dread often evinced of a woman's curse, it is
equally probable that they are due to her supposed innate magic power. At all events, an English Gypsy lad will not eat food which has come in contact with a woman's garment (FL. xxiv. 326), just as a Fijian will not venture to use a
62
chief (ante, p. 54).
is
mat which has been touched by a Oceania it is the ordinary man who
the great personage. the king, the priest, or the
In
hurt by contact with But in most other parts of the world
troublesome restrictions for his
Brahman submits to a variety of own sake, to keep his own

If
is
power or purity
intact
and uninjured.
he himself who
any
of the pro-
thereby hurt or but weakened, and through him, possibly, the community not the one who touched, spoke to, or looked at him. It is " evident that the phrase a state of taboo," as commonly used, does not always connote exactly the same tiling, and
it is
;
hibitions are broken,
that, to avoid any confusion of ideas, it is needful to ascertain in each case for whose benefit the separation is enjoined, and on whom, therefore, the penalty for infringing it would fall,
said,
as well as the nature of the penalty itself, which, as has been may either be misfortune and death to the offender
or the community, or only the extension of the state of taboo to the taboo-breaker by contagion. If we would survey the entire area of savage ideas about
the
human
mutual
species, we must include the whole subject of the relations of the sexes, the relation of the individual
to the group, and the relations of one group or community to another. The rationale of tribal marks and ritual mutilations especially, is very obscure. It may be based on the familiar ideas of power, submission, mutual contract, unity, and sympathy, mingled in varying degrees, but it needs
Photographs or drawings of the marks should be procured if possible, and care must be taken not to mistake mourning marks, individual peculiarities, or cuts
careful investigation.
made
for therapeutic purposes, for tribal devices.
Methods of communication with outsiders should be noted, whether by speech, signal, or gesture (v. A. N. and Q., p. 182). Many peoples, for example, the North American Indians and the Queensland blackfellows have regular codes of
tribes signal to each other by tuck of drum." In Europe, the Italians especially make plentiful use of significant gestures, and the Gypsies and other itinerant
gestures.
The African
"
Htiman
Beings.
63
folk leave messages for each other by means of secret symbols. These things may seem somewhat outside our province, but they have a bearing on ritual and drama, and may eventually be found to throw much light on man's early attempts to communicate with the Unknown.
Many
other points germane to the subject must, for lack
of space, be left without comment. The reader is referred to chapters xi.
and
xii.,
and
also
to the Questionary (p. 309) , where an attempt has been to cover the ground.
made
CHAPTER
V.
THINGS MADE BY MAN.

His house, for so they say, with a jolly ghost, that shook The curtains, whined in lobbies, tapt at doors, And rummaged like a rat no servant stay'd The farmer vext packs up his beds and chairs, And all his household stuff and with his boy Betwixt his knees, his wife upon the tilt, Sets out, and meets a friend who hails him, What You're flitting Yes, we're flitting,' says the ghost (For they had pack'd the thing among the beds) Oh, well/ says he, you flitting with us too " Jack, turn the horses' heads and home again Tennyson, Walking to the Mail.
"
Was haunted
'
'
'
'
'
'
Tennyson's rendering of a tale common in both a homely version Scandinavian and English country sides of the belief which in more classic times took shape in the cult of the Lar, or Hearth-spirit, who haunted the fireside
SUCH
is
Roman. Nature has no monopoly of animism a house may have its genius loci as well as a grove or a fountain, and most of the works of man are the subjects of
of the ancient
for
;
animistic, or at least animatistic, beliefs. The simplest articles of daily use are held capable of giving omens. Knives falling, rings breaking, clocks stopping, crockery rattling, furniture creaking, all are portents. And
the uncanny powers of ordinary manufactured objects culminate in the vampire furniture recorded by Mrs. Trevelyan She tells of a handsome sixteenth-century in South Wales. chair, guiltless of nails, which scratched the hands of every-
Things
one who sat
Made
by
Man.
65
in it, and kept up the habit through several " " Vampire chair changes of ownership. Worse than this " " of the date of James I., which was was a Vampire bed bought at a sale by a resident at Cardiff. His wife and
had occasion to sleep in it during some repairs, and each night the child awoke screaming. On the fourth night it died in its mother's arms, and on its throat was found a red mark from which blood was oozing. Some time afterwards the owner himself slept in the bed, and was wakened
infant child
every night by feeling something clutching at his throat. On the third night he sprang up and looked in the glass, and there saw that blood was oozing from the centre of a mark
on
his throat.
friend,
who occupied
the bed with the
idea of investigating the matter, had a similar experience. Another vampire bed and chair had a particular pre" dilection for the clergy. A very pious Dissenting minister " of the eighteenth century stayed at an old farmhouse in
Glamorganshire, which had once been a mansion-house and He sat still retained many pieces of the original furniture.
for some time in an old arm-chair beside his bedroom window, and when he rose to go, found his hand bleeding, with marks upon it like the marks of teeth. In the night he was wakened by a sharp pain in his side, and found blood flowing from it, and when he visited his grey mare in the stable, behold, she too had similar marks on her neck. On enquiry he
found, said his great-grand-daughter, who told the tale, that other ministers had suffered the like in that room, and he
attributed the matter to
some former owner
of the furniture
haunting the house as a vampire.
Other ministers after him
down to the year 1853, when the " a person than a dignitary of the Church " of England (Trevelyan, 54 sqq.) In the last story we see the mischief was ascribed, not to
had
similar experiences,
sufferer
was no
!
less
the furniture
itself,
but to the
it.
restless ghost of its
deceased
owner
the original makers or owners of remarkable implements, weapons, and the like have been persons of note, the occult powers of the objects may very
still
clinging to
And when
66
well have been derived from them.
This is naturally the case with the amulets made by a skilled wizard, or the beads blessed by a saint, and it may also account for the special
The royal parapherinsignia. States are strictly tabooed from Malay the touch of the vulgar herd. To such a pitch does the
powers often ascribed to royal
nalia of the several
poisonous force of the royal drums of the Sultan of Selangor extend that a Rajah who accidentally trod upon one of them
died in consequence of his inadvertence A Chinaman who was ordered to remove a hornet's nest (!) from the inside of one of the drums also swelled up and died a few days later and, strange to say, Mr. Skeat himself, after seeing them and handling the silver trumpet, was seized with an attack of
!
malarial influenza. (MM. p. 42.) On his recovery he found himself obliged to attend a sacrificial feast given by a Malay friend in pursuance of a vow made to a local saint on condition
of Mr. Skeat's restoration.
But the theory
of supernormal qualities derived from owner-
ship does not meet the case of veneration paid or powers ascribed to ordinary articles of household use. Take the case
of glass, a manufactured substance,
and known to be such, which nevertheless, here in Great Britain, has attracted a whole
The root-idea of them all string of superstitious observances. seems to be a notion that glass and crystal have a mysterious prophetic power which enables them to create phantasms or
Hence the practice of crystal-gazing to procure spectres. visions of the future or the absent. girl who combs her hair
"
"
and
eats an apple before a mirror on the mystic night of Hallowe'en will see the face of her destined husband looking
;
over her shoulder
and
if
the mirrors be not covered in a
death-chamber you
may
see the face of the

its
dead
in
them.
face in the glass before it is a year old. It is supposed that you cannot legally at any rate not safely take your oath as to the actual occurrence It is an evil of anything you may have seen through glass.
An
infant
is
forbidden to see
omen moon
to see the
new moon through

It is also
glass, especially the first
in the year.
an
evil
omen
to break a glass,
Things
and worse
trouble,
if
Made
by
Man.
67
to break a mirror,
which portends seven years'
not death.
"
The mirror cracked from side to side, The curse is come upon me cried The Lady of Shalott."
'
'
!
And
finally,
Life-Index, as
we might
a glass
"
the sacred treasure, the Palladium, the family call it, of the Musgraves of Edenhall,
If this glass
Cumberland,
is
you do
let fall
Farewell the Luck of Edenhall."

It still exists, carefully
kept in a leathern case for safe prei.
servation
It
(Denham
Tracts,
184).
may
be that the act of manufacture, or transforming

substance into another, as in was once held to be in
one
article or
many
itself
primitive
'
stories of Creation,
especially when any chemical process was seems no more than likely that the process of fermentation, for instance, should excite wonder and admiration, particu-
uncanny
It
mystical, involved.
larly in the case of liquor,
when the resulting effect of intoxication is taken into account. Nor would the witches' cauldron have acquired its reputation had not the idea of something
Counthousehold rules point to this conclusion.
In Shropa boiling
"
uncanny been associated with the cookery of daily life.

less little
and Staffordshire, one person only may stir pot or put dough into the baking oven. For two to share the work would cause strife. On the other hand, every member of the household must have a hand in stirring the
shire
Christmas pudding and the batter for the Shrovetide pancakes. A cross should be marked on every loaf, and on the
bung-hole of every barrel, and a silver coin put into the churn, to keep off the witches (Shr. FL. 275 sqq.).
The churning charm,

"
Churn, butter, churn. Come, butter, come. Peter stands at our gate Waiting for a butter cake. Churn, butter, churn,
Come, butter, come
"
!
68
recorded by Aubrey in the seventeenth century, was heard

in Berkshire so lately as A.D. 1900 (FL.
xii.
330).
In the Hebrides, if you accidentally enter a byre at milkingtime, or a dairy while churning is going on, you should say, " May God bless everything that my eye sees or that my
hand touches."
(Goodrich-Freer, p. 240.)
In the north-east of Scotland no baking must be done when there is a dead body in the house, and iron must be put into
lest the bread or meal turn mouldy. A woman must never sing while she is baking. The Yule Bread at Christmas must be baked during the night, and the cakes must not be counted. A cake must be named for each member of the family, and if one should break in the baking, the person who owned it will die before next Christmas. The May Day bannocks must be kneaded entirely in the hand, not set down except for baking, and must be lifted from the " " into the hand of the recipient (Gregor, Kilns Mills, girdle The Dumb Cake, kneaded, turned, baked, and eaten in 24, 35).
the meal chest
silence
by a party of maidens, each
contributing an equal share
of material
and labour, on a mystic night Hallowe'en, St. Agnes' Eve, or even any Friday (Aubrey, p. 65) will procure a dream or vision of the future husband. In view of the possibility that an atmosphere of wonder hung about the mere act of making, it is worth while to
investigate the folklore of ordinary domestic processes boiland the like ; and of early arts, such as net-making, spinning, weaving, smelting and
ing, baking, brewing, churning,
forging metals.
arts
Not every
collector's notes will
extend to
and
may
crafts in general (see chapter xiii.), so the present often be found a suitable heading under which to record
the infinity of bits of good and bad luck which attend the daily avocations of life in every European household. A little of the same kind of lore has been recorded in India, and much
more might no doubt be gathered, both

the careful housewives of Africa.
in the
East and among
the Loango coast no more apt simile for the devoted care of a statesman for his " As a woman incessantly watches people can be found than
On
Things
Made
by
Man.
69
her cooking-pots, so Mamboma watches over the Bavili." And the feelings which prompt the housewife's labours may be gathered from the prayer, pathetic in its naivete, of the Nandi women of East Africa, when they make pottery, " God, give us strength, so that when we cook in the pots, men may like
them
and
Few
(Hollis, Trans. $rd Int. Congr. Rel. 1908, i. 90.) things perhaps are better calculated to excite wonder By it man religious awe than the art of fire-making.
!
"
It creates both his best friend and his possible destroyer. need hardly be repeated here, how in ancient Rome the tending of a perpetually burning fire was a sacred duty, how the yearly kindling of new fire is a religious rite performed
to this
day at
St. Peter's at
Rome
as well as universally in
and how in important crises evil is averted or success achieved by kindling ceremonial fires by the ancient method of friction.
the Greek Church
It is, however, not only the art of making, but the thing made, or the instrument used, that may excite religious veneration. In Bengal, so Mr. Crooke tells us (Pop. Rel. ii. 185-187), on fixed days, the carpenters worship their adze, chisel, and saw, the barbers their razors, scissors, and mirror, the writers their books, pens, and inkstands. In Bombay, a
mill is the devak or guardian (tutelary genius) of the oil-makers

;
the dancing girls worship a musical instrument the jewellers their pincers and blow-pipe the curriers an axe the market" " are All these customs," he adds, gardeners a pair of scales. " as old as the time of the Chaldeans," who worship their net
; ;
portion
and burn incense unto their drag, because by them " is fat and their meat plenteous (Hab. i. 16).
Perhaps with the
"
their
" pious regard for the bread- winning tools there mingles here something of reverence for that which, though man has made it, can do what man cannot,
something of the feeling which makes the

ship
sailor personify his
and the engine-driver his engine, and the fiddler idolize his violin as a personal friend. Whatever be the cause, certain it is that the most sacred objects of many peoples are things made by the hand of man.
"
"
70
That mysterious instrument the Bull-roarer, whose weird cry scares women and children in nearly every quarter of the globe, and raises a thrill of awe even in the heart of the white man who chances to hear it, is no more than a thin pointed slat of wood, perforated at one end, and incised with markings either according to fancy or to prescribed patterns. A string is passed through the hole, and the little instrument
held by it and whirled about the head gives rise to a thunderous booming sound, rising and falling like the wind. It
bone bull-roarers have been It was used in palaeolithic times. the Dionysiac mysteries, where it was represented as being a toy of the child-god. In Europe it is now chiefly a child's also among the Eskimo, and sporadically in some toy North American tribes, some islands of Melanesia and the Torres Straits, in Sumatra, and in Ceylon, where Dr. Seligmann, in 1899, saw little Sinhalese children whirling bull-roarers at play, and also in a religious procession (FL. xi. 456). The
is
of incalculable antiquity, for
discovered, dating from
bull-roarer
bummer, or
a Suffolk name, otherwise the buzzer, boomer, thunder-spell is known to have been also used
in Scotland both as a charm against thunder, and as a means

of driving cattle. The Kafirs too use it as a charm for the latter purpose, and the Bushmen for driving game. The
Boloki of the Upper Congo know and make bull-roarers, but the elders do not like the lads to play with them, and give as " their reason You are calling the leopards." (Weeks, 157.)
Among many
it is
of the tribes of
both North and South America
employed in weather-mysteries, and its sound is supposed to be the voice of the thunder-bird, or the prayer-stick of
the thunder, or to prevail on the wind to bring fair weather. Other tribes, together with many of the Melanesian islanders,
sound
of
it to scare away evil spirits. Among the Yoruba West Africa the Oro stick, as it is there called, is believed to be the voice of the god Oro, if not the god himself. At its sound the women hide themselves in their homes while the men parade the town dancing and singing, and criminals
who
disappear mysteriously under the auspices of the Ogboni
Things
Made
by
Man.
71
the Australian blackfellows
Secret Society are said to have been carried off by Oro. To it is the very kernel of sanctity
is
Its sound is the voice of a god, and its existrevealed to the boys in the rites of initiation into manhood as a sacred secret to be guarded from women, " You make him boy man ? " children, and the uninitiated.
and mystery.
ence
asked Dr. Haddon confidentially of the Chief of Prince of " You got thing, Wales's Island. The old man assented. " Stolid silence was all the time you make him boy man ?
I savvy that thing," continued the visitor, imitating " " the action of whirling it, In extreme suryou got him ? Cautiously prise the old man was obliged to admit the fact. " he whispered its name, waness," and eventually, satisfied that the white man must be an initiate of some sort, he was
"
reply.
even coaxed to make one for Dr. Haddon, which he gave to him privately in a secluded spot in* the bush, making him promise not to show it to any woman. (Haddon, Study of
Man, 277-327;
s.v.
cf. Lang, Custom and Myth, and EncycL Rel. In this connection, the folklore of sounds should be
investigated.)
The churinga, the sacred speciality of the Arunta tribe of Central Australia, are made of a micaceous stone, engraved with symbolical patterns, and often but not always, have
the form of bull-roarers.
old.
Many of them are evidently very are supposed to be the soul-caskets of dead (See ancestors, who are re-incarnated in their descendants. chaps, iv. and vi.) They are guarded in clefts and caves
They
which no woman dare approach, carried in the private bags and pouches of the most grave and reverend seniors of the " " been made men and tribe, shown to youths who have have proved themselves worthy of trust, as the greatest privilege their manhood can bestow, and lent to allied tribes as the highest proof of confidence that can be given to friends. But when, on the birth of a child, a churinga of the right re-incarnation cannot be found on the right spot, the elders
calmly proceed to
of
wood
make a new one, and, moreover, make it The churinga have excited widespread interest,
72
but comparatively
little attention has been paid to the fact that besides these sacra of individuals, the Arunta have other artificial sacred objects, the nurtunja and waninga, which are
headdresses worn in the initiation mysteries, and which represent the collective totemic groups and, moreover, a mys" terious pole, the Kauaua, the most sacred ceremonial object
;
which is common to the whole tribe. It is used in the Engwura, or last and culminating ceremony only of the initiation rites. It is made of a young gum-tree, cut
of the tribe,"
down, stripped of its bark, and carried to the rendezvous without touching the ground, smeared all over with blood, and decorated at the top with the ornaments worn on the head by a man in full array (S. & G. op. cit. 627-630). What the meesham, the secret treasure of the Musquakie
Indians, may be, cannot be told. The prohibition to to see it, extended even to Miss Owen, our authority " for the traditions of the tribe, What for you ask ? " said " one of the men to her, Him all same like your Ark to Cove"
or
Fox
women
nant
(Owen,
p. 40).
of the A-Kikuyu of East Africa is a small oddly-shaped hollow cylinder of burnt clay pierced with four holes, which is kept buried in the bush and is never carried into a dwelling or touched by human hands for fear of death
The Kithathi
or disaster.
On
it
the accused in criminal
trials
makes oath
of his innocence.
The
witnesses put sprays of a kind of
creeping-grass round their necks to protect them from its power, and rub their feet in the contents of the stomach of
a goat killed for the purpose to purify them before they go away. The Kithathi is rested in a fork of dead wood, and
held steady by two twigs of certain trees passed through the holes ; the accused, naked, touches it with another twig, " If I killed saying may the Kithathi kill me," etc. Then he eats a little white clay and rubs some on his hands
:
to purify himself from the contact sufficiently to enable him to eat, and goes away alone to lead a hermit-life for three
months, during which he will die if guilty (Hobley, 139, 140). Of the Mayembe fetishes of Uganda, Mr. Roscoe says
Things
Made
by
Man.
73
" (Baganda, 271, 325-28), Though they were made by men they were firmly believed to possess supernatural powers for averting evil and bringing good to their fortunate owners." Only highly skilled medicine-men were competent to make them.
Herbs had to be carefully selected and other things, such as the hearts of lions or elephants, added to make the heart These ingredients were of the owner brave and strong. pounded together and stuffed into horns, or mixed with clay and formed into figures. One such fetish was animated by
a
"
spirit of
Mbajwe, the king's chief fetish, had its temple, its priest, and a female medium through whom it was supposed to give oracles. Prisoners were sent " " outside the sacrificed to it for trial, and were afterwards temple. Uganda possessed a whole Pantheon of gods who were held sacred and regarded with respect, yet the Mayembe fetishes, whether stationary figures or talismans worn about the person, were of more practical importance in emergencies. The word fetish (Portuguese fetifo, from late Latin facticius, made by art) has been much overworked and abused. Origipossessed
accordingly.
nally
the winds "
others were dedicated to gods,
who
them
applied
by the
early
Portuguese navigators to the
numerous small amulets and talismans which they saw the West African natives wearing, carrying, and treasuring, it has
been extended to cover almost every kind of material object, movable or immovable, venerated in any part of the world. It 'is better, therefore, to restrict the use of the word as far
Tt is there as possible to western and equatorial Africa. commonly applied by white men not only to amulets, natural and artificial, but to any movable object a horn, a shell,
a carved figure which has been endued with magical power by the skill of the medicine-man. It is a strictly animistic
form
for itself,
The fetish, whatever it be, is valued not but as the receptacle of some spirit, either a human soul or a wandering demon, which, spontaneously or by enchantment, has taken up its abode in it, like a hermitcrab in an empty whelk-shell. The fetishes act as guardians
of belief.
of life
and property, give talismanic warning
of misfortune,
74
and bring down punishment on perjurers, trespassers, thieves, and secret foes. Their energies require to be renovated and quickened from time to time by libations of
adulterers,
blood, so that it becomes a very nice matter to distinguish, not only between the fetish and the idol etScoXov, image, but between the lustration and the likeness (of a god)
sacrifice.
Nowhere, perhaps,
is it
and use the native words
for the several acts
more necessary to discover and things, to
prevent confusion between ideas actually distinct. See Questionary, p. 313.
CHAPTER
VI.
THE SOUL AND ANOTHER

BELIEF
LIFE.
in the soul as a separate entity having an existence independently of the body is found even in races very low in the scale of culture.
Obviously,
;
it lies
at the root of belief
in ghosts, revenants, or gengdngers in pre-existence and in a future
and, pari passu, of belief And, furthermore, it leads on the one hand to exorcism and on the other to ancestorlife.
worship. "
Language
find the
itself
bears witness to the belief in the unsub-
stantial nature of the other self."
Wellnigh universally,
we
given to the soul derived from words for im" " " " and breath shadow." The palpable things, such as Tasmanian word for the shadow is also that for the spirit
;
name
his the Algonquins describe a man's soul as otahchuk, the Quich6 language uses natub for shadow shadow, ' soul the Arawak ueja means shadow, soul, image
'
' ;
'
'
'
the Abipones
soul, echo,
made
.
the one word lodkal serve for

.
.
'
image/
piuts
'
shadow, West Australians used one word,

' ;
wang, for
California
'
breath, spirit, soul
in the Netela language of
meant
'
life,
breath, soul/
Hebrew
shows nepkesh, breath/ passing into all the meanings of * the same is the history of life, soul, mind, animal '. dtman and prdna of Greek, psyM and pneuma Sanskrit,
. .
of Latin, animus, anima, spiritus" (Prim. Cult. i. 430, 432, and again in folk-belief we find implied the 433.) Again conception of the soul as something invisible, impalpable,
76
clinging,

and
difficult
think the soul of a dead

in the case of of
to be got rid of. In Uganda they man clings to his jawbone, which
eminent men is preserved accordingly. The Kibuka the War-God is in the Cambridge Museum. An English Gypsy (in 1911) gave as the reason for the destruction of his van after his child's death, that otherwise the ghost would cling to it (FL. xxiv. 353). " since the idea must incarnate itself," the soul is But also often conceived as a visible object. The Chinese, among
jawbone
other nations, prosaically think of the soul as the very replica of the body, sharing even in its mutilations (Prim. Cult. i.
451).
When
human
small
the Macusis of Guiana "point out that the figure has disappeared from the pupil of a dead
man's eye, they say that his spirit (or emmawarri) has gone." (im Thurn, 343.) St. Godric of Finchale watched all night
by the dying hermit
of
Walsingham hoping
to see the spirit
depart, until, so he told his disciples in his old age, he was at length rewarded. Asked what it was like, the old man
no man could perceive the substance of the But being teased and pressed for an answer, he told how it was like a dry hot wind, rolled into a sphere and shining like the clearest glass, but what it was really like no one could express (C. Kingsley, Hermits, 322). Even in modern days thoughtful English peasantry have been heard to question whether such a sight might not be possible. By the ancient Egyptians the soul was conceived not as a simple entity, but as a composite being of which the parts, united in life, were separated at death, each to find its own
replied that spiritual soul."
"
way
soul,
to the gods. The principal soul, or element of the " " of was the Ka, a sort of wraith or double ganger
the
man
body.
To
himself, the living principle which animated the this were added the heart, the soul proper often
depicted as a bird perched on the coffin
the
phantom form
of the deceased, the shadow, the strength, and lastly the immortal part, called after Osiris the God of the Under-
world (Wiedemann, 240-243). Some peoples even to this day hold that a man has many souls. The Fiote, Fjort, or Bavili,
The Soul and Another

of the
Life.
77
Loango coast, count four, viz. the chidundu, or shadow, which sleeps in the body of its owner and dies with him the chimbindi, or ghost, which wanders in the bush at the
;
owner's death
which
dies with the

its
the chilunzi, or ndunzi, the intelligence, man, so that a chimbindi has no ndunzi,
;
or mind, of
own
and the nkulu, the voice or

is
soul of the
dead, which
after the funeral rites
transferred to the head
of a near relation of the deceased, in order to inspire and guide him with the wisdom of the departed (Dennett, in FL. viii.
136
xvi. 372).
beasts, but plants and even inanimate are often thought to have souls, shadowy semblances objects of themselves ; a belief distinct from that in spirits embodied
Not only men and
rocks, or even of spirits introduced into artificial receptacles (pp. 73, 141). The Karens of Burmah, when the " rice crop looks sickly, call back its Kelah or soul, saying,
in trees
and
come,
rice
.
.
rice kelah,
.
come
Come
1
to the
field,
come
to the
come from the west, come from the east. ... O " rice kelah, come to the rice (Prim. Cult. i. 475), etc., just the medicine-men of many of the backward nations call as back the soul of a sick man. The Malays, among whom
the doctrine of souls
"
!
is
highly developed, say in such a case
Cluck, Cluck Soul of this sick man So and so. Return into the frame and body of So and so.
To your own house and house-ladder, to your own ground and yard, To your own parents, to your own sheath," (i.e. the owner's body). (M.M. 455-)
stupor, unconsciousness, or even ordinary are often explained by saying that a man's soul has sleep, left him. Sir John Rhys tells of a Welsh reaper whose soul
Fainting-fits,
was seen running about in the shape of a little black man while his body lay asleep in the harvest field (Celtic FL. ii. 60 1) The story is not uncommon among peoples more backward than the Welsh. Naturally the absence of the soul is
.
dangerous to the man's life. It may be captured by a sorcerer and prevented from returning to the body. Certain medicine
men among
the Boloki profess actually to see the witches
78
running away with souls at night, which they then rescue and restore to the owners. (Congo Cannibals, 285.) Mr. Gill brought a soul-trap from Polynesia, which consisted of a series of coco-nut rings in which the sorcerer made believe to catch the soul of him who had offended him. Others brought
by the Rev. J. H. Weeks from the Congo may be seen in the British Museum. Thus we arrive at the notion of the Separable Soul, the keeping of which in some external object for It meets safety forms the motive of so many folk-tales.
us in real
life
in the churinga of the Arunta,
the carven
soul-caskets of ancestors waiting to be reincarnated in their
descendants
(cf. p.
71).
by supposing that the absent soul really goes through its dreamland adventures while the body is asleep. So if they dream of the dead, have the best of evidence of their deceased friend's they
continued existence, in that they themselves have actually seen him.
The lower
races often account for dreams
Two
(2)
lines of
(i)
thought open out here.
believed
to live
on
in
The some other body in
soul
is
either
this world, or
to have travelled to another, or possibly to

;
some undis-
covered country in this though, be it noted, in neither case does continued existence necessarily, or even usually, imply
immortality. It may be said of many peoples as M. Casalis " says of the Basuto, they have not given to their ideas on
this subject the settled
form of a dogma," (Casalis, 243), and the observer must be careful not to assume any such
without definite evidence.
first case,
belief
In the
restless
the deceased person

shape.
may
be transformed
into animal
or other
Even
in
modern England the
ghosts of the countryside often appear in animal " " the had performed the funeral pius ^Eneas rites of his father Anchises, had poured out the libations,
form.
When
scattered flowers, and invoked his departed parent, from the depths of the grave-mound there crawled out a huge serpent,
which glided between the
altars,
it
and quietly returned whence
partook of the sacrifices, came. The amazed hero
Life.
79
doubted whether to recognize in the snake the tutelary genius an attendant slave of his late father. The modern Zulu experiences no such uncertainty. He knows that the snake which he sees on his father's grave is his father, " and says on his return, Oh, I have seen him to-day, basking " in the sun on the top of the grave (Callaway, 142.) Or the departed soul may be re-born into another body,
of the place or
!
human
or animal.
Pythagoras and Buddha only systema-
tized existing beliefs, such as are known from Greenland to Australia. The Yonibas of West Africa greet an infant on " " its birth with the words Thou art come and enquire
:
of the family god which of the departed ancestors has returned, in order to name it accordingly (Hartland, P.P. i. 199).
least one English family is known to the present writer which a child is regarded more or less seriously by its parents as a deceased relative who has returned to this mortal life (E. S. H.). The Hurons of North America buried infant
At
in
passing
corpses in the roadway, so that their souls might enter into women and be born again (Rep. Bur. Ethn. v. iii.).
Among the Arunta
of Central Australia the belief has actually
affected the structure of the social system. According to them, the souls of the departed haunt certain spots and
spring thence into the bodies of convenient women ; and the totem of the child when born depends not on his
natural descent, but on the totem of the soul reincarnated

in him.
When
we
which
rooted
is
the soul
it
find that
supposed to leave this world for another, a journey to go," the typical feature of the crossing of a river, lake, or sea an idea deeply
is
has
"
in
found in
popular Protestant phraseology, though not either the Old or New Testament Scriptures.
:
:
Bunyan's Pilgrims forded the River of Death Roman shades were ferried across by Charon faithful Mohammedans reach
their Paradise by a bridge formed of a single hair. The wild tribes of the Malay Peninsula imagine a fallen treetrunk bridging a boiling lake, and giving access to the Island of Fruits, the destined abode of the dead. It is not
80
very long since, in our own country, the groat was put into " " the mouth of the dead man to pay his footing on the
other side and the Yorkshire peasants of the seventeenth century used to sing a funeral dirge recounting the perils of the soul's journey over Whinny Muir (=the furzy moor) " and across the Brig o' Dread, nae brader than a thread,"
;
to its goal in Purgatory (Aubrey, 31). Coast-dwelling peoples often picture the
Land
of the
Dead
as an island, perhaps one dimly visible in the far west, the land of the setting sun. Even the very spot whence the souls
set sail thither
may
be pointed out, as at the Baie des Tre-
passes in the extreme west of Brittany, and at the north Zealand. Sometimes the cape of the North Island of
New
dead are supposed to return to the country whence their Others place the forefathers, according to tradition, came. Land of the Dead in the sun or the moon or yet above them in the heavens of which the blue ether is the solid floor, and from which the birds bring messages and the storms come to declare the wrath of the gods. Or, more prosaically, the Land of the Dead may be underground, beneath the earth to which the corpse has been committed or even in
;
the very grave
itself.
Whatever be the
whether
it
locality or character of the spirit land,
resembles the melancholy Hades of the classics or the joyous Magh Mell of ancient Ireland, the life lived there is " There/' pictured as simply a continuance of the present life. " the soul of the dead says Dr. Tylor (Prim. Cult. ii. 75, 76),
Karen, with the souls of his axe and cleaver, builds his house his rice the shade of the Algonquin hunter hunts souls of beaver and elk, walking on the souls of his snow-
and cuts
shoes over the soul of the snow

;
the fur-wrapped
Kamchadal
drives his dog-sledge the Zulu milks his cows and drives and the South American tribes live on his cattle to kraal
;
as they
left this
world, whole or mutilated, healthy or sick,

'
leading their old lives and having their wives with them they have again, though indeed, as the Araucanians said, " no more children, for they are but souls/
The Soul and Another Life.

Compare the following
shire.
81
An
old
woman who had forgotten
well-attested story from Lincolnto put her husband's
drinking-mug and jug in his coffin according to custom, broke " I deads 'em both over them and laid them on the grave. " and says I to mysen, My old man, he his grave," she said,
set a vast store,
he did, by yon
mug and
jug,
and when
'
their
ghoastes gets over on yon side,
he'll holler out,
hand 'em o'er to me,' and I'd like " him a-having of them an 'all (County FL. v. 241.) In most cases the fate of all souls is the same, yet not
!
Yon's mine, to see them as would stop
invariably so.
Character, rank, wealth, or circumstances of
Bad men (meaning thereby affect it. cowards) are by the Caribs doomed to become slaves to their enemies the Arawaks in a barren land beyond the mountains,
death
sometimes
while the brave feast in

slaves.
happy
islands, served
by Arawak
Sometimes bad men are transformed into animals

death, while others retain their of California believe that
;
after
Gallinomero
coyotes
into
human form. The bad men become
at Ladak, on the borders of Tibet, they are turned marmots. In the Tonga Islands, the souls of plebeians die with their bodies, while those of high rank live on in the Ancient Scandinavian warriors island paradise of Bolotu. killed in battle were privileged to fight by day and feast by night with the high gods in Valhalla, while the unfortunates " who died a straw-death, a cow-death," went below to the Other souls find no cheerless regions of the Underworld. but return to terrify the living. Women dying resting-place, in childbirth become in Northern India a peculiarly fearful kind of demon with feet turned backwards, known as a churel (Crooke, i. 269). In the Malay Peninsula, where the belief flourishes, such women become a frightful kind vampire
of flying
vampire called a langsuir (M.M. 325). The wandering ghosts of Europe are usually the souls of or persons suicides, murderers, and the victims of murderers who have left worldly business unfinished pledges unre;
things which prevent
deemed, debts unpaid, heirs defrauded, treasure concealed " them from resting quietly in their
;
82

it
graves," as the folk put
albeit
no form of creed known
to Christendom countenances belief in the residence of the
departed soul in the grave. But the cardinal reason for the return of the ghost, all the world over, is the omission of " are all familiar with the Grecian ghosts, funeral rites.
We
to return that in battle were slain, and unburied remain as Furies. Mr. Crooke narrates a story, told to him again
"
quite seriously, of a man who on revisiting his wife after a long absence found her and her family living in the house in
the form of Bhuts or malignant spirits. His father-in-law had died first, and there being no one to perform his funeral rites, he had become a Bhiit, and had killed the women one
by
one, that they might wait
from having
himself.
(as junior Bhut) to serve the
The only peculiarities spoke in nasal voices and avoided touching fire, metal, or salt. They were about to kill him, but, advised by the Bhut of his wife, he escaped, carrying a brass cup of water
in his
rites, after
fell
upon him and prevent him Bhuts senior to about them were that they
hand for protection. which the pipal
He
(sacred
then performed the funeral fig) tree in the courtyard

released
down, by which he knew that the Bhuts had been and enabled to go to heaven (FL. xiii. 280).
These
beliefs
account for
many
funeral practices, such as
blocking up the door through which the corpse is removed, carrying it away by a circuitous route, etc., and possibly also for the custom to which prehistoric archaeology owes so much,
supplying the corpse with ornaments, weapons, food, drinking vessels, even with wives and slaves, for his comfort
of
though indeed motives of family pride and also fear to make use of what beto the dead, may have had a share here. Indeed, there longed is reason to think and the idea should be further investiin the other world
;
and family
affection,
gated that the original object of all funeral rites is to introduce and initiate the ghost, as it were, into the society of
the spirit-world, and that the malicious character so often exhibited by the returning ghost is due either to its desire for revenge on the living for their neglect or to its having

found itself evil demons.
"
in the
Life.
83
wrong Paradise," and
in the society of
(Cf. ch. xii.)
A
or
malignant ghost
may
either be propitiated or exorcised^
In the former case he acquires rarely, destroyed. the position of a local godling. All over India, says Mr. Crooke (Pop. Rel. i. 96) may be seen shrines erected to appease
,
more
some dangerous Bhut. An Imperial trooper in the Punjab was once burnt to death by an accidental fire in the shed in which he was sleeping. Though he was a Musalman and not a Hindu by religion, a shrine was erected to him lest he might On the Lower Congo this become troublesome as a Bhut. would not have been necessary, for there, burning the body
which belonged to a malignant ghost is supposed to destroy the ghost itself and to put a stop to its ill-doings. Or the ghost may be shot by real or pretended guns, according to a prescribed ritual. (Weeks, Prim. Bakongo, 43, 44.) Exorcism, or commanding an evil spirit to depart in the name of a higher power, generally divine but possibly human,
needs expert knowledge. It is a function common to the In Addison's comedy of The Drumpriest and the wizard. " " is called in to mer, or the Haunted House, the conjurer " lure the ghost into his magic circle, to overpower him with
his learning,"
date,
it
that
chap.
"
him in the Red Sea. At the same was the common opinion in the north of England
and
lay
spirit
is
"
"
none can lay a

x.).
The
following
.
but a Popish Priest," (Bourne, a form of ritual for exorcising a
The priest must go to it on a Monand recite sundry versicles, the 24th Psalm, day morning, and an appropriate prayer, standing outside the closed gate. The next day he must do the same, but after the psalm the gate is to be opened, and he is to read a portion of Scripture and to recite a different prayer, standing on the threshold. On the third day he must go into the entry of the house on the on the fifth, go up and down fourth, into the middle of it the house and on the sixth, he must search through the whole house, each day saying the same psalm but a different lesson and prayer. On the seventh day Sunday he is to
haunted house
(loc. cit.}
; ; ;
84
place himself in the best room, and there solemnly banish all demons by the most sacred names of his religion, to repeat another formula of exorcism for the whole house, and then
solemnly bless it. Finally, he is to set up a crucifix in the chief room, to sprinkle the whole house with holy water, and to hang bunches of the herb alyssum, signed with a cross,
at the four corners.
Rites of exorcism were frequently completed by summoning the spirit to appear and then setting him to perform an impossible task, banishing him to some remote spot for a
term of years, or imprisoning him in some small receptacle, such as a bottle, a boot, or a snuffbox, which was then sealed up and thrown into water. Sometimes the ghost expands
and is tricked into entering the bottle by taunts and pretended incredulity, as in the Arabian Nights' " For," as an old story of the Fisherman and the Genie. " Herefordshire man explained to Mrs. Leathei, we have all a sperrit something like a spark inside us, and a sperrit got
to huge proportions,
can go large or small, or down, down, quite small, even into a " snuffbox (Leather, 29.)
!
Instead of holding a religious service, the legal-minded Icelanders formally summoned the ghosts to appear before a special court (" door-doom ") and bound them over in legal
form to cease from annoying the inmates
of the
is
haunted
In
dwelling (Eyrbyggia Saga). malicious, nor is his return always a matter of dread.
But the revenant
not always
if
New
Guinea
it
would be thought very unlucky
all
the
ancestral ghosts deserted the settlement (C. G.

in India (Crooke,
S.).
So also
of malignant souls
Pop. Rel. i. 182). If we meet with exorcism on the one hand, on the other we find
food shared with the dead, libations poured out to them, portions set aside for them at meals or at in-gatherings feasts held, perhaps annually, in their honour, when they are welcomed and invited to share the family food and warm
;
themselves at the family hearth.
They
are
remembered
their resting-places are visited and tended ; they are thought of as friendly, helpful, more powerful than in life. Prayers
Life.
85
are addressed to them, offerings made to them ; and so belief in the Separable Soul culminates in the Cult of the
not worship all Amatongo [ancestral manes] said one of Dr. Callaway's most intelligent indifferently/' " witnesses that is, all the dead of their tribe. Speaking
:
Dead. " Black
men do
generally, the head of each house is worshipped by the children of that house ; for they do not know the ancients who are
their father
dead, nor their laud-giving names, nor their names. But whom they knew is the head by whom they
begin and end in their prayer, for they know him best, and his love for his children they remember his kindness to them whilst he was living they compare his treatment of them
;
;
while he was living, support themselves by it, and say, will still treat us in the same way now that he is dead.
'
He
We
;
should regard others besides us he So it is then, although they worship regard only the many Amatongo of their tribe, making a great fence round them for their protection yet their father is far before
do not know
why he
us.'
will
when they worship the Amatongo. Their father is a great treasure to them even when he is dead. And those of his children who are already grown up know him thoroughly,
all
others
and his bravery. And if there is illness in the the eldest son lauds him with the laud-giving names village, which he gained when fighting with the enemy, and at the
his gentleness
same time lauds

are
all
'
the other
Amatongo
the son reproves
the father, saying,

into
We
?
you whose house you

will
village,'
looking after
for our parts may just die. Let us die all of us, that we
Whom
may
see
will enter.
You
will eat grasshoppers,
you
will
no longer be invited to go anywhere,

if
your own
be the
loser,
if you destroy us and let us die you [i.e. you neglect for there will be no one to invite you or
feed you with sacrificed meat].
After that, because they have worshipped, they take courage saying, He has heard, he will come and treat our diseases, and they will cease/ "
'
(Callaway, 144-146).
Finally,
we may
cite
two examples
of ancestor- worship
86
drawn from peoples as widely removed as possible from each other in numbers, culture, and general importance. I. The Veddas, the cave-dwelling aboriginal hunters of
Ceylon, are perhaps the fewest and weakest of existing peoples. Sinhalese influence has caused the importation into the Vedda cult of many Sinhalese demons disguised as Yaku, or ghosts
;
and Tamil influence leads to the Yaku being regarded simply as spirits or demons who live in rocks or trees, in pairs, male and female, who came from beyond seas, are dangerous, and send disease. They are now invoked and danced to as if they were proper Vedda Yaku, but the true basis of Vedda
religion is the cult of the ordinary
dead
man
of their
own
dead,
is
now become Yaku

They
by them.
or ghosts. The jungle is haunted are regarded as friends and fellows. Food
shared with them.
The charms which accompany
ritual
feasts are prayers asking them to come and share the meal, " as well for we also eat and drink " the same food.
Women
men become yaku. The hill-tops where the rock-bee builds its comb are specially associated with them, and portions
as
them with whispered words by the gathering honey. They are known as kiriamma, " grandmothers (literally, milky mothers")* and they sometimes come back and lead children astray, for ghosts though they are, they are women still, and still love and long for
of
honeycomb
are left for
women
children.
After a death, the spirit of the dead man stays by the corpse for a few days, and during that time would throw
stones at anyone who came near (a ghosts, cf. the German Poltergeist}.
common employment
The Dancing
little
of
of the
Nae
Yaka must then be performed.

there
is
In each
community
one man, the Kapurale, who has the power and knowledge needed to call the yaku (pi.} Food and drink (vegetable, and non-intoxicating), are prepared, and the officiant
.
dances and sings, inviting the Yaka (sing.} of the deceased to come and take the offering. He imitates a sambhar hunt as he dances, and stirs the bowl of food with the ceremonial arrows which are the insignia of his office, and descend from Kapu-
The Soul and Another Life.

vale to
87
Kapurale. He invokes the chief of the Yaku, Kande Yaka, who was in life a mighty hunter named Kande Wanniya, and requests him to bring the Nae Yaka, or lately deceased Presently he becomes possessed by person, along with him. the Nae Yaka, who sometimes also possesses one or two of
the relatives assisting. The Nae Yaka speaks through the Kapurale, promising help in hunting and the like. After the possession is over, all share the meal and the dogs' noses may
be smeared with the drink.
The story told of Kande Yaka is that he killed his brother Bilinde ; in one version, after his death, because he was lonely as a Yaka and desired his brother's company ; in
another, during his lifetime, because Bilinde worried him by continual whining. Another Yaka, Pannikia Yaka, is in-
voked in rites for obtaining prosperity. He is evidently the ghost of Pannikia, a Vedda who is historically recorded to have held office in the Sinhalese Court in 1506. But the
wilder the group of Veddas, the fewer individual yaku they
know.
II.
(Cf.
Ancestor-worship
C. G. S. Seligmann, Veddas, passim.) is the only form of Chinese popular
which enjoys State recognition and regulation. It has profoundly modified the three great national religions of China, and has permeated, and perhaps paralysed, the most ancient of existing civilizations. If Chinese authorities are to
religion
tion of
earliest official religion of China was the veneraHeaven and Earth as the two greatest of the three powers of Nature, and the progenitor of the third, which is Man. Even as late as the time of Confucius (5th-6th centuries
be trusted, the
B.C.),
for the
the elaborate ritual of the officially-prescribed services dead had hardly more than a commemorative character.
But the idea that great men retained after death their interest clans, and were still able from the Underworld to watch and influence the future of their descendants hence reverence and affection for gradually gained force the departed developed into the worship of them, and into
m their own
the offering of grant favours.
gifts
intended to increase their power to

are
Even Heaven and Earth, nowadays,
88
merely as the All-father and
the All-
often worshipped
mother.
As the Chinese in general consider the soul to be threefold, the rites of manes- worship are threefold also.
(1) The soul quartered in the ancestral tablet (shen chu) receives offerings of incense and lighted tapers on the first and fifteenth of each month, and on various other special days, with the occasional addition of food. No tablets are
provided for children, whose ghosts are regarded as powerless.

Ancestral tablets of important men (very rarely, those of women or of unmarried men) are stored in the chia miao or
is
Ancestral Temple, where a full record of the family genealogy often found. They are venerated every spring and autumn
by the assembled kin. (2) The soul resident in the family tomb is feasted there in spring and autumn, and receives an account of the year's events, with prayers for future help and protection. (3) The soul dwelling in the Yellow Spring of the Underworld, and after a time reincarnated, is sustained by annual
burnt-offerings of paper
furniture,
mock-money, food, clothing, houses, and Chinese charity feasts and fees also the spirits who have no descendants to care for them, and might become desperate and malignant. This cult has retained the family and not the individual as the social unit, and has contributed to stereotype the
and
all
other necessaries
national social system to a very high degree. Marriage, the adoption of children, and the disposal of property, are still
mainly
and not merely personal, affairs. Early and polygamy if the first wife is childless, become marriage,
family,
imperative duties, in order to provide heirs to the family
worship and property, and to supply spiritual necessaries to " the family ancestors. Mencius writes, of the three offences
against filial piety, the greatest is to be childless." The " ancestral tablet provides for only one illustrious consort,"
who is scarcely less venerated than her husband hence other wives can only have the status of concubines. The bones of a dead Chinaman must be brought home from abroad.
;
Life.
89
to rest in the family graveyard, or a substitute soul-house must be provided, else the essential sacrificial rites cannot
be performed, and his ghost will be a roving kinless spirit. The cult of the dead has also given birth to the complicated system of fng-shui (geomancy) which at times has led to the prohibition of telegraph lines, quarries, and roads, because
they altered the lines of a
district,
and
so were detrimental
to the lucky influences of ancestral graves, and likely to bring ruin upon local families from the anger of the disturbed ancestral ghosts.
Groot, Religious System of China, vol. i. bk. i. and Sacred Legge, Chinese Classics, iii. pp. 95, 100 p. Books of the East, iii. p. xv. and xxvii. pp. 369, 370 for the
See
De
xv
historical evidence.
A. R.
W.
CHAPTER
SUPERHUMAN
VII.
BEINGS.
Gods, Codlings, and Others.

I.
BELIEF.
SETTING aside the great missionary religions of Europe and Asia, and making due allowance for racial idiosyncrasy, a more or less close correspondence is usually traceable between the theology of any given people and their social and political
organization.
The Polynesians, with their aristocratic institutions and excessive regard for rank and family, venerated a divine the medley of nationalities which make up the hierarchy
;
population of Hindostan is reflected (as we shall see later) in the heterogeneous multitude of their gods. Simple and uncultured peoples low in the scale of civilization usually
know but few guardian
deities.
The more complex the
Different civilization, the greater the tendency to polytheism. and industries come to have each its own patron deity trades
or saint, women have their special goddesses. The same individual in different capacities worships different gods. As a warrior and a citizen, the Roman revered Jove or Mars
;
as a house-father he worshipped his

his
own household gods
at
own hearth-fire. In public emergencies the Zulu joins in public sacrifices to the nameless Ruler of the Sky, but his real devotion is, as we have seen, to the Amatongo, the
Onkulunkulu
(pi.)
of his
own house
(Callaway, 102), the spirits
Superhuman Beings.
of his
91
own known and remembered

the form
ancestors,
who appear
and send messages to their descendants in have power over death and to them by omens, and who can ward it from the living. Political and commercial growth lead to contact of culPrincesses are intures, and thus make for polytheism. Old Testament historians ascribe The fluential missionaries. " abominathe introduction of the worship of the gods (or and Zidonians tions," sacra), of the Moabites, Ammonites, into Israel to the political marriages of Solomon, and in 2 Kings xvii. we have further an instructive story of the When the King effect of conquest on creed and worship.
of snakes of Assyria deported the
conquered
Israelites wholesale
to
distant regions, and replaced them by Assyrians and Chaldeans, the newcomers became a prey to the lions that infested
the desolated country. They took it as a judgment sent " upon them by the wrathful god of the land," whose rites
because they know not the manner of they had neglected the god of the land," so the king sent an Israelitish priest But side by side with the worship of to instruct them.
each immigrant community carried on its own national " the men of Babylon made Succoth-benoth, and worship
Israel,
;
"
men of Cuth made made Ashima, and the

the
Nergal, and the men of Hannath Avites made Nibhaz and Tartak,
and the Sepharvites burnt their children in fire to Adrammelech and Anammelech, the gods of Sepharvaim." Here the combination of the gods of the invading people and the god of the locality produces a polytheistic worship. The
story, moreover, gives us a clue to the causes of the extraordinary persistence of magico-religious rites connected with
the tilling of the

in
soil,
and to the prominent part often taken
them by
How
may
aboriginal, low-caste, or peasant performers. a god may reflect the character of his people,
and
develop with his people's growth, is well seen in the " case of Mars. There are two things," says Mr. Warde Fowler (Roman Festivals, p. 65), "which we may believe
with certainty about the
Roman
people in the earliest times
92
(i)

that their
life
and habits
of thought
were those of an
agricultural race, and (2) that they continually increased their cultivateable land by taking forcible possession in war
of that of their neighbours."
Mars represented
this
double
As the guardian god of the fields and herds of a small rustic community dwelling among hostile neighbours, " he was naturally at the same time the ideal strong man " armed his palace. The first month of the old keeping Roman year, dedicated to him and named after him, was
character.
the occasion of the yearly enrolment of the newly grown-up Roman youths in the military forces of the city. It was
celebrated
well as
by well-known agricultural New Year rites, as by the ritual dances of the priests of Mars, who
patrolled the city bearing the sacred armour of the god from And as the circle of the Roman territory station to station.
spread outwards, and successive conquests gradually made Rome the centre of dominions which covered almost the
whole area of the then-known world, the character of the patron-deity kept pace with the expansion of his people, and the rustic guardian of the ox and the plough was elevated
into the
It is
of battles of a world-empire. hardly necessary to say that in enquiring into the theological beliefs of the lower races, we must put aside the
god
conception of a supreme Creator Spirit, all-knowing and allpowerful, ruler of morals, wholly benevolent and wholly just, " which constitutes the Christian's idea of Deity. The gods
of the heathen," whether they be personified natural objects, or animals, birds, or trees, or simply powerful unseen beings super-men, in short are seldom thought of as specially " They spiritual," i.e. ethereal, non-material, or psychical. have human or perhaps animal bodily forms, and very
elemental
the ordinary
sorcerer.
human passions. Their powers transcend those of man indeed, but hardly surpass those of the
supernatural animal or an anthropomorphic superior being may be credited with the creation or rather the shaping of the world in its present form, but the creationstory generally ends with the departure or disappearance of
Superhuman Beings.
the creator, and has
present day.
torical
It
is,
93
life
little
or no concern with the
of the
his-
in fact, usually rather a

belief.
matter of
tradition
than of theological
Even
if
the
creative being is described as the father of mankind, it is often difficult to determine whether the first father of the
tribe or nation
is
tive of Zeus,
in short,
"
meant, or the tribal or national representa" to distinguish, Father of gods and men
;
between the primal ancestor and the divine

case in point.
"
All
Father."
The Zulus supply a
Captain Allen Gardiner,
in 1835, declared that they acknowledged a Supreme Being, " GreatCreator of mankind, whom they called Ukulukulu the
great
one (Callaway, p. 55), and Ukulukulu, or Unkulukulu, was accepted as the Zulu equivalent for God by a whole
"
generation of missionaries. Bishop Callaway, dissatisfied with this, examined native witness after witness on the subject,
and ascertained that Unkulukulu was not an epithet or a proper name at all, but a common noun signifying forefather or remote ancestor, and as such was used in speaking of the founders of tribes or clans, and, specifically, of the first man,
the forefather of the
tradition,
human
race.
He, said the general Zulu
came
forth full-grown from a
bed
of reeds,
and
animals, plants, weapons, tools, and all things needful for the conduct of life came into being. He had a wife he instituted marriage, circumcision, kingship,
at his
;
command
and warfare he gave instructions in fire-making, thrashing, and grinding, separated wild animals from tame and ordained what either should eat. But he is not supposed to have any indeed, his name is used to hoax children, present existence who are sent to call him when it is convenient to get them
; ;
He receives no worship, he has no restrainon the contrary, his reputed work ing influence on conduct " serves as an excuse for excess. Since it was made by " He is in fact an Unkulukulu, where is the evil of it ?
out of the way.
:
example of a well-known mythological personage, the Culture Hero of a Creation-Myth. It may be taken as an axiom that a mythological story,
94

is
even a creation-story,
not sufficient by
itself
to constitute
the hero a deity. Stories such as the above, which have no 'practical concern with the life of the people, should be classed as "stories told as true," (ch. xvi.), and not as matters of " belief and practice." present day With the gods who are personified natural forces or objects,
we
itself
are on firmer ground. The force or the object may be a deity, or it may be the abode or manifestation of a
deity. of the
Men may
sun
;
adore the sun as a god or adore the god

offer sacrifices to the river itself or to the
river.
may
;
god or goddess of the
The myths
told of
them may be
the separation between the original object grossly material of worship and the mythic divinity may become so entire
that the Wind-god, the Rain-god, or the Thunder-god may preserve no trace of his origin beyond, perhaps, the meaning of his name. Yet such gods continue present forces affecting
the actual
life of mankind and arousing feelings of dread, awe, reverence, or gratitude, as the case may be. The Zulus again supply us with an example. They recognize the exist-
ence of a vague, nameless, apparently superhuman, being, dwells above the earth, and whom they speak of as " " Inkosi i pezulu, the chief who is above (Inkosi, chief, or
who
an honorific term of wide application, answering somelord what to the German word Hen or the Hindustani Sahib) No
;
.
creative acts are ascribed to him, no stories (so far as appears) are told of him, but his existence is known to them through
the thunderstorms, though it is not clear whether they think that the chief controls the lightning, or that the lightning
itself
is
the chief. "
(Callaway p. 118.)
is
When
is
it
thunders,
they say, playing." anyone " storm they ask, Why are you afraid ? What thing belong" (i.e. destroyed or injured). ing to the chief have you eaten ?
If
The
chief
If
afraid of the
man
is
struck
if
with him
If rain is
"
;
The chief has found fault lightning, a cow, The chief has killed food for himself."
by
"
"
wanted, black cattle (as representing the rain-clouds) are collected, and one is killed with prescribed rites for a public sacrificial feast. The bones of the victim are burnt
Superhuman Beings.
95
outside the village, and meaningless syllabic formulas are chanted, which are understood to be an appeal to Inkosi i
pezulu
to
send
rain
on the earth.
(Ibid.
p.
92.)
Here
we have an undefined but practical belief in an existing " a magnified non-natural man," who, vague and being,
shadowy though he be, can yet control the weather, can injure or benefit mankind, and can understand and reply to the
requests
made
to him.
of the
With the gods

other personified
Sky and the Elements may be classed Powers, the gods of the Sea and the Earth
; ;
and more particular conceptions, such as the Wine-god, the " functional deities," as they Harvest-god, the War-god have been called, who become (as already noted) more and more numerous and specialized as civilization progresses, as tribes amalgamate into nations, and the spheres of human
activity are multiplied. gods of Fire and Famine
Many
and
of
them
are powers of evil, the
Pestilence,
whose
cult
sometimes
predominates so
over that of the benevolent beings that early voyagers were wont to pronounce that the gods One reason of of this or that nation were in reality devils.
this
much
beings
predominance lies on the surface. The well-disposed may be neglected with comparative safety, but the " Let evil must be actively propitiated for fear of harm. us soothe his spirit with a sacrifice," says a character in a Lushai folktale (FL. xx. 402) of the demon who, he is perand suaded, has maliciously enchanted his daughter's suitor
;
the proposal is typical. Neither does the god of highest rank, any more than the most benevolent, always receive the greatest amount of " adoration. deified firmament," the Sky-god, Olorun, the
who ranks
first among the deities of the Yorubas, has neither temple nor priest, image nor symbol. He is held to be too remote from earth to concern himself with the ordinary affairs of men, and in ordinary circumstances neither prayer nor sacrifice is offered to him. Only in dire extremity, when
other gods
fail,
Yoruba, 35).
So
does the Negro invoke his help (A. B. Ellis, it is also with his neighbour Mawu of the
96
Ewe-speaking
are
all
Whether they tribes, and with many another. Sky-gods, as distinguished from Sun-gods or Stormgods, there is not sufficient evidence to show. Another class of gods consists of those who were originally
their lifetime
human beings. Of the worship of men during something has been said in chapter iv., and ancestor- worship has been noticed in chapter vi. But benot divine but
sides ancestors
and
evil ghosts,
the cult of the dead includes
the veneration of departed saints and heroes, whose superhuman power is still active, especially in their bodily remains, and causes their protection to be invoked. And whereas
ancestor-worship is necessarily a family, a tribal, or a national cult, these non-ancestral deifications or canonizations are local
and the devotees are not necessarily memany particular social group. The cult begins at a sacred place a tomb, a well, or a shrine. It gives rise to
in their character,
bers of
pilgrimages in hopes of obtaining physical or spiritual benefit. It may be transported to other countries by grateful pilgrims,
spreading the fame of benefits received and probably carrying away relics which may become the nucleus or raison d'etre
of daughter shrines elsewhere. Not only the tombs of saints and heroes, but of others, even malefactors, who have met with violent deaths, may be thus honoured (cf. p. 83).
was formerly the resort of The Chapel of the Decollati at Palermo commemorates malefactors executed for brigandage and other
II. 's
Edward
tomb
at Gloucester
thousands of pilgrims.
crimes of violence,
graveyard.
many
of
whom
are buried in the adjoining
shape of
The church is full of votive offerings in the effigies and pictures showing the many moving
accidents from which the Decollati, who are depicted as roped, manacled, and up to their waists in the flames of Purgatory,
have delivered their devotees (FL.
xxi. 168).
the local godling who haunts some uncanny, awe-inspiring, or sacred spot, and often receives offering or tribute, be it only of flowers, from passers-by or visitors,
The native genius
loci,
Such vague anonymous beings scarcely attains to divine rank. are rather numina than dei. Sometimes they are merely the
Superhuman Beings.
97
animating spirit of the crag or tree or river, inseparable from In other cases they it and unable to move away from it. have a quasi-independent existence and a human or partially
form, and so approach more nearly to the position of tutelary divinities. They seem usually to share the character of their abodes. The water-nymph is
human independent
treacherous, the
mountain-demon fearsome, the
tree-spirit
kindly, the household familiar homely and unpolished; and they are regarded and treated accordingly (cf. chaps, i. ii. v.).
The genius loci, it need hardly be in European folklore.

It yet
said, is largely represented
not
this
human and
remains to speak of the various races of beings, yet not divine, who are supposed to share lower earth, more or less invisibly, with mankind. In
the earlier edition of this Handbook they were grouped together under the heading of Goblindom, a word which has met with some acceptance as a convenient general term.
Some of this camp-following crowd are distinctively spirits , properly so-called, not possessing any bodily shape peculiar
and appearing, if they do appear, now clothed in one form, now in another. They can contract themselves into the smallest crevices, or expand to
to themselves, usually invisible,
gigantic proportions they are roving, powerful, and generIn fact, they ally dangerous, or at any rate mischievous.
;
differ
from ghosts only in
origin.
explicitly recognize this,
and
class
The Land Dyaks of Borneo both umoL or demons,
and mino, or ghosts, together as antus, or spirits (Ling Roth, " " are induced Sarawak, i. 165). The spirits of Sasabonsum to animate the suhman of the Gold Coast native, just as the
souls of magically-murdered men are inveigled into the nailfetishes of the Loango Coast (see p. 141). The Malay hantus,
" " the Burmese nats, the Arab jinn, the numerous of orders " " " " lunatics wandering demons who enter into and possess
and sick persons, and whom Oriental and mediaeval enchanters cajoled into tiny receptacles and compelled to their service, belong to the same group.
Other demons are goblins in the G
stricter sense of the
word
98
uncanny

spectral creatures, but not spirits in need of a
Such a one is the Egyptian afrit, a being from the blood of a murdered man spilt on the ground, sprung who appears sometimes as a man, sometimes as a beast, but who cannot move far from the place of his origin (C. G. S.,
local habitation.
cf. p. 52).
With him we may compare the various hobgoblins

the barghaist, the boggart, the bogy, the
of the British Isles
buggan, the bocan, the pwca, the phooka, who haunt dark and uncanny places and terrify belated wayfarers. Then there
are the Dogai of the Torres Straits, female demons who carry " " off crying children, and who mortals lay their love on like the nymphs and fays of the northern hemisphere. The Dogai have ears so large that one serves as a bed and the
other as a blanket.
peculiarity
A human
origin, is a
form with some distortion or

or
such
as
half-headedness
back-footedness
which betrays their
common
characteristic of the
materialized type of goblin. Other still further materialized beings form communities, are born, live, and marry, as do mortals. Of such are the
giant Ogres of Southern Europe and the Elfin world of the north: the British and Irish fairies, pixies, cluricauns, and
leprechauns, the
German dwarfs and

huldre-folk.
kobolds, the Scandiof
navian
trolls
and
imaginative literature
Without these the realms would have been the poorer.
Of the other chief personages of European folk-belief, the Wild Huntsman seems to be a descendant of the Storm-god the Enchanted Hero in the mountain cavern, who will one day
;
return to save his country in its extremity, may stand for the legendary demigod and the ancestral ghost the Irish the White Lady of the Hohenzollerns whose appearBanshee,
;
ance forebodes death to some

less
member
of her family, is doubt-
a survival of ancestor-worship. Animal goblins kelpies and wish-hounds
must not be
omitted from the catalogue of demons. The mediaeval conception of the Devil as a being with horns, hoofs, and a tail, whom the witches owned for their
master and god,
still,
with his train of imps, lingers in popular
Superhuman Beings.
99
imagination. But the idea of a stupid easily-outwitted being, the builder of Devil's Bridges and Devil's Dykes, the owner of Devil's Chairs and Devil's Punchbowls, akin to the giants to whom the like traits are attributed, is now rather a matter
of legendary lore
than of living
II.
belief.
WORSHIP.
Nature which governs the dealings of man prima facie, also govern with his gods. And in fact the power of his intercourse the name, the restraints on using names, the secrecy observed with regard to names, the mystic properties of blood, the
The same philosophy
of
with his fellow-man would,
bond
food, the sympathetic effect of the which we have had occasion to observe food on the eater, in considering the mutual relations of mankind with one
set
up by sharing
another,
all
reappear in the worship of divine powers

for our present purpose,
by
prayer and
sacrifice.
sacrifice,
may be
.
defined as
something devoted to a god, and consumed either in his honour, or by him, or by him and his worshippers (but cf Terminology, Appendix A, p. 299). It is thus distinguished from a simple
offering,
which may be anything dedicated to the service of a god, such as an altar, a slave, a garment, a jewel. It is further important to observe whether the deity alone is supposed to be the consumer of the sacrifice, or whether the worshippers share the feast. For if sharing food sets up a bond of union, food shared with a god sets up an alliance or fellowship with the god. But when there is no commensality, the ideas of communion and covenant cannot be present. The mode by which an offering is supposed to be conveyed
to the god varies
much,
either according to the residence of
the deity in question or else to the conception of

entertained
godhead
by the
or goddess may pices into clefts or ravines.
worshippers. Sacrifices to the earth-god be buried in the fields or thrown down preci-
Those to ethereal and
celestial
gods
may
be burnt to ascend to the skies in smoke.
Or the
;
skin of the victim
may
be draped upon the image of the god
ioo
or the god's portion may be exposed, in the expectation that he will come, as in the story of Bel and the Dragon, and devour
it
secretly ; or he may simply partake of the spirit of it, as the ancestral spirits of the Zulus were supposed to do by
it.
licking
seem to be intended rather for the direct partakers than to do honour to or procure favour from any god, for no divine personage is definitely mentioned in connection with the rites. Such are the famous camel-sacrifices of the fourth-century Arabs (Robertson Smith,
sacrifices
Some
benefit of the
human
p. 320),
the bear-sacrifices of the Ainus of Japan

ii.
(cf.
chap,
iii.),
and
of the tribes of Northern Asia (G.B.
374-388),
and the
solemn kangaroo-feast which concludes the Intichiuma ceremonies of the Kangaroo clan of the Arunta (cf. chap. v.).
These, perhaps, are rather to be called ritual feasts than sacrifices. Probably the partakers hope to acquire the superhuman qualities of the victim, such as endurance, strength, or agility. In such cases the generally sacred or semi-divine
character of the species should be investigated, especially if " " follows from drinking the blood of the slain. possession A sacrifice may be offered as a voluntary gift, probably
with a lively sense of gratitude for favours to come and an implied hint that it may be to the advantage of the god to
offered
keep on good terms with his worshippers. Or it may be more formally, as the customary and lawful tribute of the subject to the prince, in which case it is apt to dwindle
into the substitution of the part for the whole, of the imitation for the reality. Or again, the cost to the worshipper may
be the measure of the value of the

in the idea of affront
ment
offered,
Here comes done and atonewrong of doing something to appease the wrath of
sacrifice.
and amends,
"
of
Shall I give my first-born for my " the fruit of my body for the sin of my soul ? transgression, Thus, in the horrible rite of child-sacrifice we seem to touch
a justly-offended god.
the point where faith joins hands with practice and creed " The god here makes for righteousunites with morality. " ness of a sort
!
Superhuman
Beings.
101
times
.
Not that all human sacrifice was thus motived. Someit was mere cannibalism, a meat-offering of such things sometimes it was a as the worshipper's own soul loved
;
tribute, or a present of slaves, sent, as
it
were,
by a sovereign
to his brother monarch.
As an example of a private or friendly covenant-sacrifice, we may take the account given by Mr. and Mrs. W. S. Routledge (Prehist. People, pp. 229-234) of a sacrifice to Ngai, the Rain-god, among the A-Kikuyu, a Bantu tribe of East
Africa.
The name Ngai

of
is
borrowed from the Masai, but

the
rite.
this does not affect the character of
As
to the
they say the ghosts of " can't be seen because they are like God," the dead (n'goma) " all God, the sun, and the Kenya mountains are (Ngai).
A-Kikuyu conception
Godhead
same thing."
all
The
sun, the
moon, the
"
lightning, the rain,
are worshipped, say our authors,

?]
as manifestations of
is
the [same
great Power."
sufficiently material to
But Ngai, as will be seen, climb trees and to eat mutton.

sacred fig-tree
x
A suitable site under a
having been chosen,
and a number of branches from certain other trees selected and gathered, the party assembled at the homestead of a The victim was produced a friendly chief named Munge. ram with a white face whose ears had not been slit and a calabash full of njohi (native beer) was brought. Each man drank in turn, and the victim was lust rated with beer and They spittle, after which Munge gravely murmured a prayer.
then set out in a carefully-ordered procession, the firewood and dried grass, the grid on which to roast the victim, and the
the animal
calabash to contain the blood, carried immediately before itself. The ground was cleared and the branches
arranged on it then all stood round the tree with their hands held aloft while Munge uttered the following prayer verse
by
"
verse, pouring njohi
down
t
the trunk of the tree while the
rest uttered responses.
God, accept this njohi for the white
man
has come to
in
For the Sacred Fig-tree of the A-Kikuyu, see M.

Jan. 1913, p. 4.
W. H. Beech
Man,
IO2
my
homestead. If the white man becomes ill, let him not be very ill, nor his wife. The white man has come from his home through the waters he is a good man the people who work for him he treats well let them not argue with
; ;
;
him.
If the
ill,
white
man and
I
his wife get
ill,
let
them not
be very
because
and the white man unite
in a sacrifice
to you. Let him not die, because to you we sacrifice an excellent fat ram. The white man has come from afar to
and has made an agreement with me to sacrifice to you. Wherever he may go, let him not be very ill, because he is good and exceedingly well-off, and I also am good and rich, and I and the white man are even as of one mother. God, a big sheep have I dedicated. The white man and his wife and I and my people go to sacrifice a sheep at the foot of a tree a most valuable sheep Let me not be very ill, for I have taught him to sacrifice to you even as a M'kikuyu." The sheep was then slaughtered by being suffocated, its throat was cut, and Munge stabbed it to the heart. The blood was caught in a calabash, and any that escaped was caused to drip on the bed of branches, not on the ground. When the carcase had been skinned and opened, the heart and kidneys were cut up, mixed with the blood, and made into black puddings. The meat was roasted on the grid over a fire which had been lighted the head being cooked first and the fat was put aside. The company was arranged in order of rank, and the cooked meat laid on the bed of
us,
!
branches.
Munge wound a long
strip
of the internal fat
round the trunk of the tree, bit off some morsels of meat, spat on the ground, then into his own bosom, and placed a chunk of meat at the foot of the tree. The white man imitated him, and the party proceeded to eat the meat, adding bits to the pile under the tree from time to time. Lastly, they ate the black puddings, setting half of one aside. The meal ended, the head, the tail, the half-pudding, and some of the organs were placed in prescribed positions round the trunk of the tree the bones and the solid parts of the fat were added to the pile of meat. All then stood round the
;
Superhuman Beings.
tree with
103
hands
aloft,
while Munge, offering another prayer,
poured the remainder of the liquid fat down the tree-trunk. They lowered their hands and burst into song. At this moment a thunderstorm came on, bringing the much-needed rain The little procession formed up in order and retired In the night Ngai would descend the tree and eat singing.
!
of the sacrifice.
The whole affair was conducted with scrupulous regard for and with a reverence, order, and solemnity which " no religious service causes Mr. Routledge to remark that could well convey a more awe-inspiring sense of the nearness
ritual,
of the Creator/'
(p. 227.)
Two
days later the
rite
was completed by the ceremonial
drinking of njohi in Munge's hut. Prayer was offered by each of the party in turn, the spokesman pouring a little
beer on the ground at the end of each sentence, and the others responding N'g'ana (Amen) and Sa-i, Sa-i (hear, hear !) " at the end of each sentence exactly like a dissenting prayerThe petitions preferred were to the effect " that meeting."
'
the clouds
ful,
may
give
much
rain, that
our wives
may
be
fruit-
and no sickness may come near our children, that our herds may grow fat and increase, and that our goods may " be many/ and also for the white man and his wife, adding " that the servants they shall take unto them may be filled with intelligence/ and God was reminded that he had been given a sheep two days ago, and was asked to grant these
'
requests."
(p. 236.)
With
this sacrificial
covenant with a friendly deity and the
extempore addresses which accompanied it or contrast the forms of worship practised

Dravidian tribe of Southern India.
we may compare by the Todas, a
The Toda gods are anthropomorphic beings living on the peaks of the Nilgiris, who do not seem to have any great concern with the people's lives, but who yet may be offended
and cause misfortune.
Chief
among
offences to the gods are
the disclosure of ritual mysteries and the infringement of ritual practices, and the sacrifices offered are expiatory and
IO4
The proper sacrificial animal is an unblemished propitiatory. calf of fifteen days old, which is slain by the dairyman-priest of the community. Before killing it he recites a form of
prayer, touching
for the occasion,
its
head at every clause with the club, cut with which he is about to kill it. The
prayer consists of a series of intercessions for the prosperity " of the different villages of the clan, ending with may the buffalo (calf) appear to Notirzi/' a goddess who lives on
Europeans as Snowdon, from whom is supposed to proceed to Kulinkars, her partner-god, who inhabits a hill so steep and rocky that " no man has ever climbed it." The priest then passes a small branch of a certain tree along the calf's back from head to tail, another from tail to head, a third from tail to head again, kills it by blows from the club without shedding blood, passes the club and the boughs thrice round its body,
the sacred
hill
known
to
the sacrificed calf
and
is
flays
and cuts
it
up
in a special fashion.
The blood
allowed to drip on to the skin, and each portion is smeared with it, spitted on stakes specially cut, and roasted at a fire
which has been lighted meantime by friction. some other portions are burnt, the head is set at one end of the fire, and the priest throws " sticks over it and the fire, saying, May there
Notirzi
ears and on a stake up
The
three charred
be increase to
He then eats his own allotted portion, and the eat ad, libitum. Whatever is left is carried to the people village to be eaten, with this restriction, that the women may
!
"
not eat the head and parts of the eaten at any other time.
legs.
The
cattle are not
The Toda forms of prayer are peculiar. They make part of the daily ritual of the sacred dairies, and though the details vary in each dairy, the principle is the same in all. They begin with the recitation of a list of names of places or things,
villages, buffaloes,
dairies,
are not mentioned
by
dairy-vessels, and so on which their ordinary names but by secret
Kwurzam, and each of which " Kwarzam is followed by the word idith, for the sake of." Then comes the prayer proper, and at the end the names of
and sacred names,
called
Superhuman Beings.
105
" for their sake may it be well for us/' certain gods, adding But there is no direct invocation of the gods, whether because
their
names are too sacred
for utterance, or because they
are beginning to lose individuality and the prayers are passing into meaningless charm-formulas, it is impossible to say.
(Rivers, pp. 211-217.)
Among some peoples prayer takes the opposite form of the recitation of a series of holy names, a string of invocations without petitions. Or the petitions preferred are not for benefits, but for counsel, direction, revelation of the
future as
and a
definite
answer by word or sign

(2
is
looked for
god Kings i.), and Ahab and Jehoshaphat assembled four hundred prophets and enquired whether they should go up to battle against Ramothwhether he should recover of his sickness
when Amaziah enquired
of Baal-zebub, the
of Ekron,
gilead or forbear (2 Chron. xviii.). This brings us to the consideration of the office of the
Priest.
;
Priest, typically, is
an
official
guardian of sacred
the warden of a temple (or dwelling-place of a god things or his idol) the keeper of a shrine (or sacred treasury)
; ;
the depositary of sacred traditions. As such, the priest leads the ritual of worship, the details of which are often known only to himself. When sacrifices are offered, it may
not be his part actually to deal the sacrificial blow, for the prevalence of the rite of sacrifice is far wider than
that of the institution of priesthood, and the slaying of the victim may be the duty of some other representative of the
community, or of the individual who offers the sacrifice. But the priest communicates with the god he transmits the requests and enquiries of the worshippers, interprets the omens, and declares the will of the god to the people. Some" " times he is possessed by his god, who enters into him as a demon enters into an empty vessel (in which case the
;
" ordinary European visitor describes him as a devil-priest "). His god's power and influence are the measure of his own. His person is sacred with a reflected sacredness, and he
is
able to exorcise ghosts
and demons by the god's superior
io6
These two functions, divination and exorcism, authority. are common, as has been said, to the priest and the wizard
using the word priest to denote the man who acts by the power of the gods recognized by his people, and wizard to denote him who acts either by his own skill or by means
of
the
spirits
with
whom
he
is
in
communication.
(Cf.
chap,
viii.)
The
duties of the priest
may
be illustrated from the
insti-
tutions of the Skidi branch of the
Pawnee Indians
of the
plains between the Missouri and the Rocky Mountains. They were organized in nineteen endogamous communities, known " as villages," under hereditary chiefs, each of whom was
assisted
Next in rank were four priests more than medicine-man ") distinct from and inferior to whom, were an unlimited number of medicine-men (Kurna). Each chief was the possessor of a
by
four braves. "
(Kurahoos, literally
sacred bundle which contained pipes, tobacco, paints, certain " birds, and the mother-corn," all wrapped in buffalo-hide. These bundles were the gift of ancestral gods, and were
brought out at the annual religious festivals to which they respectively belonged and were present at the accompanying
sacrifices.
But the myths,
songs,
and
ritual,
connected with
the bundles were only known to the priests, whose office was not hereditary but obtained by instruction in return for fees
paid. The stories became part of the life of the priest who had learnt them, and were only disclosed to others when he
found himself near death.
There were also mystic dances,
taught in the first place by the gods, which influenced the crops and the beasts of chase. These also had their sacred
songs, myths, and ceremonial, known in detail only to the In these dances the myths are dramatized. In the priests.
Skull-bundle ceremony the supreme god Tirawa is represented by the decorated skull of an ancestor ; the Buffalo
dance seems to represent the story of the god of the North " " knew how Wonderful Boy Wind, who in the guise of a " the most sacred to call buffalo, while the Bear-dance was
of all
"
(Dorsey, p. xxi.).
Superhuman Beings.
107
Such solemn mysterious sacred dances are found among nearly all the American tribes. The Sun-dance of the BlackThe old chief, feet has already been mentioned (p. 30). Mad Wolf, whose wife organized it, described the effect on
it does us all good the old part, as, " and the White friend ; people feel better in their hearts " who shared in it adds his testimony to the religious dignity
those
who took
"
"
"
of the occasion
one never to be forgotten
"
(M'Clintock,
310, 322).
no more universal mode of expressing emotion than it forms part of religious and magico-religious functions in all stages of culture, from the Veddas (p. 86) and the Bushmen (p. in) upwards. There is the solitary dance of
There
is
Dancing, and
the
"
"
possessed Northern Africa
may
devotee, of whom the Dancing Dervishes of stand as a type the processional dance,
:
escorting a sacred object, as
King David escorted the Ark to
Jerusalem
set
the circular dance, surrounding a central object

;
up for veneration and the dramatic dance representing some desired event in pantomime is perhaps the most varied and the most widespread of all. On the Gold and Slave Coasts every god of note has his own dance, which is sacred to him and known only to the initiated (Ellis, Yoruba, p. 296). Dancing is, indeed, more than an expression of emotion it is a magico-religious act, a ritual solemnity, of serious and profound importance to the performers and to those on whose
;
behalf
it is
executed.
It is
obvious that there are very
many
solemnities of a
magico-religious character in which no definite personal being appears to be invoked. To avoid the risk of conveying a
false impression,
such
rites
should not be recorded in con-
nection with the Theology of the people, but under some other heading, such as Animals, Agriculture, or Annual Festivals, as to which there cannot be any question.
When an
rite,
it is
opportunity occurs of witnessing any important
advisable to learn as
much
as possible about
it
beforehand, so as to avoid missing important points when the time comes. It is not easy to observe, perhaps not even
io8
to see,
all

that
;
is
going on, especially

if
if
many
performers
are engaged spectator, so
so
a friend can accompany the principal

the better.
Particular attention should
much
be paid to the details of the ritual, both the actions and the words or gestures used. So much ground has to be covered
Handbook that it is impossible, for lack of space, to more than a brief summary of any of the numerous give rites mentioned in it, but the student must not therefore suppose that details are unimportant or superfluous and omit them accordingly from his record. Nothing so effectually
in this
shows the true import of a rite as the exact words spoken and the exact acts and gestures used and the spectator
;
should remember that in these days of universal transition his own may, for aught he knows, be the last opportunity of The details should be recorded seeing the rite in its entirety.
on the spot
if
practicable, for
it
is
surprising
how
quickly
such things fade from the memory. Afterwards, the affair should be discussed with the performers, and the words should be correctly ascertained and translated, rendering them first word for word, and then in their general import. An interview should be obtained with the leading performer,
always maintaining the attitude of a symand learner should endeavour to ascerpathetic enquirer tain from him not only why he did such and such things, but what he did on the whole. The spectator may see a man slaughter a sheep and hurry away, but the man himself may know that, urged by some compelling necessity, he has slain a divine being and is fleeing from the vengeance of the liberated spirit. Or the case may be reversed, and the visitor may have read into the affair more than was present to the consciousness
of the performers themselves or warranted
and the observer
by the
formulae of
the ritual.
All this
will
may mean some

satisfaction of
have the
days' work, but the collector knowing that he has done a

his record will
piece of good
and thorough work and that
withstand criticism.
To
arrive at
some idea
of the real hold of the
gods on the
Superhuman Beings.
lives of individuals, the
109
impulse of the people in emergencies In moments of distress or danger, may when ordinary help is out of reach, to whom, or to what, do they instinctively turn for aid ? And in rebutting accusaor crises
be noted.
tions or giving important evidence, what is the most binding form of oath ? From these two, the ultimate appeal and
the ultimate sanction, we may gather an idea of what they think, or rather feel, to be the strongest forces outside themselves.

III.
DIVERGENT TYPES OF CULT.
In view of the tendency in some quarters to class all cults Lower Culture together under the general term of Animistic Religions, it may be well to give three or four
of the
concrete examples, which, added to those appended to the preceding chapter, will serve to show what a variety of beliefs and worships is included under this comprehensive heading.
i.
Cult as a moral sanction.
The
is
political organization of the Australian Blackfellows
among
It is chiefly
the most loosely-compacted in the world (see p. 174). remarkable for the preponderating authority of
the elder men, as such, and for the extreme severity of the initiatory rites by which the youths are introduced to man-
hood.
know no
For a long time the Australians were supposed to gods, but intimate and kindly acquaintance with
disclosed the fact that
them has
many
of the tribes, notably
those of the south-east, severally recognise the existence of " " a magnified non-natural man (or sometimes two), living above the sky, to whom, in accordance with the actual language " of the aboriginals, the name of "All-Father has been given. " " The name Father is applied by the Blackfellows not only
to a man's
own
father but to
many
or
all
of the
men
"
of his
father's class or generation ; so the title "All-Father seems to indicate an elder or superior who is entitled to respect from
all
the generations of men.
The
relations of the
men
with the
10

this view.
god bear out

far as
No worship is paid to him, except so round a figure of Daramulun, the deity of the dancing Coast Murring group of tribes, and repeating his name the while, may be called worship but his name and existence are disclosed in the initiation rites, and the final sanction of the code of morals then inculcated is the dread of incurring the
god's wrath.
To obey their elders, to observe the marriage and the food taboos, to live peaceably, and to regulations share their gains with their fellows, are the main points of the code, so far as we know them and it is noteworthy that
;
the gods though not worshipped are nevertheless reputed to punish transgressions of it (Howitt, Native Tribes, pp. 488,
'
54
553
cf.
M. Czaplicka,
in
The
Fritillary,
No. 55, March,
1912).
The Andamanese
in their wind-swept isles,
exposed to
all
the fury of the tropical monsoons, are so low in the scale of civilization that, it is said, they do not even know how to
make
fire.
which their
aloft in
They have, in fact, a tradition of a Flood, in fire was only saved by a woman who held it a platter above the reach of the waves. They believe
in the existence of a gigantic anthropomorphic personage called in different dialects, Biliku, Bilik, Puluga, or Oluga,
who lived on the earth in the time of their ancestors, and whose name is the same as that of the north-east wind. She, or
in other accounts he,
is
generally associated with another
being of less importance, Tarai or Deria, which is the name The pair are either husband and of the south-west wind. wife or two brothers. Biliku is sometimes said to have been
the
being and to have made the earth and the Andamanese, but all the myths associate him (or her) with the weather. In the southern districts they say when
first first
human
thunders that Puluga is snoring. Lightning is often explained as a firebrand thrown by Biliku across the sky. He
it
or she is always described as being angry. In one story " " drive him away because he destroys their the ancestors huts and property in another she throws a pearl-shell (knife)
;
which sinks their canoe.
Another story goes that one day
Superhuman Beings.
in
being very angry she began to throw fire about. The fire was Purum-at, that is, fire made from the wood of the (sacred ?) Purum-tree. One firebrand lodged in the tree and became the sun. Now the ancestors, who lived on the other side of
the
strait, had no fire, but the kingfisher stole fire for them from Biliku while she slept. When she awoke she was so much offended that she threw a firebrand (or a pearl-shell knife) at the kingfisher and went away to the sky (or to
some place towards the north-east). No worship of any kind is paid to
Biliku,
and one would
historical relegate these stories to the category of simple were it not that belief in Biliku does very etiological myths,
For there are three life of the people. " " are foras every Andamanese child knows which things bidden to be done, for fear of angering Biliku and causing her to send bad weather. They are (i) melting or burning beeswax (2) digging up yams or cutting certain plants a the rainy season (3) killing a cicada, or making during
practically affect the
; ;
noise during the time
when the
cicadae are singing at
morning
and evening.
The accounts current
in the different little
communities
vary so much in detail that there is no agreement even as to the sex of the divinity. Other commands and causes of wrath may therefore be known in some places, and may have
eluded the observation of our authority, but as to these three curious taboos, we are told, there is complete unanimity
everywhere (A. R. Brown in FL. xx. 257-272 1910, Nos. 2, 17,30,38,47)2.
cf.
Man,
Rudimentary Worship of Nature-powers.
The Bushmen
of to-day are the poor
remnants of a race
of hunters living in small groups scattered across the southern extremity of the African continent, having little intercourse
with each other and enjoying no common action, even if they ever did so. The differences of dialect among them
are so great that they are sometimes mutually unintelligible ; and naturally there has been much opportunity for varying
f 1

among them.
traditions to arise
Some think they may be
survivors of the prehistoric folk who once adorned the caves of the Pyrenees with paintings, as they themselves within
cliffs and bluffs of South Africa. Dances formed a marked feature of their life, and are depicted in several of their rock-paintings. They were dramatic in character and are still danced by some of the older
recent times adorned the
people. They are and so on, but it
as the Horse-dance, the Pot-dance, not easy without explanation to understand what they are intended to represent. Formerly they were danced in masquerade as animals, and each dance had
is
known
There were the Baboon-dance, the FrogOne was more an acrobatic performance than a dance, and one was a general masquerade. Some were distinctly licentious in character, and to most of
its special
song.
dance, the Bee-dance.
them some esoteric meaning, known only to the initiated, was probably attached. The Mo'koma (a Basuto word), or dance of blood, is a dance of men and women following each other, and is danced all night in time of famine and before
going to war. who had seen
Monsieur Arbousset, the French missionary, it among the Eastern Bushmen, says that the
movements consisted of irregular jumps, like calves leaping. The dancers exerted themselves so violently that occasionally
one would fall to the ground covered with the blood which flowed from his nostrils. Then the women would gather round him, put two bits of reed across each other on his back, and, leaping backward and falling across his back, they would wipe away the perspiration with ostrich feathers. Presently he would revive and rise up again. Of this dance, Qing, a young Bushman who in 1874 acted as guide to Mr. J. M. Orpen, Chief Magistrate of Kaffraria (and who had never seen a white man before, except in fighting), said that Cagn gave them the song and told them to dance it, and that people would die from it, and he would give " When a man is sick," them charms to raise them again. " this dance is danced round him, and the dancers said Qing, put both hands under their armpits and press their hands
Superhuman Beings.
113
on him, and when he coughs the initiated put out their hands and receive what has injured him secret things. The
initiated
is
who know
secret things are Qognqe
the sick person
hang Cagn, written by Dr. Bleek as UKaggen, and by Monsieur Arbousset as 'Kaang, is a principal figure of Bushman legend. He is identified by Dr. Bleek as the Mantis, and he appears
cai."
Western Bushmen of the Kalikop Hills Orange River, where it falls into the Atlantic) " a fellow full of tricks and continually getting into scrapes, as and even doing purely mischievous things." Thus, he transforms himself into a dead hartebeest and frightens the children who cut up the carcase by re-uniting the joints and coming
in the stories of the
(south of the
to
life
again.
The hyrax
his
is
his wife, the porcupine his
is his the young ichneumon grandson constant adviser and admonisher. Among the material collected by Miss Lloyd after Dr. Bleek's lamented death are
daughter, and
"
adopted
"
stories of the
making
;
by
his son-in-law
elands,
and
of his
an eland by Kaggen, which is killed Kaggen' s special protection of the relations with other kinds of game.
of
II
of
II
In the Maluti Mountains,
five degrees of longitude east-
ward from the Kalikops, Qing, the young man already men" tioned, knew many stories of Cagn," in which he appeared as always fighting and often getting into ludicrous scrapes, " " the Mr. Ananci which remind one of the adventures of the Negroes (see chap, xvi.). But in other Spider, among sometimes cases he is represented in a more serious light
;
as resuscitating the slain (cf. the Mo'koma dance, above) but also as the author of taboos, notably of the universal Bushman taboo against eating the back of the thigh of the " " hare because it was human flesh ; and particularly as a maker of things snares, weapons, striped mice, partridges, " " the elands and especially elands. His son Gowi spoilt when half-made, so Cagn made them wild to punish him. It
;
was an
all
mention Cagn.
Qing (voluntarily) to " Asked who Cagn was, he said, Cagn made things and we pray to him." Asked if he were good or
allusion to the elands that led
14
"
at first he
bad, he said,
was very good and
nice,
but he got
x Asked how he spoilt through fighting so many things." " to Cagn, he made answer, in a low imploring tone, prayed ' O Cagn O Cagn are we not your children ? do you not
!
!
see our hunger

full
"
give us food
'
!
And he
gives us both hands
Thirty years earlier, in the same region, M. Arbousset learnt that 'Kaang, as he writes the name, was believed to cause life and death, and to give or refuse rain ; that he gave
to beasts their several special markings, and that when game was scarce the people said that 'Kaang refused it. A Bush-
he asked whether his people did not pray to their deceased fathers, as did their Bantu neighbours, said, No that his father had taught him otherwise, and before his death had solemnly enjoined him, when he went to hunt, to seek carefully for the Ngo, and to ask him for food for
;
man whom
himself and his children.
If
the
Ngo should move
his head,
describing an angle (or a semicircle), the prayer has been heard, and the hunter will that evening put a portion of game in his mouth, hold it between his teeth, and cut it with his knife, with his arm bent to describe an elbow like the Ngo. M. Arbousset gives the prayer in the Bushman " " word for word " as follows Lord, tongue, translating it is it that thou dost not like me ? Lord, lead me to a male gnu. I like much to have my belly filled. My oldest son, my oldest daughter, like much to have their bellies filled. Lord, bring a male gnu under my darts." The word trans" " lated Lord is 'Kaang, and it is perplexing therefore to
:
find Mons. Arbousset identifying the ngo, not with the Mantis, but with the caddis- worm. That carnivorous insect, the Mantis, is far from an inappropriate divinity for a race of " Voracious as a wolf, combative as primitive hunters.
a game-cock," as the Rev.

1
J.
G.
Wood
says of him, and
Miss D. Bleek, on whom the mantle of her late father has happily viz. that by fallen, allows us to quote her explanation of this phrase " " good and nice," Qing would mean whole, perfect, sound," in con" trast to spoilt," which in other contexts he is represented as using " in the sense of marred, damaged, ruined."
;
Superhuman Beings.
\ 1
holding himself erect in human fashion, he remains for hours motionless on a leaf or a twig till his prey comes within his
reach
forelegs,
then suddenly unfolding his long angular spine-armed he seizes and cuts up the unhappy insect.
No trace of any worship of Cagn has been found among the Western Bushmen. Qing, on the other hand, could not relate any astronomical stories. To a question about a sun-myth " he replied, Now you are asking me about the things that
are not spoken of/' adding that only the initiated men of " " that dance know those things." (of whom he was not one)
"
But the old men from the Kalikop
Hills,
whose evidence was
so carefully gleaned and recorded by Dr. Bleek and Miss Lloyd, observed the stars and personified the heavenly bodies. " Take my face They prayed to the Moon for renewed life.
yonder give me thy face, with which when thou hast died thou dost again return that I may also resemble
.
.
and Canopus came out in winter, they had been accustomed to wave burning sticks towards them
thee."
Sirius
When
Grandmother," They addressed them as they sang to welcome them. They hailed Canopus as the bringer of plenty and prayed to her (for both these were " female stars) for success in hunting. Thou shalt give me thy heart with which thou dost sit in plenty, and thou shalt
to
I am desperately hungry, that I be full like thee. Thou shalt give me thy might stomach with which thou art satisfied, thou shalt take my stomach that thou mayest also hunger. Give me also thy " arm, thou shalt take my arm, for I miss my aim with it (See Arbousset, tr. Brown, 1846, p. 253 J. M. Orpen in
warm them.
"
take
also
my
heart with which
Cape Monthly Magazine, July 1874
Bushman
tida
',
Material, p. 21
;
L. C. Lloyd, Ace. Further Bleek and Lloyd, Bushman FL.

;
pp. 338, 83, 57
and Sharp, Camb. Nat.
Hist. chap. x.
Man-
Soothsayers.)
3.
The Cult of Mystic Power.
The religious system of the North American Indians has been developed so independently and withal so elaborately
1 1
6
it

demands a
brief separate resume on its own merits. a great variety in the way of local developpresents
that
While
it
ment and
There
is
specialization,
it is
possible to trace in
it
certain
constant elements. a very widespread cult of the Sun, to
whom
prayer
offering are almost everywhere addressed, and, to a less degree, of the morning-star. Associated with this, and perhaps
and
arising out of
it,
less consciously associated
are local cults of mythical persons more or with the sun or the east. These
persons are sometimes culture-heroes, credited with the invention of arts and institutions and there is a strong tendency
;
the historical period) to look for their return as deliverers of the Indian race and restorers of the old order.
(at least in
\
dead appears sporadically in the South-west. an almost universal cult of the larger game animals, and of beasts and birds of prey, and a widespread cult of thunder, which is more or less identified with the eagle. In
cult of the
is
There
arid regions, there are specialised cults of rain, clouds, etc. To all these, mystic power of a high order is attributed
but not to them alone, for it seems that everything in nature is credited with this power or quality, as well as consecrated This belief is expressed objects, human beings, and names.
r^ in
the Iroquois word orenda," the Algonquian manito," " " " " of the Dakota, Omaha, and wakonda wakan the
"
"
Ponca, and other tribes of the Siouan family, and in the " " " and medicine mystery." The popular translations " " is certainly made perwakonda Siouan conception of sonal, if not anthropomorphic, as a conscious, intelligent,
and possibly moral power which moves all things, causes " The Algonquian to move (i.e. gives life), and hears prayer. " " was also personalized, especially in the idea of manito
mystic personal guardians
"
\
"
"
"
but it seems that the use of " " " manito or good manito for Good or Great Spirit, and " " for devil, was developed under European evil manito
:
influence.
Prayer is highly developed in American religion. It is often accompanied by offerings. A mental attitude of humility
Superhuman Beings.
and confessed need
117
is very generally required, as appealing to the compassion of the power addressed ; in many cases other conditions are recognized, moral and ritual, such as " " a straight path of life," continence cleanness of heart," married fidelity, penance, fasting, sweating or (temporary),
smoking. In Mexico and Central America, with an unusually comlocal plicated social and political life, appears a corresponding elaboration of mythology and ritual (including the rite of
with a specialised priesthood and permanent^ Human sacrifice was formerly associated of worship. places with sun and star cults in the South-west. But, generally speaking, the apparatus of American religion is simple. Tribal rites of wholesale initiation, such as are found in Africa and Australia, are almost unknown in America, the
human
sacrifice)
nearest approach being the initiation of warriors.
On
the
contrary, almost
all
individual initiation
American peoples lay great stress on of a solitary, mystic, and ecstatic kind,
connected with the acquisition of a mystic patron, a guardian animal or person. Starting from this common ground, we find developments of two kinds ; on the one hand, the high
social
importance of individual shamans
("
medicine-men
")
qualified by personal experiences of ecstatic and even morbid type, especially among tribes whose social organization is
slight
;
and, in the more closely organized tribes, a corre(".
sponding importance of esoteric religious societies
medicine
societies"), which ensure and utilize religious experiences in Both institutions preserve the idea of mystic their members.
patrons guardian-animals or persons or of societies.
whether of individuals
In American mythology creation-myths, stories of cultureheroes, and stories of revelations and dream-journeys play a
large part.
4.
B. F.-M.
Systematic Polytheism without Idolatry.
Uganda was a powerful state whose kings claimed to be able to reckon their matrilineal ancestry back for some twenty
1 1
It possessed
generations (see p. 165).

stitution, of
a definite political con-
much more
despotic character than that of the
Bushongo
of
(p. 180).
Society was organized in exogamous patrilineal clans, each which possessed two totems, the one of greater importance
giving a name to the clan. Branches or sub-divisions of these clans formed local settlements, each under its own chief,
living
on
its
own
freehold land.
Most of the clans had
special
hereditary occupations hunters, cattle-herds, smiths, boatand each had builders, bark-cloth makers, and the like
;
its special office in
the service of the state, or rather of the

its
sovereign.
his
Each
clan worshipped
own
god,
who
lived in
own
local
temple among them, and was never identical
with either of the clan-totems.
Some
chiefs also
had the
guardianship of one of the national gods committed to them, for the ecclesiastical organization was as complete and homo-
geneous as the
political.
rank was named Mukasa. He was a benevolent deity, inasmuch as he never required human sacrifice. He was the god of plenty he gave increase of food,
The god
of highest
and children. From him came the great blessing of twins, which he gave to women whom he specially esteemed. He was also the god of the great Nyanza Lake and gave the He controlled the storms and gave good increase of fish. passages to voyagers the boatmen sought his blessing before His chief setting out and called to him when in danger. temple was in the island of Bubembe, at which only the king might worship, but he had numerous lesser temples on the mainland in each of which was his sacred emblem, a paddle. Every year he sent an offering of fish to the king, which was
cattle,
;
presented by selected messengers marching in procession, singing and moving their arms as if paddling a canoe. Every
year the king also sent Mukasa an offering consisting of nine men, nine women, nine white cows, nine white goats, nine white fowls, nine loads of bark-cloths, and nine loads of This was the occasion of a great annual festicowry-shells. val lasting twenty days, during which separation of the sexes
Superhuman Beings.
1 1
was observed, and at the end of which the priest gave the Mukasa to the attendant crowds, their wives, Mukasa had family connections children, cattle, and crops. the gods. His father Wanema, or Musisi, was god among
blessing of
of earthquakes
;
his grandfather
it
Wanga, the
fell
oldest of the
gods, put back the sun when
from
its
place in the
formed Lake Wamala. Mukasa's chief wife Nalwanga was a python. Her temple stood beside his, and she was invoked by barren women. His sons Nende and Kirabira were war-gods, and
heavens.
Wamala, another son
of
Musisi,
Mirimu, another son, had the special office of helping men to take their enemies' weapons in battle. But the principal
war-god was Mukasa's brother Kibuka, who was said to have been killed in battle against the Banyoro, and whose emblems were carried to war by his priest and medium. Both Mukasa and Kibuka, if not the whole family of gods from the Sese Islands in the Victoria Nyanza, are suspected by Mr. Roscoe, to whom we owe our knowledge of Baganda theology, to have been deified human beings. It is thought some confirmation of this opinion in the case of Kibuka, in spite of his habit of hovering over the battlefield in a cloud, that when the god, which was kept carefully concealed from the people under a drapery of bark-cloth, was brought to England and examined, the conical bundle was found to contain a stool with a hollow top, in which was a bag containing portions of a male human body. Other relics attributed to the warrior were brought with it, and all are now in the Museum of Ethnology
at Cambridge. Besides this divine family there were the Plague-god, who was kept covered up on the frontier lest he should get out and
his nurse, whose temple was near his, and who protected women in childbirth the Creator-god, who was little regarded the Earth-god, who destroyed ghosts and made the crops grow the gods of the chase and forest, the chief of whom, Dungu, had a magic drum containing parts of every animal and bird hunted the gods Nkulu and Mbale who gave children and Nagawonyi, the goddess of Hunger,
destroy the people
20
to whose temple, in time of drought, women were wont to take specimens of withered fruits to show her their distress, and induce her to use her influence with Musoke and Gulu, the gods of the elements, to put an end to the drought and
Nagadya, the mother of Kibuka the Warwas also expected to intercede with the gods to send rain, god, and her temple at Entebbe was resorted to in times of scarcity. Gulu was a very ancient and important god. He lived in the sky and controlled the storms. When these were very heavy, the people beat drums to let him know where they and were, that he might not hurt them with the lightning they made fires that the smoke might keep the clouds from Gum's son, Walumbe, was the god of death, who falling. had to be propitiated by the king on his accession, to prevent him from killing the people wholesale. Lastly, there was Namulere, who was the servant of the other gods, and whose " medium " was sent for to help woodcutters in difficulties. Each of these Balubare, or gods, had one or more temples on the hill-tops in the midst of their own estates, which the king sometimes looted if the god displeased him. The temples were thatched huts like the dwellings, and great ceremony was observed when from time to time they needed rebuilding. There were no idols, but various sacred objects were kept in the temples, and in every temple there was a sacred fire, which was never allowed to go out, and was tended by young One or more priests acted girls not come to womanhood. as guardians of the temple, received visitors, and transacted their business with the god. The gods were supposed to foretell events and to give advice, as well as to confer benefits. Those who applied to them presented their offerings and explained their wants to the priest, who announced them to " the god, and the latter gave his answer through his medium." This was generally a man, but sometimes a woman, devoted " " to the service of the temple, who became by possessed the god, and in that state gave oracles, which the priest interpreted to the worshippers. The human sacrifices, which at times amounted to almost wholesale slaughter, were not
consequent famine.
;
Superhuman Beings.
some
Hi
offered at the temples, but at certain fixed sacrificial places, of which, however, had special temples attached to
them. This elaborate system of deity-worship did not preclude the veneration of a sacred python which had a temple on the borders of the Lake, nor the respect paid to the places haunted by lion and leopard-spirits, nor the dread of evil
ghosts of human beings. And though everything about a temple, the objects kept in it, the persons of the priests, the mediums, and the virgins, was held sacred and treated
with respect, yet the gods were not so much relied on, or so important, as the Mayembe fetishes (Roscoe, pp. 271-345),
5.
Heterogeneous Polytheism with Idolatry.
India
is
there carried to an extreme degree. Gods of the Hindu official pantheon
par excellence the land of polytheism, which is With the Deva, or High
and
their kindred
They
little
Brahma, Vishnu, Siva, the ordinary peasant has little to do. are the gods of the wealthy classes, and to him are more than names. His worship is paid to the Devata,
:
or
godlings
the powers of Nature,

all
Sun,
Moon, Earth,
;
Rivers,
and Waters,
;
personified
;
and
deified
the multi;
tude of local village godlings the godlings of disease the " mob of divinisainted dead the evil and malicious dead a
ties," as
Mr. Crooke styles them. " is immense, of these godlings," he says, and their functions and attributes so varied that it is ex"
The number
tremely
difficult to classify
them on any
intelligible principle.
Some
them,
of
them
are pure village godlings, of
whom
. .
.
the last
census has unearthed an enormous number.

like
Some
of
or Bhimsen, are survivals in a some* what debased form of some of the second-rate deities or
Hanuman
heroes of the older mythology. Some have risen to the rank, or are being gradually elevated to the status, of tribal deities. Some are in all probability the local gods of the degraded
races
whom we may
of these
Many
tentatively assume to be autochthonous. have almost certainly been absorbed into
Brahmanism
at a comparatively recent period.
Some
are
122
even now on their promotion for elevation into the orthodox The deities of the heroic class are as a rule pantheon. and are generally worshipped by most Hindus. benignant, Those that have been definitely promoted into the respect. .
.
able divine cabinet, like Hanuman, have Brahmans or members of the ascetic orders as their priests, and their images
not exactly admitted into the holy of holies of the greater shrines, are still allotted a respectable position in the neighif
bourhood, and receive a share in the offerings of the
faithful.
The
local position of the shrine
very often defines the status
of the deity. To many godlings of this class is allotted the duty of acting as warders (dwarapala) to the temples of
the great gods. Thus at the Ashtbhuja Hill in Mirzapur the pilgrim to the shrine of the eight-armed Devi meets first on the road an image of the monkey-god, Hanuman, before he
comes into the immediate presence of the goddess. So at Benares, Bhaironnath is chief police officer (Kotwat) or guardian of all the Saiva temples. Similarly at Jageswar beyond
Almora we have Kshetrpal, at Bhadrinath Ghantakaran, at Kedarn.th Bhairava, and at Tungnath Kal Bhairon. In
many
places, as the pilgrim ascends to the greater temples,
he comes to a place whence the first view of the shrine is obtained. This is known as the devadekhni or spot from which the deity is viewed. This is generally occupied by
some
and
lower-class deity
who
is
just beginning to be considered
respectable.
Then comes the temple dedicated to the warden,

There can be
little
lastly the real shrine itself.
doubt
that this represents the process by which gods which are now admittedly within the circle of the deities of the first class,
such as the beast-incarnations of Vishnu, the elephant-headed Ganesa, and the Saktis or impersonations of the female energies
underwent a gradual elevation. This process is going on before our eyes. Thus the familiar Gor Baba, a deified ghost of the aboriginal races, has in many places
of nature,
still
become a new manifestation of Siva as Goreswara. Similarly the powerful and malignant goddesses, who were by ruder tribes propitiated by the sacrifice of a buffalo or a goat,
Superhuman Beings.
123
have been annexed to Brahmanism as two of the numerous forms of Durga Devi by the transparent fiction of a Bhainsasuri and Kali Devi. In the case of the former her origin is clearly
proved by the fact that she
deity of the
is
regarded as a sort of tribal

in
mixed
class of
'
Kanhpuriya Rajputs
Oudh.
Great Mother/ a distinctively Similarly Mahamai, or the whose shrine consists of a low, flat mound aboriginal goddess, of earth, with seven knobs of coloured clay in a single row
at the
head or west
pantheon as
has been promoted into the higher " Jagadamba Devi, or Mother of the World/
side,
'
(Crooke, Pop. Rel.
i.
83-85.)
CHAPTER
VIII.
OMENS AND DIVINATION.

CURIOSITY, the desire for knowledge, and the craving to
penetrate mysteries and to know what the future holds in Add to them an store, are feelings natural to mankind.
animistic attitude of mind, a vague sentiment of awe towards uncomprehended things, and the habit of reasoning post hoc, propter hoc,
and we have the
basis of belief in Omens.
Out
of
this belief arise Divination, or the
performance of rites for
the express purpose of discovering mysteries, past, present, or future, and Augury, or the pseudo-science of observation
and interpretation
of omens.
is
No
unexpected or unusual occurrence
too trivial to be
;
the subject of an Omen. Mysterious sounds, knocks, bells accidents to inanimate objects, as implements, tools, pictures
(cf the fall of the sword in the Lady of the Lake) personal accidents or sensations, shivering, tingling, stumbling (cf. the the movements, cries, or actions Conqueror at Pevensey)
.
of birds
and
beasts, wild or domestic
dreams
"
unusual
"
appearances in the fire or the heavens (cf. the star Cometa of the Bayeux tapestry) unaccountable events, such as flowers or fruit-trees blossoming out of season, or a space
;
omitted in sowing a crop any thing, person, or animal, seen or encountered at the New Year, or on beginning a journey
;
or any other enterprise
all
these are everywhere liable to
be taken as Omens. Omens, it has been
said, indicate the fate, luck influences
Omens and
;
Divination.
125
it but it is often difficult for the collector to distinguish between the two. When (e.g.} the English peasantry speak
warnings," it is clear that only a presage or portent of future events is meant, not a cause ; but other cases are more doubtful. The late Mr.
of
signs," or
"
"
tokens/' or
"
pedition, met not half a mile
Charles St. John, setting out on his first deer-stalking ex" " one of the prettiest girls in the country " from the house. Deed, sir, that's a bonny " It's just gude luck our lass," said Donald the keeper. meeting her ; if we had met that auld witch her mother, " I have heard," not a beast would we have seen the day." " adds his master, of Donald turning home again if he met an old woman when starting on any deer-stalking excursion,"
(Wild Sports of the Highlands, p. 171). When C. N. was about to set out to enter a new place of service (Nov. 24th, 1891), her mother went to look whether any woman was in
sight,
and seeing one, made the daughter wait

"
I
till
she had
There now, if passed by. met that woman," said she
hadn't gone out, you'd have for all women and not only ; old ones are generally unlucky omens in England (FL. xx. " first Particular persons are often engaged to be the 321). " foot in the house on New Year's Day, to ensure good luck
for the year, and hawkers think that their day's takings are affected by the first customer. In such cases as these,
perhaps the folk themselves hardly know exactly what they believe as to cause and effect. For this and other reasons
it is
better not to record all
laneous heap, but to distribute

plants,
omens together in one miscelthem under the heading of

;
animals, persons,
will
when they
selves.
etc., according to their nature not infrequently be found to explain them-
We
resorted
are accustomed to think of Divination as a practice to by individuals, especially by young women,
desirous of
knowing
their future lot in
life.
pod with
nine peas is placed over the door, the first bachelor who enters is the destined husband. The girl washes her linen
in her
bedchamber at midnight, or the young man walks
126

same
"
three times round the church at the
witching hour
"
;
they accompany the act with prescribed words and gestures, and the future partner for life appears as in a vision. But
in uncivilized nations divination plays an important part in public as well as private life, and no serious enterprise is set
on foot without
it.
The Sea Dyaks
of
Borneo begin no
undertaking house-building, farming operations, warlike expeditions without consulting the seven species of Omen
Birds. There is a regular signalling code of interpretation the birds must be heard in such a position right or left, in
;
and in such an order hand may get hung up for days, waiting
front or behind
and the business

for favourable
in
omens.
are derived from many other creatures, but only the Birds are held sacred or used in formal augury. These Seven birds are believed to be the sons-in-law of Singalang Burong,
Omens
the Bird-god of War, patron of head-hunting, who lives in the sky and is visible as a large kind of hawk. Legend relates
that the Bird-god's daughter married a mortal, and forsaking him returned to her home by way of the sea. Her husband
at the Bird-god's palace in the skies, where the boy soon gave proof of his parentage and divine descent. There they learnt how to
and son followed her and were received
to trap game, and to grow paddy, and were comto obey in everything the warnings and directions of the Seven Omen-birds, the boy's maternal kindred. Thus
catch
fish,
manded
instructed they returned of their race (Ling-Roth,
home
i.
to become the Culture-Heroes

is a special his priests on
19
sqq.).
Among
first
the Yoruba of
West Africa
is
there
god
the
of divination, Ifa,
who
consulted
by
day of every (five-day) week by casting lots, or rather throwing dice, with sixteen kernels of the sacred palm-tree, called ikins. They are gathered up in the right hand and
let fall repeatedly through the fingers into the left. Marks are then made on a whitened tablet corresponding with the
kernels
left,
and on these the interpretation
is
based.
The
palm-kernels are solemnly consecrated to their sacred use by elaborate rites, and are supposed collectively to represent the
Omens and Divination.
127
god. Each of them has a distinctive name, and by itself represents a pair of adits, or subordinate godlings. Behind each of them are sixteen other odus, making the whole number
again be multiplied by 16 or even by 32. connected a number of stories, parables, or sayings, which the babalawo or priest is supposed to commit to memory and to apply to the case in point, according to
256, which
may
With each
odii is
the position of the ikins in the divining-bowl or the tablet. Ifa has also a servant-god named Opele, who is consulted
every morning by means of eight flat slips of wood strung (A. B. Ellis, Yoruba, together and thrown on the ground.
56-64
246.
;
Bishop
J.
Johnson
(native) in Dennett,
is
B.B.M.M.
very com-
The use
of a species of dice in divination
mon
is
throughout Africa, infra, p. 131.) Enquiry of the gods, as distinguished from prayer to them, a marked feature of early religious practice, and hence
is
Divination
movements
the rite
of
often closely connected with Sacrifice. The any birds or beasts seen immediately after
;
may
indicate the will of the gods
or the entrails
of the victim
may be examined by skilled persons and the future prognosticated from their appearance, as was done by the College of Augurs in Ancient Rome. Divination by the blade-bone seems to be a survival of sacrificial augury.
Or the god may enter
through them.
into
and
"
"
possess
the priest or
his will
priestess subsequently to the sacrifice,
and declare
Or another attendant at the temple may be the medium of inspiration and deliver the Oracle, as in the case of the Pythonesses of ancient Greece and in modern
times of the temple-mediums of Uganda. " Divination, or soothsaying," like exorcism,
is
a function
common
shaman
to the priest and the wizard (cf. chap. of Central Asia unites the offices of priest
The and wizard

vii.).
(and it may be added, of leech) in his own person. On the one hand he leads and directs the worship of the gods of his people, and on the other he performs feats of jugglery, such
as swallowing live embers, being imprisoned,
and
foot,
and then reappearing
free.
bound hand But above all things
128
Handbook of Folk- Lore
He predicts coming events, directs courses of action, discovers the cause of sicknesses, and communicates with the gods whom he venerates by the aid of
he practises divination.
the spirits or demons
dancing,
whom
he controls.
His characteristic methods are beating his tambourine,

singing,
ventriloquism,
and
cataleptic
trances.
Richard Johnson, an English traveller, who visited the Samoyedes of Northern Siberia in 1556, witnessed the performance of the rites preliminary to the migration of a tribe at the
mouth
loudly.
of the river Pechora.
The shaman
cries,
first
beat his tam-
bourine and sang with wild
the
company responding
become delirious, then fell on his The people said the deity was now telling him what they were to do and whither they " " should go. They cried thrice, and the wizard rose, Ogu continued his chant, and ordered five reindeer to be killed, which was done. He then began to perform juggling tricks stabbed himself with a sword and remained unwounded twisted a rope round his neck, was concealed by a long robe thrown over him, and made his assistants pull the ends of the rope till his severed head was heard to fall into a kettle of boiling water, and the Samoyedes said he was dead, after
to
He seemed
back and lay
like a corpse.
which he appeared unhurt (J.A.I, xxiv. 140). The functions of the shaman as an intermediary between man and the spirit-world throw so much light on the whole subject that it seems desirable to devote some space to them. The following is in brief the ritual of a festival in honour of Bai-Yulgen, the Sky-god, held from time to time (? annually) in every family among the Tartar tribes in the Altaian mountains of Central Asia, as recorded 1850-60 by a Russian mission On the first day a new yourta (hut) priest, Father Wierbicki. is built and decorated under the superintendence of the Kam A birch-tree with leaves and bark is set up in or shaman. the middle, and nine steps are cut in the trunk a courtyard is enclosed round the yourta and a birch stick with a horse;
hair halter
is
set
be
sacrificed.
up to hold the soul of the horse that is to The horse is then chosen, and a man is selected
Omens and
to hold
Divination.
129
it. The shaman waves a birch-twig over the horse's back, to send its soul to Yulgen, whither the soul of the horse-holder is to accompany it. The shaman summons his
collects
familiar spirits one by one, each replying to his call, and he them in his tambourine. Then he goes outside the
yourta, seats himself on the effigy of a wild goose placed there, sings and acts the scene of pursuing the soul of the sacrificed
The soul neighs, kicks, and runs away, but is finally and secured to the birch-stick in the courtyard. The caught real horse is then brought, and the shaman having blessed
horse.
slaughters it with the aid of the bystanders, in a pecu" The bones and skin become the liarly cruel manner.
it
sacrifice,
and the
flesh is eaten
up with various ceremonies,

(J.A.I. xxiv. p. 75.)
the
Kam receiving the choicest
portion."
the second day, after sunset, a fire is lighted in the " " lords (i.e. spirits) yourta, and the shaman feeds first the " " of his own of the tambourine who represent the power " " with the sacrificial meat, and then feeds the master family " " of the fire, who represents the power of the family of the owner, the founder of the feast. He also gives them drink,
On
He next fumigates with nine garments which are offerings by the master of juniper the house to Yulgen, puts on his official dress, fumigates his tambourine, and summons the spirits one by one as before. " " Lastly, he calls on Merkyut the bird of heaven to sit on
and then feeds the bystanders.
his right shoulder,
burden.
He
and bows under the weight of the spirit round the birch and the fire, kneels before goes
the door and asks the porter-spirit (elsewhere called the He beats the tambourine porter-god) to grant him a guide.
and shakes
all
convulsively.
Then with
his drumstick
he sweeps
uncleanness from the back of the master of the house
among
soul
these tribes the back is accounted the seat of the and embraces each of the party in turn, holding his tambourine against their breasts, his drumstick against their backs. Thus he frees them from the dominion of the evil Erlik, god of the Underworld, and from all the ills and misfortunes Erlik could bring upon them, and finally he drives
I
130

After this he drives the spirit
the misfortunes out of doors.
and power of the host's forefathers into their descendant by blows on the tambourine held close to his ear. The shaman then begins his spirit-journey to the heavens. He passes into a state of ecstasy, jumps, runs about, mounts on the first step in the tree-trunk, then seats himself on a bench covered with a horse-cloth, which represents the soul
He sings, he narrates his experiences, accompanying his chant with dramatic action. He ascends from one zone of heaven to another. At every stage he mounts a step of the birch-tree. The spirit-horse is tired out, the horse-holder laments. The rider mounts the wild goose, he hurries on, he meets birds and converses with them. In the third zone there is a halt, and he learns of coming
of the sacrificed horse.
changes of weather, impending sickness, misfortunes to neighbours (!), sacrifices that must be offered. In the sixth zone
he bows before the moon, in the seventh before the sun. The more powerful the individual shaman is, the higher he is able to ascend. Arrived at the limit of his power, he
addresses a humble prayer to Bai-Yulgen, dweller in the blue sky. Then he is definitely informed by Yulgen whether the sacrifice is accepted, what the weather will be, and what
the coming harvest, and also more particularly what further This done, he falls exhausted, and sacrifices are expected. The scena is over, lies silent and motionless on the ground.
the vision past.
is
third day's festivity
may
follow,
but
it
devoted to feasting without special significance (J.A.I.
xxiv. 74-78).
So much
for Divination in its religious aspect.

later.
Its
use in
Medicine will be dealt with
The part
it
plays in judicial
procedure is equally important, especially in Africa, where it is the recognized mode of detection of criminals, especially
witches.
The wizard, medicine-man, or witch-finder (often " witch-doctor ") decks himself with the absurdly called the skins and entrails of animals, and dances, a ghastly figure,
before the assembled people. He gradually excites their feelings by a series of statements and questions to which they
Omens and Divination.
131
reply by a common shout of assent. Then, working himself up into a frenzy, he denounces the person on whom he has fixed the guilt as a witch, the enemy of the whole community,
and
incites the
crowd to
fall
upon him.
The victim may
even be lynched and executed at once (Matabeleland, v. J. R.A.I, xxxix. 537-541), or a chance of escape may be
afforded
by the further
test of the Ordeal.
This in witchis
craft or other serious cases
throughout Africa
usually a
draught of a nauseous and semi-poisonous decoction either of a species of bean or of casca or nka (nkasa, Loango) bark,
which only a guilty stomach can retain. matters such as thieving, lying, adultery
In less important the nganga (Congo
medicine-man) produces a magic box, which can only be opened by an innocent person, or a hot knife, which will not
burn the
guiltless.
Or the accused may dip
his or her
arm
into a vessel of boiling water or oil or may be made to lick the hot iron blade of a hoe. This is a Mashonaland test of an
adulteress,
which reminds us of our own early judicial prowhen an accused woman had to prove her innocence by walking over hot ploughshares. The belief that a corpse
cedure,
will
bleed at the touch of a murderer
is
said to
have been
(unsuccessfully) put to the proof as village in the nineteenth century.
an ordeal
in a Shropshire
There
is
this distinction
between divinations and ordeals
that while both are methods resorted to for discovering the truth, Divination is practised by third parties to fix the guilt
of a crime
on a particular person, but the Ordeal

is
is
undergone
by the person accused to vindicate

example of an ordeal
his innocence.
striking
that of the Kithathi, ante, p. 72. A totally different mode of divination from any of the " preceding is that of throwing the bones," which is practised by the Basuto, Bathonga, Baronga, Matabele, and other tribes
of
cattle, or to
South Africa, not only to identify thieves, to find strayed determine the site of a homestead, but to learn
the situation of absent friends and to predict future events, such as the fate of an individual, the success of a journey,
a war, or a hunting expedition,
much
as cards are used
by
132
fortune-tellers in England. It involves a regular system of set of bones consists of a number of the astragalus augury. bones of domestic animals to represent the villagers them-
selves, similar bones of wild animals to represent the spirits which dwell in the bush, sundry shells, which signify great
powers, good or
evil,
of tortoise-shell, the claw of
such as the waves of the sea, some bits an ant-bear, which stands for
death, one or more stones, which, if black, mean mourning, perhaps some seeds or other miscellanea, and, in one recorded The position of the various case, a clinical thermometer
!
and interpreted by a skilled professional diviner gives the information desired. variety " " of the bones in use in Matabeleland, Mashonaland, and
articles
when thrown
like dice
North-Western Rhodesia
still
more resembles our
cards.
It
consists of four or six large teeth of wild animals, or four slips of wood, carved and marked with patterns, each of
its special name and significance, but the method of interpreting the combinations of them when thrown varies in different districts (J.R.AJ. xxxix. 537-541, FL. xiv. 122-3
which has
'>
Junod, Les Baronga, and Life of a South African Tribe). The Khasis do nothing that they consider of even the least importance without previously breaking eggs. They throw an egg, with muttered formulae, on a board made for the
cf.
purpose, and augur, according to fixed rules, from the position of the fragments of egg-shell (Gurdon, 119, 221). Augury as concerned with the private affairs of individuals
lingers far into civilization.
It
has given
rise to
the pseudo-
sciences of palmistry and astrology, which still flourish even in London. The latter, under the name of " casting " (or " " the planets," has not yet died out among the reading ") folk in English and Welsh villages and back streets. The
supposed works of Albertus Magnus, the famous mediaeval

astrologer are still consulted in Guernsey. The interpretation " " of dreams and the of playing-cards are other laying out
surviving branches of augury.

It is impossible to
enumerate
all
the modes of divination
known.
Some,
like the visions of the
shaman, depend mainly
Omens and
Divination.
diviner.
133
on the inherent powers of the
Of such are the
hypnotic trance of the spiritualist percipient, the spectral procession witnessed by the watcher at the church-door on
fateful nights, the visions of the crystal-gazer, the prophetic
dreams of the ancient

in his
seer, sleeping
on the
hill-side
"
wrapped
are supposed to act indehuman agency, like the Divining Rod, the pendently of representative of the magician's wand, perhaps the most ancient magical instrument in the world, which is still in use to discover springs of water, and even, it seems, veins
tough
bull's hide."
Some
of ore
may be performed by anyone, and the
rites which which affords the desired information automatically, without the need of an interpreter. Any game of chance or trial of skill may thus be used for divination. The Lapp women used to shoot
and hidden
treasures.
Others again are

result of
blindfold at the skin of the
first
it
and the
first
whose arrow
hit
bear killed in the season, took her success as a presage
that her husband would
another bear (Scheffer, 272). Other typical methods are spinning a coco-nut, a teetotum, or a knife, striving who can shoot farthest, throwing at a mark, throwing chips, stones, or melted lead into water
kill
;
grasping symbolic articles blindfold
procuring significant dreams by inducing thirst, repeating charms, and so on performing rites with plants and herbs, such as sage, hempseed, peas, nuts, ash-leaves, or apple-parings ; swinging a
;
;
pendulum, or a lemon (as in the Malay Peninsula), or a key tied to a Bible (as in England) while reciting a list of names counting the petals of a flower with some similar formula In Persia a volume of the trying the sortes Virgilianae. poet Hafiz is used for this. A dervish sticks a knife at random between the leaves, and the words at the top of the In England the book used right-hand page give the omen. is the Bible cf. Enoch Arden.
;
CHAPTER
IX.
THE MAGIC ART.

Sorcery, Witchcraft,
and Charming.
STUDY
of the
mental attitude of uncultured
man
towards his
surroundings affords a clue to the processes by which he endeavours to control circumstances and events.
belief in inherent magical virtue has been noted (chap. iv.). There is hardly anything in the already " rock or tree or falling universe, be it man or beast or bird, water/' to which some amount of this mysterious property is not somewhere attributed. Every human being is tacitly
The widespread
credited with the possession of enough of it for the purpose of ordinary blessing and cursing, though some may have
more than
others.
That the power
of spirits or
demons
surpasses that of mankind goes without saying. Sounds, words, gestures, actions, processes, places, times, numbers, figures, colours, odours, all may have a certain amount of
magical power. And as the main object of the wizard and of those who resort to his aid is to gain power, whether over the forces of nature, over spirits, over diseases, enemies,
thieves, sweethearts, beasts of prey or of the chase, we find all the above influences made use of in the Magic Art. For
the greatest wizard
is
he who has inherited or acquired the
greatest amount of personal power, who has brought into subjection the most powerful spirits or forces, who is acquainted
with the most potent
rites
and
spells.
The power
of the wizard is
sometimes hereditary
that
is
The Magic Art.
135
to say, inborn, innate especially in the case of healing, divinatory, or prophetic powers ; but heredity does not go " On est ne brahmane," says M. van Gennep, very far. " mais il faut apprendre pour agir en brahmane." The
skilled wizard undergoes training
for several years,

ship.
and initiation, often lasting and usually involving more or less of hardSometimes an omen indicates the future sorcerer,
sometimes the elders of the craft pitch upon a suitable neophyte. If divination or communication with the spirit-world is the main object, an unhealthy, nervous, or even epileptic
subject
is
is
selected
in other cases strength of
mind and body
usually necessary.
The
training consists, normally, on the
one hand, of enduring hardships, such as solitude, fasting, living on nauseous and unnatural food, till a condition of on the other, over-strained nervous excitement is produced of direct instruction imparted by past masters in the craft. Often the power of the teacher must be communicated to the scholar by blows or other actual contact, by inheritance of the master's magical apparatus, or the like. Sometimes
;
(as
among the Lapps) magic power
is
though immaterial, an object, that
it
conceived as so definite, can be conveyed as a
death-bed legacy to a child or friend. The combined elements of natural faculty, communicated power, and acquired skill, meet us everywhere in varying " degrees. Among the Altaian Tartars the ability to sha-
manize
"
is
inborn, only the knowledge of chants, prayers,
and rites must be taught (J.A.I, xxiv. 90). Among the Yakuts of Siberia the guardian spirit of a dead shaman ancestor endeavours to enter the youth, who raves, falls unconscious, retires to the woods, and the like, till his family,
recognizing the symptoms, call in an old shaman and consecrate him for his office (J.A.I, xxiv.
to instruct
85).
The
nganga ngombo, or witch-finder, of the Congo who to be successful must be by nature an active, energetic, resourceful
about him gets his power, after a the beating of his master's drum and lengthy pupilage, by the shaking of his rattle close to his ear till he becomes dizzy,
with
all
man
his wits
136
excited,

"
and apparently possessed by his master's fetishpower (FL. xx. 183). Or he may receive the power without any period of pupilage, during a night-long dance called ekinu, held to cure him of insanity or to purify him from
homicide.
again, a
also qualify a
"
Passing the ordeal for witchcraft successfully Congo native to set up as a witch-finder.
may
Or
has recovered from disease by means of a particular wonder-working fetish, may pay the nganga who treated him a fee for instruction in the methods and medicines used, after
man who
which he
is
entitled to set
up
as a nganga
in his turn (FL. xxi. 448).
The Arabian
or the mediaeval
magician would serve a master for years to learn the secret

of a single spell
;
cf.
the story of the Magician's Apprentice
who
which
half-taught
is
raises the Devil
but cannot lay him again,
known throughout Christendom. The European who would be initiated into the mystery of witchpeasant craft seeks no human teacher, but profanes the sacraments the details of the ceremony are still known in many English
villages
other
repeats the Lord's Prayer backwards, or in some way abjures the Christian faith and enters the service
of the Devil,
performed.
by whose power his or usually her feats are So also the witches of North Africa abjure Islam
and engage in unholy practices (Doutte, p. 51). Sometimes a formal ceremony of admission completes the
novice's training. Among the Buryats of Southern Siberia the rites of consecration of a shaman are very elaborate. There is first a preliminary ceremony of purification. An old
shaman officiates, assisted by nine youths. A goat is sacriBirch-brooms are ficed and its blood mixed with water. is beaten with them dipped in the mixture, and the candidate on the bare back and enjoined to be merciful to the poor The dedication libations are poured out and prayer is made. The cost is itself does not take place till some time later. " " Father-shaman provided by a begging expedition. The and his assembled colleagues then set up a thick birch-tree, cut from a burial-place with prayers and offerings, in the house of the new shaman, where its top projects from the
:
The Magic Art.

smoke-hole.
to heaven,
137
and
This symbolises the porter-god who gives access is left permanently to denote a shaman's
abode.
They further erect in some convenient spot a birch decorated with symbolically-coloured ribbons, under which another a drink-offering is placed on a piece of white felt
;
birch to which the sacrificial horse
is
tied
a third,
which
the
new shaman must climb
and nine
others, decorated
of food.
with ribbons and hung with nine beast-skins and a vessel All these are tied to the house-birch with red and
blue tapes, as roads for the shaman's soul to travel on ; and besides all these, nine posts are provided with victims tied to
them, nine kettles to cook the sacrifice, and some thick birchFrom early morning the sticks to which to tie the bones.
shamans are busy
"
"
shamanizing
in the yourta,
i.e.
singing,
dancing, praying, and falling into trances. They purify themselves and the contents of theyourta with aspersions of tarasun. The insignia of the shaman's office are then consecrated, and especially the horse-staves, which are the most important instruments of the Buryat shaman. They must be cut from
a birch-tree growing in a shamans' burial-ground, without, if possible, killing the tree, as its death would be a bad omen
for the
the other
shaman. A horse's head is carved at one end and is formed like a hoof. Bells, ribbons, and small are fastened to them. The consecration endues them stirrups with life they become living horses, fit to carry the shaman's
;
soul
journey. The father-shaman summons the the candidate repeats the prayer after him, protecting gods, and climbs the birch-tree to the house-top, where he calls
on
its spirit
but
on the gods. The rest of the account is somewhat obscure, it would seem that when the time for issuing from the
yourta is come, a fire is kindled outside the entrance, purifying wild thyme is thrown upon it, and every one passes through it. They go in procession to the place prepared ; the candidate, anointed with kid's blood,
;
is
carried on the felt carpet
by his comrades and finally climbs the principal birch-tree, and there calls on the gods and on the spirits of his dead shaman-kinsmen. The day is concluded by sacrifices and
138
public games. Repeated ceremonies enable the shaman to attain higher degrees in the hierarchy (J.A.I, xxiv. 86-90). The position of the shaman is thus that of the recognized
go-between of the visible and invisible worlds. He is, in fact, a public functionary whose services are in request by the community on all important occasions, public as well
as
private.
He
is
drives
away
or
disease
and performs
rites to
obtain
good
harvests
also
.
Malay Pawang
"
men and
spirits
hunting-seasons. The the accredited intermediary between without whom no village community
successful
(MM. 57.) In marriage rites he has been superseded by the official Imam of the Mohammedan mosque, but he officiates at tooth-filing, he is called in in cases of sickness, and it is he who directs agricultural operawould be complete."
tions,
for minerals.
wood-cutting and fishing expeditions, and prospecting He has a vast store of rhythmical charms with which he summons or banishes spirits, both souls and
demons, with confident authority. The functions of the Peai-ma.n of British Guiana are also concerned with spirits, and also exercised for the common weal. He communicates he advises with the souls of absent members of the tribe he is called in in sickness to where game is to be found summon, banish, and correct the demon kenaima, or avenger All these stand on of blood, who is afflicting the sufferer. the boundary-line between the priest and the sorcerer, and it will be wise not to insist too strongly on placing them in " is The North American " medicine-man either category. a personage of the same type, and the name of shaman is often applied to him by American writers. The word shaman belongs to the Tunguz dialect, but is used by other Siberian tribes, and the type of soothsayer or wizard denoted by it is general throughout Northern and
;
Central Asia.
mere
the shaman may degenerate into the " seen in Tibet, where the black-hatted " attached to the Buddhist monasteries are, devil-dancers
sorcerer is "
How
says Colonel Waddell, religion of the country."
survivals of the old pre-Buddhist
(Lhasa, pp. 229, 381.)
The Magic Art.
139
The Naga tribes of Assam exhibit the three types of priest, wizard, and witch, clearly marked. There are in each village both the Khullakpa, the religious head-man of the community, whose
taboos,
office is hereditary, whose sanctity is protected and who ordains and regulates the village gennas by " and the maiba who is doctor and magician in one," whose power is merely a matter of individual skill, and who is an
;
t
in the next independent private practitioner. And finally, or over the next range of village, or a day's journey away, " " the old women who can detect thieves, and the live hills " " who cause sickness people who practise the magicians
"
black art and whose rites are secret, private, disreputable."
(Hodson, 142.)
The Todas carry the differentiation of functions still further. There are among them, first, the Priests (palikartmokh,wursol, and palol), who live under a perpetual burden of taboos, and
who
are responsible for the charge of the sacred buffaloes
and the performance of the ritual of the sacred dairies. Next come the teuodipol ("god-gesticulating men"), diviners or
Soothsayers,
who
discover secret things.
They dance
till
they become possessed by the gods, and in that state utter their oracles or prophecies in strange tongues. Thirdly, there are the piliutpol ("sorcery-praying people"), or Sorcerers, who cast spells on their private enemies and remove
them when
satisfaction or submission is made and, lastly, the utkoren or utpol ("praying people"), or Charmers, who counteract or remedy the ill-effects of the Evil Eye. (Todas,
;
42, 249, 255, 263.)
tioner.
In Africa, the nganga of the Congo basin is a private practiHe may be required to administer the ordeal for
witchcraft to
some accused person, and in so far to act as a public functionary, but he has no definite official position in the community, and his powers are often limited to special
methods of treatment or
in
special classes of cases.
He
is
called
by
individuals for their private purposes, to cure diseases,
foes.
supply amulets and fetishes, and procure revenge on private For the latter purpose he must use his knowledge of
140
"

"
magic, but he is not therefore a witch, and his doings must not be confused with witchcraft. The witch everywhere is the enemy of society, leagued with other
witches to work evil out of pure malice and the witch-finder or diviner is opposed to him, as noted in the last chapter. The African witch keeps animal-familiars, transforms himself
;
black
or herself
to the rendezvous of the
into animal shapes, "
and
rides through the air
craft," like the witches of
Europe.
But the alienation from the authorized religion of the country and the contrary cult of the powers of evil, which characterize European witchcraft, naturally do not obtain in Africa, so
far as has
been ascertained.
witch
The word
was
in
Anglo-Saxon times and much
later
applied to both men and women. Bunyan so uses it, and it is far from obsolete in English country places, where witches " " are still believed to on man and beast. And lay spells
just as the nganga is opposed to the African witch (ndoxi), " " " " so the charmer or white witch," otherwise the wise " " man or cunning man," is called upon to counteract the " " Sometimes the white witch's spells of the English witch.
powers are limited to healing diseases, or even to giving charms against some particular disease, but as a rule they
of witchcraft, "
include discovering thieves and witches, remedying the effects and wreaking vengeance on the evildoers, so
that the
white witch," too,
is
often regarded with
some
amount of dread. The Oriental magician was

unconnected with religion or
account, for his
distinctly a private practitioner office, but working on his own
own
benefit or that of his private clients.
Much
and e.g. astrology, palmistry, geomancy some real scientific knowledge have resulted from his studies, which influenced and still influence the practice of the Magic
false science
Art wherever Chaldean or Arabian culture has penetrated. In the East the Malay pawang issues his commands to the
spirits in
in the
is in
the name of King Solomon, chief of magicians, and West the mystic sign of the pentacle, or Solomon's seal, use to ward off evil spirits in Portugal and even in Wales.
The Magic Art.

To turn from the wizard
141
himself to his methods of working, be noted that the African wizard acts mainly through may the medium of material objects, which he treats, medicates,
it
the Asiatic spiritual or magical power works rather by the direct agency of the spirits by whom he is possessed, with whom he is in communication, or whom he has compelled to his service. These two strains of thought and practice pervade the Magic Art everywhere, in relative
and endues with
as to proportions varying with the ideas of different races the relations of the material and spiritual worlds. But whatever be the source of the wizard's power, it is brought to bear
on
by the application of the principles of Symand Symbolism to the person or thing in question. pathy " " By person we must here understand that enlarged idea of personality which treats the name, the shadow, the effigy,
his subject
or the portrait, as integral, almost substantive, parts of the individual himself. The following example both exemplifies this idea of personality and illustrates the relations of the
African sorcerer with the spirit-world. On the Loango coast, when a new fetish-figure
for judicial purposes,
it
is
wanted
must be determined whose

"
life shall
A boy of be taken to animate or preside over the image. or else, above all, a great and daring hunter, is great spirit, chosen." Then the party go into the bush accompanied by a nganga whose special department is this kind of fetish,
name. The nganga cuts down a muambafrom which (they say) blood gushes forth, which is tree, mingled with the blood of a fowl killed for the purpose. No one may call another by name during the expedition, as the man named would die, and his spirit would enter into the tree instead of that of the selected victim (note the taboo
and
call the victim's
accompanying the rite). The figure of a man, or perhaps of a If such a fetish-figure dog, is made from the wood of the tree. is knocked in a lawsuit, anyone bearing false witness will die. Accused persons pass before the fetish, calling on it to kill them if they do, or have done, such and such a thing. Others drive nails into it, calling on it to kill their enemies, and the
142
nkulu
(soul) of

the
man whose life
entered into the tree carries
out their demands.

fetishes
(FL. xvi. 383.
Specimens of these
nail-
may be
seen in
many European museums.)
Or, conversely, the "enlarged personality" of the wizard or

his colleague may be applied to the actual subject to be affected. Thus, in Japan, the picture of two wild dogs, the attendants of a particular deity, is used to guard the house
from thieves, the picture of a powerful demon-killer to proit from the attacks of demons (Hildb. pp. 142, 143). Something has already been said of the doctrine of SymIt has two forms. First, (a) there is pathy (cf. chap. iv.). the continued sympathy attributed to the severed parts of a single whole, such, for example, as the hair and the person. This affords a world-wide field for magical practice. If a Japanese youth can obtain a hair from the head of an obdurate fair one, knot it with one of his own, and carry it about with him, the lady should listen to him within a week. And on
tect
the theory that the portrait is a part of the person, a woman may boil the photograph of her rival in oil to injure the
original (Hildb. pp. 152, 156). (b) The second form of sympathy is that supposed to be set up between two separate persons
or things which have once been in contact, such as the weapon and the wound. If the former be kept bright, the latter will
heal.
It is
contagion,
by which some property
not always easy to distinguish this from simple of the one object is com-
municated to the other. A goitre touched by a dead man's hand will moulder with the corpse a wart rubbed with a
;
bean-pod or a piece of meat will disappear as the pod or the meat decays. These may be effects of sympathy. But when disease is cured by the touch or the breath of a living man, when an English girl rubs against a bride to catch the infection of matrimony, or a Basuto child wears a kite's foot to
acquire speed, or a sheep's bone to gain strength, then we seem to have to do with contagion pure and simple. " " " " imitative mimetic or Symbolism is often known as
magic.
It also
has two forms
(a] like
causes like
as
when
by tying knots the winds
may
be arrested, or the bodily func-
The Magic Art.

tions impeded,
;
143
and by loosening them may be set free by some ordinary action turning a chair round, wearreversing ing a garment wrong-side-out, throwing salt over the left shoulder, moving contrary to the sun, repeating a formula backwards the luck may be changed and the course of
events altered
;
or
by
the heart of a lover or an

on.
piercing the representation of a heart, enemy may be wounded ; and so
These things seem to us symbolic, but it should be noted that to the uncultured mind the dramatic action probably
(b) Like cures like ; on which homeorepresents actual fact. thorns are hung up to protect from lightning, pathic principle artificial eyes are worn to ward off the glance of the Evil Eye,
and an old remedy

"
for
to take a hair of the
hydrophobia is recorded dog that bit you."
in the saying,
to this list, as the basis of " Bell makee sing, debbil or " benevolent magic." Charming, no come/' said a man to Dr. Hildburgh in Shanghai (op. cit. " To hate as the devil hates holy water," is an p. 146). " Irish saying ; Rowan-tree and red threed Put the witches
to their speed," a Scottish one (Gregor, N.E. Scotland, 188). But these things may equally well be interpreted merely as
force, as the rival
Some would add Antipathy
overcoming the enemy by the exhibition of superior magical magicians of folk-tales vie with one another
and outwit one another.
The sounding
bell,
the holy water,
possess power superior to that of the demon ; the sacrificial hue of the red berries and the red thread surpasses the re-
sources of witchcraft
and the
silver bullet that slays the
witch probably exhibits the superiority of white magic (cf. W. R. Halliday in FL. xxi. 147-167).
"
"
to
"
black"
In important rites the operator gets together

forces at his
all
the magic
command, human, spiritual, and material, chooses an auspicious time and** place, and then proceeeds to put these
Here for instance is a Malay recipe principles into practice. for causing dissension between a husband and wife. Make
two wax
figures resembling the persons and hold them face to face while you repeat three times a formula to the effect
is
that the female figure
as a goat facing a tiger.
Breathe
144
on
Lay them one on each and repeat the formula Put them together back to
side of
their heads after each repetition. you back to back, burn incense,
twenty-two times over each.
back, wrap them in seven thicknesses of certain leaves, tie them with threads of seven colours wrapped round them seven times, repeat the words again, and bury them. After seven days, dig on the spot, and if the figures have disappeared
the couple will certainly be divorced (MM. p. 573). Miss Mary Owen's negro instructors in Voodooism classified
their processes as follows: (i) Good "tricks"; (2) Bad " " tricks treatment of a person or any part ; (3) Magical " of him Commanded " things, such as sticks, thorns, (4)
;
or beeswax, harmless
injure some person
in
themselves,
but commanded to
indicated.
This attempt of the experts themselves to systematize

their science is very interesting. The good tricks were said to be the hardest to perform, because "it is always harder to do good than evil." Talismans or luck-bringers,
"
"
"
of the
endowed with a familiar or attendant " Lord belonged to this class. The
" "
"
spirit in
luck-balls
the "
name made
King Alexander consisted of articles bits of red clover or any trifles connected with the future owner to represent
by
the recipient, bits of
tinfoil to represent
the inhabiting
spirit,
and pinches of dust to blind the eyes of enemies, all knotted up ceremonially in skeins (four of each) of white silk and yarn to the accompaniment of murmured repetitions of a charm desiring all sorts of blessings for the owner of the ball and " I call for it in the Name of God." The ball concluding, was energized by the conjuror's " own strong spirit " imparted to it by his saliva, by breathing on it, and, most powerful of and it was to be reinvigorated by a bath of all, by a tear once a week In his ancestral land of Guinea this whiskey no doubt, have been a bath of goat's or fowl's blood. would, " Bad tricks " were made of evil things, combined in the
;
!
name
of the Devil.
Miss
Owen
!
learnt
how
to
make
"
a trick
of stump-water, grave-dust, jay-feathers, and baby-fingers, " that can strike like lightning Such as these are the fetish-
The Magic Art.

protectors of property in Africa
145
and the giriba of the New Guinea gardens spring-guns ready charged, as it were, to injure meddlers automatically. Magical treatment of persons or their property an almost " " world- wide practice was thus exemplified by King Alexander. In the old slave days, in Southern Missouri, he and a rival conjurer, his enemy, spent a night in the same cabin. Both feigned sleep, each meanwhile willing the other to slumber " with all the strength that was in him, but," said the narrator, " I'd been a conjurer longer than he had, and my will was
made up
;
At length the host slept. The guest arose the inside of the other's shoes and the collar softly scraped of his coat, put the scrapings into a gourd with some alum, " red clover leaves, snake-root," and the leaves and stalks " of a and threw the gourd with its contents may-apple," " In the Devil's name, go into the river with the command, " and may he whose life is in you follow you And the next
strong."
1
week
his enemy was sold, and sent down the river (Trans. FL. Cong. 1891, p. 235). The fourth method, that by " commanded things," is pro" " minent in Australian magic in the form of or pointing " the bone." A human, or sometimes a kangaroo, singing " bone is sharpened to a point, and magic is sung into it," then it is pointed in the direction of an absent foe, after which the victim invariably dies. Or it may suffice merely to mention the name of the victim and the death he is to die (Howitt, Native Tribes, pp. 359-361). In the Malay form of tuju, or pointing, the sorcerer points a magic dagger or other
weapon, with the proper formula, in the direction of an enemy, who forthwith falls sick and dies. Or he commands a demon-caterpillar or other insect to enter into the victim's
body and devour
ii. A witch 199). " with a cowherd, by simply angry pointing her finger at him took an eye out of him." (Deeney,
his internal organs (P.R.
in Gaelic-speaking Ireland,
p. 78.)
But the Voodoo
sorcerers also reckoned as
"
commanded
"
things the thorns or nails used to pierce the effigies of persons
146

Where the thorn
pierces, there will
to be killed or injured.
the original be affected.
wide process. posed to represent, and is sometimes burnt, drowned, or buried, when the like death will befall the victim. Even in
the islands of the Torres Straits
This bewitching by effigy is a worldThe figure is named for the person it is sup-
we
find several varieties of
this practice, and the figures are often made of beeswax, or of wood covered with beeswax, just as by the American Or the maidelaig may take the dried joints of a negroes.
vine-like plant, which resemble human bones, place them together in human form, and name each segment, a piece " " for a limb. he crouched like Then," says Dr. Haddon,
fish-eagle,
and imitating the way that birds tear
flesh off
bones, threw them behind him without looking round, then left the spot." The patient dies, unless the wizard relents,
turns,
and looks
at the dried sticks
then afterwards undoes
the spell by returning, picking them up, placing them together, " and putting medicine" upon them (Torres Straits, v. 325). The following further examples of the working of these
several elements of
magical methods are singularly complete, inasmuch as the (a) the magical force itself, (6) the instruit
ment through which

it is
works, and
(c)
the means by which
brought into play, are clearly distinguishable in them.
(i) The ancient Peruvians before entering on a campaign were wont to starve black sheep (llamas ?) for some days and " then to kill them, saying, As the hearts of these beasts are so may our enemies be weakened." (FL. xv. 151.) weakened, (ii) The Arunta tribesman charges a bone or a slip of wood with arunquiltha or magical poisonous properties, cursing it " with the words, May your heart be rent asunder, may backbone be split open and your ribs torn asunder." your Then he chooses a convenient opportunity, and standing with his back to the destined victim secretly points the deadly
weapon
man,"
(iii)
evitably sickens
at him, repeating the same words. The man in" and unless saved by the magic of a medicine-
dies within a short time (S.
and G. 534,
536).
(a
The
practice of
making a Corp Chre or Chreadh
"
clay
The Magic Art.
147
body ") to injure an enemy lingered in the Hebrides within recent years. The effigy was stuck with pins, each of which would cause pain to the person represented in the corresponding part of his body. Spells were muttered over each If he were intended to die speedily, a pin was thrust pin.
into the region of the heart ; if he were intended to linger the heart was avoided. When the whole was finished, it
was placed
in running water, and as it crumbled so would the waste away. In Islay, when the Corp Chre was original made ready for the pins, the operator addressed it with the " From behind you are like a ram with an old fleece " words, and as the pins were put in a long incantation was repeated,
;
beginning
this
Islay,
As you waste away, may she waste away as wounds you, may it wound her." A Corp Chre from
;
"
One Archaeology and Ethnology at Cambridge. from Inverness-shire made for actual use so lately as 1889 is in the Pitt-Rivers Museum at Oxford, beside another from
the Straits Settlements.
made Museum of
thus,
is
in the Folklore Society's collection in the
The
in
first
of these cases exemplifies the sympathetic
method
an extreme form, for there is in it no sort of physical contact between subject and object the second case is symbolic, or dramatic and the third combines the two. But mimetic, whatever be the method adopted, whether the aid of spirits is employed or not, whether the object of the rite is distant or near at hand, it is evident that the will and intention of the operator, expressed or implied, is at the back of it all. It is this which touches the electric button, fires the powdermagazine, explodes the dynamite, liberates and directs the
; ;
magical forces.
"
It
is
not earth that
But the heart
I switch, of So-and-so,"
says the Malay, in the process of abducting his victim's soul
(MM.
p. 569).
"
But
not this bone I mean to stick my love's heart I mean to prick. May he have neither rest nor sleep Until he comes with me to speak,"
'Tis
148
says the English girl, stabbing a blade-bone of mutton. And the Psalmist compares an obstinate man to the deaf adder " which refuseth to hear the voice of the charmer, charm he
The magical treatise of Abbot Trithenius Spanheim, published at Frankfort in 1606, gives the operative clause of each recipe in cipher. When these potent words were deciphered, which was not accomplished till 1721, they proved to be merely a command to a particular spirit
never so wisely."
of
to appear visibly entrusted to him.
and perform
certain
confidential
duties
The importance
of the words used in each case is obvious.
They may be, as above, only a simple extempore command, but more frequently they consist of a prescribed formula, which is sometimes sung to a special chant, whence the
words charm, enchantment, incantation.
the Sirens will occur to everyone.)
(The magic song of

are usually
The formulas
if
not sung are muttered secret, and inaudibly. Even in England the words of hurriedly healing charms are kept secret, the power of giving them
is
a carefully-guarded
and
a special one, and their efficacy
The formulas
elements
:
(a)
is lost if they are divulged. consist of one or more of the following usually sacred or powerful names ; () invocations,
threats, or entreaties ; (c] expressions of the commands, or intentions of the operator ; (d) sacred narratives wishes, of events similar to that which it is desired to effect. In
dealing with spirits, names are especially essential, for, naturally, power over the personality of a bodiless being can only be obtained by his name. Many charms include the recitations of a long string of names, and invocations of greater superhuman beings to control lesser ones. Others begin by
rehearsing the origin of the
enemy
as an assertion of power.
The words
whether
of charms, however, are often not very intelligible, from long passage from mouth to mouth or owing to
borrowing from foreign languages. Some apparently meaningWhere less words may perhaps be undeciphered ciphers. writing is in use, the words of the charm are often written, and
carried about the person or hidden in the house, either as a
The Magic Art.

protective amulet or a be eaten or the words
!
149
"
luck-bringer."
washed
off,
Or the amulet may and the inky water drunk
for curative purposes.
Amulets, protective and prophylactic, and talismans (luckbringers) constitute a multum in parvo of magical art. They
be effectual by their own innate powers, as coral, amber, holed stones, and the like or because they are parts of such as relics of saints, teeth and claws of powerful beings,
may
certain animals, twigs and berries of certain trees, and so forth, or they may be figures or representations of such beings. Or owe their power to the skill of the wizard, as do they may
charms and luck-balls. King Alexander's Their qualities may be communicated by contagion the elephant's hairs may be carried to promote strength, the tiger's claws to give courage. They may have power to fortune and prosperity, as e.g. a crooked sixpence bring good
the written
tective
"
"
Or they may be simply prothe cross may guard the owner from witchcraft, ; " " the horns from the Evil Eye. As a rule, they are worn
or a four-leaved shamrock.
And the anxiety secretly for good luck, openly to avert evil. " to make assurance doubly sure " which shows itself in the
elaboration of complicated rites, appears also in complicated amulets like the Italian cimaruta and the Portuguese cinco
seimao (from senal de Solomao, or Solomon's Seal). It has already become obvious that very many magical " acts are independent of expert aid. Anyone can make the " horns against the Evil Eye, can put a silver coin in the
churn to guard the cream from witchcraft, can steal a potato to cure rheumatism, can strew broken glass in an enemy's footmarks, can call up the phantom of a lover by sowing hempseed with the words,
"
Hempseed I sow, hempseed I grow, Let him that is my true love come after me and
will
mow
it,
"
;
and the act

fessor
be
efficacious.
if
Anyone can do
as Pro-
only he knows what to do. The magic power in such cases resides in the gesture, the matter,
says,
Haddon
50
itself, not in the person of the performer, though, of course, its action is directed by his intention. And it is a nice question whether all this " house" hold magic was originally the sole property of the expert,
the act, or the word-formula
gradually made public and perhaps only imperfectly divulged, or whether it consists of the simple elements from which the
more elaborate
built
rites of
up
whether, in fact,
the professional wizard have been it represents degeneration or
early stages of evolution.
Be this as it may, there is hardly event in human life, or any occupation known to man, any which, in the lower cultures, has not its own magical accomBirth, maturity, marriage,
paniments.
and death, warfare, hunting, fishing, cattle-herding, husbandry, spinning and weaving, cookery, building, smith's work, and to crown all, thievery, all need the assistance of magic art, often on the part of experts, but also on the part of the workers themselves. For instance, the Rev. R. M. Heanley, watching
the building of a churchyard wall in Hampshire, expressed " " said the mason, Never fear some doubt of its stability. " shadow into him yesterhe'll stand right enow, for / built your day when you wasn't looking." But the collector of folklore
!
will find it best to inquire for
and record such
acts or rites
in connection with the particular activities they concern, rather than to heap them all together under the general
heading of Magic.
It is advisable
On no
always to use the native terms if possible. account should the technical names of one area or
culture be transplanted into another. When translation is needed, translate into English. Wizard (from M.E. wizard, O.F. guischard, knowing one, sagacious man) is, perhaps, the
least specialized generic
term
for the expert in
magic
it is
arts,
and
as such
it
has been used here.
The
idea that
the mas-
The word magician is a vulgar error. Arabian Nights, and sorcerer has evil associations. Medicine-man is a much overworked word. It is not an unsuitable name for one who uses charmed or medicated materials with intent to benefit persons or things, but should not be used
culine form of witch
recalls the
The Magic Art.
151
indiscriminately. Witch-doctor is a contradiction in terms, and so is counter-charmer. The words in ordinary use by the English
peasantry
may
be found useful elsewhere
witch for the mali-
cious evildoer
and
spell for his deeds of darkness ; white witch charmer for his opponent. Wise man and cunning man
and
literally translate
FL. xx.
(" knowing one," a word in frequent use in the Welsh 189). Conjurer, Marches among other places, generally denotes a man of some
both wizard and nganga
pretensions to learning, who is supposed to own magical books, " to know how to cast the planets," and to be able to call up
and banish
spirits.
traditions from the witch
Such men inherit a different stream of and the charmer, and are in fact the
degenerate representatives of the mediaeval magician. Does the sorcerer believe in his own sorcery ? Authorities
differ.
things have been done by scholarship, but as for have had dealings with the Devil," was the statement ascribed to a certain Berkshire man on his deathbed (FL. xiii. The Buryat shamans when attacked by sickness call 428).
"
Many
I
me,
in their colleagues to treat them (J.A.I, xxiv. 139). But the rain-maker said confidentially to Dr. Moffat the Barolong " It requires very great wisdom to deceive so missionary,
many.
You and I know
that
"
(Moffat, p. 314.)
CHAPTER
X.
DISEASE AND LEECHCRAFT.

LE medecin n'est a Forigine qu'un contre-sorcier ... la pharmacie n'est qu'une specialite de la magie." So writes M. Doutte (Magie et Religion, 36, 37), and the fact is as he " " charmstates it. Folk-medicine is simply applied magic
is
"
ing directed against a special foe, namely Disease. But it convenient for many reasons to consider it separately.
It is
only in modern times that medical science has disentangled itself from magic and empiricism, and the history
of folk-medicine should to
some extent enable us
to trace
the steps in the process of emancipation.
Moreover, absurd
and
irrational though its methods be, they yet exhibit the natural workings of the untutored mind, and thus are not without importance in the study of psychology. Nearly all, if not all, unscientific peoples appear to view
disease as a living entity capable of being passed from one to another like a cast-off garment. Some seem actually to it as a personality, a self-acting conscious being, whose regard
attacks are voluntary and intentional. Thus in India smallpox and cholera are regarded as goddesses, and are venerated
and propitiated accordingly.

is
In the South Sea Islands
illness
usually ascribed to the breach of a taboo. In this case help is generally useless ; the victim is doomed, and dies
accordingly, r Other effect of possession
of
more common
theories are that
it is
the
by demons, that it is an offended deity or the displeasure of deceased
due to the wrath

relatives.
Disease and Leechcraft.

or,
153
a
again,
that
it
is
the
work
of
human enemy,
is
sorcerer.
In such cases the
first
task of the medicine-man
to dis-
cover the cause of the trouble, so that the deity may be propitiated, the manes appeased, the demons expelled, or
the witch identified and punished. It is a point of honour " with him, as it is with the English charmer," not to enquire
into
The Rev.
symptoms. He must appear to know them intuitively. J. H. Weeks gives a droll account, too long to quote, of the process of suggestion and exhaustion by which the Congo medicine-man arrives at a diagnosis without appearing
to his simple audience to seek information (FL. xxi 448 sqq.). The usual methods of divination are brought into play, and in the case of sickness are generally accompanied by
much
which
gated,
noise,
may
drumming, and rattling, to scare any be about. Sometimes the sick man
evil spirits
is
thrown
into a sort of trance or stupor,

of the Siberian
and
in that condition interro-
when the enemy replies by his mouth. The duties shaman are greatly concerned with the treatment of disease. In his accustomed manner he sings, dances, and summons the spirits to his assistance. Perhaps the sick
man's soul
of disease)
is
absent from his body (a not uncommon theory and must be sought and replaced. The shaman
undertakes the spirit-journey.

it
The
soul eludes his pursuit,
by ways which sheep have trodden and where its traces are indistinguishable. The shaman, so he sings, searches the woods, the steppes, the seas, to find it. It has this earth for the realm of the gloomy Erlik, ruler quitted of the Under- World. This entails on the shaman a toilsome and expensive journey, and the patient must offer heavy
travels
sacrifices.
Perhaps Erlik demands another soul in exchange.

friend of the sufferer
is is
The dearest
the
fixed upon,
and the shaman

a lark,
over to
it
ensnares his soul while he
asleep.
It turns into
it,
shaman becomes a hawk, catches
and gives
Erlik,
of
who thereupon respites his original captive for a term The sick man recovers, but his friend is taken ill years.
dies (Buryats
:
and
J.A.I. xxiv. 69, 70).
154
Should the disease be due to spiritual agency, exorcism is Sir Everard im Thurn submitted to treatment for headache and fever at the hands of a peai-m&n in British Guiana. The patient and the practitioner spent the night in a dark hut, the former lying in a hammock, the latter
indicated.
crazing himself with draughts of tobacco- juice, working himself up apparently into a state of frenzy, and keeping up an
incessant ventriloquial conversation with the kenaimas or avenging spirits which were supposed to be tormenting the
In the morning he produced a caterpillar which sufferer. he professed to have extracted from his patient's body, and which he declared was the bodily form of the kenaima which had caused all the trouble (Indians of Guiana, p. 335-338). Sometimes the disease-demon must be provided with a substitute for his victim, a
new body
for his habitation.
Mr.
Skeat describes a
rite for expelling disease in
which
this is
the main point (M.M. p. 432). The charmer sets little dough images of all kinds of beasts, birds, fishes, etc., on a tray, and, with other ceremonies, coaxes the evil spirit to leave the sick man, as follows
"
I
:
have made a substitute And engage you for hire.
for
you
As As
for
for
So, I
your wish to eat, I give you food, your wish to drink, I give you drink, give you good measure whether of sharks,
Skates, lobster, crabs, shellfish (both of land Every kind of substitute I give you,
and
sea)
Good measure whether
of flesh, or of blood, both
cooked and raw.
Accept, accept duly, this banquet of mine.
..."
A curious belief, of which examples might be adduced from America, Asia, and the Southern Seas, as well as from
all
parts of Europe,
may
Hyde
is that a serpent, lizard, or other animal be swallowed or be generated inside the patient. Dr.
man who slept
(Beside the Fire, p. 46) tells the story of a Connaught in the hayfield and there got thirteen specimens
an alp-luachra (a newt) housed in his body. These creatures fed on whatever he ate, and he obtained no
of a creature called
Disease
benefit
and
Leechcraft.
155
from it. He was cured at last by being made to eat a quantity of salt beef without drinking, and then to lie down on the ground and hold his mouth open over a stream. His uncomfortable tenants being made excessively thirsty by the salt beef, one by one found their way out of his mouth and
into the water.
Other curative
rites in actual
use seem to aim at getting
quit of some physical or spiritual incubus and beginning life again as a new man. Such are mock-birth, mock-burial, and
even mock-cremation, which sometimes ends disastrously Change of name is another resource but this, perhaps, does not mean change of nature so much as escape from the power of the malicious demon or witch who has sent the disease.
!
A
is
crude and practical method of freeing oneself from disease by simply transferring it to some other person or thing.
serious prescription
turius, a medical
Pliny reprobates this unfriendly act, which survived as a down to the seventeenth century. Beck-
man
of that day,
recommends as a remedy
for fever, that the patient's nail-clippings should be put in a piece of rag and tied to the door of a neighbouring house (cf.
FL. xxiii. 236). The present writer knew an old woman in Kent who believed herself to have contracted ague as a child by taking a ribbon which some passing sufferer from the same complaint had tied to the gate of her parents' garden. (She was cured on the advice of a Gypsy woman, by being chased up a hill by some boys with sticks till she sank down Or the disease may be transferred, not to another exhausted.) sufferer, but to some dead or decaying substance, together with which it perishes. Most of the common wart- and wencures are based on this sympathetic principle. So is the " " cure for infantile hernia. Here well-known split-ash and healing, not decay, are the objects aimed at, growth and the ceremony seems also to be connected with the idea
of re-birth.
split tree,
The
child
is
passed through the opening in the

is
the tree-trunk
bound up, and often
plastered,
and as
This remedy, mentioned by Marcellus of Bordeaux, physician to the Emperor Theodosius I.,
it
heals, so will the child.
156
was pronounced obsolete by White of Selborne in the eighteenth century. Yet in the year 1910 Mr. Crooke, remarking on the sickly looks of a child in the Cotswold Hills, was told by the mother in a self-defensive tone that she had done all she could for it, she had had it passed through an ash-tree All these methods really aim at getting rid of disease, not at healing it. The simplest possible method of healing,
!
namely, by application of remedies to the diseased part, may be noted first in connection with sacred persons, things, or places. The royal touch for scrofula, the draught or the
bath
in the holy well or the sacred stream, the pilgrimage to the sacred shrine, all aim at cure, at overcoming the disease " " virtue by the residing in the beneficent power resorted to. Mr. H. A. Rose has collected a valuable group of evidence
Punjab on this head (FL. xxi. 313-335). His information reveals the existence of whole families in whom the power of healing diseases chiefly sores, wounds, and swellings by touch, is hereditary, and whose mystic power is so great that food cooked, or a string knotted, by one of them,
in the
has
all
one
case,
the virtue of the touch, the breath, or the spittle. In even rubbing against the wall of the healer's shop
should all the owner's family be absent. As for departed saints and fakirs, the mould from their graves, the wells from which they drew water, the very guardians of their
will suffice,
shrines, exercise the
same healing power which they them-
selves possessed in their lifetime, and the words they spoke are still potent charms in the mouths of others (p. 328).
Certain conditions
must be
tried
may have to be observed the remedy on a certain day, the patient must submit to
matter of diet but
it
restrictions in the
is
the vicarious
contact with the holy

are
man
that effects the cure.

referred to.
" the Anglo-Saxon Leechdoms (i. 393 ). For a stitch in the side let a cross be made and a Paternoster sung over the
place, together with the words,
'
Charms and amulets have been already some further specimens of the former.
The
first is
Here from
Dominum,
et restitit
sanguis
et recessit dolor.'
Longinus miles lancea punxit " To recover a
Disease
and
Leechcraft.
157
epileptic fit an old Welsh book of folk-medicine " Set thy mind well upon God and prescribes as follows say these words thrice in his ear Anamzapta." Mr. G. F.
:
man from an
Abbott gives the following from a MS., apparently of the " For eighteenth century, procured by him in Macedonia St. Kosmas and Damian, pain in the breast say this prayer St. Cyrus and St. John, St. Nicholas and St. Akindynos, who
:
'
hold the scythes and cut the pain, cut also the pain of the " servant of God, so-and-so.' (Abbott, p. 235.) The same
MS. prescribes for ague and for tertian and quotidian fever, charms to be written on apples and pears and eaten. In the
Saga of Egil Skallagrimson a sick woman is made worse by a piece of whalebone carved with runes placed in her bed. The hero declares that they are the wrong runes, cuts them out,
scrapes them off into the fire, and cuts others, which, placed under the patient's bolster, bring immediate relief.
Besides exorcism, charming, and symbolic rites, folk-medicine includes to some extent the administration of drugs
of the nastiest
The old medical theory known as " the doc" trine of signatures held its ground among the Faculty till " It supposed," writes Dr. comparatively modern times. " Tylor (Early Hist. p. 122), that plants and minerals indicated
(cf.
which among both white and coloured races are sometimes and most disgusting kind (cf. FL. xiii. 69-75). The selection of the drugs used is often determined by super" " ficial resemblances only, on the axiom that like cures like
chap.
ix.).
by their external characteristics the diseases for which Nature had intended them as remedies. Thus the Euphrasia or eyebright was, and is, supposed to be good for the eyes, on the
strength of a black pupil-like spot in its corolla, the yellow turmeric was thought good for jaundice, and the bloodstone
is
... used to this day (Plowden, 124) for stopping blood." There can, however, be no doubt that the medicine-men of all the continents do acquire a certain amount of real knowledge of the properties of herbs, even if only of poisonous and narcotic herbs. But the healing powers of plants are rarely supposed to be effectual unless they are gathered at
158
certain times

and with prescribed
rites.
The
Pcenitentiale
of Egbert, Archbishop of York in the tenth century, forbids the gathering of herbs with any incantation other than
Christian
prayers.
details
famous passage
of
in
Pliny's
Natural
gathering mandragora. The ginseng plant which the Cherokee Indians use in their medical " The practice also has a root resembling the human form. Doctor speaks constantly of it as of a sentient being, and it
History
the
mode
is
believed to be able to
it.
make itself invisible
to those
unworthy
to gather
In hunting it, the first three plants found are " four is a sacred number passed by. The fourth is taken " North America after a preliminary speech, in throughout which the Doctor addresses it as the Great Adawehi
' '
(magician), and humbly asks permission to take a small piece of its flesh. On digging it from the ground he drops into
the hole a bead, and covers it over, leaving it there by way of payment to the plant-spirit. After that he takes them
as they come without further ceremony," Amer. Eth. 425.)
(xix.
Rep. Bur.
The
following are
some
of the principal maladies for
which
medico-magical remedies are employed in different countries, viz. ague, bites of animals, bleeding, burns, boils, colds, " coughs, cramp, diarrhoea, epilepsy or falling sickness,"
eye-troubles, fevers and pestilences ; female complaints, dimcult child-birth, barrenness; "fright," or nervous shock ; head-
aches, haemorrhages,
infantile
convulsions,
hernia, teething
troubles, jaundice, kidney disorders, nightmare

ness,
and
sleepless-
rheumatism,
"
rickets,
scrofula,
shingles,
skin-diseases,
sprains,
stitch," swellings
debility,
wounds, wasting
and tumours, toothache, warts, whooping-cough, and other zymotic
complaints. In making enquiries, the collector will probably ask how such and such a disease should be treated but in arranging his notes afterwards it will be advisable to classify them
;
according to the kind of remedy used. The local or native names of the various diseases should be stated. See Questionary, p. 323.
PART
II.
CUSTOMS.
Let us
all
act according to our national customs
"
!
SIR
CHARLES NAPIER
(Life, p. 249).
CHAPTER
SOCIAL
XI.
AND POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS.
EXAMINATION of the ideas which give birth to folklore practice has shown us the similarity, nay, the identity, of the early workings of the human mind throughout the world. But something more than this is demanded of the folklorist, namely, to study the development and differentiation of custom in different parts of the world, and to gauge the parts played respectively by race, by environment, and by contact with
foreigners, in the evolution of these different To this we must now turn.
It
forms of culture.
in the sense of
may be
asked,
why we
include custom
social institutions
is
in the category of folklore.
The answer
that institutions, like beliefs and stories, are mainly the product of human mentality conditioned by environment, and like them, too, are immaterial, invisible, intangible. They
this
:
are thus distinguished from arts and crafts (technology), the Instimaterial product of human ingenuity and industry. tutions form the framework within which beliefs and stories
and from which they take form and colour. How may be bound up with belief and belief with institution, and how both may give rise to myth, may be perceived at once by reference to the cardinal cases of Totemism and Caste. And when any social system decays or is
exist,
institution
swept away, the process of decay may be observed to extend to other phases of folklore also. The rites become meaningless ceremonies, the beliefs lose their raison d'etre, the stories are
62
forgotten or sink into children's tales. All are subject to the same laws and affected by the same influences. Thus
no record of the which does not

account.
folklore of
any people can be complete

social
take
their
organization
into
After accurate observation, the next requisite for accurate is accurate terminology ; and, moreover, the use of a common terminology, without which one man's record
record
cannot be compared or equated with another's. A frequent source of confusion is the loose use of the words
if they were synonya tribe is a loosely-compacted Properly speaking, political unit, which may be either indigenous or immigrant,
tribe
and
clan,
which are often treated as
mous.
either free or in subjection to another tribe or a nation, either
of pure ethnic descent or formed by the coalescing of several tribes, which may either amalgamate or preserve their identity
as sub-tribes
while clans are social units contained within
definitions agreed upon by the Joint Committee on Terminology for the common use of this work and of the new (1912) edition of Anthropological Notes and Queries,
the tribe.
The
"
give,
Tribe, a
group of a simple kind, nomadic, or settled
within a more or less definite locality, speaking a common dialect, with a rude form of [common] government, and " and capable of uniting for common action, as in warfare " Clan, an exogamous division of a tribe," adding the quali;
fying particulars presently to be noted.
The words
Sept,
Gens, and Totem-kin have been used synonymously with Clan, Some American authors but the latter is recommended.
use Gens only when there is patrilineal descent there is matrilineal descent.
;
Clan, where
The
clan system
is
generally, but
by no means
invariably,
The members totemic, (see Totemism in chap. iii. pp. 41-43). of each clan usually believe themselves to be of one blood, descended from a common ancestor, generally eponymous.
But as
even
of all
if
this ancestor usually bears marks of mythical origin, he be not actually one of the lower animals, the use
is
words implying blood-relationship
best reserved for
Social
and
i.e.
163
cases of real consanguinity
for
"
such relationship as
clanship
can be genealogically proven."
The words
and
clans-
man
will sufficiently indicate
the mutual relationship of the
several
members
of a clan.
The
clans contained in
a tribe are sometimes grouped

parties,
together in two or
more exogamous
which have been
conveniently termed phratries, or, if only two, moieties. These are in Australia still further divided into two, four, or even
eight,
classes,
as to which complicated rules of

details of these the student
exogamy
referred
prevail.
For
must be
works of Australian anthropological explorers, Fison, Howitt, Spencer and Gillen, John Mathew, and others and to those of their English commentators and critics, J. G. Frazer, Andrew Lang, and N. W. Thomas. Sometimes the whole population is divided into two exogamous moieties only, without any clans. Where this dual
to the
;
organization is found, matrilineal descent invariably prevails also, so that a man's children always belong to the opposite
moiety from himself.
from the clan by the fact i.e. that marriage takes place within the social group instead of outside of it. The word caste is derived from the Portuguese casta, pure, and the great aim of the higher and more important Hindoo castes is to preserve themselves from defilement by contact, even of the slightest kind, with outsiders. But among the lower and minor castes and sub-castes, who are engaged in carrying on special avocations peculiar to themselves, it may be surmised
Caste
is
The
easily distinguished
that
it is
endogamous instead of exogamous
endogamy is largely kept up by the desire to keep trade secrets within the charmed circle. To these two characteristic marks of the caste, endogamy and hereditary
that the rule of
occupation, M. Bougie (iv. Ann. Soc. 1901) would add a third, the practice of hereditary religious rites. The caste thus
forms a close corporation, and the social system founded on it " " is based on a which has principle of repulsion reciproque
a natural tendency to constant sub-division and resulting weakness, absolutely opposite to the aggregating mutually-
164
exogamous organization of the clans. which should successfully distinguish the caste from the Tribe is more difficult, but in practice, says " Mr. H. A. Rose (Man, 1908, 52), it is as a rule easy to discaste from tribe in India," and the use of the word tinguish caste should properly be limited to the institution as it exists in India, and to similar institutions which may be found
attractive influence of the

definition
To frame a
elsewhere. 1
The next point is to discriminate between Clanship and between common membership of an intimatelyKinship connected social group and actual blood-relationship such as can be genealogically demonstrated. The Clan must be dis;
tinguished from the Kin. To this end the customary ambiguous use of the word Family to denote a whole kindred
or a whole household (familia) must be avoided. The term Family should be limited to the group consisting of parents " and children, including adopted children, that is to say, all
children, adopted or other, who are treated by law and custom as descendants from the person, whether father or mother, through whom descent is traced." The larger group consisting of the descendants of
common
grandparents or great-
grandparents
the
German
Grossefamilie
may
conveniently
be styled the Kindred. When living under one roof, they may be known as the Undivided Household. And the whole
conventional (excluding relations to the utmost limit of genealogical demonstraby marriage), tion, may be described as the Kin.
circle of relations, real or
When Sir Henry Maine brought the study of early institutions into prominence, he began with the Patriarchal Family, then supposed to be the most primitive social institution in existence. Later research has shown that far behind the
1 The subject may be studied in Risley, H. H., Tribes and Castes of Bengal, 1891 : Crooke, W., Tribes and Castes of the North-West Provinces and Oudh, 1896 Thurston, E., Castes and Tribes of Southern the Imperial India, 1909 Lyall, Sir A. C., Asiatic Studies, 1899
:
Gazetteer of India, 1907, vol.

Ethics, 1910, art. 1911, vol. i.
i.
:
"
Caste
"
Hastings' Encyclopedia of Religion and and Gait, E. A., Indian Census Report,
:
Social
and
165
society
patriarchal system there lies a stage in which the fabric of is built upon the relationship between the child and
the mother and her clan or kin, to the exclusion, or comparaWhere such a system prevails tive exclusion, of the father.
no
man
is
heir to his
own
father,
but to his mother's brother.
No
king even,
as in Barotseland
and elsewhere
in Africa at
the present day can transmit his lineage, or hope to leave His brother if living if not, his throne to his posterity. must succeed him. The princesshis royal sister's son
mother never becomes queen-regnant, her husband may never But, low-born though he may be, he aspire to the throne. " noble father of kings-to-be," and his is nevertheless the daughter by his princess-wife is destined to carry on the
royal line to another generation. Matrilineal succession is very common, but
it is
sometimes
confined to the royal house only, while the rest of the nation uses the patrilineal reckoning, or
as in several African cases
vice versa.
An intermediate stage seems indicated in the Old Testament

history,
fathers,
where the kings of Judah and Israel succeed to their but the name of each king's mother is carefully recorded and where marriage between the children of one father by different mothers seems to have been permissible (2 Sam. xiii. 13). Matrilineal descent is often found in conjunction with matri" local marriage, i.e. the custom by which the man leaves his father and mother," not the woman hers, and takes up his abode temporarily or permanently, with his wife's family a practice found, for example, in Ceylon, and among various Bengali tribes. And, further, there are cases of which North America supplies many examples in which the mother not only transmits the right of inheritance, but wields supreme authority over the children and grandchildren, either person;
ally,
or
by her
brothers, their maternal uncles
or else the
mother's kin as a whole exercises dominion over her descendants.
state of society characterized by two or all of these three conditions matrilineal descent, matrilocal marriage,
66
and matripotestal family, is known to students as the system of Mother-right, German Mutter-recht.
There are other peoples again, including some very low in the scale of civilization, as the Andamanese and many of the Eskimo, who reckon descent as we do, on both sides of the " " house. In fact, the system of varies very counting kin
much
in different countries,
and
it
in every locality it
demands
careful examination, for
on
this
inheritance, with all that
depends the local law of involves. Much good ethno-
graphical work has been spoilt (and, we may add, many political mistakes have been made and political disasters
by the omission to note such seeming trifles as whether " " " and uncle paternal or maternal relatives are by " " meant, or whether cousins are the children of two brothers, two sisters, or a brother and sister. As these and other such distinctions are usually denoted by different words, a comcaused) "
aunt
petent knowledge of the language should prevent such blunders. Reliable information on such points cannot easily be obtained by asking abstract questions as to heirship, relation-
The uncultured native is not accustomed to deal with things in the abstract, and his mind does not readily grasp them. He cannot generalize from details. The matter
ship, etc.
is
further complicated in many countries viz. Australia, Oceania, India, and probably other parts of Asia, Africa (excepting North Africa), and America (except among the " " Eskimo), by the existence of the classificatory system, under which the people are accustomed to address all the
of their social group who belong to the same " " " as their parents, as father or mother," and generation all those of their own generation whom they cannot marry as " " " brother or sister." In spite of this, the blackfellow
men
or
women
knows
perfectly well
who
is
his actual mother,

it is
and
distin-
guishes her from other
the same, except in abnormal systems, with his putative father. But to the very " " classificatory relationships are as European mind these
great a stumbling-block as our systematic and generalizing modes of thought are to the natives.
women, and
Social
and
" "
167
The
fact is that, while the
relationship to which we " " institution of the Family, the classificatory system is based on that of the Clan. And when it is found apart from the Clan system, it affords presumptive evidence of former
consanguineous system of are accustomed is based on the
clan organization
among the people
in question.
But
it
does
not obtrude
on European notice, and frequently therefore escapes observation. There is the more need, then, to
itself
draw attention
(i)
to
it.
:
In the Classificatory system

all
members of a given social group and certain other relatives who belong to the same generation are counted as brothers and sisters to each other all those of the previous generation as their fathers and mothers and all those of the succeeding generation as their chil; ;
dren
(ii)
two reciprocal relationships, such as grandfather and grandson, uncle and nephew, are often known only by a common term (as if we had but the one term " " for both husband and wife) spouse (iii) different terms are used (a) for relatives on the father's and the mother's side whereas we speak of both indifferently as uncle and aunt, grandfather and grandmother, etc. (6) for relatives by marriage on a man's or woman's own side of the house or on his wife's
: :
or her husband's
his sister's
whereas with us a
man
calls
both
husband and
his wife's brother, his brother-
in-law
in-law
his brother's wife
and his wife's sister, his sisterand the same with a woman. The differing
:
nomenclature of the classificatory system obviously denotes different footings of relationship in each case
(iv)
different
terms are often used for relatives (especi-
ally brothers, sisters, and cousins) according as they are older or younger, actually or conventionally, than the
speaker
(v)
terms are often used for the relationship between two individuals of the same sex, and the same
different
68
relationship between two individuals of the opposite sexes (as if, with us, a son should call the father " " " Pater/' and a daughter address him as Daddy ; or " " " " a mother be Mater to her son and to her
Mummy
daughter). Sometimes the father uses a different word Not unfor children from that used by the mother.
frequently there is one word for a brother meaning one of two brethren, and another for a brother in relation to his sister ; one word for sister as one of
and another for a sister in relation to her The explanation of this is that brothers and brothers. sisters may belong to, or become members of, different clans, and that consequently they stand in different relatwo
sisters
tions to each other from those of the brother to his
brother or the sister to her
sister.
the lower culture as well as, or even more than, in the higher, sundry degrees of relationship involve special
as, in
Now
duties, privileges, and restrictions student desires to inform himself
matters as to which the

it is
important to underthe system, consanguineous or classificatory, on which they are based. And it is obvious that the English terms of consanguinity cannot be used as equivalents for the
stand what
is
terms of
It is therefore advisable, having learnt classification. the native terms for the simple basal relationships of father, mother, child, husband, and wife, to ascertain from an individual native the personal names of those who stand in these
relations to himself individually and to set down the inforthen to enquire mation in the form of a tabular pedigree
;
the personal names of those who stand or stood in similar relations to those already noted and add them to the table,
frequently preserve the names of their ancestry very carefully, several generations can be recorded in this way, and a circle of relations to the third or fourth
and
so on.
As savages
degree of kindred ascertained. Next, ask your informant what he calls each of the several persons entered in the pedigree when he speaks to them, and
what each
calls
him, and thus learn the native terms of
rela-
Social
and
169
"
In tionship, the system of classification of kindred, etc. the case of many relationships two forms are used, one in addressing a relative and one in speaking of him, and both
of these should be obtained.
different
;
In many parts of the world terms of relationship are used by people of different " " sexes man speaking " m.s., and (these should be marked " " " woman speaking w.s. and the terms respectively) ;
are also
of the
"
"
(as already said)
affected
by the
respective ages
two parties to the relationship," such as elder or younger
On brothers, etc. (W. H. R. Rivers, in Soc. Rev. Jan. 1910). the Congo, different terms of relationship are used in speaking
to acquaintances and to strangers. It is advisable to get lists of kinship terms from several different pedigrees, or else to put the list by for a time and
then ask your informant again.
It is also well to
supplement
the genealogical tree by asking for a list of all the people to whom a given man applies a term of relationship, such as kinsmen too distant to appear in the pedigree, fellow clansmen,
relatives
by adoption, etc. And endeavour should be made to ascertain whether any special rights or functions belong to
particular relatives in the case, e.g., of marriage or funeral rites. It is probable that this occurs to a much greater extent than has hitherto been supposed. The tree should be filled
in by adding the residence, the clan or other social group, and the rank or status, if any, of each individual entered. (To give it any statistical value the names of infants or others
dying without issue should be included.) The information can be verified by comparison with the genealogies of others, for some of the same individuals will probably recur in different
relations in other pedigrees. Among most peoples of low culture the older
men preserve a knowledge of their collateral relationships as well as their lineal descent, so the needful information can be readily
obtained.
Difficulties
the
common
when they arise occur either through taboo on the names of the dead a taboo, how;
ever, which often affects only the members of their own kin through the practice of adoption, by which an adopted child
70

;
is
or through the habit of counted precisely as a real child exchanging names, which naturally gives rise to a good deal
of confusion. " Having obtained a sufficient
number of pedigrees to enable him to form a reliable induction, and having supplemented them by general questions in the ordinary way, the enquirer
may
codify his evidence, secure that he
is in
a position to
give a demonstrably true account of the system of relationship, the marriage laws, and the laws of inheritance of the people among whom he has been enquiring, as well as a good
deal of local history, such as the date and progress of war " not to speak of facts of biology and physical and migrations
;
anthropology which do not concern us here. " The genealogical method," adds Dr. Rivers
"
(op. cit.),
is
especially important in the study of the inheritance of property. Thus, it is possible to take a given piece of land and
enquire into
its
first cultivated.
history, perhaps from the time when it was The history of its divisions and sub-divisions
on various occasions may be minutely followed, and a case of ownership which would seem hopelessly complicated becomes perfectly simple and intelligible in the light of its history, and an insight is given into the real working of the laws concerning property which could never be obtained by
any
less concrete method." In the comparatively rare cases in which the system of
(p.
Mother-right
i.e.
166) reaches the point of actual matriarchy
maternal rule
their contents,
the
women
exclusively
own
the houses
their
and
and transmit the inheritance to
daughters, while the men own merely their tools, weapons, and other personal belongings. The Khasis afford a notable example of this. With them, on the death of the mother, all
the
daughters are portioned,
inherits the maternal dwelling,
and the youngest daughter and with it the responsibility
for the performance of the religious rites of the household. " The man is nobody." He does not always even live or eat in his mother-in-law's house, but merely visits his wife there. of his labour will be inherited by his wife, The
proceeds
Social
and
171
But or, if he die a bachelor, by his mother (Gurdon, 82, 83). more commonly the ownership is vested in the men, and their succession to property is regulated by maternal descent. A man's heir is either his brother by the same mother, or else
his sister's son. Failing him, the sister herself inherits. On the Lower Congo a chief's brother by the same mother succeeds to his position, and his eldest sister's eldest son to his
goods
(J.
H. Weeks, MS. note).
Father-right prevails the law of property naturally accords with it, but it is not always the first-born son who
inherits.
Where
Sometimes
all
the children share alike, sometimes
the sons divide the property among them. On the Upper Congo the eldest son takes half, the second two-thirds of the
remaining half, and so on in diminishing proportions (J. H. W.). In other cases the elder sons are successively portioned in
the father's lifetime and the youngest falls heir to the family hearth a custom which, under the name of Borough-English,
lingers in cases of intestacy in not a few scattered manors and boroughs in our own country. Failing sons, sometimes the
daughters inherit, sometimes more distant kinsmen in the male line and, in default of other heirs, even slaves. We see this in the case of Abraham, and the custom must have
;
lingered, at least in
tine,
(St.
memory, among the peasantry

to
kill
of Pales-
judging from the proposal of the Wicked Husbandmen
Luke
xx.
14)
the son in order to obtain his
the Lower Congo, should there be no heir blood, the eldest slave (i.e. the slave bought first by the by " I knew a case," writes deceased man) becomes the heir.
inheritance.
On
Mr. Weeks, where a boy of about twelve inherited his master's wealth because he was bought first, but an adult
slave,
"
bought later, looked after the goods till the boy was old enough to do so himself." Among nomadic peoples, individual ownership is naturally limited to a man's personal belongings, and there is no private property in land. But even nomadic tribes have a certain
sense of collective property in the area of the customary tribal wanderings, and resent the intrusion of another tribe into
172
their territory.
And the idea of collective ownership of land seems to survive very far into civilization. M. de Laveleye, in his work on Primitive Property, quotes an ancient Czech poem on a quarrel between two brothers as to their inheri" You tance, in which the queen Libusa gives judgment thus
:
should agree as brothers on the subject of your inheritance, and you shall hold it in common according to the sacred
of our ancient law. The father of the family the house, the men till the ground, the women make governs the garments. If the head of the house dies, the children retain the property in common and choose a new chief." This is still the rule among the Southern Slavs, from the
traditions
banks of the Danube to beyond the Balkans (E. S. H.). Among the Southern Bantu peoples, the whole of the tribal
out so
territory belongs in theory to the supreme chief, who parcels much as is necessary to the several heads of families
it
his people. The grantee cannot dispose of the land, must descend in his family after his death. He has thus no more than the usufruct. Nor can the chief resume any
among
land once granted, unless the grantee flee the country, or be put to death for some crime, such as rebellion or witchcraft. His land is then granted out again to another. In the words
Cape Government Commission on Native Laws and " Customs, the chief may be considered as a Trustee holding the land for the people, who occupy and use it in subordination
of the
on communistic principles." (E. S. H.) Another type of land-tenure is exhibited in the Village Community, which combines "several" and common ownerIt is a ship with a nicety of adjustment peculiar to itself.
to him,
self-governing local agricultural unit, either directly subordinate to the national government or mediately subject to
it
through a headman or overlord.
For living examples of
the system the student must look to India, to Russia, or to remote corners of Northern and Central Europe. Relics of
its
existence
in
and
may still be traced on the surface of Great many of the customs of the folk. And it is
Britain,
not too
much
to say that the folklore of Great Britain cannot properly
Social
and
73
be appreciated or understood without reference to the Village
Community
(see infra, p. 188).
Inheritance and land tenure are far from being the only subjects of customary law. There is perhaps no people so
it does not possess some accepted standard some criminal code, and some kind of judicial procedure. And in civilized countries the folk often have a code of their own, differing from the official standard on such
uncivilized that
of morals,
subjects as the relations of the sexes, the duty of vengeance, the law of contract, the law of inheritance, and the proprieties
of social
life.
They have,
too, traditionally-prescribed
methods
of exhibiting their indignation at any breach of their own code. Acquaintance with the local code of law and morals is
naturally very important to good governance
and good under-
Mr. C. H. Hobley points out (J. R.A.I, xli. 456) standing. that the apparently unaccountable desertions by which the
A-Kikuyu
of British East Africa break their contracts of service
by the need of obtaining ceremonial purification after some breach of native law or custom, or of going through the formalities necessary before
are often necessitated, in their idea,
taking possession of an inheritance. The men are compelled to go by fear of the consequences of omitting the rites in question, and dare not return for fear of punishment for
But if they know that their employer understand the position, they are not afraid to ask for leave of absence, and they then usually return in a few days, thus reducing the inconvenience to a minimum. Among
absence without leave.
will
their neighbours the
A-Kamba,
it
has been found
difficult
to
get dwellings erected for
the single men in Government The explanation is that only married men are employ. qualified to act as builders (J. R.A.I., xliii. 538). Naturally, the native codes do not coincide with those of
civilization.
They
between
stories of
ritual,
are apt to make little or no distinction moral, and criminal offences. As in the
Jephthah and of Herod, the sanctity of human life ranks far below the sanctity of an oath. Defrauding generally a fellow-tribesman may be a crime, but stealing from or
174
cheating an outsider may more probably be reckoned a virtue. The laws of hospitality may be extravagant in one direction and strictly limited in another. But it is impossible to do more than glance at the subject here. Savage ethics may
be studied at length in Dr. Westermarck's Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas and Sir Henry Maine's Ancient Law, though a pioneer work, has not yet been superseded as an
;
introduction to the study of early legal and judicial practice. A few hints on the subject will be found in the Questionary, A good deal of African native law has been recorded p. 327.
in the Journal of the African Society and other recent ethnographical studies (v. POST, in Appendix D.). Turning now to early forms of Political Organization, the following examples exhibit well-marked and contrasted types,
and
1.
may
be found suggestive.
The Tribe in Australia.
The Australian tribe possesses a common name, a common dialect, and a well-known and recognized tribal territory,
which other tribes
takes no
may
attempt to conquer.
common
invade indeed, but which they never it has no common government and action, except by assembling at the bora
But
or initiation rites, held from time to time at the instance of some local sub-division and often attended by other invited
tribes.
The
different tribes intermarry, always,
however, ob-
serving the matrimonial class-regulations. Each tribe contains an elaborate system of exogamic classes and clans, often
This system, however, only affects the marriage system and has no political significance. The real political unit is the small local group, which occupies a certain well-defined area of the tribal land, and which may
matrilineal but not matripotestal.
include
members
of
several
clans.
An
elaborate code of
procedure regulates the mutual intercourse of the groups, and the office of messenger, whether professional or specially-
autonomous.
an important one. Each group is practically The supreme authority is vested in the council of old men, led by the headman, who has considerable power
accredited,
is
Social
in his
and
175
own group, but no position or authority outside it. council takes independent action, administers justice according to a well-understood code, punishes breaches of
The
tribal law, and resents injuries by other groups either within or without the tribe. (See G. C. Wheeler, The Tribe in Australia.)
II.
Mother -Right in a North American Tribe.

the Indian tribes of North America the clan (where the smallest organized unit, and the tribe is a
tribe of
Among
it
exists) is
body with a strong central government. The Kansas affords in addition an excellent Wyandot
corporate
in the true sense of that often-misThis tribe consists of eleven gentes or clans, which are grouped in four phratries, and each has its own place on the march and in the tribal camp. The tribe is
example of Matriarchy
used word.
it
endogamous, and a stranger wishing to marry into must first be adopted into some family of a suitable clan. But the clan is exogamous and though a man may have several wives they must all belong to different clans. The right to dispose of a girl in marriage belongs to her " " the young couple begin their mother, in whose lodge
strictly
;
life. Later, they set up a separate household among her clan, to which their children will belong, but the husband continues to enjoy all the rights of membership of his own
married
clan. The lodge and the household goods belong to the wife and descend to her eldest daughter ; the husband's
personal possessions clothing, weapons, fishing-tackle, and tools are his own, and such of them as are not buried with
him are inherited by his brother or his sister's son. The land is the common property of the tribe. The Tribal Council decides what part of it is to be cultivated, and allots a portion to each clan, and a clan cannot change its portion without permission. The women -members of the clan-council allot a patch of ground to each household, and mark it The ground is re-partitioned every two years, distinctly. and is tilled by the able-bodied women, each householder
76

to
getting her fellow clanswomen
help her
to
work
her
patch.
Each
clan
is
governed by a council consisting of four women;
householders chosen by the other female householders of the and of a Chief who is chosen clan, who hold office for life
and sons. The councils make up the Tribal Council, for which the male members choose a Sachem or Tribal Chief from among the men of the Deer Clan. The subordination of the Clan
their brothers
of the eleven clans
by them from among
Council
is
tion of each
formally acknowledged by the ceremonial installanew councillor or chief, when the clan gives a
feast to the tribe
councillor's election
on her head. and informal

full
and the Sachem himself announces the new and puts the official chaplet of feathers The meetings of the Clan Councils are frequent
the Tribal Council meets regularly at every
moon, summoned by the chief of the Wolf Clan, whose duty it is to superintend the building of the Council-house, to announce the decisions of the Sachem to the tribe, and to execute the directions of the Sachem and Council. The meetings are opened with ceremonial tobacco-smoking, and
the procedure throughout is strictly formal. Any flaw in the procedure of judicial business is looked upon as supernatural evidence in favour of the accused.
division of business
There
is
a definite
councils,
between the
tribal
and clan
This
is
and unusually important matters may be decided by

a General Council of the tribe or clan.
constitution.
the
"
calling
civil
"
The
bodied
men
of the tribe,
military council consists of all the ablewho choose the military chief from
the Porcupine Clan. He usually has one or more chosen comrades who adhere closely to him and who are ready to take his place if he should be killed in battle (Rep. Bur. Amer.
Ethn. 1879-80, p. 68).
///. The Tribe in Europe.
The tribal system of Albania resembles a clan-organization on an extensive scale. The tribe or fis contains one or more bariaks, or groups of men who fight under one standard, and
Social
and
177
the bariaktar, or hereditary standard-bearer, is the head of the group. The whole fis traces its descent from a common ancestor in the male line, and the unit is the kindred dwelling together (in the less sophisticated tribes) as an undivided
household.
over
all
the
The head of the household has absolute authority " members of the house/' even where they do
not actually dwell under his roof. A group of closely-related " " houses forms a mehala. The government is by the medjliss or council of elders, and a full council of all the heads of
households and bariaktars
is
assembled to decide matters

Marriage with kindred on the
which
affect the
whole
tribe.
father's side is strictly forbidden to an apparently limitless degree of relationship. The fis is, therefore, strictly exo-
gamous but as consanguinity is reckoned in the male line only, and as the same neighbouring tribes exchange daughters in every generation, it follows that they must be very closely
;
inter-related,
fact.
though they themselves are not aware of the are kept in great subjection, and have no voice in their own matrimonial affairs. The tribes are nominally either Christian or Moslem, but they retain their own standard of conduct in spite of either religion. In most tribes a man, whether married or single, takes his brother's
The women
widow to wife notwithstanding the anger of the Church. Blood-brotherhood, made by each party swallowing a few drops of the other's blood, conveys all the privileges, and
also the disabilities, of consanguinity.
Blood-feuds are ram"
pant.
A squabble between neighbours, a blow, a disrespectful
blackens a man's word, an unimportant breach of contract, honour," and is sufficient to start a feud that will rage backwards and forwards, a life for a life, male blood of the one house or tribe for male blood of the other, for an indefinite
number
of years. and guests are sacred, and no fighting takes place in their presence ; but with this restriction the feud goes on till the one side is willing to give, and the other to accept, the blood-geld prescribed by the " Law of
Women
Lek."
This
is
the traditional code of the mountaineers,
attributed to a chieftain
named Lek, a member
of a family
178
to the conquest
which held sway over the greater part of High Albania down by the Turks in 1479 (M. E. Durham, High
Albania, passim).
IV. Aristocracy.
In contrast to these free democratic tribal systems, Polynesian society was organized on a strictly aristocratic basis. The political power was in the hands of the chiefs, and noble
birth
was
of the first importance
so
much
so that the child
of a noble family was considered higher in rank than his parents, from the fact that he is a step higher in the patrician genealogy (Polack, i. 27). This, although the father was
magistrate in his
own
family,
and
extended to
Poly. Res.
of society.
life
and death over
his children
his authority apparently and slaves (Ellis,
iii.
The Manahune
landless
chap. iv. v.). or common people formed the lowest grade

to
Among them seem
have been reckoned
all
men, fishermen, dants of the chiefs, and
artizans, dependents, personal attenThe next rank was that of slaves.
the Bue Raatira, the landed proprietors, gentry and farmers, including all priests who were not by birth of the Hui Arii
The separation of ranks secured and the power of the chiefs supported, by a multitude of prohibitions to touch, taste, or handle anything
is
or nobility, the highest rank. Polynesia is the home of tabu.
appertaining to a chief.
tions
is
breach of any of these prohibi-
practically sacrilege
and automatically brings down
death or disease upon the offender (see ante, chap. iv.). In New Zealand especially, every chief was sacred, even to the cuttings of his hair; and the barber who trimmed it was required to undergo purification before he was freed from
the contagion of tabu consequent on the operation (Polack, In New Zealand and the Marquesas there was i. 36 seq.).
no supreme king, but in the other groups there was a king, or sometimes a queen, who ruled by hereditary right, who was treated with extravagant reverence and ceremony, and whose government was, in theory at least, despotic. But
Social
and
79
every chief was the sovereign of his own district, though he acknowledged the supremacy of the king and was accountable
for the
conduct of the people under his jurisdiction.
royal family belonged to the
Hui
Arii,
The and any children the

;
king might have by a woman of either of the other ranks all his personal were put to death. The king was sacred were sacred ; his name and by a custom equibelongings
valent to that called Hlonipa
all
by the
Kaffirs of
South Africa
sounds resembling it were forbidden to be uttered. The hence, ground he trod on even accidentally became sacred
:
when he went out
was carried on the shoulders of men set apart for the purpose, who thus themselves became sacred (tabu). Any house he entered at once became his, and sacred from all others. To touch him was not permitted, and to stand over him, or even to pass the hand over The rites by which his head, entailed the penalty of death. he was invested with the royal dignity were most elaborate, and the sacred girdle, formally put on him, identified him E. S. H. with the gods.
of doors he
V. Barbarian Monarchy.
The functions of a sovereign in the lower culture often " " advanced include matters not expected of him among more Even if he be not, as noted in ch. iv. (p. 56) reckoned nations.
,
often expected to be in confidential communication with Divine Powers. He is apt to
among
divinities himself,
he
is
be held responsible for the weather and the crops, for the health of his subjects and the fertility of their herds. Naturally,
therefore, his
own
health and soundness are of vital
the community. For their sake he must importance observe many irksome rules of conduct, and bodily weakness may render him liable to deposition or even death (see
to
Frazer,
xliii.
G.B.,
;
vols.
i.
ii.
and
cf.
Seligmann
in
/. R.A.I.,
Questionary, p. 327). The choice of the right man for the kingly office is therefore a matter of the first importance. Hereditary succession is
664
by no means a universal
rule.
Even the English crown was
i8o
"
originally
hereditary in the family but elective in the person/' and during the Middle Ages it often fell to the ablest In fact, the rule of hereditary succession did not claimant.
become a matter
of statute-law till after the Revolution. In ancient Ireland, according to tradition, the rightful suc" cessor to the throne of Leinster was identified by the roar-
"
ing
of the Stone of
Destiny under his feet

divination,
(p.
25).
The
selection of a king
by
and
his recognition
by
sagacious animals, by the royal insignia, or by the late king's wives, are common incidents of folk-tales (FL. xiv. 28) and probably represent actual facts. It is related that the in-
habitants of a district in the Island of Upolu, being in want " of a king," stole a baby of high rank from a distant village and brought him up as their king (Turner, p. 247).
We may
of a constitutional
take the empire of the Bushongo as an example monarchy of a barbarian type. They
are a relatively-advanced people in the region of the Upper Congo, who dominate several sub-tribes. There is no clan-
the people live in settled villages, each governed with a body of councillors modelled on that of the royal court. The land belongs to the local sub-tribe, and is the crops belong inalienable, but may be leased to outsiders
organization
;
by a
chief,
to
him or her who sowed them.

sides of the house
;
Consanguinity
is
reckoned
on both
not
fall
nevertheless, the inheritance does
to the full sister's son.

father's side
is
to the son but to the full brother, and, failing him, Failing full blood, relations on the
have the preference.
But the
succession to the
kingship hereditary in matrilineal descent, and the king's mother is held in great respect. The sovereign, or Nyimi,
usually nominates his successor from among his relatives on the mother's side, and confides his wishes to his son, who
after his decease
announces
despatches the
official
his choice to the people and heralds to inform the chosen heir.
The new Nyimi puts on

official
his royal robes, the vassal
Pygmies
arrive to act as his guard.
On
the third day
all
put on their
garments, and the new Nyimi, when called upon by the heralds, publicly recites the list of his predecessors and
Social
and
181
exhibits the royal family to the people. he acknowledge him as their sovereign
;
Then those present

is
and carried
placed in a litter takes possession of his predecessor's goods, and the people build him a new capital,
to the capital.
He
which becomes his permanent residence. Although monogamy is the custom of the country, the Nyimi
If has numerous wives, including those of his predecessor. if he he sneezes, everyone must clap hands three times spits, the man nearest him receives his expectorations in a
;
kerchief.
subject
is
may
not speak to him
till
addressed.
subject to sundry prohibitions of a precauHe must never shed human blood. He character. tionary must not speak with a knife in his hand, nor may anyone
He
himself
of royal blood
holding a knife speak to him. Neither he nor any other man may eat in the presence of women, nor may he touch the bare earth. To avoid this, the Nyimi himself
on
and is seated on the back of a slave crouching the rest of the royal family are carried on men's backs and seated on skins or chairs.
travels in a litter
all
fours
The
title of
Chembe Kunji (God upon earth) was formerly
applied to the Nyimi. Sick persons are spoken of as being " But rain-making, so often healed by his divine influence."
an attribute of kings, especially African kings, is not needed in the climate of Bushongo, and for rain-stopping recourse is had to a professional expert.
The Nyimi's court consists of the following officials the three princes next in succession the two heralds already mentioned ; the keeper of the traditions (who must be a son
:
of a former
Nyimi)
the relater of the traditions
an
official
who introduces convalescents into the Nyimi's presence and receives fees from them three sinecurists, of whom one is to pick up and appropriate any presents made to privileged
;
the Nyimi which the donor in his excessive emotion may let fall the second, to appropriate the lower jaw and breast of all animals offered to the Nyimi, and the third, to receive
!
presents from the fathers of twins ; the guardian-attendants of the heir-presumptive, of the Nyimi's children, his wives,
182 and
his

tame birds and
beasts, especially of the crested eagles
a doorkeeper, bellringer, mat; spreader, running-footman to clear the Nyimi's way, chief " huntsman, drummers, marimba-players, the superintendent
kept in the palace courtyard
of works," the town-crier
(who must be a twin), and,
finally,
sixteen
courtiers without special office, and a number of All these people are Kolomo, or councillors, assistant officials.
and form part
of the royal council.
They rank below the
namely, the Prime Minister, the Comand the representatives of the four chief mander-in-Chief, provinces of the empire but are on an equality with the
six chief councillors
judges,
commanders, and
latter there
lesser representatives. Of these are eleven for the sub-tribes, sixteen for the
trades,
and one
Bushongo
for the fathers of twins for among the are not feared or despised, but honoured. twins
;
There are nine Military officials namely, the Commanderin-Chief already mentioned, his second in command, another who invests the village chiefs with their insignia, two assistants, and three treasurers with special duties. The Judicial functionaries are, besides the Prime Minister and the Commanderin-Chief, who judges offences committed with sharp weapons, five judges for injuries with other instruments, suicides, thefts, witchcraft, and matrimonial cases respectively, five subordinate judges, the administrator of the ordeal poison and his assistant, and a beadle to arrest fugitives from justice, with two assistants.
office for life. Their appointment with the Nyimi, but he is obliged nominally to make the selection in accordance with public opinion, and
All these
Kolomo hold
rests entirely
be guessed that with so large an assembly to from being the absolute monarch in reality that he is in theory. Nevertheless, he has not sunk into a roi faineant, and his kingdom, if tradition may be trusted
it
will easily
consult he
is far
some slight extent corroborated by astronomical calculations), must have endured for a length of time which
(and
it is
to
contrasts forcibly with the duration of the empires of conqueror-despots, in Africa and elsewhere, which usually fall
Social
and
183
and Joyce,
to pieces after the death of the founder (Torday
Les Bushongo, passim).

VI. Secret Societies.
We have not
come thus
its
far without discovering that almost

secrets, jealously
guarded from and strangers. The secret women, children, thing may be a talisman on which the welfare of the comit may be a sacred myth, or a magicomunity depends rite. Sometimes the whole body of the adult male religious members of the community are the guardians of the mystery
every community has
the knowledge of
; ;
own
the warriors, the priests, or the innermost circle of initiated men form a close corporation, and are, as
in other cases
were, the trustees of the people as a whole. And sometimes a voluntary society of initiated members makes the " " men's house or common dwellmysteries its own, and the
it
ing of the
men
of the
community, where
it
exists,
may become
the rendezvous of the fraternity and the scene of the esoteric

rites.
These
societies are
found in North America, West Africa,

countries.
Initiation, secrecy,
Polynesia, Melanesia, and other
a generally magico-religious character, and the practice of appearing in public masked or disguised, are characteristics
to them all, but beyond this their functions differ. So also does the degree of secrecy observed. In some cases no one knows whether his neighbour e.g. in West Africa is a member of a as in North in others society or not America everybody must be a member of some society:
;
common
the performances are public, and
it
is
well
known
to
what
society each person belongs. In North America the societies seem to be gradually breakWomen are now admitted ing down the old clan-system.
to them,
tribe
though in subordination only. In the Kwakiutl North-West the tribesmen are grouped as members of clans in the summer, and as members of the
of
the
societies in the winter
in the tribes of the Central Plains
the societies are recruited from the various clans indiffer-
184
ently,

and
in the South- West the clans have disappeared The choice while the societies are flourishing. altogether, of the society to which each individual will belong is
In determined by the dreams of the fasting candidate. those dreams an ancestral spirit, the patron of some particular society, is supposed to appear to him and instruct him in the ritual of the dances which are the great and
special function of the
American
societies,
and
in
which
their
They and are executed by masked and disguised dancers, who personate supernatural characters, enact myths of origin, and the like. The dances are publicly performed on stated occasions, and are regarded as being of vast importance to
the prosperity of the people as a whole, in such matters as war, hunting, agriculture, and the weather. Membership of the West African societies is voluntary. It is often not confined to a single tribe, nor even to one sex,
sacred traditions are enshrined.
are dramatic in form,
and
a licentious character.
in the latter case the secret rites are reported to be of But the principal function of the
societies is that of guardians of public order. criminals, act as the native police, collect
more important " They punish
debts, protect private property, and, where they extend over The a wide area, help to maintain inter-tribal amity." " famous Mumbo Jumbo " of Mungo Park was an instituThere are many grades in each society, tion of this kind. each of which has its own office in the execution of the law, " and as the initiate passes from grade to grade, the secrets
of the society are gradually revealed to him." (H. W., p. 115). The method of procedure is to appear in the streets masked
and
belief
disguised,
is
and there deal summary
"
justice.
The
assiduously cultivated among outsiders that the initiated members are in constant association with spirits,
and with the ghosts of the and their appearance excites a dead," (H. W., p. 104), Uninitiated men of Old Calabar magico-religious dread.
with
evil
spirits
especially,
may
not be seen in the streets during a visitation of Egbo,

in seclusion
and Yoruba women must remain
from evening
Social
till
and
185
bull-
morning when the Ogboni Society bring Oro, the roarer, the voice of Oro the god, into their town.
The
misdeeds of women are part of the special province of these societies, and the women of the Guinea Coast have in some
cases succeeded in forming secret societies of their
own
to
combat them. The secret societies

in grades,
of the
through which candidates able to pay the cost " of successive initiations," which may be considerable, may
progress to the highest and innermost circle." (H. W., p. 76). The Areoi Society of Polynesia, which extended from Tahiti to Hawaii was reputed in Tahiti to be of divine foundation, and its members were regarded as representatives of the gods on earth, and as destined to the highest places in the Tahitian heaven. A candidate for membership had to show evidence of inspiration by the gods, and might be kept for months and even years on probation before being initiated. He must then remain in the lower grades until he had mastered the songs and dances and dramatic performances which con" " in stituted the main function of the guild the mysteries which they celebrated the deeds of the god Oro (not, of course, the same as the Yoruba divinity just mentioned), and annually offered to him the first fruits of the harvest. Human sacrifices,
too,
"
South Sea Islands are organised
were offered in the maraes or lodges which were the exclusive property of the society. Parties of Areoi travelled from island to island and obtained an easy livelihood by giving
their magico-religious performances, occupying the maraes or men's houses, and subsisting on the contribution exacted from the inhabitants. The Dukduk Society of the Bismarck
" Archipelago (Melanesia) has been described as judge, policeman and hangman all in one." Where it prevails, " the natives are afraid to commit any serious felony." (H. W., But, on the other hand, it is worked as an instrument p. no).
of oppression
and
pillage,
and the
arrival, at the
new moon, of
the two weird figures of the duk-duk and his wife, in shape like gigantic cassowaries, on the sea-beach at dawn, is the
signal for the extortion of tribute
and the
infliction of painful
86

The masked and
disguised figures
ordeals on the uninitiated.
sometimes also parade the island performing dramatic dances, which are supposed to benefit sick persons.
The secret societies of the Banks Islands form a peculiar double organization, consisting of the Tamate societies which meet at private rendezvous in the bush, and the Sukwe, which inhabit the men's houses, or gamal, in the villages. A
man who does not belong to the Sukwe may not enter the gamal, but must live and eat with the women. The gamal is divided into compartments severally appropriated to the
different grades of membership, of a grade higher than his own.
sist chiefly of singing,
and no man may enter that There are no ordeals to be

;
passed or mysteries to be revealed in initiation
the rites con-
dancing, and feasting. A man's social position both in this world and the next depends on membership of the Sukwe, for, as a native explained to Dr. Codring"
ton,
if
anyone should die who has not

"
feast),
killed a pig
"
(for
the
admission
for ever of
his soul will just stay
on a
tree,
hanging
on it like a flying fox/' but the soul of a member Sukwe will remain in Panoi, the land of the dead (p. 129). To
get beyond a certain stage of rank in the Sukwe, it is necessary to belong to the Tamate liwoa, the largest and most important
of the
in
numerous Tamate
senses
;
societies.
The word tamate
is
used
itself.
many
it
may mean a
ghost, a
member
of a society,
the hat or
mask worn by the members,

rites
or the society
The
initiation
vary much.
In those of the Tamate
liwoa the candidate is beaten, taken to the salagoro, and kept there for a hundred days or more, until he has paid the necessary fines. Meanwhile he must wait on the members and
bear taunts and
trials of
temper.
The
secret of producing
the sacred sounds (were-were) which accompany all solemn rites is revealed to him, and finally he is decorated and led
out in procession, but he is not allowed to were-were until he has belonged to the society for some years. Each Tamate society has besides its special hat, a badge, which, affixed to
any kind
siders
of property, protects
it
but
not
from
fellow-members.
from depredation by outHence, from one
Social
point of view,
it
and
is
187
an advantage to belong to a small
Tamate.
Further, none but
members
of
certain
Tamate
societies
may
perform certain portions of the Kolekole rites,
are rites performed in connection with houses, hats,

articles of
which and other
human manufacture. Their significance is obscure, but they hold an important position in the lives of the islanders (see Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, The History of Melanesian Society,
of these and other such secret societies an important and difficult problem. It is impossible not to be reminded by them of the Mysteries of Ancient Greece, of the Vehmgericht of mediaeval Germany, and of the Freemasonry of modern Europe. Their initiation rites, the mutual obligations of their members, and their functions towards the community, bear a marked resemblance to the organization of totemic clans, from which they may have developed, for they seem to be most flourishing where the clan system is in decay. But they cut right athwart all co-existing
is
now in the press). The origin or origins
political or social institutions,
they are independent of the
general scheme
and they possess tremendous power. The suggestion has been made (by Dr. Rivers, addressing
of things,
Section H. of the British Association in 1912) that they are the product of the contact of an intrusive culture with the indi-
genous culture
their
own
traditional rites in secret,
the invaders continuing the performance of and admitting the native
inhabitants to participation in them by degrees, as the two peoples gradually fused into one community. They would
thus afford evidence of past history, of former cultural contact, which would be of the first importance in the analytical
study of folklore. Grimm advanced a somewhat analogous proposition with regard to the witchcraft of mediaeval Europe, its secret rendezvous and its unholy alliance with evil spirits.
He
believed it to be a survival of indigenous Paganism, crushed by Christianity and lurking in secret places. But whether either of these hypotheses prove tenable or not, the
secret societies, their constitution, functions, rites,
and
their
88
to
other
institutions
relation
demand minute and
exact
investigation by ing them at first

Secret
Societies,
;
all
who have
hand.
(Cf.
from
which
the opportunity of studyHutton Webster, Primitive the above quotations are
taken
and Questionary,
p. 328.)
VII. The Village Community in England.
would be a hopeless task to consider here in any an institution which is found in lands so far apart as India and Scandinavia, and has assumed great varieties The utmost of form during the many centuries of its life. that can be attempted is to indicate the outlines of the
It
detail
system as they are revealed in England.
the
ancient
villages
of
of English history, from the Anglo-Saxon to the agrarian revolution which marks the close of Conquest the eighteenth century, the basis of the national life was sup-
At every period
plied
which
by the village community, and the agricultural system of The normal village was planted it was the expression.
;
of arable land
at a junction of roads, towards the centre of a wide expanse and it was in the treatment of the arable
that the features characteristic of early methods of cultivaThe rudimentary nature tion were most clearly manifested.
of current agricultural practices rendered
it
necessary that
no portion of the arable land should bear crops for more than two years in succession and in the larger part of England a traditional rotation was established by which, in each year,
;
one-third of the arable lay fallow.
In the following season,
the same tract of land would be sown with wheat, a year later The result of this custom was it would bear peas or beans.
that the whole of the arable land within the village territory in due course underwent a period of fallow and, upon the fallow, the cattle within the village were depastured according
;
to rules determined
by the common consent

"
fields
of the
whole
community.
Each
of the three large

fell
"
land thus
was divided
into a vast
into which the village number of strips or
Social
"
lands
"
of
and
Political Insertions.
189
unequal area, denned either by a balk of unby a vacant furrow. Within the same field, single strips might well vary from half a rood to an entire acre or more. The plotting of these strips, a work accom-
ploughed turf or
plished in an age of incalculable antiquity, was determined by the natural drainage of the soil ; the complex plan of an
open
field
of the ground.
can only be understood in relation to the contour Groups of strips naturally connected were
known
strips
as furlongs,
early settler of local
used for turning the plough were called headlands," and their direction is marked, they even at the present day, by the irregular course of countless
ran vacant
lands
;
"
and frequently bore the name of some prominence. Along the heads of the
"
"
English lanes.
There is much to suggest that at the beginning of things the arable strips were distributed among the settlers according to a regular sequence followed consistently throughout the
Godric was followed by Wulfnoth he, and he, by Herewulf, wherEthelred by by Sigeberht ever there were lands to be divided. Upon the Conversion,
village territory.
; ;
he,
the village priest was fitted into the scheme ; the strips of glebe recur at regular intervals. But the most significant
fact in this connexion is that the lord of the village himself frequently took up his holding, not in a compact block
around his residence, but as a participant in the regular

distribution of strips.
lord's land
Even
in the thirteenth century, the
may
still
;
the village fields
be discerned lying disconnected all over and this although the traditional system
had been distorted during the passage of centuries by purchase or inheritance.
Over the central parts of England, the holding of a representative villager consisted of some thirty acres, distributed Such an arable equally between the three arable fields.
holding carried with it the possession of strips of meadow, and the enjoyment of rights of common over waste lands,
determined by the extent of the village territory. Already by the date of Domesday Book (1086) there was much diver-
190
gence from this average, and among the Scandinavian settlers beyond the Welland a normal tenement of fifteen or twenty
have prevailed from early times. But whatever extent, it was the arable holding of the villager which determined his economic place in the community. If a man of thirty acres furnished his two oxen to the great co-operative plough of eight oxen which went over the village lands, a man of fifteen acres need only furnish one ox, but his interest in the common pasture would be stinted in proportion. Nor should the existence be ignored of the quite ubiquitous class of
acres seems to
its
cottagers ; men without a stake in the common furnished the incidental labour required by the
for
fields,
who
community
which
its
The men
customs did not provide. of the community were bound to each other by
;
participation in the common agricultural life of the village they were bound to their lord, in historic times, by customary
services rendered
free or unfree, labour
upon his land. From all alike, whether was demanded proportionate to each
open fields. Innumerable local surveys working for two or three days a week upon the lord's demesne, furnishing additional labour at the busy seasons of haytime and harvest, making customary payments in kind or in money. But they also show that the same services were demanded from men who were personally free there is no kind of labour, and no form of money payment,
in the
man's share
show the
serf
restricted exclusively to the servile population. Even the famous payment of merchet, the fine paid to a lord by a serf
upon the marriage of his daughter, undoubtedly descends from similar payments made by free men in early days to
It is very true that heavy disabilities lay upon the serf of the thirteenth century. He might not leave the
their lords.
was bound. He could be given or sold and the together with his land, away from it king's courts would not enter into any dispute between him and his lord, save as to a matter of life and limb. So,
manor
with
to which he
or,
it
too, less labour
than from the
would usually be demanded from the freeman serf the former might depart at will from
;
Social
and
sell all
191
the community, he might wished. But the trend of

his servile neighbour.
our evidence
or give his lands to whom he is to show that he

distinction of origin
was separated by no fundamental
from
members of the community, lord, freeman, or Custom of the Manor, expressed in the judgments of its court. To this court all within the community owed suit and service, by its authority the agricultural routine of the village was maintained, within its precincts the unfree conveyed their lands by surrendering them into the lord's hands, with the prayer that he would grant them out again to their destined possessor. The court was the lord's, but it was by no means the instrument of his arbitrary if he neglected to scour his drains he must be prepared will for the animadversions of his own men. The custom of the manor, the accepted scheme of rule and service, was binding on lord as well as man. To change the traditional agricultural order was a task beyond the lord's ability its abolition
Above
all
serf,
there rose the
Ages were nearing their end. To the villager, the custom gave substantial security of tenure and serfdom in England ended when the lawyers
;
was never desired
until the Middle
of the king's court ruled that
he
who
held land
by unfree
tenure might not be dispossessed of his tenement so long as he performed the services due therefrom.
The
village
opposition of free and unfree gradually fades as the community is traced back into the obscurity of the
age beyond the Conquest, when the lordless village becomes a

social fact of high significance. Yet it would be an error to regard the lord as a late or unsuccessful element in the life of the village community. Local nomenclature may not
safely
be ignored
stanton, suggest with
the names Alfriston, Chellaston, Hunsome emphasis that Aelfric, Ceolheard,

original
places
and Hunstan possessed an and their inhabitants.
Thrown back
superiority over these to a date suffi-
ciently remote, the village community seems to resolve itself into a group of settlers, varying in wealth and status, but
united in the cultivation of the lands they occupied with the
192
leader to
whom they owed their obedience and personal service. From some such form as this, the unrecorded processes of
and economic development are
sufficient to
social
produce
the village community as it is revealed to us at last in the F. M. STENTON. writings of the eleventh century.
See Questionary, pp. 324-329.

Marriage System,
Rulers, ibid.
ibid.
(Social
p.
groups,
p.
p.
325.
327.
Property,
326.
p. 328.)
Law,
The
Village
Community,
CHAPTER
XII.
RITES OF INDIVIDUAL LIFE.

Birth, Maturity, Marriage,
and Death.
IN early states of society Ceremonial has both a utilitarian the one in regard to society, the other in regard to the individual. There can be no doubt or dispute about the validity of a contract or the right to an office when the agreement has been ceremonially ratified,
and a magico-religious aspect
official ceremonially installed. Among unlettered peoples the performance of a ceremony before witnesses is, in fact, the only method of attesting the actual occurrence of any
the
important transaction, and its use for this purpose persists long after the invention of the art of writing. The Hebrew " " kinsman publicly drew off his shoe for to confirm all things
his kinsman's inheritance,
testimony that he renounced his rights over and the mediaeval lord of the " " manor gave seisin to a new tenant by the delivery of a rod or a sod of turf in the presence of the assembled court
(Ruth
iv. 7), in
of the
manor a ceremony which has lingered, with regard to copyhold lands, almost if not quite down to our own day. It is obviously of first-rate importance to any community,
civilized or uncivilized, to be certified who is born into its " midst, who has taken whom to wife, who has gone to join the majority." And the ceremonies which mark the transition
from one state of existence or condition of
life
to another
are naturally of double importance in the lower culture.
194
These rites of Birth, Initiation, Marriage, and Death are often very elaborate, and though everywhere much the same
in principle they way of treating
vary greatly in
detail.
The most convenient
that of M. van Gennep, who considers Rites de Passage (as he terms them) as a homogeneous series or sequence of ceremonies extending over a length of
is
them
time
and classifies them as (i) rites of gradual separation from a previous state of existence (2) rites belonging to a
;
marginal period, when the subject of them is in a transitional state, separated from his former condition and not yet admitted
to another,
and
living
meantime under
restrictions
which are
only gradually removed ; (3) the ceremonial incorporation of the individual into a new community. During all these three periods, divinations and charms may be resorted to and other
attendant ceremonies performed, side by side with the operative
and
essential ritual acts.

first.
To take BIRTH
A woman
before the birth of her
child passes through (i) a preliminary period of partial separation from society. Certain kinds of women's customary work
are forbidden to
her,
certain
articles
of
food prohibited.
Sometimes her husband shares the prohibitions with her, sometimes he observes analogous rules himself, sometimes
the pair live apart.
(2)
As the birth approaches her separation
from ordinary
life
becomes more complete.
place apart
is
generally provided for her habitation, special persons attend " " upon her there. This marginal period continues for some
time after the
and is brought to an end by rites of purification, after which she is (3) readmitted to society, perhaps with a ceremonial meal. But her re-integration is
crisis,
very gradual, for she frequently does not return to conjugal life until her child is weaned.
Some examples may be cited. The Toda woman gives birth to her child in her ordinary dwelling, but she goes through two (on the first occasion, three) sojourns in a separate
hut, one before
and one
after the birth.
Her husband and

She
any one
"
else
unclean
"
who accompanies
her the second time become
thereby, and have to share her isolation.
195
enters the hut after the birth with her back to the sun for
fear the evil
demon
Keirt,
who
lives
near
it.
it,
should injure
herself or her child,
she
is
While in the hut forbidden to drink the sacred milk, and each return
but comes out facing
home
is marked by swallowing draughts of it (or of a ceremonial representation of it), after bathing and putting on a new mantle (Todas, 313). "It will be seen," says M. van " that the object of these rites is to separate the Gennep,
woman from
her surroundings, to keep her for a longer or shorter period in a borderland divided into three portions, and
only to replace her in her ordinary surroundings
(v.
by
stages."
Gennep,
p. 60).
the Musquakie Indians, the woman builds a little If by retires there when the birth approaches. " " is not ready, her family leave birth-house mischance the
Among
hut, and
her alone in the wigwam, but this is a most unlucky contretemps, for the baby, will die before its parents if it has no house of its own, and to be born out-of-doors would be a
disgrace.
Neighbour women attend the mother, and when
the birth has taken place the medicine-woman comes, summons the neighbours, exhibits the child to its father through a hole in the back of the hut, and loudly proclaims its name. Afterwards the mother goes to the river and bathes herself and her baby. The men keep out of her way, else they also would have to seclude themselves. The mother remains
thirty or forty days in the birth-house, visited by one woman After this she bathes again, sets fire to the birthonly.
house and
its
contents, sprinkles herself
and her
child with
the ashes, and goes back to her husband (Owen, 63-65). The expectant mother in Pahang (Malay Peninsula) may not sleep in the daytime, or her child will be carried off by
evil
demons.
She
may
not blame any one, else
it
will
have
the very qualities she censures. Her husband may not shave nor cut his hair, he may not kill fowls nor shed the blood of
any creature, nor may he sit in the doorway of his house, till the child is born (MM. 344-5). These are evidently
"
"
sympathetic
prohibitions.
They
are not restrictions for
196
the purpose of preserving the parents in a state of taboo for the sake of the community, but precautions against injury
Akin to them is the curious custom found in South America and elsewhere, by which the father takes to Ms bed while the newly-made mother goes about her duties as usual. Neither, apparently, is separated from contact with society. The birth-rites specially connected with the infant begin with its separation from that Other World whence, in many
to the unborn child.
of the couvade,
it is regarded as having come include the " of the interval between the birth and marginal period the name-giving, or other form of reception into the world
philosophies, "
life and are protracted during the first year or during which the child is subjected to sundry proIt is sometimes the duty of some hibitions and restrictions.
of
human
life,
so of
particular relative in the Banks' Islands, of the father's sister to play the part of midwife ; sometimes delivery is treated as a magico-religious function of a sympathetic char" " how is as important as " by whom." In acter, and the
the interval after birth and before

into the world, the child to evil influences.
is
The
ceremonial reception to be peculiarly liable supposed Todas keep its face covered as long
its
as
it is
in the seclusion-hut with its mother,
and
for
some
time afterwards.
the fortieth day, or at the end of the third month, the baby-boy is taken by its father to the dairy in the early morning and laid on the ground with its forehead
On
touching the threshold. It is then taken to the place where the buffaloes are standing, where it is held facing the sun, and the covering is removed from its face. A girl is taken
by her mother to the nearest point at which women are allowed to approach the dairy (Todas, 331). Immediately, or shortly, after this, the name is given. The boy's father,
in front of the house, shaves the
and an amulet against the
evil
middle of the child's head, eye is put round its wrist

;
the maternal uncle gives the name, promises to endow the child with a calf, and then touches its head with each of his
feet.
Three grains of barley are put into the boy's mouth
197
and The
first
child,
three into his back-hair, and are then thrown away. which has hitherto been suckled, is then fed for the
time,
332).
and the parents, if rich, may give a Thus the infant is formally introduced
feast
(ibid.
to
life
and
admitted to membership in the community.
The rites
tions,
d'agregation of infants often include physical opera-
such as ear-piercing or circumcision. Among the Kabui Nagas the ears of all the infants born within the year are
pierced on the same day, and the whole community observes a three days' genna, or separation from the outer world
(Hodson,
It
p. 175).
be worth while to recall the analogous rites of Great old-fashioned Welshwoman might not spin durif she did so, her child would be hanged with ing pregnancy a flaxen or hempen rope. She might not even tie a cord round her waist, or the child would be unlucky. She might not step over a grave, or it would die. In connection with another set
may
Britain.
An
of ideas she
is
forbidden, even at the present day, to
make
up butter or do any work in the dairy, to salt bacon, or to " touch any part of a slaughtered pig, for the touch of such
a
If
woman
is regarded as very pernicious." (Trevelyan, 266.) the husband does not share his wife's restrictions, he shares
her sufferings.
(See
Mrs.
Leather's Herefordshire, p.
in.
The
though seldom recorded is very common.) A Scottish mother is peculiarly liable to be carried off by the fairies during her seclusion after the birth has taken place. Neither she nor her unchristened babe must be left alone without some guardian talisman a sharp tool, a piece of
belief
:
cold iron," a holy book, part of her husband's clothing, or " " a witch-brooch pinned in the baby's under-garments.
"
Everywhere the mother's first exit from her own house must be to visit the church. In Aberdeenshire she would be liable
to be forcibly put out of
before going to church,
any house she attempted to enter and in the north of England it is believed, says Mr. Henderson (Northern Counties, p. 16), that she would have no remedy at law for any insults or blows
she might receive
if
she were seen out-of-doors
"
unchurched."
198
The infant, too, should not go out till it is taken to be christened and it is held very unlucky to call it by its intended name before it has been formally bestowed upon it. The christeningcake and feast usual in England are replaced in the Northern
Counties
by the cake and cheese with which the neighbours
are regaled immediately after the birth. A piece of this is carried by the nurse on the christening day, and bestowed on the first person of the opposite sex to the baby who may
be met on the way to church.
On its first entry into any house, after the christening, the child must receive a present an egg, salt, cake or white bread, sometimes a few matches.
(County FL. ii. 287.) An auspicious day must be chosen for discarding the baby-clothes. Throughout the country the infant must not be weighed, it must not see its face in a
mirror, its hair
and
nails
must not be
cut, nor, in
some places
may
hand) be washed, though it may dabble them in water or they may be wiped with a damp
its
hands
(or its right
cloth.
Most of these taboos continue in force for twelve months, by which time the child has usually been weaned, and its independent existence is complete. ADOPTION is among some peoples a custom sufficiently established to possess a recognized ceremonial. The ancient Greeks and the Balkan peoples effected adoption by a ceremony of mock-birth the Abyssinians by pretended suckling.
;
In the
Roman ceremony
the person adopted
first
relinquished
his original household by a solemn detestatio sacrorum, or renunciation of the domestic worship, and then underwent a transitio in sacra, or initiation into the cults of his new
household.
Here we see the
characteristic features of a rite
de passage clearly marked.
When
Mr. Walter M'Clintock was to be adopted by the
Blackfoot chief, Mad Wolf, he came by appointment to the wigwam of the chief, who was seated in the midst of his family and friends, the men on the left, the women on the
right.
character.
were of a highly religious in silence, and then Mad Wolf having purified himself with the smoke of a kind of
of the rites
The whole
They smoked awhile
199
incense, chanted prayers to the Sun, Moon, and Earth, including intercessions for him who was to be adopted. Next,
painted the young man's face with red paint, symbolizing the course of the Sun, and solemnly blessed " Before you, my him as he knelt before him, declaring, Great Sun Chief, I now adopt this young man as father,
Mad Wolf
The neophyte was then admitted to take part sacred songs, and to share the family meal, but in several his full initiation was deferred to a meeting of the tribe. Then he was again painted with the sacred paint, an Indian
my
son."
ceremonially given to him, and the arcana of the tribe were disclosed to him. These, the Medicine Bundle a roll of skins, each of which of the Beavers, consisted of
name was
had
its
own
v.).
sacred
chant and
its
dance,
in
which the
adopted Blackfoot had to take his allotted part (M'Clintock,

chaps,
ii.,
In the great majority of savage and barbarous nations, the transition from childhood to adult life is marked by rites
The time of initiation generally corresponds roughly to that of physical maturity, but the two events do not necessarily coincide, any more than in Europe physical
of INITIATION.
maturity coincides with legal majority.
The main
features
of initiatory rites for boys are complete removal from the society of women, and seclusion for a longer or shorter period
in a remote spot or a circumscribed area, in circumstances of more or less physical discomfort. When the novices emerge
from their confinement they may not return to the unrelife they have hitherto led among the women and " children. been made men," and thenceforth They have they associate with other men, and enjoy the privileges and submit to the restrictions of adult manhood.
strained
The initiatory rites vary in elaboration and Where highly developed they usually include (i)
compulsory
severity. tests of
endurance and self-control, such as fasts and dietetic taboos, silence, concealment of fear or pain, and general (2) physical unresisting submission to whatever may befall operations, such as circumcision, or extraction of teeth
;
2oo
perhaps only daubing with clay or with coloured pigments ; (3) instructions as to conduct, and especially as to the national or tribal marriage regulations (4) esoteric dramatic dances, in which the traditions of the tribe are enshrined and per;
and with these, the exhibition of sacred objects, petuated which the youths are strictly enjoined to keep secret from the women. Sometimes a make-believe death and resurrection forms part of the proceedings often the novice receives a new name, and is never again known by his former
; ;
one.
It
is
obvious that
severe
initiatory
rites
tend to
strengthen the power of the elder men, and therefore to stereotype the institutions of the country.
The full privileges of manhood are not always conferred on the youth at once. Sometimes the food-prohibitions are only gradually removed, successive ordeals must be endured, and the youth must show his prowess as a warrior before he is permitted to take a wife. Among the Masai and other tribes of East Africa the whole social and political system " is based on this principle of successive stages or age-classes." Among the A-Kikuyu and A-Kamba these are as follows
:
joins the ranks of the bachelor warriors (mwanaki). Later, he is advanced to the grade of When he has in his turn nthele, or young married man.
the circumcised adolescent
first
circumcised children he retires into
civil
life
and becomes
an elder of the Council,

is
(the Masai
ceremony on the occasion
called "passing the fence"), first in the kisuka and then in the judicial or nzama grade. Finally, in old age he becomes
an
"
elder of the shrine," (ithembd),
whose
office it is to offer
sacrifices at the sacred groves.
Thus, says Mr. Hobley, these " successive stages really compose a system of graduated
(J. R.A.I, xl. 428.)
initiation."
Where
secret
societies
flourish,
initiation
into
them
re-
Shorn of their savage places initiation into adult tribal life. features, initiatory rites are still retained by Freemasonry,
and
similar societies
and they may
also
be said to survive
in the rude jocular ceremonies which sometimes attend the admission of a newcomer into a band of workmen or an

old-fashioned
convivial
club.
201
appeared from
astical
life.
social life in
they have disEurope, though not from ecclesiOtherwise
Girls are usually secluded on arriving at womanhood, and they sometimes have also to submit to initiation rites as a
These usually include instruction in but they do not appear to have any religious conjugal duties, import. Much less is known about them than of the correprelude to marriage.
spending
rites for boys.
As to MARRIAGE. There are

which a
in the lower culture four
ways
in
First, by capture. years ago this was supposed to have been the normal universal primitive method, but the point is now doubted.
man may
obtain a wife.
Some
and At
not unknown in barbarous than head-hunting, slave-hunting, states of society, any more or cattle-lifting expeditions. The stories of the Benjamites and of the Sabines would be sufficient to prove this. Secondly, a wife may be procured by service, as Jacob obtained his
any
rate, wife-stealing raids are
wives
next,
by
barter, v/hen
two men exchange
sisters,
or
two fathers give their daughters to each other's sons, usually betrothing them in early childhood ; and, lastly, there is the
most common method of
all, marriage by purchase, when " " a the man pays to the girl's family, or whatbride-price ever other social group has rights over her. Not that she
generally becomes his absolute property as a slave. What he buys is the right to her society and ministrations, and her
importance and dignity are in proportion to the price paid. A fifth method sometimes occurs, in which the couple members of the same social group are predestined to each
marriage between the son and daughter of a brother and a sister, or " " levirate in consequence of an untimely death, as in the custom, by which a man is bound to take his brother's widow to wife. In such cases, of course, there is no question either
other,
birth,
either
from
as
in
"
cross-cousin
"
of capture or of a
"
valuable consideration
"
of
any kind.
of a treaty of marriage from its inception to the establishment of the pair in their permanent home is
The negotiation
2O2

and includes various stages of and restricted privileges,
generally a lengthy process,

betrothal,
temporary
residence,
is
before a final settlement
reached.
Among
the Bhotias of
Tibet, for example, the customary procedure is as follows. First, astrologers are employed to decide whether the pro-
posed match
will be fortunate. Then go-betweens, generally the uncles of both parties, are called to meet at the young man's home, whence they are sent to that of the girl, to
arrange the marriage. Her parents consult their relatives. If they consent, and the presents offered (white silk scarves)
are accepted
this presentation is called the
is
nangchang
the
amount
and the go-betweens are enterdowry a ritual meal accompanied by prayers (the kheleri). tained at After this the young couple are allowed to meet freely A year later, the bridegroom's family provide a festival meal (the nyen), at which all the kindred on both sides are present but the bride still and at which the bride-price is paid
of the
fixed
continues to live in her parents' house. A second year elapses, and on a day determined by the astrologer the bride's family
give a
invited.
great
feast
(the
changthoong)
to which lamas are
Two men make
a forcible entry and attempt or
pretend to carry off the bride. A mock combat ensues, settled by a money payment made by the pretended robbers.
The
guests make presents to the bride and her parents, and she to them, after which she is conducted with singing, dancing,
and the firing of guns to the bridegroom's home. His parents meet the procession on the way, conduct the party to the house, and feast them there for two or three days. Still the
bride does not stay, but returns home with her friends. Another year expires, and the palokh completes the business.
The bride's parents pay over her dowry, and she goes once more to the bridegroom's home, where at last she remains
permanently (Rep. Census of India, 1901, vol. vi. App. xxviii. Thus the whole proceedings of betrothal and marriage xxix).
occupy at
least three years.
actual rites of marriage cover the whole scale of ceremonial, from the bald simplicity of the Boror6 (a matrilineal
The
203
people of Central Brazil) where the bride remains in her parents' hut, no consent being asked, no presents given, and
no
feast or other general intimation
made
to the wearisome
complexity of ritual practised by some Hindu castes, who pile invocations, sacrifices, and ceremonies one upon another
without end.
too, are almost interminable.
Slav weddings in the south-east of Europe, To find a clue to such laby-
rinths we must in the first place discriminate between the private and the public rites observed. Publicity is everywhere the element which distinguishes a recognized marriage
from an illicit connection. There is all the difference in the world between a ring given in secret and one put on before witnesses, between vows exchanged privately and those pronounced in public. And when we know which rites must be performed in the presence of witnesses, we are on the way
to learn
what are regarded
as the essential features of a valid
marriage. In classical Sanskrit literature, says Dr. Winternitz (Trans. FL. Congr. 287), Agni, the Fire, is often called the witness
of marriages, and a marriage witnessed to Hindoo ideas, cannot be annulled.
by the fire, according The confarreatio of
the bridal pair, witnessed by the assembled guests, was the final and sole proof of a Roman patrician marriage. Among
some
is
of the tribes of
German East
Africa, a marriage
is
not
valid until
some months
attended only by
after the first wedding-feast, which the kinsfolk a second feast has been
given, to which friends as well as kinsfolk are invited, and at which the bridegroom gives the bride a heavy copper
bracelet, the usual African marriage-token (v.
Gennep, 194).
The would-be bridegroom among the Veddas takes a present of food to his future father-in-law. The latter summons his daughter, who brings with her a cord of her own twisting and ties it round the waist of her suitor, never to be removed and from that moment they are man and wife (Seligmann, Veddas, 97). A Chinaman when he removes his bride's veil in the presence of the friends who have accompanied them to the bridal chamber, and sees her face for the first time,
;
2O4
gives her three taps on the head with his fan to display his marital authority. This makes the marriage indissoluble.
(FL. /. v. 234.) In all these
cases,
as
well
as
in
all
those
of
cere-
monially tying knots, joining hands, drinking from one cup, being publicly seated side by side, and the like, the crucial
point, the essential feature, of the rite is that something is done, given, or shared, before witnesses, which marks or
represents the new relations of the two parties to each other. But in the lower culture marriage is regarded less as a union
between two individuals than
as, to use an old-fashioned " a change of condition," a transition from one state phrase, of life to another from single life to matrimony, from one
family or social group to another, and often too from one
Even in the private and personal prelocality to another. " a new deparparations for the event this idea of making
ture
"
may
be discerned.
An
"
English
peasant-bride about
to dress for her wedding first strips herself of every article of clothing, and begins absolutely de novo to attire herself
in
new and unwashed garments, rejecting even pins that have been used before." (Shr. FL. 289.) On the same prin-
ciple the Scottish fisherman, the night before his wedding, ceremonially washes his feet with the assistance of his com-
panions (Gregor, p. 89).
And among
the public
rites,
those
which emphasize or symbolize the transition should be distinguished from the multitude of precautions and omens
the disguises, the taboos, the amulets, the bits of sympathetic magic, and all the endless things done to procure good luck or to avert bad which are heaped upon
observed
and mingled with them.
ment
In the lower culture such things accompany the commenceof every new era or undertaking an expedition or a
journey, the erection of a building, the cultivation of the ground, the entrance into a new year. Much more then, do
they gather around that most momentous event in the life of man or woman, marriage. Then, if ever, enemies, human or superhuman, have an opportunity of wreaking their malice

;
205
or obtaining their revenge particularly on the bride, whose womanhood renders her specially liable to their attacks. Many of the Arab tribes of Morocco carry precaution to the
point of conveying the bride to her new home shut up in a box and invisible to all. But this is not entirely for her own sake,
for
crisis of " of womankind (cf. ante, p. 61), sanctity reaches such a height as to make her glance dangerous to the
it
seems to be thought that at this supreme

the natural
"
her
life
But much has beholders (Westermarck; Morocco, ch. vi.). already been said of such things in other connections. Here
we
will dwell chiefly
on the
rites
which actually constitute the
marriage and mark the change of status it involves. Chief among these is the dramatic contest between the parties
of the bride
ments.
and the bridegroom, settled by gifts or money payThis has been thought to be a relic of bride-capture. One example of it has already been cited in the account of the
Tibetan marriage above, and others might be adduced by the hundred, for it is a very widespread custom, found in all stages of culture. In Mabuiag, for instance, the pair first exchange
tokens in secret, but when their mutual relations come to the knowledge of their families, the girl's brothers attack
and
him.
fight the
young man
till
They then take
their sister
they have drawn blood from by the hand and give her
to him.
He
to her brothers,
v. 223).
next collects valuables, which she distributes and a feast concludes the affair (Torres Straits,
rather
Sometimes, as among the Khonds, the contest is between the sexes than the families. Sometimes
again the opposition is offered by the bride's fellow-villagers, who bar the road by which the young couple must depart
and require payment

is
In this form the custom for passage. well represented in Great Britain, where it is commonly " known as chaining the path." In other cases the bride
is
hidden or disguised when the bridegroom's party come to fetch her away. This was a common practice at oldfashioned weddings in Wales, among other places. The bride
is
generally expected to make a great show of resistance to her departure, and to lament loudly. This is a marked
206
feature of the marriage rites of Eastern Europe. Among the Mordvins of Simbirsk (Russia), she weeps and laments
for
two days beforehand. The bridegroom and his party, headed by the best man, have to pay a fee before they can even enter her parents' house and the bride has to be carried out by force, pinching and scratching her bearers and grasping at everything she can reach to delay the passage. She throws
;
herself at the horses' feet, beseeching them not to carry her away, she declines to receive the ritual kiss from the bride-
beside him in the carriage. The girls at the house take her part and abuse him, till their bridegroom's silence is purchased with glasses of spirits and they are turned out of the room (FL. i. 430 sqq.). The rites observed on arrival at the bridegroom's house as clearly symbolize or effect the bride's reception into a
groom, or to
sit
society as do those at her parents' home her separation from an old one. Generally she is ceremonially lifted over
new
the threshold
by her husband, by his maternal uncle (Khonds,
ut sup.}, by a married woman (China, FL. i. 278). As she In ancient enters, fruits or cereals are scattered over her.
Greece
figs
and nuts were showered upon
her.
In Ireland,
the bridegroom's mother scatters oatmeal and sprinkles holy water upon her (FL. xviii. 81) ; in the north of England cake is crumbled over her head and the plate on which it In north-east Scotrested is broken (Henderson, p. 36).
his nearest
if she were dead, one of welcomed the bride at the door. A sieve containing bread and cheese was held over her head The bridein the doorway, or oatcake was broken over it. snatched her from beneath the shower, and the comgroom pany scrambled for the pieces. She was led straight to the hearth and the tongs were given to her, with which she made up the fire, or the besom (broom) with which she swept the " " crook hearth. The (pot-hanger) was then swung three times round her head with a solemn invocation, and finally her hand was pressed into the meal-chest and thrust deep into the meal (Gregor, p. 93). The Mordvin bride in some
land, the bridegroom's mother, or

relatives,
207
cases enters the house under a shower of hops from one of the bridegroom's female relations, a child is placed on her
lap,
and she
it
is
carried to the stove, to which she bows, be!
Next and obey her, and not to dirty her seeching with her mother-in-law to draw day she goes ceremonially water (FL. i. 442, 443). Or the mother-in-law leads her
to love
to the stove, strikes her
on the head with a

.
loaf of bread,
and gives her a new name of auspicious meaning. Then The Manchu she feeds her, and desires her to stay (ibid. 449) and Earth with her husband on her bride worships Heaven
first arrival,
his
and on the next day ancestors and hearth-gods, thus

i.
joins
him
in worshipping
testifying to her adoption
into his family (FL.
The bridegroom's house

;
488, 489). is often the scene of the rites of
and after the ceremonial reception union already referred to of the bride there is almost always a wedding feast, with
special viands and appropriate songs and dances. The Christian marriage-ritual presents us with
many
of
It
the ancient features translated into a

is
it
new atmosphere.
performed at the doorway Western Church, the presence of witnesses, the formal surrender of the bride by her friends, and the payment made by the bridegroom, together with the troth
includes, in the
plight, the
;
of the church or chancel,
and
mutual vows, the gift or exchange of marriage to which tokens (rings) and even the concluding ritual feast and bridethe Eastern Church adds the crowning of the bride groom and the pre-Christian religious rite of the procession round the altar. When the ecclesiastical ceremony is performed actually in transitu from the bride's old home to her new one as among the Mordvins, in Cappadocia, and
formerly in north-east Scotland the original significance of the ancient household rites de passage and the fact that " intrusive the visit to the church is an addition due to an
Not that the inclusion culture/' are both very apparent. of a religious element in the rites is peculiar to Christendom. The Mordvins, for example, who were pagans down to the
eighteenth century,
still
intersperse their marriage rites with
208
prayers to the old gods. And where there is a regular priesthood, the priest usually takes a leading part in the ceremonial. At the marriage of a Fijian chief, the priest, seated
between the young couple, invoked the divine protection on them and joined their hands, exhorting them to be loving and faithful and to live and die together. In the Kingsmill Islands he pressed their foreheads together, poured coco-nut oil upon them, and sprinkled their faces with a branch dipped in water, while he prayed for their prosperity. Dr. Wester-
marck
cites other cases
(Human Marriage,
422).
often elapses before the young bride is admitted to full social rights in her new environment. The frequent prohibition to call her husband by name has already been
Some time
mentioned
kin
is
(p. 49). Eating with or speaking to his near also often forbidden. feature of interest in a Cappa-
docian wedding, says Mr. W. R. Halliday (FL. xxiii. 87, " For forty is the severity of the taboos on the bride. 88),
For two or three years is obliged to wear the veil. not speak to her mother-in-law or the male relatives may of her husband above the age of childhood. Any converdays she
she
is necessary with her mother-in-law must be on indirectly through her sisters-in-law or the children of the house, to whom the words intended to reach the ears For of the mother-in-law must be actually addressed.
sation which
carried
several years, again, the bride may not eat out of the common dish, and, even when she is at length admitted to this privilege,
she must
. .
.
sit
on one side and eat with her head turned away.

exchanged a word
"
My
and
informant's brother had been married for three

his sister-in-law has not yet
years,
with him."
The husband
forbids
also often has to observe similar
customs
of avoidance," the
him
to speak to
most common sometimes even to
of which
is
that which
see or to
name
sometimes subtiltuted for or added to the mother, and the taboo occasionsi y extends even to the blood-relations, such as brothers " " mother-in-law taboo is and sisters. The particularly
his wife's mother.
The
wife's father
is

strict
209
among
the
Navaho Indians
of
New
Mexico, where both
parties are liable to be struck blind for even looking at each other (Anthropos, iii. 862). In New Britain a man's most
solemn oath
"
if
!
May I shake hands with my mother-in-law and even accidentally speaking to one's mother-inis
"
law leads to the suicide of both parties (Frazer, Taboo, 85). The taboo is generally permanent, but among some peoples it may be terminated by gifts, by a public ceremonial, or on
the birth of the
first
;
son (Amer. Nat. Hist. Mus.
xviii.
10
Peab. Mus.
iii.
132
Hobley, 103
Werner,
Brit. Cent. Afr.
J.A.I. xl. 307). the wife continues to inhabit her parents' dwelling, other inconveniences are involved. Sometimes her husband
132
When
may only visit her there
perhaps by stealth, and under cover
This is of darkness, as in the story of Cupid and Psyche. the permanent form of married life among the Synteng, a
sub-tribe of the Khasis, among whom mother-right to an extreme point (v. p. 170) but generally it
;
is
carried
is
only a
preliminary stage, and eventually either an independent household is set up, or the husband takes up his abode with his wife's people. His position in the household is naturally a
subordinate one, but in varying degrees. At one end of the scale are the Romang men, of whom we are told that the
husband
loses all right in his parental house because he belongs to his wife's family (Hartland, P.P., ii. 32). At the other are the Pueblo Indians, among whom the husband
occupies the lowest place at the board and dare not lift a finger to chastise his unruly offspring, but must entreat their maternal
uncle to do so for
sister's children
him
En
revanche, however, he retains his
status in his mother's house,
that
is
and wields the authority over his denied to him in the case of his own
(Oral inf. B.F.-M.). " " The rites of matrilocal marriage are necessarily somewhat dissimilar from those previously described, yet not
so. A single example must suffice. Among the Musquakie Indians the young man's mother opens the negotiations with the girl's mother. The matter having been agreed o
entirely
2io
upon between them and an interval for courtship allowed,, the young man visits the girl's parents. Her mother ceremonially feeds him and bargains with him for the presents she is to receive, after which her father and other male relatives dress him in a new suit of clothes (to be returned on the morrow), and introduce him to their friends. On the
morning of the wedding-day the bridegroom goes to the wigwam of the bride's parents to take up his abode there. The presents agreed upon are handed over to her mother. The bride ceremonially feeds the bridegroom, and the pair sit side by side all day on a seat of honour, receiving the
congratulations of their friends. This completes the rites (Owen, p. 72). Note the absence of any ceremonial combat. DIVORCE is a much simpler business than marriage. It
reversing the more important of the or by symbolic division, as in Java, previous ceremonies, where the priest cuts the marriage cord literally (Crawley,
is
usually effected
by
The most quaintly practical method, perhaps, is that 323). once in vogue in Orkney, where irregular marriages used to be contracted by clasping hands through a hole in a great " standing-stone," known as the Woden Stone. When the
service in a Christian
different
couple tired of each other, they had only to attend an ordinary Church and to leave the building by
doors.
This loosed the bond which the Pagan

of all,
monument had made (County FL. Hi. 212, 214). DEATH. And now we come to the last passage
Death, which, regarded as the separation of soul and body, involves rites for the proper disposition of both. These vary
them and with

its life after
with the habits and environment of the people who practise their beliefs as to the nature of the soul and
death.
in exorcism of the ghost
Of these beliefs, and of their culmination on the one hand and worship of it on the other, something has already been said in chap. vi. As to the disposal of the body, mankind for the most part are divided between cremation and interment. Sometimes both are combined the buried corpse is exhumed and afterwards burnt. Sometimes it is thrown into water pious Hindoos
;
Rites of Individiial Life.

throw
their
1 1
dead into the Ganges, the sacred stream.
Other
peoples, e.g. the Parsees and Tibetans, expose the corpse to be devoured by birds or beasts, and in some cases, chiefly in
Africa,
it is
eaten
by the
relatives
All these
methods aim
at separation, concealment, or destruction, of the remains, but an appreciable minority of peoples attempt the preservation of them ; sometimes by mummification, but more often
merely by treasuring up the bones. Nomadic tribes frequently carry the bones of their dead about with them for years, But the leading form of preservaas we preserve locks of hair.
tion
is
the conservation of the skull
(cf.
p. 53).
The ancient
Issedones, a remote tribe of Scythians, ate the body, but removed the head and preserved the skull as a memorial (Herod,
iv.
According to Livy Gaul also preserved the skull.

26).
(xxiii.
24), the Boii of ancient
So did the natives of the Torres
The practice Straits within living memory, as we shall see. is common in Oceania, and the skulls, rituaily purified, are frequently used for divination, propitiated, invoked customs
which obviously lean in the direction of ancestor-worship. Ritual is largely governed by belief in all matters connected
with Death.
Belief as to the state of the soul departed influences the method of disposal of the body. If the Land of
Dead
is
pictured as underground,
;
we
shall not
be surprised
customary if it is imagined as beyond the sea, the corpse may be laid in a canoe and set adrift on the waters. In some of the Polynesian islands, far distant from each other, two beliefs concerning the home of the dead have been recorded. The future abode of the chiefs is above the sky, that of the common people is in the Underworld. Accordto find interment
ingly, throughout Polynesia there is evidence that preservation of the dead above ground is the practice of chiefs, and inter-
ment
in the sitting posture that of the common people (Rivers, Melanesian Society, vol. ii. p. 281). Where two forms of belief and practice are thus found in the same region an intrusive
culture
may be
every case.
suspected. Yet this hypothesis does not meet There are groups in India which, in one and the
practise
same group
cremation,
sepulture,
and exposure,
212
according to the manner of the death. Where belief in reincarnation occurs, the bodies of those who are expected to return to earth after a more or less prolonged sojourn elsewhere, are differently treated from those whose manner of
death argues them to be dead socially as well as physically,

to be put out of existence
affects the matter.
and altogether
extinct.
Sex
also
The
belief that
women do
not reincarnate
causes their obsequies to differ from those of the men. Peculiar " funeral dispositions, such as cave-" burial and tree-" burial," and details such as the position of the corpse, the orientation of the grave, the interment of stones with the dead body, all
have
their significance.
In
fine,
the proper investigation of

relation
funeral rites
to belief, to
demands that they should be examined in environment, and if possible, to history.
Much
deathbed ritual seems to be dictated
by the
fear of
pollution, whether from the ghost of the dead man or from contact with the mysterious phenomenon of death itself, is not clear, but the practically universal existence of the dread is certain, whatever may be its object. When Pausanias, the traitor-king of Sparta, fled for sanctuary to the temple of Athene, he was blockaded there and starved almost
to death, for no one dared to touch him, till at the last moment he was dragged out just in time to die outside and avoid
Cylon, who in the sixth century B.C. polluting the temple. attempted to raise a rebellion in Athens, was actually
temple of Athene Polias, and the whole city was thereby tainted with blood-guiltiness. Even when it had been ceremonially purified, the family chiefly concerned " " accursed down to the in the murder were stigmatized as
killed in the
of Pericles According (Thucydides, i. 126, 134). to the Levitical law, any uncovered vessel in a tent in which one had died was unclean seven days (Numb. xix. 15). In savage society, the sick man is often removed to a separate
time
hut to avoid polluting the dwelling by his ghost. (Oldfashioned folk in Staffordshire never allowed young chickens,
cage-birds, or other domestic pets, to die in the house, possibly for the same reason.) In Europe, a dying man may be taken
213
Any supposed impediment
from his bed, on the pretext of letting him die more easily. to the flight of the soul is removed. Doors and windows are opened, locks and bolts loosed. A sod or a tile may even be taken from the roof, to give it free
egress.
Persons as well as buildings, vessels, and implements, are held to be contaminated by the death pollution. Among " the Maoris, who carried tabu to an extreme point, anyone who had handled a corpse, helped to convey it to the grave,
or touched a dead man's bones
could not enter into any house or come into contact with any person or thing, without He might not even touch food utterly bedevilling them. with his hands," but must be fed by another, who himself " In almost became subject to severe restrictions thereby.
. . .
every populous village there lived a degraded wretch, the lowest of the low, who earned a sorry pittance by thus waiting on the defiled/' (G.B. i. 323.) On the death of a Kafir head-
man, all those in the same kraal become unclean. They must shave their heads, and they may not drink milk nor
transact business with other kraals until the medicine-man
has cleansed them.
Indeed, some anthropologists think that the primary intention of mourning garb is to proclaim to the world the mourner's state of taboo. Typically, it consists
of creating a
marked contrast to the mourner's ordinary

let their
fall in
appearance. Those who habitually shave, those who plait it and bind it up, let it
locks,
hair grow,
dishevelled
and
vice
versa.
The Ainu
at a funeral
wear their
coats upside
or wrong-side before (Batchelor, 106). Sometimes the mourning relatives discard clothes alto-
down
joint, or
gether and bedaub themselves with paint, or cut off a fingergash their bodies with knives and let the blood
Often they must fast, or at least refrain from cooking food, until the funeral. The house-fire is either put out, or only kept alight as a protection against anything
flow over the grave.
evil.
the
moment
The ceremonial lamentations and of death, and the corpse is

till
dirges begin from as a rule watched
incessantly
is
the funeral.
Before
it
is
taken away there
usually a preliminary feast, in which the dead
man
is
often
214
supposed to share. The Kols of India invite a Mahali man (one of a mongrel tribe with whom they do not eat) to a meal in the dead man's house. He represents the deceased,
and goes away when the
feast is finished, instead of joining
the funeral party. Until this is done, no meal can be eaten in the house, but thenceforth it is pure, and no longer haunted.
(Hahn,
84.)
Cases have been noted in India in which the
sins of deceased
Rajahs have been removed from the
evil
doers and communicated to

(G.B.
tury,
iii.
Brahmans by a
similar rite.
18.)
On
when the corpse was brought out

("
the Welsh border, in the seventeenth cenof the house, a stranger,

of one such),
a quasi-professional
raskal "
says Aubrey and drink handed to him over the coffin " in consideration of which he took upon him (ipso facto} all the Sinnes of the Defunct, and freed him or her from walking after they were dead." (Aubrey, p. 35.) Ceremonial eating and
a long leane, ugly, lamentable poor was paid to consume food
drinking in the presence of the dead, sharing a loving-cup placed on the coffin, or handing doles to the poor across it,
are
by no means uncommon European customs.

"
Bavaria the dough for the was set to rise corpse-cakes on the dead body itself, but the reason given was that they " then contained the virtues and advantages of the departed, and that thus the living strength of the deceased passed
over by means of the corpse-cakes into the kinsmen who consumed them, and so was retained within the kin." (FL.
iii.
"
In Upper
149.)
The
is
actual removal of the dead
body from the dwelling

;
accompanied by many precautions against the spirit's Sometimes the limbs are tied together occasionally the corpse is dismembered or mutilated invariably it is carried out feet foremost not seldom it is conveyed to its resting-place by a circuitous route. Very generally it is removed, not by the ordinary exit, but by an opening made " " on purpose and afterwards closed up. The corpse-door It in an old house in Jutland is figured in FL. xviii. 364. is a bricked-up archway, opened to admit of the passage
return.
;
;
215
of the corpse and built up again before the return of the funeral party. Special corpse-doors may also be seen in
houses at Zaandam, in Holland (oral inf. D.H.R.M.). Sometimes the house-door is guarded by a sharp axe laid on the
and tables are overturned which might serve as a lurking-place for the disembodied soul are turned upside down. The police of Arran Island, in 1889, buried the boots of a murdered man below high-water mark, to keep him from walking.
threshold
;
in other places the seats
and any
vessels
(FL.
i.
135.)
is
Provision for the future needs of the dead
common,
whether dictated by affectionate care for their comfort in their new state of existence, or by the desire to give them no excuse for returning to their former one. Among such provisions may be noted that of putting a coin, (" Charon's
obol"), into the coffin to pay the passage to the further shore, and that which St. Augustine (i5th Discourse) de" nounced as the pernicious error of putting together food
of the dead, as if their souls come and want food." Such customs culminate in the tombs of ancient Egypt, which were practically dwellings elaborately furnished and provisioned for the use of the dead. The destruction of property after a funeral, sometimes prompted by desire to get rid of the death pollution, is in other cases the outcome of this care for the welfare
and wine on the tombs
forth out of the bodies
According to Herodotus (iv. 71), the death of a king of Scythia was accompanied by the sacrifice on his grave of one of his concubines, his cup-bearer, cook, groom, lacquey,
of the dead.
horses, some golden cups, and selections other possessions. Hideous hecatombs of a similar character have been reported from Africa. A last
and messenger, some

from
all
his
relic of this
custom may perhaps be traced in that pathetic feature of a military funeral, the riderless horse led behind the coffin, with the dead man's boots significantly reversed
is
in the stirrups. The funeral feast
completion of the
rites.
generally regarded as the necessary The Melanesians of Aurora Island
6
if

"
they do not kill many pigs on this occasion the dead man has no proper existence, but hangs on tangled creepers, and to hang on creepers they think a miserable
think that
and
thing/' (Codrington, 282.) If the body after burial is exhumed re-interred or otherwise disposed of, a second feast will
usually be held when all is concluded. In any case a later memorial feast, often with subsequent games and dramatic dances, is customary. The Prussians in the sixteenth century held banquets on the third, sixth, ninth, and fortieth days after the interment, to which they invited the soul of the
deceased.
They drank
his health,
and threw morsels under
the table for him and his fellows. When the meal was finished, " " " the sacrificer And he swept the house with brooms.
casts out the souls of the
fleas,
dead with the dust, as if they were and prays them to depart, saying Ye have eaten
'
and drunk, beloved

xii.
souls,
go ye forth, go ye forth
'
!
(FL.
301.)
The mourning period generally has a ceremonial termination, at all events in the case of a widow or other principal mourner ;
and the completion of the funeral rites marks a change in the attitude of the living towards the spirits of the departed.
They are no longer thought of as inimical, but as friendly, and are invited to share in feasts held periodically in their
and where the honour, usually at the close of the Old Year cult of the dead is developed, offerings are made at their tombs.
;
Finally, an account of the funeral customs of Mabuiag It will be (Torres Straits), may be added in some detail. observed that they constitute essentially a rite de passage.
The
soul is driven out from the body with blows, and becomes a "ghost-person," (markai}, admitted to the society of the other world by a blow on the head from each senior markai, as youths are admitted to the society of men by blows and rough usage. Fire and food are provided for the newly dead,
apart from the abodes of men, but as the people believe that the dead are able to find sustenance for themselves, the ritual
does not include any provision But that the mourning is very
for their
real
permanent comfort. and the family affection
Rites of Individ^tal Life.
217
very genuine, is shown by the preservation of the ghastly memorials of the deceased, as well as by the frequent commemoration of them. And the confidence of the people in the
efficacy of the rites is evidently complete, for though the ghost is avoided as long as it is thought to linger in this world,
there seems to be no fear whatever of

survivors afterwards.
its
return to injure
When a death occurred, it was the duty of the brother or brothers of the deceased man's wife formally to announce the fact to the kindred, by giving the nearest kinsman a
" is a markai touch on the head with a stick and saying The kindred wailed and fasted while the brothers(ghost)."
in-law, officially entitled the mariget (literally, ghost-hand), made preparations for the funeral. The body was sewn
up
It
in a mat, the
thumbs
was
carried out of the
tied together, the great toes also. "
camp
its
feet foremost,
otherwise
the mari (ghost) would find
way back and trouble the and was placed on a platform under a shed survivors," Food and water perhaps the reerected for the purpose. mains of the dead man's last meal were provided, else the ghost would come back to the house for them and a fire was " dead man he cold." Then the relatives, summoned lit, for
;
by well-understood pantomimic
signals given by the mariget, assembled in mourning array of paint and mutilations, touched the corpse and shot arrows at the shed and at the leaders of
the ceremonies (or mariget}, who, still in pantomime, hushed their lamentations and made them take food then repeated
;
The mourners then went to the " and made havoc of the crops, it was like goodbye." gardens Later, the mariget danced, and the mourners cried. A heap of food was piled up near the shed and was divided among
ritual
formulas of comfort.
those present.
The corpse remained under the shed for several days, watched by the mariget to protect it from animals, and to see if anything happened to throw light on the circumstances of the death, for these people recognized no cause of death but sorcery. They made a noise to drive away the markai
218
and the
the
(or ghosts of other defunct persons) who might be about, chief mariget waved his hand over the body to feel
mari
sufficiently
(disembodied soul). When decomposition had advanced, the relatives returned, and mourned.
was beaten with a stick " to drive rest of devil out/' and the first and second mariget took the head and lower jaw and placed them in an anthill to be cleansed by the insects. The rest of the body remained in the shed till the flesh had entirely decayed away, when the relatives
The
roof of the shed
deposited the bones in a crevice in the rocks. When thoroughly clean, the head (skull and lower jaw) was formally presented to the relatives. The chief mariget
red and placed it in a decorated basket. A large in the usual place of assembly, the chief mourner sat upon it, the male relatives round him, the women
painted
it
mat was spread

at a
little
distance.
covered with masks
The mariget, painted black, made of leaves, came in
their heads
procession,
and were greeted by the mourners with a ceremonial flight of arrows. The head mariget went on to the mat and presented the basket to the chief mourner the others crowded round and cried over it. The mariget hushed them, and repeated the formulas of comfort as before. Each party formally presented the other with food, and all went home and had a
;
concluding feast. (Rep. Torres Straits, v. 248-252.) The mari (shadow, reflection, or disembodied spirit), was supposed to linger near the body for some days after death.
Thence it went to the mystic invisible western island where the markai (ghost persons) dwell, and where on the first night of the next new moon it was admitted into the society of the
Till
markai by a blow on the head from each previous arrival. " thus initiated a mari is a very intangible sort of thing."
(Ibid. p. 355.)
Then
it
learns the arts
and
crafts of the
new
abode, and especially how to make waterspouts, by which the markai spear and suck up turtle and dugong. For the markai carry on an existence similar to that of this world,
and
at times appear to living
men who have
the power of
communicating with them
(ibid. p. 358).
219
ceremony was held where the sacred treasures of the community were kept and the boys " were made men." Immediately before the rites of initiation, the Death-dance was performed in memory of those who had departed this life since the last occasion of meeting. The men who had recently acted as mariget at any funerals usually took the lead in getting it up. The women and youths were forbidden to see the men making the leafy masks (markaikuik) which were to be worn, and a great screen of mats was erected round the rendezvous where the preparations were made. The masked and costumed dancers who, of course, were all of the male sex, personated the ghosts of deceased men (markai) and women (ipika-markai) and a buffoon (danilkau). Both male and female personages were painted black and the male characters carried bows and arrows, excepting two, who carried brooms. They issued from the screened kwod in threes, two men with a woman (man in woman's clothing) between them, and danced before the spectators, each imitating the movements and gestures of the dead friend whom he represented, so that the relatives
to time a general funeral
in the sacred islet of Pulu off the western coast,
sitting at
From time
pair of
came
distance could recognise him. The last those with the brooms, and behind them the buffoon, with a coco-nut suspended from his waist,
little
men were
skipping, tumbling, and playing antics, to relieve the strain. The women and children were supposed to believe that the
come
performers were really the ghosts of their deceased friends to visit them, and to be comforted by the assurance
that the departed were
still
alive.
(Ibid. 251-256.)
See Questionary, pp. 329-334.
CHAPTER
XIII.
OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES.

IT
is
an error to suppose that WARFARE
is
the normal con-
There are, it is true, predatory dition of savage mankind. tribes and piratical sea-robbers who subsist by plunder ;
and there are private quarrels and chronic feuds. But organized warfare implies an organized community, and the most warlike nations are to be found among those who, like the Maoris and the North American tribes, have developed a certain amount of independent culture. Some tribes, such as the Wyandots (supra, ch. xi.) even have a separate
organization for times of war, distinct from the ordinary The personal preparations of the warriors, civil government.
their
mode of life while on a campaign, and the rites performed on their restoration to civil life, show that war is to them by no means a normal condition, but an important enterprise not to be lightly entered upon.
In the early years of the nineteenth century, a Mr. John Tanner, who was for some time a captive among the Osage, described their preparations for a campaign. When war
had been decided upon, the warriors painted themselves and held a war-dance. They then got ready their arms and munitions of war, separated from their wives, and " underwent a course of fasting, purging, and sweat-bathing," praying all the while for victory. They consumed a particular narcotic plant, anointed themselves with bear's grease, in specially medicated, and finally held another war-dance
Occupations
which
and
Industries.
221
" " virtue apparently to guard against loss of strength or by contact. (G.B. i. 327 cf. pp. 122, 123.) Before their
:
Thus equipped, all the actions of war were imitated. they set out on the war-path, but throughout their campaign they were subject to a variety of prohibitions, intended
return they threw away the bowls out of which they had eaten during the campaign. In other tribes and countries we are
told of victorious warriors obliged to remain in quarantine and to submit to ritual purification before they are received
back to civil life. Numerous examples be found in G.B. i. 330, sqq.
of these
customs
will
at home during their husbands' be an important matter. They are often expected to perform sympathetic rites and to observe
The conduct
of the
is
women
absence at war
also apt to
" corresponding prohibitions. gascar (1685) informs us that
An
'
old
historian
of
Mada-
while the
men
are out at
the wars
to dance,
the
and neither
women and girls lie down nor

believe that
cease not day
and night
take food in their
own
'
houses/
"..."' They
by dancing they impart
and good fortune to their husbands/ And they would not for the world have an intrigue with another man while their husband is away at the wars, believing firmly that if that happened their husband would
strength, courage, " '
.
.
.
be either killed or wounded.'
"
(G.B.
i,
31.)
Charmed weapons
Ages.
lingered in Europe into the late Middle Rites to render the warrior invulnerable are found
from the Siege of Troy down to the Thirty Years' War (Aubrey, Or talismans may be carried into battle to give strength to the arms of the combatants and cause confusion in the ranks of their enemies. The helmet of a fallen Dervish from Omdurman, hung with no less than
Remaines, 75, 152, 237).
twenty-four cases for amulets, was exhibited to the Folklore Society, igth May, 1909. Even the Palladium of a
nation
victory.
sometimes carried forth, in the hope of bringing are familiar with the story of the Ark of the Israelites and its capture by the Philistines, and with the Battle of the Standard in our own history. It is only of
is
We
222
recent years that it has become customary to place the flags of a regiment in safe keeping at home rather than expose them and their bearers to the chances of a battlefield.
remarkable example of a war-talisman, and at the same time of the genesis of a war-god, is found in what Professor Haddon calls " the Saga of Kwoiam," the legendary hero
of the Torres Straits Islands.
He, so Dr. Haddon thinks,
was probably an Australian immigrant from Queensland, who dwelt apart with his maternal family on the southern promontory of Mabuiag. One day he killed his mother in a fit of passion, and then in a fit of remorse vowed to revenge her death. Thenceforward his hand was practically against every man of the neighbouring islands and their hands were
He slew all his opponents single-handed with against him. hurled by his Australian spear-thrower, till at length javelins
came a day when, in fight with an invading party from Moa Island, the spear-thrower broke in his hand, and Kwoiam knew that his hour was come. He retreated slowly backwards up the hill and fell, facing the foe, just as he reached the summit. The Moa men dared not behead his corpse as was their wont with fallen enemies, and the Mabuiag men, his neighbours, came and buried him under a cairn, and treasured his magic augud on Pulu the sacred isle. These were two crescent-shaped ornaments made of turtleshell, the shape of the new moon as Kwoiam saw it when he was making them. One, the kutiku,w&s worn on the upper the other, giribu, on the chest. They directed the wearer lip in the straight course and enabled him to be victorious in fight. Any woman who saw them became insane. They could
there
;
move and
them
turn at their
own
will.
When men
approached
to equip themselves therewith for war, they were restless in their receptacle, and when they had smelt fish they were
The Mabuiag clans formed themselves two phratries of kutiku and giribu, and on every outbreak of war the augud were brought out of their hiding-place with solemn ceremony and were carried into battle, each worn by the leader of its own phratry. " Spose we no
ready for battle.
into
Occupations
got augud,
and
Industries.
223
story. of Kwoiam's
how we fight And though one
said the islanders, relating the grieves to read of the desecration

?
"
shrine and relics, yet the missionaries who them probably acted in the interests of peace. destroyed But the natives still point out the scenes of their hero's life and death, and say that the party who demolished the shrine on Pulu were nearly wrecked on their return voyage, and that the Samoan who actually committed the sacrilegious act was seized with mysterious illness that very night. (Torres
Straits, v. 3, 67, 367.)
Preparations for
HUNTING much resemble those

tribes hold
for war.
solemn magico-religious dances before a hunt. They masquerade as the quarry they are in search of, and imitate its actions, hoping thus to bring the real animals within their reach. Before a bear-hunt the hunter sometimes addresses the bear, begging it not to be and angry and fight, but to have pity and give itself up after it has been killed, rites are performed to appease its (Mem. Am. spirit, as if it had been human or superhuman.
;
Many North American
Mus. Nat.
The Malay pawang takes a " he says, Ho, Sir Cruncher! e.g. Let the twig break under the weight of Ho, Sir Muncher Fast shut and locked be your jaws by virtue the wild goose of 'AH Mustapha, OM. Thus I break the tusks of all beasts
Hist.
i.
Anthro., 347.)
much higher line with the tiger;

!
!
that are tusked, by virtue of this prayer from the land of Siam." After this the tiger cannot open his mouth to devour
his victim
(MM.
167).
Among
the Bushongo, to secure
the success of a hunt, you must steal a hen or a goat from another village (one honestly come by would be useless),
and The
by blows in the presence of the hunting-fetish. must be sprinkled with blood, and the flesh eaten by the hunters. The rites on returning from hunting last several days (Torday and Joyce, 121) The dogs used for huntcome in for their share of treatment. In Uganda before ing hunting a dog was fed on the entrails of the kind of animal " " to be hunted, its eyes and nose were rubbed with medicines " " to quicken its sight and smell, and a fetish was tied round
kill
it
fetish
224
its

it
from snake-bites, and to enable it to were forbidden to step over the dog's prey. fetishes, as that would break their charm (Roscoe, 424). FISHING is accompanied by practices of a similar character.
catch
its
neck to preserve
Women
In the Torres Straits Islands, magico-religious dances are held from time to time to promote the success of the fisheries. Women are forbidden to enter the turtle-fishing canoes and
company of the fishermen. The canoes the smoke of burning herbs, and the men are by anointed with a mixture of turtle-fat and charcoal. Bullare purified
roarers are
are excluded from the
swung at the departure of the expedition magical are put on board and their spirits are invited to join images the crew. (Torres Straits, v. 330.)
;
War and
hunting have passed out of the dominion of the
folk in Europe, but fishing has become a craft followed from father to son till the fisher-folk often form a quasi-caste
apart from the landsmen. The Scottish fishermen used to distribute bread and cheese on launching a new boat, and sometimes to scatter barley over the boat itself. Talismans a horseshoe, a silver coin, a lucky stone, etc., were, nay,
still are, carried in it. When the herring-season was very backward, the fishermen of Buckie (Banff shire) dressed a cooper in flannel shirt with burs stuck over it and carried him in procession through the town in a hand-barrow, to bring better luck to the fishing. The (Ch. N. 271, Gregor, 145.) words minister, salmon, pig, and many others must not be
is
spoken at sea. Meeting a woman on the way to the boats a most unlucky omen. (Gregor, 199 cf. FL. xiv. 300 xv. 95.) In this last detail the fishermen agree with the
:
miners.
Little has been recorded of the folk-lore of English fishermen, but the two following items show that it is likely to repay A belief exists among East Anglian fishermen investigation. that the souls of their deceased comrades undergo trans-
migration into gulls (FL. xiv. 64). On the first night of the mackerel-fishing season at Brighton, bread and cheese are distributed to the children on the beach, and on each
Occupations
and
Industries.
225
recited
night some form of the following charm or prayer is by the boat's crew while putting the nets into the sea
Captain. Now, men, hats off through, etc. Amen.
is/ Man. Watch, 2nd Man. White
!
God Almighty send

!
us a blessing,
!
yrd
^th 6th
Sth
Man. Man. Man. Man.
watch mackerel for to catch they be, like a blossom on a tree. Some by the head, (^th) Some by the tail, God send good mackerel may never fail Some by the nose, (jth) Some by the fin, God send as many as we can lift in
barrel,
may
This
(F.
rite is called Bending-in, perhaps for Benediction. E. Sawyer, in Journ. Brit. Arch. Asso. 1886, p. 317.)
The customs of HERDSMEN have as yet been little studied. The Hindoo reverence for the cow is well-known and the
;
Todas have elaborated the care of the milch-ldne into an absolute cult. Not that they actually worship the sacred herd of buffaloes but the dairy is a sacred place, the dairyman a consecrated priest, and the daily routine of the dairy opera;
tions a religious ritual.
They use the milk
of the buffaloes,
but not the
flesh,
killed in sacrifice.
except when, at stated periods, a calf is Even less has been recorded of shepherds'
lore, yet the pastoral life should yield a rich harvest to the enquirer. The wide-spread use of the blade-bone in divination is a significant item. In Africa, the Baganda women are forbidden to eat mutton, and a
than of cowherds'
Baganda man killing a sheep stands behind by a blow on the head, because if it saw its
would haunt him. An axe once thus used door and called " the plague of the sheep."
is
it
and stuns
it
slayer its ghost kept inside the
(Roscoe, p. 288.)
The Wiltshire
folk believe that a furious ghost may be safely encountered by anyone wrapped in a lambskin, or a sheepskin
turned inside out.

Floral
offerings
(F.L.
xii. 74.)
at sheep-shearing feasts survived on the banks of the Severn in the middle of the
to
the waters
Within the last half-century, if eighteenth century. (Dyer.) not now, a set of numerals was used in many English counties " " to count, or as it is called, to score sheep, which is based on p
226
an early Celtic system of numeration. It consists chiefly of old Welsh words corrupted into a sort of memorial rhythm, and bears witness to the unbroken existence of the shepherds' (See calling in these islands from perhaps pre-Roman times.
A.
J. Ellis, in
The customs
Trans. Phil. Soc. 1877-79, pp. 316-372.) of HUSBANDMEN on the other hand have
been the subject of much study. Mannhardt in Germany, and Dr. J. G. Frazer in England, have treated of them at length.
The
the
object of agricultural rites is, naturally, to promote fertility of the soil, to secure good crops and safe in-
gathering. One of the most famous of these rites is the human sacrifice offered to the Earth-Goddess by the Khonds. A
human victim, was kept in confinement, often for before being sacrificed, and was treated with reverence years, and affection as a consecrated being. At the time of laying down the crops he was put to death with horrible tortures, his
Meriah, or
flesh was hacked from his body by the crowd and the shreds were buried in the fields. The head, bones, and intestines were burnt with a whole sheep as a funeral pile, and the ashes
scattered over the

granaries, or
fields,
laid as paste over the houses or
mixed with the new corn to preserve it from Here is a European parallel, one of many. At insects. Spackendorf, in Austrian Silesia, on the morning of St.
27th), a human effigy made of straw, sticks, and rags, dressed in a great fur-coat and cap and hung with iron chains, is fastened to a pole and carried with up-
Rupert's
Day (March
roarious singing to an open space outside the village, where, with divers ceremonies, it is laid in a large grave. A fire is
then kindled, and the figure is stripped, and thrown into it. Then begins a struggle for the burning rags, which are snatched from the flames with naked hands. Everyone who gets a piece ties it to a branch of the biggest tree in his garden,
or buries
it
the better.
it
in the fields, in order that the crops may thrive Thus civilization preserves while (G.B. iii. 244.)
mitigates barbaric custom.
Numerous examples
ing crops are cited in G.B. vols.
of rites for the well-being of the growi. and iii. Most of them are
Occupations
sympathetic or symbolic.
and
Industries.
227
Women sow
the grain with hair

:
men throw the it grow luxuriantly seed-bag into the air that the crop may grow tall. But there are other rites of an indeterminate character. Captain J. G. Bourke describes how, immediately before the snakeunbound, to make
dance of the Moqui Indians
sists in
this is a rain-rite
which con-
snakes and sending them with messages " one of the old men to Big Snake to ask him to send rain held up a gourd rattle, shook it, lifted his hands in an attitude
catching
little
of prayer towards the sun, bent down his head, moved his lips, threw his hands with fingers opened towards the earth,
grunted to represent thunder, hissed for lightning, at the same time making a sinuous line in the air with the right
index finger, and then, seeing that my attention was fixed on made a sign as if something was coming up out of the the Hopi ground, and said, 'mucho maize, lotamail'" (good
him,
Bourke, 123). It is difficult to say whether such observances as these should be regarded as dramatic " " magic or as pantomimic prayer. Here that blessed word
salutation.
Magico-religious will
will
come
to the aid of the recorder,
and
save him from following the example of a writer who, seeing Magic in one part of a rite and Religion in another,
deliberately cut the account of it in half and placed the two portions in two separate chapters accordingly. Rain-making rites, though not confined to agricultural
peoples, may conveniently be dealt with here. The following series of examples will show how gradually, in the Lower Culture, Magic melts into Religion and Religion into Magic.
The Tully River natives of North Queensland, we are told (W. E. Roth, 167, 168) conceive of Rain as a person. Certain men and women who are named after him can make him come.
The means
usually adopted for this purpose are to hang an implement called a whirler (bull-roarer) in the water of certain Even if the rain do not come for several weeks afterpools. wards, when it does it is due to this cause. If thunder and lightning are desired, chips of a certain kind of wood are also thrown into the pool. On the Georgina River a more dramatic
228
rite is

employed.
are
artificial water-hole is made and the a few yards away. The men dance encamped and sing around the hole, and imitate the sounds and movements of ducks, frogs, and other aquatic creatures. They
An
women
then form a line and encircle the women, over whom they throw crushed quartz-crystals, while the women hold shields, pieces of bark, and wooden troughs, over their heads, pretending to protect themselves from a shower of rain. Rain must indeed be dull if he mistake what is wanted (ibid}. In Africa, the dramatic appeal is not to Rain himself, but to the ruler or owner of the rain. On his first visit to the
!
Shire Highlands, Dr. Livingstone noted that the Anyanja " believe in a supreme being called Mpambe." Some years
later the
principal part was taken by a woman, the chief's sister," (i.e. a princess of the blood-royal, " the potential mother of kings). She began by dropping
to
Mpambe
Rev. H. Rowley thus described the "

for rain.
rite of
appealing
The
ufa (grain) on the ground, slowly and carefully, till it formed a cone, and in doing this called out in a high-pitched voice,
Imva Mpambe ! Adza mvula ! (Hear thou, O God and send rain !). Beer was then poured out as a libation, and the people, following the example of the woman, threw themselves on their backs and clapped their hands (a form of salutation to superiors) and finally danced round the chief where he sat on the ground." When the dance ceased " a large jar of water was brought and placed before the chief first Mbudzi (his sister) washed her hands, arms, and face then the water was poured over her by another woman
'
!
'
then
all
the
women
rushed forward with calabashes in their
hands, and dipping them into the jar, threw the water into the air with loud cries and wild gesticulations." (Callaway,
125, quoting Rowley, Universities' Mission.) Further south, as Mr. Garbutt relates (J. R.A.I, xxxix. 53 -558), young girls are sent out to call the rain when the " growing crops are threatened with drought. They were
almost naked and were striped with ash like zebras. They ran about from kraal to kraal, beating drums and singing
Occupations
and
Industries.
229
songs all along the edge of the cornfields, and on reaching the leading kraal of the neighbourhood, or on returning to their own kraal, the head man gave them corn, which they
would make into beer."

"
One
of their songs
is
to this effect
beginning to rain, let it rain very much without " for a long time, let it rain, we rejoice stopping In Mashonaland, if rain does not come when it should,
Oh,
it's
all
the
women
of a kraal take small baskets
full of
the hut of the oldest

or god,
woman
in the kraal,
(?
who must be
grain to of the
clan) of the Mondoro, " " tribe has its (Each " " own M&ndoro, and each Mondoro has a medium through whom he speaks (cf. ch. vii. p. 120). The old woman pours the grain into a hollow in a flat rock, and walks round it with a dipping calabash in her hand, calling on the Mondoro If rain does to send rain, because his children are starving. not follow within a few days, the whole kraal proceed to the
same M'tupo (totem)
as the tribe
who
is
to be appealed to.
kraal of the
"
medium," make
offerings of snuff to her,
and
ask her to enquire what the people have done wrong. She retires into her hut and the people remain outside all night waiting for the spirit to enter into her. In the early morning
(usually), she rushes out foaming at the mouth and shouting, and in answer to the people's questions tells them how they have offended the Mondoro, and what offerings they must make to him to get rain. (Ibid. p. 547.) At Rudraganj in Bengal, in time of drought, all the outlets of the temple of the god Rudradeva are closed up, and Brahmans pour water over the idol in the temple until it is immersed
to the chin.
This process never
fails
(FL.
Sometimes it is human blood that is

in such rites.
"
ix. 278.)
poured out
like
water
"
We may
recall the story of the
prophets of
altar,
Baal,
who
in a time of drought, leaped
upon the
and
cut themselves with knives and lancets after their manner till the blood flowed, in the vain endeavour to attract the
The attention of their god. xviii. 26-28.) (I. Kings, suggestion that what we are in the habit of calling imitative magic is really a kind of gesture-language, a sort of heavenly
230
In such signalling-system, evidently deserves investigation. cases it should be noted whether the natives recognize (i) the existence of any personal heavenly Powers, and (2)
:
whether they communicate with their neighbours or with

strangers
special province of the king or chief. In other places (Cf. p. 179). a professional expert, or rainmaker, is employed, who in arid
by means of a gesture-language. The government of the weather is often the
climates
is
often an important personage, though his position,

it
precarious one.
does on his success, must necessarily be a But the prominent part taken by women in rainmaking rites will strike everyone. We meet with it even in India, where women do not till the soil. There, in time of drought, women stripped naked draw a plough through
depending as
the fields at night.
Even the
high-caste
Brahman
ladies
condescend to perform this rite. (G.B. i. 98.) The rain-charms practised in Europe are of a similar character. Water is thrown on a man or a girl covered with leaves, or on a stone, perhaps one beside a holy well or sometimes
;
on a corpse exhumed from the grave.

chidden for
spilling
Welsh children are
water or throwing stones into a well or
stream, lest rain should follow. (Trevelyan, p. 6.) The firing of big guns in a battle or sham fight, and even
the playing of a brass band
(this in
London among other
On the dry places), are popularly supposed to cause rain. and thirsty Rand, it seems, recourse is had to such methods
On August 5th, 1895, a petition from was presented to the Raad, praying that a law Krugersdorp might be passed to prohibit the sending up of bombs into the clouds to bring down rain, as it was a defiance of God, and would most likely bring down a visitation from the Almighty. And from the discussion which followed it would appear that attempts had really been made to influence the
rain
is
when
wanted.
weather in
this
way.
(Fitzpatrick, 392-3.)
Space does not admit of more than a bare allusion to rites

of rain -stopping and procuring sunshine.
We
come now
to Harvest.
The most noted, and perhaps
Occupations
and
Industries.
231
the most general, of Harvest rites is that of making a bunch of the ears of grain into a rude likeness of a human being,
naming
it
the Doll, the Baby, the Maiden, the Old
Woman,
the Harvest Mother, or some such name, and preserving it " till next year for luck," as it is expressed in Great Britain.
The Malay
proceeding.
rice-harvest
When
anything is cut, Then in a particular form) is searched for and chosen. the Pawang (who when Mr. Skeat witnessed the proceeding was a woman) comes attended by other women, and with elaborate ceremony, repetition of charms, fumigation with
incense,
shows us the significance of this is ready for harvesting, before the mother-sheaf (a group of ears growing
the rice
neutralizing rice-paste to she first plants a sugar-cane in the midst destroy mischief," " " of the mother-sheaf and explains to it that she gives
aspersion
with liquid
"
it
soul.
a prop to lean against, as she has come to take away its " " she concludes. She then ties Cluck, cluck, soul
!
a string round the growing sheaf, and cuts seven ears (the Malays believe in the existence of seven souls) from the midst of it. Still to the accompaniment of charms, incense, and aspersions, she ties these together, wraps them in a white cloth, sometimes making them into the shape of a little child in
swaddling clothes, (MM. p. 226) and places them in a cradle. With a final cry of " Cluck, cluck, soul " they are carried under the shelter of an umbrella to the house, where the wife
!
" the owner receives and welcomes them, saying That, " and they are kept in the cradle methinks, is a child of mine of
!
with
the forms observed in the case of a real baby. The firstfruits of the crop are then reaped, cooked, and eaten at
all
a special feast (p. 226), but the mother-sheaf is left standing and is eventually reaped by the wife of the owner. The grain from it is mixed with the grain from the Rice-soul to be used for seed-grain, and the empty ears made into a wreath and kept in the rice-bin till next year (ibid. 235-247). It is needless to cite any of the numerous European, and indeed Where there is an interval British, parallels to these rites. between reaping and ingathering, the observer should be
232
careful to note
is
on which occasion each portion of the ritual as there is a confusion in some of the accounts. performed, In the lower culture, the firstfruits of a crop are a matter
supreme importance.
They must be severed by a special person chief, king, priest, or medicine-man and until this has been done no one may touch the main crop. Sometimes
of
they are reserved to the use of the sacred personage who cuts them, or are offered to a divine being. In other cases they are eaten ritually, generally by the whole of the household
or other social group concerned.
Sometimes, as in Pondoland
and
in Nigeria, this feast develops into a general harvest festival with many of the characteristics of a New Year
celebration.
Nor
are such festivals confined to the cereal
Yams, where they form the staple food, are the subject crops. The tobacco-harvest among the Blackof firstfruit ritual.
feet
may
not be entered upon until the

;
first
plant has been
ritually
gathered (Grinnell, 270)

others,
and even the Ojibway

till
and Dakota and
who do not
the
soil,
hold a
thanksgiving feast before they gather the wild rice which supplies their farinaceous food, and set apart the firstfruits
(Rep. Bur. Ethn. xix. 1091).
on the
In Great Britain, the firstfruits were formerly offered altar of the parish church on Lammas or Loaf-mass
(August ist), and the harvest-home rejoicing was a household festival, when the last load was brought home in triumph with shouts and songs and the subsequent meal
Day
was a joyous scene

festival
of equality
;
and mirth.
The
ecclesiastical
has long been disused
the social one lingered within
living
memory. ARTS AND CRAFTS.
Other early industries would assuredly
repay investigation.
includes
The governing
of
council of the
Bushongo
different trades who, representatives to tradition, were added to it by Shamba Boaccording
sixteen
logongo, said to have been an enlightened and reforming monarch of the Bushongo in the seventeenth century. They the wood-carvers, who rank much before are as follows
:
the others, the cap-makers, weavers, blacksmiths, leather-
Occupations
and
Industries.
233
workers, singers, musicians, dancers, salters, fishers, hunters, mat-makers, net-makers, and boat-builders, oil-pressers,
tailors.
Monsieur Sebillot, whose Legendes ei Curiosites des Metiers naturally deals mainly with France, treats of the millers, bakers, pastrycooks spinners and following trades
:
weavers
tailors, sempstresses, hatters, milliners,

;
laundresses
shoemakers,
glovers
woodcutters,
lace-makers, charcoal;
burners, crate-makers, clog-makers, besom-makers

ters-,
carpen;
wheelwrights,
cabinetmakers,
slaters
;
coopers,
and turners
masons,
stone-cutters,
blacksmiths,
locksmiths,
To this list we may add miners, potters, nailers, and tinkers. tanners and leather-workers, dyers, brewers, butchers, and
chimney-sweeps. It is obvious that no folklore of arts and crafts can date
from the very earliest ages of human life none, for instance, can be so old as beliefs about fire and water may be. At first, of course, all known arts would be practised by one
:
person, or rather one household. They can only gradually have been differentiated into trades or crafts. Perhaps
the arts of millers, bakers, spinners, weavers, woodcutters, potters, and blacksmiths, may be considered as among the
and as they developed into trades, they would carry the lore attached to the art with them. Ceremonies in felling
oldest
;
taboos on spinning, omens from baking, may thus be older than the existence of the separate crafts or callings of
trees,
the woodcutter, the spinner, the baker. The millers' lore, on the other hand, seems only to date from the beginning of
the craft.
Everywhere, at some time or other, there must have been a period when the windmill or water-mill began to supersede the hand-quern, and this period of course marks
the rise of the millers' trade.
evidently refer the
To
this period also

lore,
we must
bulk of the
millers'
which chiefly
deals with the supposed existence of a supernatural being in the mill, and which brings one face to face with the time
when wind and water were so newly-employed as motive powers, that what was effected by them must needs be set down to superhuman agency. In like manner Sir Richard
234

in the
Temple avers that
mind
of the Asiatic peasant the
railway train is propelled by a devil that sits in the engine, " or the engine is a spirit controlled by the driver, anything
rather than the reality."
It is
(FLJ.
iv. 196.)
an interesting point that the more modern trades (the printers, for example, for the origin of which a definite historical date can be assigned), have their own folklore as well as the ancient ones. They do not, it is true, appear in folk-tales and proverbs, like the blacksmith, the woodcutter, or the spinning-girl. But all crafts which are carried on in concert (such as printers, carpenters, and masons) have trade customs, practised in common, such as are not found among the solitary workers, like the old-fashioned weavers or tailors. Some crafts demand the aid of at least one assistant the mason's server, the printer's devil, the miller's man, the blacksmith's boy and these lower grades often have separate All this, of course, characteristics and usages of their own. is the lore of the craftsman, as distinct from the lore of the and so is the position held by the craft in popular estimaart
, ;
:
tion.
The blacksmith often has a reputation for occult powers, and practises as a healer or charmer. In the blacksmiths' own
"
is
opinion, theirs
the
first
of trades," because the others are
dependent on it for their tools. (See FLJ. ii. 321.) Stonecutters and masons (save for their eating and drinking powers) seem to be generally respected they have, perhaps, always, from the time of the mediaeval freemasons, belonged to the superior class of artizans. But for tailors, weavers, and millers for all, in short, who manufactured the raw material " Put supplied by their customers there is but one voice. and the first that them all three in a bag and shake them, comes out will be a thief," is the gist of the proverbs of all nations on the subject. In the case of some trades the popular detestation is carried into action, and intermarriage is discouraged or forbidden between the families of the craftsmen and the agricultural peasantry. This is so in the case of the woodcutters, the charcoal-burners, and all the smaller trades which find a home within the bounds of a French
;
Occupations
forest.
and
Industries.
235
The rope-makers form almost an outcast trade. In Brittany, even in the nineteenth century, they were still
obliged to bury their dead apart. All crafts and organised industries seem indeed to have
been in the first instance hereditary. In India they seem Where to have largely influenced the development of caste. to the caste system is found, it should anything approaching
be dealt wth
carefully, craft
by
craft
and
beliefs,
rites,
customs, stories, songs, and proverbs should be sought for as in the case of a tribe or a geographical area. In Europe, the history and lore of the mediaeval trade-guilds should add
immensely to the breadth and value of such a study.

See Questionary, pp. 334-339-
CHAPTER
XIV.
CALENDAR FASTS AND FESTIVALS.

ONE cannot conceive a people so low as not to distinguish between day and night, or not to perceive that the alternations of day and night, light and darkness, are regulated by the seeming movements of the Sun. But beyond this point the Sun is not always the dominant factor in reckoning time. Solstices and equinoxes belong to temperate zones and high latitudes, and the solar year is necessarily unknown in tropical countries, with their changeless monotony of day " " " " and night. In such regions the wet and dry seasons are almost the only possible landmarks of the year. We are
the hot weather," In Uganda, where season are comprised in a wet and a both a dry " " moons as period of six months, the natives think of six
constituting a complete year (Roscoe, p. 37). Among the Bushongo in the Congo basin, the dry season, in which no growth takes place, is not reckoned as part of the year, but
is
familiar with the Indian reckoning of " " the rains." the cold weather," and " " " "
"
treated as having no existence for the purpose of calculating time (Torday and Joyce, 284). In New Guinea the year is calculated from yam-harvest to yam-harvest, and by some
of the Massim tribes there the new year is known by the blossoming of a kind of flowering rush (C. G. S.). The Basuto exhibit a higher degree of culture in the matter, and base their annual reckoning on the stars, beginning
the year in August,
i.e.
in
early
spring.
The Sandwich
Calendar Fasts and Festivals.
237
Islanders, Society Islanders, and Maoris, as befitted maritime peoples, also based their reckoning on the stars. The half-
yearly appearance and disappearance of the Pleiades on the horizon regulated their annual calendar.
But the Moon everywhere affords the most obvious natural measurement of time, and there are few peoples so low in culture as not to observe the changes of the Moon. The influence they are supposed to exercise on growth and increase
causes agricultural operations to be largely affected by them. Most peoples also distinguish the Moons by name. The
Sioux and Cheyenne Indians speak of the moon in which fall off, that in which the wolves run in packs, in which the ducks come, the grass grows green, the corn
the leaves
plums red, etc. But the no means always definitely divided into by weeks, and weeks, when they occur, vary in length. We reckon four weeks of seven days to a lunar month many West African tribes make seven weeks of four days. Other peoples calculate thirty days to the month and divide it into six weeks of five days or more rarely, five weeks of six days. These minor divisions of time, as bearing on the subject
is
planted, the buffaloes are fat, the
lunar
month
is
of the evolution or diffusion of culture,
demand much more
investigation than they have yet received. Great difficulty has always been experienced in adjusting the lunar months to the solar year. Thirteen moons have " " been reckoned to the year or months intercalary days have been inserted, generally at the solstices. Perhaps the most ingenious device is that of the Bella Coola Indians
;
of British Columbia,
who
calculate five
moons
in the spring
and five in the fall, while the solstitial periods of Summer and Winter are allowed to last as long as may be necessary to
make up a complete
solar year. Julius Caesar's bold stroke of abolishing the lunar months altogether, in favour of arbitrary " " calendar months, is rather a settlement than a solution
of the problem. In high latitudes the solar year two or four Seasons, viz. winter and
:
is
usually divided into
summer, with or without
238
" fall," to use the old English word spring and autumn, or which still flourishes across the Atlantic. The Esquimaux,
also some of the tribes of British Columbia, regularly changed their whole social organization with the half-yearly change of seasons. The ancient Celtic calendar is especially When the Celts discovered or adopted the solinteresting. stices must probably remain unknown, but the Irish certainly kept Midsummer as a festival as early as the eighth century. Their year was divided into Geimhreadh and Samhradh, the winter half and summer half, beginning respectively with the festival of Samhain on the eve of the first of November and with that of Bealtiane similarly on the ist May. These were again divided on the ist February, when the Spring quarter began, and on the ist August, when the festival of Lughnasadh, corresponding to our Lammas Day, ushered in the harvest
and
The modern Welsh name for July, Gorphenaf. " end of Summer." Several of the months means literally have native names in Irish, but in literary Scottish Gaelic the month-names are all borrowed from the Latin, and the native colloquial names for the internal divisions of the
season.
seasons represent, not months, but short spells of time of " various lengths. Computation of time by months and days
of
the month," says the Rev. J. G. Campbell (Witchcraft and Second Sight, p. 228), "was entirely unknown to the
Highlander of former days, and even yet the native population do not say, on such a day of such a month/ but so many
'
'
days before or after the beginning of Summer/ or other season, or before or after certain well-known term-days or festivals." What were the internal divisions of the year among the Teutons and Scandinavians is not certain, but they appear
to have begun
it with the winter ploughing and sowing and with the autumnal harvesting and threshing. Midwinter was the season of their chief annual festival. Our British Calendar is in fact a palimpsest. Officially,
ended
it
of course,
it is
the Julian solar calendar, as modified by Pope
Gregory XIII. in 1582. The Papal reform was not introduced " New style " met with into Great Britain till 1753, and the
239
much
opposition from the people. Numbers of fairs and " Old style," and the annual village feasts are still dated by accounts of the Imperial Exchequer itself are still made up
to Old
Lady Day, now the 5th

is
April.
census
taken on that morning.
Even the decennial The reckoning of the year

"
clerks from the 25th March is due to the ecclesiastical " Anno Domini " from of the Middle Ages, who calculated the Annunciation, as a regnal year is calculated from the
"
day
of the king's accession.
The
"
Moveable Feasts
through
the
"
are
calendar,
Christian
derived from the Jewish Church. They cover a
period of three and a half moons from the Shrovetide new moon to the full moon following Whitsuntide, and thus
form a portion of a lunar calendar thrust into the midst

of the Julian or Gregorian solar
year,
and impossible to
amalgamate with it. Beside all these reckonings by sun or by moon, we come upon traces of the old agricultural reckoning by seasons. In the Isle of Man it is a debateable question whether the ist
January or the
for the latter
is
ist
November
is
the true
New
Year's Day,
the date for entering on farm-holdings or
(Rhys, vol. i. p. 316.) The Mayors of English municipal boroughs hold office from November Qth. In their case the ancient New Year has now superseded previous local
farm-service.
varieties
potters of North Staffordshire, to have existed there from Celtic thought times, used to make their annual bargains at Martinmas
of
custom.
The
whose
craft is
In Scotland, Martinmas and Whitsuntide the legal half-yearly terms for entering on tenancies or employments and May and Martinmas are
(November nth).
are even
now
the customary dates for hiring servants, especially farmservants, throughout Wales and the north of England. The pasturage of cattle and the keeping-up of fires are by the same dates among old-fashioned people.
still
ruled
To appreciate the importance of particular seasons one must realize the position of a village
held in the iron grip of a system of
days
and
community
agriculture,
common
240
under which everyone is obliged to do the same thing at the same time. (Even the geese, if they do their duty, are The plough-lands of expected to lay at a certain date !)
the village
lie
in
one or more
common
fields,
and every
contributes his quota of draught-oxen to the common plough. Thus all must begin ploughing on the same day,
man
and the whole plough-land must be fenced-in from the cattle at the same time. The reaping and harvesting are done by all together, and at a certain date the fences are thrown down and the cattle in charge of the common herdsman admitted to wander over the stubble. So also with the pastures. All but a few crofts and closes near the houses are common to the villagers at certain seasons of the year. At the beginning of summer the hay meadows are fenced-in, and the cattle
to the
upon the open commons, not to be re-admitted till after hay-harvest, when the fences must be simultaneously removed as in the case of the stubble fields. Such was the yearly round of the agricultural comare turned out
meadows
munity
vances
The
is
of northern Europe, among whom calendar obsermay be said to have reached their height. transit from one season, month, or year to the next
commonly marked by public festival rites. The wellknown Holi festival of northern India occurs in early spring It belongs at the full moon of the lunar month Phalgun.
especially to the cowherding population,
and has probably
been adopted by the Hindus from the Dravidian tribes. the hill tribes of Mirzapur, the Baiga (" Devil-priest ") of the village then burns a stake, a rite which is called Sambat jalana, the burning of the Old Year, and from this
Among
New Year begins. In Nepal, a decorated wooden burnt in front of the palace at this date, which represents the burning of the body of the Old Year.
date the
is
post
The kept up for three days. central square of the little town," says an eye-witness of the " is crowded with people, dancers with scenes at Barsana,
The Holi
celebration
"
is
castanets,
first
and clowns playing
tricks
evening a
mock
fight takes place
and antics." On the between the women

of the
village armed in their mantles, and
241
with bamboos, their faces wrapped the men of a neighbouring village, On the stags' horns and round leather shields. carrying second evening the bonfire the Holi fire is lighted. It
of wood which the village boys are permitted to loot unhindered in the neighbourhood, and is built between the temple of Prahlada and an adjoining pond. The first-
is^made
fruits of the sugar-cane, that have been offered to Vishnu at the preceding cane-harvest, are burnt in it, and omens of the prospects of the coming season are drawn from the way the
smoke and flames ascend. It and its ashes to cure disease.

another account,
Holika,
to
it
is
"
In Bengal, as
supposed to prevent blight, we learn from

effigy,
a sort of Guy-Fawkes-like
laths
termed
made
ii.
of
bamboo
and straw,
is
formally carried
and committed to the flames."

225.)
Hindus,
As soon
as
priest of Prahlada,
who
is
(Wilson, Religion of the Kherapat Panda, or not a Brahman, but a low-caste

it is lit
man, dips himself in the pond and then runs through the fire. The boys run about it jumping and brandishing sticks ribald songs are sung and much horseplay goes on. A favourite
:
dance for the occasion is a circular one called the Rasa-mandala, which represents the amours of the god Krishna with the
Gopis, or dairymaids, of legend. On the third day the people threw red powder upon one another and up to the balconies
of the houses.
There was another mock combat between
men and women, and when

tors ran into the arena
all was over many of the spectaand smeared themselves with the dust which had been hallowed by the feet of the dancers and the combatants. About Marwar, when the festivities are ended, the people bathe and change their garments, and the retainers
of great
men
offer gifts to their masters.
Various myths are current as to the origin of the festival. According to one version, it was founded in honour of a female
" she who would Rakshasi, or ogress, whose name meant otherwise destroy us." Another says that Holi was a witch who tried to destroy the infant god Krishna by suckling
him with her poisoned milk, but that he slew her

Q
instead.
242
A more elaborate story relates that an ascetic claimed exclusive

worship from all the world. His son Prahlada apostatized to Vishnu, and the father, aided by his sister Holi, put him to the torture, but Vishnu saved him and slew the father. Holi
then tried to burn herself and Prahlada together in a fire, but he was saved and she alone was consumed. (Crooke.
Pop. Rel.
of a
and
G.B.
Fire festivals 313-322, and FL. xxv. 55-83.) less similar character extend through Persia Armenia, across Europe, even to Ultima Thule. (Cf.
ii.
more or
237
in.
sqq.)
solemnity customary Guinea, must rank as a calendar festival though not held regularly. Its significance is obscure, but probably has to do both with the food supply and the presence
spring
at Bartle Bay,
The Walaga, a
full-moon
New
of the dead.
tree that has never flowered
weeks beforehand, a self-sown mangois chosen by a selected master of the ceremonies (the taniwaga), and his companions, and a circle is cleared round it, after which the men live apart in a state of strict taboo, and a party of women of the taniwaga' s clan submit to similar but less strict taboos. The men erect a platform (walaga) in the village, on posts which have been carefully treated by the medicine-men to expel any souls The tree is of dead men which might be lurking in them. no iron may be used and the felled with a stone adze, chips are caught in nets and mats placed for the purpose.
six
Some
The
greatest care
is
shall
touch the ground.
taken that neither they nor the tree itself It is then carried in procession
to the village, together with the mats full of chips. The women dance backwards before it. Eventually it is set
up
in the
that stynckyng ydolle," the Maypole.) The houses are decorated, the masters of the revels painted, the invited guests arrive bringing pigs, the dancing on the platform begins,
ing in of
"
midst of the platform in the
village.
(Cf.
the bring-
and is kept up till sundown. At moonrise two chiefs mount the roof of a house and charge all evil spirits to keep away
and the crowd to do nothing to disturb the general harmony. The dancing is kept up all night to the accompaniment of
243
singing by a party stationed in the midst of the platform. At daylight next morning the pigs are killed, care being taken that they should squeal long and loudly so that the
mango-tree may hear them. A chief climbs the mango-tree and chants what sounds like a prayer, to which the people on the platform respond. The pork is then distributed and the guests disperse. In the afternoon the songs and dances
are renewed.
in
the third day, the mango-pole, wrapped " fasting-men," and slung from the roof. The fasting-men now return to At the end of some months they build their several homes.
On
new mats,
is
carried to the house of the
a new house to which the tree

before.
It is set
is
removed
in procession as
down
in the
touching the ground.

of green
midst of the village, still without The medicine-man cuts up a number
mangoes and puts them into the mouths of the fasting-men, who chew them and sput them out towards " the sun should carry them over the setting sun, so that the whole country and every one should know/' The taniwaga breaks off part of the tree, which is burnt without
after sundown, together with the old mats, the the vessels used and refuse left by the fasting-men chips, while under taboo. The remains of the tree are wrapped
ceremony
in
new mats and hung over the

(cf.
fireplace in the taniwaga's
house
our Kern-baby, mistletoe, and other talismanic
treasures).
The ceremony
is
repeated at intervals as long
as the tree lasts.
(Seligmann, 589-599.)
Annual Feasts of the Dead are found in Europe, Asia, and Africa, and coincide with the end of harvest, or with the end of the year (Prim. Cult. ii. 36). The Diwali, or Feast of Lamps, of Northern India, is held on the last day
dark fortnight of the (lunar) month Kartik (Octoberi.e. on the night before the new moon. It is November)
of the
;
rather a townsmens' than a villagers' festival. All the houses are cleaned, set in order, and lighted up, to receive the
souls of the departed,
who
are expected (as in the correspond-
make
ing European festival) to revisit their homes. " "
The women
new-moon lamp-black
which
is
used throughout
244
the following year as a charm against the Evil Eye. Next morning the oldest woman in the house takes a winnowing-
and a broom, and beats them in every corner of the " God abide and poverty depart " The saying sieve is thrown away outside the village, and carries poverty
sieve
house,
away with
it.
Sisters
then mark their brothers' foreheads
(with the lamp-black ?) and make them swallow three grains of gram to ensure long life. They offer them sweetmeats
and the brother in return gives his sister a present. The story told of the origin of the feast is that a Raja was once warned by an astrologer that his Fate would come to him that night in the form of a snake, and must be received with illuminations of the town and palace, which was done accordingly. The snake was so much pleased that he bade the Rani ask a boon of him. She desired long life for her husband, and the snake contrived to bring back the Raja's soul from Yama, the lord of the Dead, for several more years. The feast is also said to be held in honour of Lakshmi the
goddess of wealth,
of divination
?).
who
is
propitiated
by gambling
(as
a form
(Crooke, op. cit. ii. 295-296.) Ship processions, from their ascertained antiquity, are festival rites of especial interest. Representations of sacred
boats drawn on wheels are found in Egypt dating from at Three such processions are least the seventeenth dynasty.
still
carried out at Luxor every year, the chief of which is nominally in honour of Abu'l Heggag, a local saint. Such rites extend at least as far eastward as Ceylon, where Dr.
and Mrs. Seligmann witnessed one at Kandy on the i6th May, This also was professedly held in honour of a local 1908. saint. The festival of Dionysus in ancient Athens was celebrated in the same way, and many similar examples are found in modern Europe (cf. FL. xvi. 259, etc.). Presumably, the custom has been carried eastwards by Arab traders. Whether the western celebrations also spread from ancient Egypt is a question on which one cannot but speculate, but which Dr. Seligmann does not attempt to decide. (C. G.
Seligmann
in
Ridgeway Essays, pp. 452-455.)
245
The Ibo of the Oka district of Southern Nigeria make offerings annually at the close of the year to a power whom they call Aru, the year. The women take their old clothes, old pots, and so on, and throw them upon the ground, in a certain
spot,
which
is
sometimes
in the
middle of the
village,
some-
times on the outskirts.
In either case they are never touched or disturbed afterwards. At the same time they call upon
Aru
to give
them
children
and
Cf.
relieve
them
iii.
of all pain
and
sickness.
One
of the
sections 14, 15.) season treads on the heels of another at the death
(N.W.T.
MS.
note.
G.B. vol.
Old Year the
New Year is born.

it
tions, sacrifices, talismans, dances, fire
The routine of divinaand water ceremonies,

end
of
recurs so frequently that
is
not always easy to perceive
whether a given
festival is held to celebrate the
one
season or the beginning of the next. It may be tentatively suggested that mock combats, athletic contests, procuring visions, and all rites of destroying, burning, burying, or carrying
away objects, or driving away men or animals, mark the end of the old year or season, while rites of bringing in boughs,
trees, ships, ploughs, or
what
"
not, with processions
and dances,
celebrate
first-footing," offering gifts, feasting,
and the
like,
the beginning of the new. Days of license, when the rights of property are disregarded, and when, in savage countries,
the ties of matrimony are relaxed, perhaps denote an interval between the seasons, and correspond to M. van Gennep's period
of la marge (cf. p. 194). Seasons of fasting and abstinence
Nagas
divide the year into the agricultural
must be noticed. The and the hunting

is
seasons, in each of
which
all
labour proper to the other
forbidden
their gennas, or seasons of abstinence, as noted (ch. iv.), are periodical and general, as well as already occasional and particular. These taboo seasons are reflected
;
and
in
tical
European custom. law in Lent and
is
Marriage was forbidden by ecclesiasavoided by popular prejudice in May.
In England, spinning might not be done during Christmastide, nor laundry- work on Good Friday, but the latter day is
held particularly favourable for sowing or planting vegetables.
246

is
Friday throughout the year ning of any enterprise.
an unlucky day for the begin-
The taboo-day and the

into
the
unlucky
day
and
rest-day imperceptibly develop the festival. Hutton (Cf.
Webster, Rest-days.)
rest-day,
The Congo women utilize the weekly when they may not work in their gardens, as a
In the early days of Christianity in England,
market-day.
Sunday was not infrequently thus utilized. The weekly market of Much Wenlock in Shropshire was held on Sunday till Henry III.'s time, when it was changed to Monday, on which day it still continues. In the same way, ecclesiastical
holidays were selected as convenient days for the " " transaction of any public business, such as wappenshaws and perambulations of boundaries.
Local festivals seem generally to have had a religious origin. They often began as annual pilgrimages to sacred spots, which gradually developed into centres of commerce. In
the hill-country above Chittagong there is a temple of Buddha, the Maha-Mouni Pagoda, in the neutral ground where the
hillfolk
and the plainfolk can meet. There a fair is held annually, beginning on the ninth day of the moonlight half The people come village by village, of the month Asin.
carrying provisions for a three days' picnic. First they visit the great image of Gautama in the temple, and then stroll away to see the peepshows and exhibitions and the booths " of the Bengali traders, who drive a roaring traffic, for there are no shops among the hills." At dusk lighted tapers are
carried round the temple, crackers are let goes on all night. The festival is closed
off,
and the fun by another visit
to the temple, the offering of alms, and the reception of a ceremonial benediction from the priest (Lewin, 220). The
Maha Mouni
Fair seems to
fall
into line with the Breton
Pardons, the Irish Patterns, and the Well-wakes so persistently denounced by the Anglo-Saxon Church. The famous
near Cambridge originated to the springs at Barnwell, young people taken under the protection of the neighbouring house of
mediaeval
fair
at
Stourbridge
in the visits of

Augustinian
Canons.
In
the
247
every
Middle Ages
nearly
municipal town
in Great Britain
had
its
own
public holiday,
celebrated with pageantry and processions, and every village its own yearly Feast or Wake in honour of the saint to whom
the parish church was dedicated. Sometimes these became " events," sometimes they dwindled and died important local out. the position of each feast in the calendar, if Probably
studied,
would throw
light
on
its
raison d'etre
and
its career.
Hitherto the favourite method of anthropological study has been that of tracking a single feature of a rite around
the globe, over land and sea. This fascinating process has had valuable results in the discovery of certain principles " of savage philosophy, such as that of sympathetic magic," and the establishment of their position as the common property
of the
human
race.
But to comprehend the
real
object,
the true significance, of a given rite, whether public or particular, occasional or periodical, it is obviously necessary to study the ritual of the occasion as a whole, and to take
it
in connection with the occasion
in short, to note the
on which it is performed, when as well as the what. Hence the
paramount importance of ascertaining the date of every calendar observance and of noting its position in relation
to the agricultural or other operations in connection with the food-supply, which after all cannot help being the chief
preoccupation of mankind. The Folklore Society is
now
Calendar Customs of the British
taking steps to record the Isles, collating the existing
The work
printed evidence and supplementing it by oral information. is intended to cover not only Great Britain and but the Isle of Man, the Shetlands, the Hebrides, Ireland, the Scilly Isles, and the Channel Isles. The British Archi-
pelago includes such a variety of racial elements that the work ought to prove a valuable ethnographical study of
comparative folklore. See Questionary, p. 339.
CHAPTER
XV.
GAMES, SPORTS, AND PASTIMES.

GAMES are a more important section of folklore than might be supposed at first sight but their value to the folklorist is as unequal as their origins are varied. Enquiry will show
;
that the majority are survivals of primitive conditions rather than subsequent inventions, and that they not infrequently
had
one part of the world
their beginning in magico-religious rites. Thus, what in be a prominent feature of serious may
or magico-religious ceremonial, as for instance the bull-roarer, (cf. ch. v.), in another land will have degenerated to a nursery
game
possible that the nursery can supply a page from the past that History has not recorded. The counting-out rhyme may be a clue to primitive methods of reckoning early games of ball and other sports may find
or a toy
and
it is
origin in martial exercises
while in blindman's buff

sacrificial
it
has
been suggested that the rudiments of may be traced.
procedure
The reason
all
is
not far to seek.
Children are both mimetic

life
and conservative.
They the world over, and
imitate adult
in their
games
often retain features which have
actually long ceased to exist. " "
" Will ye be my perpetuates, in the line " mon ? a formula of feudal days Three Knights the " out of Spain as a business transaction represents marriage
Poor Mary sits a- weeping " and burial Jenny Jones."

"
They play at courtship " " Nuts in May marriage " The Scotch child's Tappie,
; ;
tappie tousie "
Games, Sports, and Pastimes.
249
between the bridegroom and the bride's parents she has " no voice in the matter, but is purchased whilst Draw " a Pail of Water a primitive rite of irresistibly suggests
;
well-worship
(cf.
The
of a of
(cf.
singing
Lady Gomme, game itself is a
s.v.,
and Haddon,
364).
survival
among the
children
custom otherwise extinct or nearly so, in Europe that dancing to the accompaniment of the human voice only
ch.
xvii.).
narrative but dramatic.

ter,
Moreover, the singing-games are not only Each child enacts a different charac-
and the singing-game thus shows dance and drama not yet separated from one another. Both indeed are methods of emotional expression, and as such may be either secular or
religious.
There
is
the Miracle Play as well as the tragedy,
comedy, and farce. Dancing in connection with sacred ceremonial is to be found in all climes and in every century. It is not extinct in Europe. If Yorkshire apprentices no longer dance in the Minster nave on Shrove Tuesday, Luxemburg has its dancing
procession
of
Jumping
Saints
;
(springende
Heiligeri)
at
Echternach on Whit Monday and the choristers of Seville dance in the nave before the High Altar of the Cathedral at the Carnival, the Corpus Christi festival, and at one of the feasts of Our Lady, in the presence of the Archbishop and the Cathedral clergy. At Nola and other towns in Southern Italy there are annual dances that find their counterpart in
Asia, for sacred images and shrines are carried through the streets as a main feature of the performance, even as the
gods themselves are brought in palanquins to take part in Raghunath's festival dance during the great fair in Kulu. FL. xvi. 243-259.) Thus we find the (FLJ. v. 278, 300 ceremonial dance performed by all classes, as well as by the
;
priests alone, or
by a
particular sect, as in the cases of the
Lamas
of Tibet,
of Algeria.
the Dancing Dervishes, or the Aissaoua There is also the hired professional dancer.
In the Sahara, funeral dances are enacted by hired mourners. These are women, but women are not permitted any share in funeral dances held by some of the Assamese hill-tribes.
250
Debutante maidens, however, among those tribes in the Khasia Hills, select their life-partners at an annual dance. The Pueblo Indians dance to bring the early spring rains (B. F.M. in Sociol. Rev. 1911), as the natives of the Torres
Straits perform their Saw-fish Dance to secure good harvest from the sea. (Torres Straits, v. 342.) Similarly, the devildance, the war-dance, and the hunting-dance have magical values wherever they exist, as have the anthropophagous dances of certain cannibal tribes. The dance is an inseparable
shaman of the Siberian wilds North and South America Nowhere is it a more important function than ch. vii.) (cf. Each among the tribes of the great Amazon basin. like so many of the has its own dance. tribe Some, Bushman dances, are imitations of animal movements, as the Ackawoi dance, wherein every performer represents a different animal and carries its figure on a stick, which may be the origin of the Amazonian dancing-stick. (Im Thurn, Another mimetic dance is the Yacami-cuna dance of 324.)
feature of the ritual of the
of the
and
medicine-man
of
the Upper Amazon, imitative of the actions of yacaml, a tailless bird, according to the Indian tradition embodied in
the dance.
A good example of the mimetic (Spruce, ii. 468.) dance in Europe is the Fan-dance of Spain. The dance indeed offers matter for exhaustive study. It
may
represent the latest development of a people, as
among
the Australian aborigines, who embody new ideas in new dances, or it may conserve traditions and even language
the meaning of which
is
enitrely forgotten.
Some
of
the
words that to them have no meaning, but are handed down orally as the correct accompaniments of certain tribal dances (FL. xxiv. 50). Or the dance may have an ethical value, as in the singing-combat, the drumdance, whereby the West Greenlanders settle their quarrels. The Vedda and the Fuegian will dance (D. Crantz, 164.) the Upper Kutenai in British Columbia to express gratitude
tribes sing
;
Amazon
(Appleton, pp. 8, 14, 23 xxiv. Rep. Bur. Ethn. p. 286.)
dance when they gamble.
Culin,
251
Among
become
that there
less
peoples of the higher cultures, the dance tends to ceremonial and more a matter of play. Not
is
no dancing for mere amusement among those Dancing may be a serious pursuit to a Vedda, but the solemnity of the Negro cake-walk is that of pure enjoyment, as much so as the delight of the Mohave" Apache when some man or woman feels sad and wants the
of the lower cultures.
people to dance to The folk-dances

varieties.
make them happy." of England among

is
(B. F.-M. op.
cil.)
adults
show three
There
of
first
the almost extinct old-fashioned
country-dance
their
men and maidens
dancing together for
own enjoyment, to the sound of instrumental music. Next come the morris-dances of southern England and the sword-dances of the north. These are performances by a fixed number of skilled dancers, men only, who dance for the amusement of the spectators and their own financial profit.
They are accompanied by two or three disguised performers whom Mr. E. K. Chambers (The Medieval Stage), terms " " namely a Fool or Clown, a man in woman's Grotesques and, more rarely, a Hobby-horse, i.e. a man disclothing, but these characters are not guised with a horse's head essential ingredients in the dance and are often found apart from it. The sword-dancers, instead of merely flourishing wooden swords or staves, as do the morris-dancers of the south,
; ;
interweave real swords in elaborate designs to correspond with the various figures of the dance. They also introduce a rudimentary dramatic element. Each dancer is supposed to represent some character, named and described by the
leader in an introductory song ; but there is no dramatic speaking or action with the exception of a few cases in County
Durham, where the

is
central incident of the
Mummers' Play
introduced as an interlude in the dance (Sharp, p. 23). The Mumming Play itself is the third variety of these sports.
The
actors in
it
are often called morris-dancers
by the
folk,
but the dramatic element of the performance has routed the dance, and they are more properly known as guisers (disguised " " " " are and men) or mummers. Pace-eggers plough- jags
252
their performance.
other names for them, derived from the different seasons of Under the cloak of the legend of Saint
George, the Champion Saint of England, they enact the worldold story of the death of a hero in single combat and his resuscitation at the hands of a wonderworker. This is one of
the most interesting features in the whole range of British folklore, and deserves more careful and minute study than
it
has yet received.
The songs
at the conclusion of the
performance and the part taken by the Grotesques bring it into line with the morris-dance and the sword-dance.
"
"
As to the origin of games, that is a matter for the student, the expert with wider knowledge and facilities of research, rather than for the collector, properly concerned in the main
with local
argue a
"
details.
common
descent.
Existing similarities do not necessarily For instance, the German singing"
Would you know how the peasant sows his peas ? game, be instructive there are games of instruction, per ex., may
thieves play at pocket-picking to secure neat-handedness, and the Kullin (or Kalian) of Southern India become expert
thieves
childish
by playing certain games or it may be merely pantomime while one seemingly similar, the English " " and Beans and Barley had possibly a magical signiOats
;
ficance in the
first
place, as
the-Needle "
to
(Haddon, 341-345.) The need for accurate description of details is enhanced by the fact that the origin of a game, and hence much of its value to the
the
make
game hemp grow."
the case with the Threadingdanced by the peasants of Central France

still is
comparative
identification
folklorist,
may
sometimes be determined by the
not only of movements always difficult to describe but of the articles, instruments, implements, made use of in playing it. The netted hoop of the Iroquois'
and other North American

is
Indians'
similar to the netted shield of the twin
hoop-and-pole games War-gods of Zuni
mythology. Women are not allowed to play, nor among the Apache, where the game retains a religious characterto be present within a hundred yards. Among the Hopi, however, a game with the same essentials is played by women
253
during the celebration of the Odqol ceremony. According two women shoot a small package of corn-husks. Their acts are said to typify lightning striking the cornfield,
to Fewkes,
which
p. 91).
is
considered the
acme
of fertilization (J.A.F.L. 1899,
The evolution of playing-cards, dice, and dominoes has been traced back to the arrow. Cards were introduced into Europe
from China by Arabs or Gypsies, and the name of the Chinese is tau tsin, fighting tablets (an arrow is tsin) The flattened ceremonial arrow became the bambooplaying-card to-day
.
whence the domino and dice or the cardboard strip, whence the playing-card. The symbolic value of the arrow is well shown by Mr. Cushing in a paper published in 1896, " where he states that ceremonially they often stood for the man himself even more intimately than our signatures stand " for us cf. Culin, Korean Games, (Cushing, op. cit. 881 In form the cards are evidently copies of the slips xxi.).
slip,
;
bamboo used to this day as divining-lots by the Chinese, and the design on their backs perpetuates the arrow-feathers. The Korean playing-cards are in suits of ten the Korean ceremonial quiver has ten bamboo arrows, each numbered and marked with the owner's name and tipped with blacktopped feathers. In like manner the stave-dice of the Uinth Utes are a connecting link between the long staves of the Pai Utes and dice the American Indian, like the Korean and the Chinese, deriving these and other variations from the
of
;
;
original arrow.
Similarity of origin for

side-light
games may throw an occasional
problems, but it does not presuppose a common origin for the players. It argues no connection between us and the Guaymis of Chiriqui that the "Aunt Sally" of our village greens finds a
upon
ethnological
necessarily
parallel in their
club
is
in
game of Batza, varied in that Panama thrown at the legs of the
the stick or
adversaries,
Equality of origin need not even be a proof of equality of culture, any more than the possession of a the Eskimo complicated toy is evidence of a high culture
not at a
dummy figure.
254
be overlooked
its
are skilful constructors of mechanical toys. It must not in the consideration of games and their dis-
though the essential unity of Folklore has for base the essential solidarity of human kind, the explanation that men of equal culture will act and argue alike, must be
tribution, that
One
complicated by borrowed influences. Games can be learnt. race may introduce, or even impose, its own pastimes.
We
owe the
Islands even possessing three different kinds it did not reach Europe before the seventeenth century. The idea, however, finds parallel in the Greek play with captured beetles, /mt]\o\6vSrj, and the Chinese to this day have their
Though Hervey
the kite
kite as well as the playing-card to the East. is found widely spread in Polynesia the
chained
butterflies
it
;
and
crickets.
The ancient Mangaian
tradition has
(Haddon, 250)
for the
that kites originated in the land of spirits and there certainly seems to be good reason
assumption that the kite was a religious symbol of the primitive Indonesian race. Its use in Korea supports
this belief.
On
kite there plays the part of
the fourteenth day of the New Year the " " to carry away scape-goat
(Ibid. 240.)
the year's
kite-flying
ill-luck.
is
now done mainly
for
Though in China and Japan amusement only, abundant
traces yet linger of its ancient ceremonial use. Cat's Cradle, far more highly elaborated among primitive Two peoples than with us, is an almost universal game.
principal types have been distinguished, the Asiatic
and the
Oceanic (A. C. Haddon in Jayne,

Cat's Cradles],
p.
xii
cf.
K. Haddon,
and
it is
possible that this apparently trivial
game, when taken in conjunction with other evidence, may supply some needed ethnological clue. Another very widely distributed game is Hopscotch, which is played in Japan as well as in the Indo-European area. It is probable that in some remote spots a magical significance may be attached to either or both of these games. Magical values may be attributed to almost any action, or connected with it by some
similarity or
sympathy
of idea.
is
and-Ball
a similar game
Cupplayed among the Klamath
Take
for instance our
255
of the Gulf States with the suggestive name for one action of Punch out the Moon, that is, to hasten the advent of
spring.
also
(G. A. Dorsey,
Amer. Anthr. 1901,
p. 21.)
It
must
be remembered that everything which includes success or failure, not only winning or losing, can be used for divinatory purposes. Knucklebones are used to-day by the London street-child merely to play a game of skill and chance, but
in Africa they are largely used for divination (cf. ch. viii.). prehistoric knucklebone has been found at Cuzco in Peru ;
they were used in ancient Egypt and are constantly referred to by classical authors ; they are known to the Arabs, Persians,
and other peoples of Western Asia. Among all these they appear to take the place that dice occupy among the Mongolian peoples, for the dice found in Babylonia and Egypt seem to have been associated with foreign influences. That in ancient Greece knucklebones were played with by girls
is
evidenced by the well-known
little
statue of a
1
girl
throwing
them
In Cornwall a as an English child would to-day. knucklebone is carried to prevent cramp, so that we get an
English example of their dual use. (FL. v. p. 201.) " in The Tug-of-War with us to-day is merely an " item the programme of athletic sports, but it was the occasion
of an annual contest between
Ludlow
shire river
in Shropshire
up to by one
1884.
party,
two divisions of the town of up to 1851, and at Presteign in RadnorThe rope was pulled either down to the or up to the higher ground within the town
.
This Shrovetide contest may by the other (Shr. FL. 319, 320) be compared with the Tug-of-War played by the Eskimo of Baffin Land on the yearly festival of their superhuman Those born in being Sedna, which is held in the autumn.
If Summer wins pull against those born in winter. there will be plenty of food during the coming year, but if
summer
Winter, the prospect of the food-supply

1
is
bad.
The TugThejgirl
copy
may be
seen in the Victoria and Albert
Museum.
is
seated on the ground exactly as I
saw
in 1911
two
girls sitting
on the
cheap
pavement
in Gray's Inn Road, playing knucklebones with the earthenware discs sold on street stalls for the purpose. (C. S. B.)
256
of-War appears here as a definite method of divination. In Japan and Korea it is a magic ceremony that secures a good harvest (Haddon, 275). In Burma it is an actual magical rite intended to produce rain. A rain-party and
a drought-party tug against each other, the rain-party being allowed the victory. (FL.J. i. 214.) Our football matches, when played up and down the streets of a town between
two
fall
on a fixed day in early spring, in their modernized form they represent the old-time faction fight, but the organizasections of the inhabitants
into the
same category.
first
Even
tion to-day exists
for the purposes of the
game
itself,
and only in a secondary degree for the locality or division from which the players are drawn. (Gomme, V.C. 240, " " Another item, Wrestling, is performed cere246.) Sports monially by the Japanese in the Pavilions of the Four Directions (Culin, Korean Games, xxxv.). The question may well be asked, how should the collector rope-pulling, and other divinatory classify ball-playing,
games
for apparently the majority of games might be ? entered either under Divinations or Games. Here as else-
where the rule holds good, always to classify as found i.e., where football is a game only, as now with us, it would be but not where it is a religious perentered under Games as in the Hopi Snake ceremony, fdr there the magicoformance,
:
religious
element predominates.
Take away that element
an amusement, that is to say, which entails and losing. Without the factor of success or failure, winning plays are not games, but pastimes. The number of players concerned does not affect this games may be won and lost by the solitary player, pastimes indulged in by hundreds but any simple pastime at once becomes a game by the addition of an element of contest. Clog-dancing, per ex., is a
it is
and
a game
game when a
prize is competed for, a pastime when merely done because of the pleasure derived from the exercise. Sports, for the most part, consist of pastimes played with an element of rivalry, and thus rank as games. All plays that entail a penalty on the loser, and all plays with a reward
257
to the winner or winners, are games proper. Hence we find that for purposes of collection, Games, Sports, and Pas-
times group themselves roughly into the following classes
Pastimes
(a)
:
,
'
Children's
games. Nursery Pigs went to Market, which
play,
is
such
as
Little
common
to
Europe
and Africa
(b)
at least.
Feats of
ally or
skill,
by combined
of
bodily or mental, performed individuaction e.g. Cat's Cradle.

;
(c)
Methods
alone or in
employed as recreation, company, such as swimming, running,
locomotion
(d)
rowing, see-saw, swinging, stilt-walking, skating, etc. Rhythmic movements, such as children's singing-
games
xvii.).
(e)
and dancing, with the connection between dance and song, or instrumental music (cf. ch.
;
Mimicry.
and adults imitate animals.
Children imitate adults, and both children Imitation combined
with rhythmic movement gives dramatic dancing,
and eventually Drama is evolved. In almost every case the introduction of an element of competition will convert the Pastime into a Game proper.
Games
(a)
Games with a
penalty on the loser, or losers.
(1) Games of chasing, catching, seeking, findThese may have, ing ; per ex., Blindman's Buff. as already suggested, a possible connection with
sacrifice, or
(2)
Forfeit
with the choice of a king. In this section games.

result in
we
get
games which
mockery
of the loser,
is
and
so introduce a comic element, which lacking in the majority of games.

(b)
curiously
Games which
or winners.
(i)
entail
honour or reward for the winner These group themselves as follows

;
Mental contests
puzzles, riddles.
258
(2)

Physical combats
fencing,
tilting.
;
such as wrestling, boxof

skill
ing,
Feats
vie
:
in
which
other.
individual
competitors
with
each
Combats between animals
cock-fighting,
bear-
baiting, bull-baiting, bull-fighting, etc. that is, feats (3) Games of skill ;
organised
into
rules
games with regular

;
sides,
opponents,
as base-ball, hockey, cricket,
and and other
ball-games.
(4)
Games
of chance,
and games
of skill
and
chance combined.
These are chiefly played with
pieces on a board, as chess, draughts, backgammon, etc. ; or, more rudely, on areas marked on the
ground, as Nine Men's Morris. D. H.
MOUTRAY READ.
PART
STORIES, SONGS,
III.
AND
SAYINGS.
our track and story, this is the home of the true Rinds, a among tribes. If you do not believe it, no one has seen it with his eyes, there are no ancient documents or witnesses to attest " it, but there are tales upon tales every one says that so it was
"This
is
name
exalted
Peroration of Balochi Epic Song, PL.
xiii.
274.
CHAPTER
XVI.
STORIES.
THE
intellectual efforts of peoples who have not acquired the art of writing, or who have at least made comparatively little use of it, have chiefly taken the shape of Stories, Songs, Proverbs, and Riddles. These things must not be despised
as trivial.
in the
They represent the earliest efforts of mankind exercise of reason, memory, and imagination, and
no student of psychology or ethnology can afford to disregard them. Traditional stories may be roughly classified as Myths, Legends (including Hero-tales and Sagas), and Marchen or Folk -tales, with which last may be reckoned the minor varieties of Beast-tales, Drolls, Cumulative tales, and Apologues.
Myths are aetiological stories that is to say, stories which, marvellous and improbable though they may be, are nevertheless related in all good faith, because intended, or believed
;
by the
of Life
teller,
to account for the existence of the Universe,

of
and Death,
men and
beasts, of distinctions of race
and
species, of the different occupations of men and women, of sacred rites and ancestral customs, and the like mysterious
phenomena. Some examples of cosmological myths have been already given v. the stories of Cagn (p. in), of Unkulunkulu (p. 93) and of Puluga and the origin of fire (p. no). They have been so plentifully recorded that they are evidently
;
not
difficult to collect.
They
is
are not always connected with
sacred personages, nor
the whole work of creation always
262

An
animal makes the habitable
ascribed to one author.
world, and mankind issues from the joint of a reed, or is vomited up by a cow, and so on ; or a superhuman being creates mankind and the first man does the rest ;
or a beneficent being passes from place to place on the alreadyexisting earth,
endowing each region with

;
its special
products,
and then is no more seen. A god creates the earth and a demon makes the sea to drown it superhuman beings inhabit the dry land and bring the waters into existence for their own use or the waters are created first and the dry land is fished up from them by gods or heroes such are a few of the many savage theories on the subject. The origin of remarkable natural objects, of local prehistoric monuments, of the form and colour of certain plants and animals, and the meaning of personal and local names, are fertile subjects
; ;
of aetiological (i.e., explanatory) Myths, even in Great Britain. Legends are narratives told, not to explain anything, but
simply as an account of things which are believed to have happened, such as a deluge, a migration, a conquest, the building of a bridge, or of a city. They are often told about events or persons who are in fact historical, though the legend itself
may
be inaccurate or even
baseless,
and may be told
of other
persons or places in
countries far away. Legends which relate the exploits of a traditional hero, taking his existence for granted and not introducing him to account for the
existence of something
else,
may be
distinguished as Hero-
tales
lives
it
and when a series of legends follows in detail the and adventures of characters who are probably historical,
;
Professor Haddon groups together the Kwoiam, the war-hero of the Torres Straits (v. " The Saga of Kwoiam," but Herop. 222) under the title of tales and Sagas are often not clearly distinguished.
forms a Saga.
stories of
Mdrchen," (nursery-tales, fairy-tales, folk-tales), are stories The Marchen is distinmainly for amusement. guished from the Hero-tale and the Saga, not only because it is not told seriously as they are, but because, first, the characters in the Marchen are mainly anonymous secondly,
told
;
"
Stories.
there
263
no note of time or place and lastly, the story has a theme and a plot worked up to its natural conclusion while the Hero-tale merely narrates an adventure or a series of adventures and leaves off when the narrator has no more to tell. Unfortunately the word 'Folk-tale, is often loosely used to include Hero-tale and Saga, thus leaving us without
is
;
definite
any exact English equivalent for the German Mdrchen, to which it would be convenient to restrict it. Traditional stories thus seem to group themselves naturally into two classes those told as true (myths, legends, heroand those told for amusement (folk-tales tales, sagas) or Marchen in all their varieties). But convenient as this
classification is to the
anything to the
classification
mind
white man, it probably does not represent of the native. To him, if the idea of
occurred to him at all, the division would be between things sacred and things profane. For probably myths and legends frequently rank among the most sacred possessions of the tribe or other group which preserves them. This is a marked feature of North American culture. There, the Palladium that may not be touched, perhaps not even
looked upon, the song that must not be uttered, save by him whose solemn charge it is, and the legend that may not be told, save to him to whose memory it is to be entrusted, combine to form a sacred deposit, handed down, sometimes from father to son, sometimes from initiated priest to initiated Miss Fletcher and her priest, from generation to generation. collaborates draw an affecting picture of the last hereditary
Keeper of the Sacred Pole of the Omaha,
realizing that there
could be no independent future for his people and resolving " " to entrust the Venerable Man which had been their
rallying-point
and
guiding-star, into the
hands of the white
man.
then, the faithful trustee could not bring himself to divulge the Sacred Legend until the solemn promise of his superior chief to hold him harmless emboldened him.
Even
Then, in the house of the

related to a small
chief,
during three whole days he
and sympathetic audience the history
that had been kept secret so long.
And
within a fortnight
264
the chief who had undertaken to bear any consequences of the disclosure, lay dead in the very room where the tale was
Omaha, 224.) was not, as might be thought, concerned story with the doings of gods and heroes, but was a simple narrative of the history and wanderings of the tribe, and its gradual ascent from a condition of savagery to one of comparative
told.
(Fletcher,
The
itself
comfort.
In like manner, when Mr. Torday had, at con-
siderable expense, overcome the scruples of the Bangongo elders to divulge their sacred traditions, the secret that was
revealed to
all
him at an appointed spot in the bush, to which the approaches were guarded from the curiosity of the common herd by the sticks of the elders laid across the path-
way, was a narrative, distinctively mythological in character, of the history of the tribe when they dwelt on the other side of the river Sankuru. About the supposed course of events since they migrated to their present abode there was no " " time, if we may mystery, but the mythic or Alcheringa so call it, was regarded with religious awe. (Torday and
Joyce, p. 37.)
It need hardly be said that stories which are likely to have any sacred character should not be asked for unless the enquirer is on thoroughly confidential terms with his informant and any that may be obtained should be carefully distinguished from the ordinary popular tales.
;
The enquirer should not too hastily conclude that stories of wars, migrations, culture-heroes and the like are necessarily A story may embody true historical tradition, fictitious.
Some peoples it are obviously impossible. bodies of men whose duty it is to preserve and transmit possess the traditions as did the Druids of Gaul, the Brehons of
though parts of
;
Ireland, the colleges of the Maori priesthood (see Professor York Powell in FL. xv. 12-23). Even in England, where no such school of tradition exists, and where the art of writing
supposed to have enfeebled the power of the memory, memory of an event may be preserved by oral tradition for several generations. Sir Laurence Gomme on the occasion
is
the
Stories.
of his marriage
265
was presented by his father, as a family heirloom, with an old carved oak desk which had belonged to their ancestor Bernard Gomme, Secretary to the ProSir Laurence sent a tracing of the shield arms carved on it to a friend at the Heralds' College for " Where identification, and received in reply the question, " did you get that desk ? Those are Oliver Cromwell's arms Thus was the family tradition corroborated. In judging the age and comparative authenticity of stories, the channel through which they have reached us should be taken into account. It should be noted whether it could be
tector Cromwell.
of
to the interest of the custodians to garble or falsify the narrative. defeat may be represented as a victory, or
the numbers of the
enemy may be exaggerated.
Opposite
In parties will have different versions of the same event. the case of peoples who preserve their genealogies with some
care,
it
should be noted whether different informants
tell
the same story as having happened in the days of ancestors who were probably contemporary with each other. Now
and then dates may approximately be fixed by references to recorded events, such as an eclipse, or a visit of white men. Many of the local legends in which our own islands are
so rich contain grains of historical fact embedded in a mass of unhistorical detail. Many are aetiological stories, folk-
etymology,
and the
like
others,
such as the stories of
Beddgelert, of Wayland Smith's Cave, or of the Pedlar of Swaffham, are folk-tales localised. The collector is advised
not to attempt to classify them according to what he takes to be their component elements, but to set them down as
what he
finds them, simply as Place Legends. They will accumulate easily and rapidly on his hands in the course
of visits paid in the character of the
"
"
intelligent foreigner
to remarkable natural objects, rude stone

places of historic interest.
monuments, or
Stones told for amusement are found in all stages of culture. They have an historical value notwithstanding their frankly fictitious character, for they are evidence of the manners
266
of the time in
which they took shape, and so they contribute to the social history of mankind. The acute intellect of the late Mr. Lang perceived that the prohibition laid by Urvasi,
the prototype of Psyche, on her husband, to let her see him " without his garments, for that is the custom of women,"
was in reality a savage taboo, and that as a taboo its breach was supernaturally punished and that thus the central incident of the story as we have it, comes down from a savage state of society. and on the (Custom and Myth, p. 71) " other hand he pointed out that the story of Cinderella could not have arisen among a naked and shoeless people/' (Cox, the situation on which the story Cinderella, p. x.) Again,
;
of Catskin turns
and daughter
to
the proposed marriage between a father us so repulsive, would not contravene
matrilineal descent.
the marriage laws of an exogamous people recognising only In fine, some of the strongest evidence
is
for the theory, or rather the fact, of Survival in Culture to be found in folk-tales.
How
herited
do the
tales
;
come
but
to us
tradition
folk-tales
Often, no doubt, by inare very transmissible.
The event
life
of a 'canoe-load of visitors
from another island

us,
a common incident, as Dr. Rivers
tells
of Melanesian
a stay of a single night, a sociable evening spent together, and a story may be left behind to be told and retold from
generation to generation, and perhaps to afford evidence of
former communication between peoples since separated by
by migration, by wholesale shipwreck, or some other catastrophe. In recent ages the African slave-trade has been a powerful factor in the dissemination of folk-tales. The
warfare,
well-known Tar-Baby story, for example, current among Baronga, Basumbwa, Manganja, and Yao, on the eastern side of Africa, and among Hausas, Fantees, and many of the tribes of Angola and the Congo on the western side of the continent, has been inherited from them by the coloured " Uncle population of the United States, and thanks to
Remus
"
is
People
now familiar in English nurseries. who do not assimilate each other's customs may
Stories.
assimilate each other's tales
267
curious example of the effect
the story of the Three Sisters, one of several versions of the Maid freed from the Monster (as Jamaican negro it might be entitled), which Miss Werner (in Jekyll, p. xxxvi) refers to an indigenous African prototype. But in this variant
of transplantation
is
the youngest sister escapes by outwitting the suitor (who turns out to be the Devil) in a riddling contest. She quotes one of
the riddles in the ballad of the Elfin Knight, singing it to an " " old modal air, with a burden evidently borrowed from an
English original
(op. cit. p. 286).
Here a European story which

its
commended
idea to
itself
to African minds because

of their own, has
underlying
is
was the same as one
been grafted on
soil
an African root-stock.
Wherever the
suitable,
there the seed germinates, though the blossom frequently takes its colour from its environment. The Frog Prince of
the
German
forests is a lobster in the
Greek Islands, a snake
The Swan-maiden of Germany is the Seal-woman of the Faroes and Shetland Islands. In the False Bride is a maid who attends the heroine Europe
in Zululand, a lizard in
Burma.
on the journey to her wedding with her prince-bridegroom, as yet unseen. On the way, the maid contrives, as she thinks, to drown her mistress, takes her clothes and possessions, and passes herself off as the bride but the heroine is rescued and eventually manages to prove her identity. Among the Bantu Fiote, the heroine is the daughter of the goddess Nzambi, sent in charge of a slave to a distant town for the
;
On the girls before marriage. the slave gradually gets possession of all her mistress's way ornaments ; and when they arrive she is treated with honour
customary seclusion of young
while the princess is set to till the to send a message to her mother,
fields, until
she finds
means
who comes and
rescues her.
(Dennett, FL.F. 128.) Among the wild and primitive " Dawn's Heart Bushmen, the heroine is the wife of the Star," (Jupiter). The Hyena is jealous of her, and bespells
her
by mixing her own sweat with the
other's food, so that
her ornaments and skin garments fall off, and she is transformed into a lynx. She lurks concealed among the reeds,
268
while the Hyena, dressed in her bracelets and kaross, sits beside the fire with her back turned towards her husband.
But the wife's younger sister takes her baby to her night and morning, and presently discloses the truth to the Dawn's Heart Star. The Hyena hurriedly decamps, leaving the kaross
and ornaments behind her
wife, restored to
;
and they bring back the true

all
human form
tips of the lynx's ears. (Bleek lem of Diffusion," in this and
and Lloyd,
but the tufts of hair at the " The Prob85.)

another case, seems at
many
present altogether baffling. The study of the variations and areas of distribution of
folk-tale
themes
is
one of the most fascinating branches of
the many-sided science of Social Anthropology, and is by no means the least useful. There are indications that the choice
themes depends not only on environment, but on racial One group of nations will be chiefly given to aetiological stories, another to didactic and moral stories, another to wonder-tales and they will assimilate stories from other cultures in accordance with their own idiosyncrasies
of
character.
as well as
by adapting them
to their
own environment.
enumerated by Handbook, and
Seventy types of Indo-European stories were Mr. Joseph Jacobs in the first edition of this
the
list is
it
proved
reproduced in Appendix C. Time has, however, to be far from complete, and similar classifications
and other stories are sadly to seek. The compilation of one or more such ethnographical classifications would be a praiseworthy work on the part of any young British The international Folkloristischer Forscherbund of folklorist.
of African, American,
Northern Europe possesses an elaborate one, compiled by Herr Antti Aarne. But for the collector, as M. Sebillot remarks (Le Folklore, p. 30) it will usually be enough to arrange his " " in the general groups we have indicated here, harvest
without further subdivision.
Beast-tales,
namely, folk-tales in which the actors are animals,
who speak and

to
act like human beings, belong more especially savage stage of development. The savage mind seems unable fully to grasp the difference of kind, and the
the
Stories.
269
personages of his folk-tales are represented as acting in ways that their physical forms alone would render impossible. " The hare and the elephant hire themselves out to hoe a
man's garden
the swallow invites the cock to dinner, and
his wife prepares the food in the usual native hut with the fireplace in the middle and the nsanja staging over it ; the hare's wife goes to the river to draw water, and is caught
by the
op.
tit.
crocodile
elders in the village

p. xiii.)
the tortoise carries his complaint to the smithy assembled, and so on." (Werner,
characteristics
are often
Yet on the other hand their several mental cleverly and convincingly drawn,
and with entire consistency. and another slothful. The
One is strong, another cunning, chief characteristic of Annancy,
the Spider, the central figure of Negro beast-tales on both " sides of the Atlantic, is trickery. A strong and good
workman, he
to
is
to honest labour
invariably lazy, and is only to be tempted by the offer of a large reward. He prefers
fill the bag which he always carries, by fraud or theft. His appetite is voracious, and nothing comes amiss to him, cooked or raw. Sometimes he will thrust himself
. . .
upon an unwilling neighbour, and eat up all his breakfast. At another time he carries out his bag and brings it home
full
of flesh or fish obtained
by
.
thieving.
. .
He
is
perfectly
selfish,
and knows no remorse.
point is so much to his associates that they are ready almost, quite, to condone his offences." (Jekyll, pp. 1-2.)
Drolls are comic stories, or intended to be comic.
His only redeeming a sort of hail-fellow-well-met-ness, which appeals

if
not
They
are
still
rare.
current in England, where other folk-tales are The blunders of fools form their principal theme.
now
The
narration of a good droll will often penetrate the reserve even of a north-country man, and cause him to divulge stores of
other folklore.
Cumulative
At every step
repeated
till
distinguished by form, not by subject. in the narrative all the previous steps are the climax is reached, and the whole story retales are
capitulated.
The Old Woman and
the
Crooked Sixpence
is
2/o
Handbook of Fo Ik-Lore.
The House that Jack Built is another. Lushai example occurs in FL. xx. 389. Ritual formulae are sometimes built up on this plan.
a familiar instance.
Apologues are stories with a conscious purpose and a moral, and are thus nearly allied to Proverbs (ch. xviii. q.v.). In West Africa short stories are quoted in legal " palavers "
as exempla for the guidance of the Court. (FL.F. p. xi.) In like manner did Jotham tell the men of Israel the famous
apologue of the Trees choosing the Bramble for their King. In the matter of collecting stories, those that refer to any
rite, or object, regarded with reverence, must not be lightly approached or treated, and it must be made plain that any confidence is appreciated as it was meant to be. Any other course is likely to be rewarded by inventions or by
person, place,
feigned ignorance,
refusal.
if
But Myths about things
native ideas of courtesy forbid a blunt indifferent may be obtained
or origin of this or that the changes the cleft lip of the hare, the marks on the leaves moon, " of the lungwort or the holy thistle," the standing-stones,
by asking the reason

of the
the earthwork, and the

for
like.
Other tales should be listened
when people are talking at leisure. The traveller should be able to relate a few tales himself, to join in the conversation,
and to draw out
be, his companions.
down with as little delay as may preferably in the presence of the narrator, if possible in the native language, and in any case with the native and should be read over to the idioms exactly rendered
All tales should be written
;
narrator for correction, if possible. The name, age, residence, and occupation of the latter should be recorded, and it should
be stated whether he or she is bilingual, and if possible, where and from whom either heard the story. Variants and fragments of stories should also be recorded but should be kept " " correct other separate, not pieced together or used to
;
versions.
Rhythms, long
full,
runs,
and
repetitions are tedious to
transcribe in
occur
but they should always be indicated as they otherwise the literary structure of the tale is destroyed.
CHAPTER
XVII.
SONGS AND BALLADS.

is so many-sided and so all-pervading a form of human expression that it is hard to say from what point of view it may best be approached. Perhaps its beginnings first
SONG
arose out of the perception by early mankind of the power of the human voice over animals, and then extended to belief
in its
power over other beings or phenomena.
But
this
is
is,
of course,
conjecture. ascertain the place of
What
Song
life
concerns the folklorist

enters
to
in the life of the people,

it
and to
note into what spheres of
and what are the
varying forms which it takes. With verse we include melody, for in the lower culture the two are inseparable ; and in view of the close association of musical and other artificially pro-
duced sounds with magico-religious rites, music deserves more attention than it has yet received from folklorists. Song is used to communicate with other worlds to address
the Above-folk, as the Congo natives
skies.
call
the dwellers in the
North American peoples always intone their prayers, says Miss Alice Fletcher (Indian Story and Song), and the same habit is found far into European higher culture. The incantations of the wizard, of whatever colour he may Warbe, are almost always couched in rhythmical verse. songs, love-songs, cradle-songs, dirges, and epithalamiums, all no doubt had primarily a magico-religious value, and partook of the nature of charms. Oxen, in whatever quarter of the globe they are used, are coaxed and encouraged to
The
272
labour by song, and milch kine are induced to yield their milk in the same way.
"
Cush-a-cow bonny, come let down your milk, I will give you a gown of silk, A gown of silk and a silver tee (tie, chain), If you will let down your milk for me." (FL.J.
And
iv. 261.)
"
Give thy milk, brown cow, Give thy milk, so abundant and rich, Give thy milk brown cow, And the gentles coming to the townland. Ho, my heifer ho, my heifer fair Ho, my heifer (etc.).
!
!
Give thy milk, brown cow, And that there is nothing for them but bread Give thy milk, brown cow, Macneill Macleod Clanranald
! !
!
Ho, Ho, Ho,
my my my
heifer
heifer
heifer
ho, ho,
ho,
my heifer fair my heifer fair my heifer fair
Thou
heartling, heart, I love thee
"
!
(Carmichael, Report Crofter Commission, quoted

in
Handbook, ist
ed. p. 149).
Labour, and especially labour performed in concert, is very generally accompanied by song, probably in the first
place for magico-religious reasons, but certainly also from the practical usefulness of music in inspiriting the workers and
enabling them to keep time together. And on the other hand, the regular beat of the oars, the fall of the hammer, the
tramp
of the warriors' feet, naturally tend to promote the development of rhythm and metre in the songs. Rowing
is
especially
ruled
by song
is
all
over the world
"
our voices
"
of
keep tune and our oars keep time."

sailors at the windlass
The
"
chanty
relic of
now perhaps
The
the only
the
use of labour-songs in England.
lifeboat
crew at Criccieth
were heard hauling up their boat after a practice, to the accompaniment of a chanty, in the summer of 1908. The leader gave the time with a solo (in Welsh), and the hauling
party joined in the chorus.
Songs and Ballads.

It
is
;
273
the accompanying song the same with dancing dancers and enables them to keep step. The dance-songs of savages are generally short strophes " " ballads repeated again and again, like our choruses. The
both
inspirits the
of Northern and Western Europe, it need hardly be said, were originally dance-songs. They are still thus used in the
Faroe Islands
and elsewhere the older and
finer of
them
preserve the refrain, or burden, taken up in chorus by the dancers and marking the steps of the dance.
"
Now
he has asked her father dear, With a heigh-ho ! and a lily gay, And the mother too, that did her bear,
As
the
primrose spreads so sweetly.
And he
has asked her sister Anne, With a heigh-ho ! and a lily gay, But he left out her brother John,
As
the
primrose spreads so sweetly."
The
refrains are
the chorus of the Sussex the sound of the bellows

"
sometimes onomatopeic, as in the case of blacksmiths' song, which imitates

:
Twankidillo, twankidillo,
dillo, dillo, dillo, dillo, dillo
With a roaring
pair of bagpipes
made
of the green willow
"
!
(FL.J.
ii.
324.)
unintelligible words, such as the famous " Lero, lero, lillibulero perhaps obsolete, perhaps derived from a foreign language imperfectly understood, perhaps " mere vocables to carry the air," to quote never more than
Or they may contain

"
Miss Fletcher again. " "
The
stem
it
or solo part, of chorus songs tends to
become
labour
story
narrative.
It
songs
or
may be may relate

;
improvised, especially a legend or a folk-tale.
in
The
proceeds step by step
not in a continuous narrative, but dramatically, in a series of little scenes, and with frequent iteration features which characterise the true ballad-form
;
For instance, of song even when the burden is wanting. in the song-game of The Maid Freed from the Gallows, the
s
274
and
sister,
heroine addresses her father, mother, brother, in turn, thus

:
"
Oh, have you found
my
golden ball
?
And
Or are All on the
come to set me free you come to see me hanged

are you
"
gallows-tree
:
And
each in turn replies

"
Oh, I've not found your golden And I'm not come to set you
ball,
free,
But
am come
to see you hanged,
All
till
on the gallows-tree."
the
fifth
comer, the lover, proclaims himself the successful

:
finder.
Take another, and a beautiful example

"
Oft have I ridden through Stirling town In wind and snow and sleet,
But now I ride through Stirling town With fetters on my feet.

Oft have I ridden through Stirling town In the sunshine and the rain,
But now
I ride through Stirling town Ne'er to return again.
They brought unto the
heading-hill
His hounds within a leash, They brought unto the heading-hill His goshawk in a jess
;
They
led unto the heading-hill
His horse and golden saddle, The nurse came to the heading-hill With his young son from the cradle. His wife came to the heading-hill Adieu, dear love to thee And for the words the queen had spoke Did brave Young Waters dee."
;
'
'
Of such ballads as
this the late
Andrew Lang
arose
"
wrote,
the
heart of humanity is their maker." Whether the European ballad
from
religious
beginning cannot be known, but the fact that the choral
Songs and Ballads.

dances which seem to have been
in churchyards,
its
275
source were held at night

as impious
and were denounced by the clergy

iv.)
suggests a the ballads developed out of a kind of pagan Danse Macabre, it might account for the tragic character of the ballad-stories compared to that of
(Prof.
W.
P. Ker, in Proc. Brit. Acad. vol.

ritual. If
connection with pagan
the prose folk-tales, which so puzzled Mr. Lang. None of them can be older than the twelfth century, the date at
which rhymed metre supplanted alliterative rhythm, but the comparative antiquity of individual ballads may to some extent be arrived at from internal evidence. The ballad of
the Cruel Brother, cited above, is cast in the typical form, with repetitions, progression by single steps, and independent burden. In it, the bride's brother, to revenge the slight put upon him by the bridegroom in omitting to ask his consent
to the marriage, stabs the bride to the heart on the weddingday, and the act, though blamed, is accepted as natural.
But in Katharine Janfarie, a ballad with no burden or chorus, " " but with that unmistakeable mark of a minstrel ballad, the address to the audience at the close, a more modern " asked phase of public opinion appears. The suitor who
her father and mother and
a'
the lave
o'
her kin
"
is
ridiculed,
and the fortunate lover

"
is
he
who
Asked not her father or mother Nor the chief o' a' her kin,
lassie hersel'
But he whispered the bonnie
And
did her favour win."
Far later than either of these are the doggrel ballads of the " " pedlar or the street-singer, in which the proud porter of the castle appears as an important personage. But of the very early character of the ballad form of narrative song there can be no doubt. find the same charateristic features of the narration, step by step, of a legend or folk-tale sung to the accompaniment of dancing or of
We
song-game cited Guinea people studied by Dr. Landtmann (FL. xxiv. 284-313). In the men's house
acting
children's
and dancing, as
in the
above
in the songs of the
New
276

"
(darimo) legends are narrated in song and dance. A pre" centor if we may so call him, sings each verse, and the dancers
repeat
it
two, after the
" into which the natives pidgin English themselves rendered it, of a ballad of over sixty verses,
after him, slowly moving round the room two and manner of a Russian polonaise. Here are
some
stanzas, in the
"
relating the building and destruction of a darimo on the mainland opposite the island of Kiwai (where the song was of their Culture Heroine, Abere, people and the subsequent adventures of the party
sung),
"
by the
"
"
People belong Abere cut him bush what place they want him darimo. People belong Abere burn him bush now for darimo. People belong Abere clear him ground now for darimo. People belong Abere go cut him post now for darimo. People belong Abere cut him post now belong darimo. People belong Abere cut him other end belong post. People belong Abere carry him post now.
make
People belong Abere dig him hole now for post. People belong Abere put him up abo (the short posts to support the
floor).
People belong Abere put him mao (the horizontal beams) on top abo. People belong Abere dig him hole and put him up saro (the tall posts supporting roof). People belong Abere put him mao (the horizontal beams) on top of
saro.
People belong Abere put him up post belong wall. People belong Abere make fast all wood belong on top."
and so on through every step of the processes of flooring and thatching. Then the house proves unsatisfactory, and
is
pulled
down
step
by step
in reverse order.
altogether
"
People belong Abere take him out

(the rafters).
wood belong on top
People People People People People
belong belong belong belong belong
Abere Abere Abere Abere Abere
take him out altogether mao. take him out altogether te (the floor). pull him out saro. pull him out abo. put him all the post together."
The
story next turns to the building of a raft, loading it with yams, bananas, and so on. The raft is wrecked, but
Songs and Ballads.

Abere changes
herself
277
from a
fish to
various birds in turn,
rescues her people and they reach Kiwai, where she directs them to plant such of the plants as have been saved from
the wreck.
Snatches of verse interspersed in prose folk-tales have a wide popularity, ranging from the cante-fdble of Aucassin et Nicolette to the lament of the forsaken mother in the
Australian (Dieri) story, who sinks underground in search of her lost children, singing
:
"
Earth I, clay seeking, under Backwards down go,
go,
Hard earth
After
splitting yes, I
down
go,
me
drawing, yes, I go, (FL.

xiii.
Blood in streaks, yes, I down go, Earth depth I back again go."
416.)
It is a long way from such artless compositions as this to the intermediate stage of barbaric culture at which we find poetry erected into an independent art practised simply
for the pleasure
and amusement
of the singer
and
his hearers.
Narrative poetry in the form of rude epics is then deliberately composed and recited to keep alive the memory of the
heroes of the nation and their deeds and sufferings.
this stage a professional class of the direct pay of the sovereign,
At
Bards arises, sometimes in sometimes dependent only

of Balochistan, a
on popular support.
tribe of
Such are the Doms
wandering professional minstrels who sing, or rather chant in a sort of recitative, to the accompaniment of rude stringed instruments, songs which are the work of native Baloches and are always given with scrupulous acknow-
The poems and songs are recorded solely by oral tradition, and though they are formed on strictly defined metrical models they owe nothing to Indian or Persian literary culture. Here are some specimens, literally
ledgement of their authorship.
translated
" "
by Mr. Longworth Dames.

sings of the
Gwaharam
day on which Mir-Han was
slain
Let us meet on the bare desert foot-hills, and have our interview on the barren plain, the grazing ground of wild asses. Let the Rinds
278
!
and Dombkis come together, let the Bhanjars and Jatois repeat their The Rinds came with booted feet, with their slaves they alighted. gibes From every hamlet they took their blood, and the far-famed Malik Mir-Han was slain Chakur fled thence by night he took a stick in his hand to drive the cows and to graze the slate-coloured buffaloes Whither went Rehan and mighty Safar, Ahmad and lordly Kalo ?
!
"
Rinds.]
What was the matter with you, thick-beards ? Was not your tribe established in Bheni
?
!
[an epithet of the had you not in

love on
your hands wealthy Bingopur the coloured bedstead

"
Your place was with your
his saddle-girths,
For the innocent blood of Malim the Khan Gwaharam tightened and let his mare go to the Mullah Pass " (Longworth Dames, Poetry of Baloches, p. 20.)
!
The
following are love-songs from the

"
same source
My
ring
is
on thy
Thou art my old Thy pledge is on Thou wast never

"'
do not now go back, do not now go back. my finger, do not now go back, false yet, do not now go back."
finger,
love,
(p. 186.)
My My
riding is on swift mares, love is by the green water-springs For a short moment I will sit there,
I will
I will look
upon her wandering face, put an end to the black delay."
(p. 190.)
"'
When
the horseman comes I shall be happy, With the piper for my love I shall be wealthy, Give me the dumb ring and speak to me,
Give
me
the ring of betrothal."
(p. 193.)
Modern Greek folk-song reaches a higher

"
plane.
!
How
It
is
lie the meadows peaceful all the mountains lie, how peaceful not death that they await, old age does not afflict them. The springtime only they await, and May, and summer sunshine, To see the Vlachs upon the hills, to see the fair Vlach maidens. And listen to the music sweet that with their pipes they'll waken. While graze their sheep, around whose necks the heavy bells are
tinkling.
their encampment. Again they'll set their sheepfolds up, and set up the young Klepht boys will come for frolic and for dancing. Again The Klepht bands, too, will scour again the fields of fair Pharsalia.
Songs and Ballads.
279
Their Turkish foes to catch alive, and when they're slain to strip them. And golden sequins carry off, and then divide and share them ; And give perhaps some two or so to fair and kind Vlach maidens
When
stealing
from them
kisses two, with sweetest fun and frolic." (Garnett and Glennie, Greek Folk Songs, 246.)
Independent songs, like stories, are very transmissible, and be conveyed to remote nooks and corners by nomads, " " Occasional songs should not be recorded sailors, or slaves. with them, but always in connection with the rites, days, festivals, or other occasions, to which they belong. Of lullabies and nursery songs space fails us to say anything, save that a rich harvest awaits the collector who turns his attention to them. Nor can we do more than mention the unsuspected wealth of English folk-songs revealed by the
may
researches of the Folk-Song Society

enterprise of Mr. Cecil Sharp.
and the independent
CHAPTER
XVIII.
PROVERBS AND RIDDLES.

"
THERE
of the
is a matter/' says Father de Clercq, "which is worthy most minute examination and which almost enters into
the region of religion, I mean the morality of the natives. What do they think good, what evil ? What do they advise and what condemn ? Who is in their eyes a respectable
man, and whose conduct do they disapprove ? These are questions which every missionary should be able to answer. He will find the answer in their proverbs and popular sayings, as also in their moral tales." And he proceeds to summarise the Baluba code of morals, as evidenced in their proverbial
sayings.
(Anthropos, vol.
viii.
p. 22.)
Among
the
intellectual
in fact
efforts
of
the backward
races,
proverbs have
been too little regarded. But they deserve careful study, because they represent, not forgotten ideas surviving in practice, but the actual views of those who use them, their practical philosophy of life, and their
principles of action.
Racial and national character are revealed in proverbs. " Life and Oriental fatalism speaks in the Punjabi saying, fame and dishonour, are in the hands of Fate." And death, " There is no remedy for Fate." But the European again in " Heaven helps them who under various figures affirms that, " Sword- wounds themselves." Japanese courtesy says, help be healed, word- wounds are beyond healing." The may " grim humour of the Spaniard rebukes avarice with Shrouds
Proverbs and Riddles.

have no pockets."
"
281
ower tight
Scottish caution peeps out in the saying, Friends are like fiddle-strings, they maunna be screwed " "
;
and
Irish
happy
carelessness in
Time enough
to bid the Devil good-morrow when ye meet him." " To love Social systems give birth to many proverbs. the king is not bad, but to be loved by the king is better,"
is
the outcome of the
West African
experience.
The elaborate
civilization
meets us in the Chinese aphorism, " Without the wisdom of the learned, the clown could not be governed without the labour of the clown the learned could " not be fed." Their Master easy, servant lazy," is as obviously
of China
;
" He strikes the Egyptian, " is the wail of the and says, Why does he cry out ? me, " Never take a wife from a hall or down-trodden Fellahin.
maxim
of the
'
upper
classes, as
'
a pig from a mill," (because neither will be satisfied in their new quarters), speaks the experience of the English cottager Other proverbs are the coinage of sex. (Staffordshire). " When ye tak' a man, ye tak' a maister," (Fife) ; "A noggen (wooden) mother is better than a golden father," (Salop)
;
"
and,
Children be
first
an arm-ache and then a heart-ache,"
(Wilts), betray female authorship as plainly as the plentiful

jests at
ment.
to occupation and environone cannot have his house on the piazza," Every "By going and coming the says the Italian city-dweller bird builds its nest," says the Negro trader, journeying to
women do masculine. Very many proverbs are due

"
;
and
the
by gives his you your knife," pig to the hyena to keep," are other dicta from the same
fro in the
lest
West African
lose
forest.
"
Make not
"
friends
way
and
No one
source.
Again, ideas identical in themselves are translated
into terms of locality or occupation. "
You cannot make an omelette without breaking the eggs " " You cannot climb a mountain by a level the Norwegian,
;
The Frenchman says
road."
"
becomes
till
in Holland,
Don't count your chickens before they are hatched," " Do not cry your herrings before they
"
;
are in the net
and
"
in Scotland,
"
Dinna gut your

"
fish
ye get
them
while the Italian says,
Do
not
sell
the
282
" bird on the bough," and Do not part with the bear-skin " before you have caught the bear hunters' proverbs both.
;
One might continue
this
theme ad
infinitum.
Various schemes have been proposed for the classification of proverbs, but all of them are better suited to an exhaustive
study of the subject than to the simple record which is all the collector desires to make. This he will find it best to
arrange according to the form, rather than the matter of his Proverbs naturally fall into two groups, viz. I. Proverbs proper, that is to say, proverbs which form complete sentences for citation, and II. Proverbial Phrases, or expresmaterial.
sions consisting of parts of sentences only, which may be woven into the speaker's own remarks, as did Samson, when he said to the men of Timnath, "If ye had not ploughed with my
heifer,
I.
ye had not found out
my
riddle."
Proverbs proper may be further divided into simple Maxims or Aphorisms, i.e. direct statements of the matter
in
hand
and
:
Metaphorical
reasoning by analogy. the following

"
"
For examples
statements, which involve of the first class, take
Choose a horse made and a
man
to
make."
Good and quickly seldom meet."
" Honesty is the best policy." " Love and a cough cannot be hid." " Praise the day at night, and life at its close." " Punishment is lame, but it comes." " Threatened men live long." " Waste want not."
not,
while the following are examples of metaphorical proverbs (by far the largest and most interesting class)
:
"
"
1
A A
cat in pattens catches no mice."

curst
cow hath short horns."

:
In the Elder Edda this runs " Praise day at even, a wife when dead, A weapon when tried, a maid when wed, Ice when 'tis crossed, and ale when 'tis drunk."

"
283
feather in the
hand
is
better than a bird in the air."
(George Herbert, Jacula Prudentum.)

"
"
It's
a long lane that has no turning."

lie."
Let sleeping dogs
"
"
Little dogs start the hare, great dogs get her."
"
"
Once bitten, twice shy." One dog, one bone," (i.e.
fair play).
You a
lady, I
a lady,
who
shall drive the pigs afield
"
(Spanish.)
"
The Jackal dipped himself

a peacock."
in indigo
and then thought he was
(Persian.)
JI.
Proverbial phrases
may
be divided into Metaphors and

:
Similes.
The
following are examples
To " To " To " To " To " To " To
"
Metaphors. draw the long bow."

put the cart before the horse." plough the headlands before the butts."
praise one's pasture."
look for a needle in a bottle of hay." run with the hare and hunt with the hounds."
save at the spigot and waste at the bunghole."
Another class of Metaphors, nearly related both to Riddles and to Nicknames, is represented by the following
:
"
The blacksmith's daughter," (a padlock). " The Franciscan's hackney," (his feet).
" "
Shanks's pony,"
(ditto).
A wooden
suit," (a coffin).
Similes.
"
" "
"
As
right as a trivet."
lord."
As drunk as a
As hungry as a hunter." As mad as a March hare." As quiet as a lamb." As poor as a church mouse."
" "
284
"
"

As dead as a door
nail."
(i.e.
As big as the parson's barn,"

in milk, neither
the tithe-barn).
" Like a chip " In and out,
good nor harm."
like a dog at a fair." " In and out, like a crooked road," (or, a dog's hind leg). " As queer as Dick's hatband, that went nine times round and then wouldn't tie."
This last introduces us to a group of sayings which connect the Proverb with the Apologue or Fable ; those, namely, which are attached to an anecdote of which they form the " climax. A moral proverb," says Father de Clercq, " is
generally a synthetic formula in which the natives sum up or as they say, abridge a moral story so that to appreciate the exact bearing of the proverb you must begin by obtain;
ing the story or parable which give rise to it and of which it constitutes the summary. These stories cannot be better
collected than at the palavers, for
will cite
it
is
then that an elder

(An-
them, more or
viii.
less paternally, to his clients."
thropos, vol.
21.)
Egyptian proverbs frequently take this form. An English " The case is altered, quoth example is the well-known Plowden." We know the story, variously told, that Judge Plowden, being informed that his tenant's beast had gored
own, decreed that the tenant must pay damages, but it appeared that it was his own beast that has injured " the other's, Oh, then the case is altered/ quoth Plowden." Local historians of Plowden 's native county (Shropshire) have expended much pains in trying to decide which is the " " authentic version of this story. Meanwhile Professor " " authentic version at Sayce has discovered an equally
his
when
'
Cairo.
(FL. xvii. 191.) in the lower culture are not mere jeux d'esprit, but problems for solution. While the proverb states a fact
RIDDLES
or expresses a thought in vivid metaphor, the riddle describes a person or a thing in more obscure metaphor, calculated to exercise the intellectual skill of any who attempt to solve it.
Thus making and guessing
riddles
becomes a
trial of wits,

dialectic
285
by various
combat
and
riddles are in fact used
peoples not only as a form of amusement, but as a means of " mental gymnastics," and even as a education, a kind of In folk-tales, we find the serious test of intellectual ability.
youth who can guess the, riddle is rewarded with the hand of the princess, and the reputed sage who fails is sentenced to
death as a charlatan.
exercises to whole
In real
life,
riddles
"
are set like
(Prim
tion of
Cult.
is
i.
91.)
companies of puzzled [Basuto] children." The value placed on them by our own forecollec-
fathers
shown by the number that are included in the 1 Anglo-Saxon poems known as the Exeter Book.
The problems themselves strictly follow the type of the " famous riddle of (Edipus, What goes on four legs in the morn" ing, on two legs at noonday, and on three legs at night ? " There is a thing that travels fast without legs or e.g., wings, and no cliff nor river nor wall can stop it," (the " voice There is a long slender trading- woman Basuto).
;
who never
;
stops at the landing by three parts and place Yoruba). " " Guess ye some ancient Mexico). out of by one ? shirt (a men who are many and form a row, they dance the weddinggets to market," (a canoe,
it
"What is it we
;
get into
And
dance, adorned in white hip-dresses," (the teeth ; Zulu). " A troop of white horses around a in England we find red hill, now they go, now they go, now they stand still," " It goes round the house and round the house, (the teeth). " It goes and leaves a white glove in the window," (snow).
upstairs red
"
I
and comes down black,"
(a
warming-pan).
heard a rickety-racket,
Pulled off
my
shoes and run a'ter
it,
and couldn't
o'ertak' it."
train.)
(A railway
The modern da
poeic faculty
is
e of the last
example shows that the mythois
not yet dead in England. Having once heard a riddle proposed, it
easy to ask for
A transcript of these with an Introduction and Notes and a full Bibliography, by Mr. Frederick Tupper, was published by Ginn & Co., London, 1910.
1
286

i
more, to note those contributed i response, and to propose them on similar occasions, asking again for contributions. But proverbs are more difficult to collect. They can only be listened for, and noted whenever they are incidentally
Then, as opportunity occurs, those already noted be made the topic of conversation and eventually may some intelligent native may be induced to collect perhaps and supply others. But in such a case it would probably be wise to verify his statements by comparison with those " of other informants. When a poor man makes a proverb, it does not spread," complains the Oji of West Africa, and not every wise and witty saying can claim to be ranked as a
cited.
;
proverb. Residents have a great advantage over visitors in collecting proverbs. Their fuller knowledge of the local dialect makes it
and catch the proverbial expression and intimate acquaintance with the speaker will enable them to distinguish between the accepted proverb and the pithy and picturesque impromptu of the " The tide never goes out so far but it local sage himself. comes back again/' said a Cornish fisherman when Mr. Albany Major condoled with him on the badness of the fishing season
easier for
them
to observe
fall,
incidentally
let
but Mr. Major, a temporary visitor only, could not tell whether this bit of cheerful philosophy was an apt quotation or an original remark.
CHAPTER XIX.
PROVERBIAL RHYMES AND LOCAL SAYINGS.
JINGLES and other sayings in rhyme or rhythm, even when unmeaning to those who repeat them, sometimes have considerable
significance
for
the scientific enquirer.

is
The
in-
cantation or invocation in rude verse

ancient ritual, and from
its
an
essential part of
form often has a quality of
endurance which causes it to outlast the ceremonial or custom It then comes down to of which it originally formed a part. us on the lips of the people, sometimes associated with observances less ancient than itself, sometimes as the formula of a game, as a nursery rhyme, or simply as a trifling catch-word. These formulae though probably not very important in savage The folklore, bulk largely in that of European countries. older of them bear witness to former social conditions, the more modern reveal the mental preoccupations and idiosyncrasies of the folk. not be overlooked.
In either case, therefore, they must
Examples of formulae used for magical purposes, both to hurt and to heal, and especially to call up visions, have been given in previous chapters. And rhythmical formulae were " to have and equally in use in legal matters. The phrase to hold," which occurs not only in the conveyance of property but
alliterative
also
in
;
the
marriage
service,
retains the
old
rhythm and still more did that earlier form in " which the bride vowed to be bonnair and buxom at bed and board." Sir Henry Maine comments on the fact that the
288
Laws
of
Manu
are in verse,
and
Sir Francis Palgrave observes
that the
marked
alliteration of the
referred to the desire for an aid to
Anglo-Saxon laws is to be memory, and notes that
in the Frisic laws several passages are evidently written in verse.
The verderer
justified in the
in the
mediaeval forest
knew
:
that he was
if
summary execution of an offender, him in any of the following circumstances

"
he found
Dog draw,
stable stand,
Back berend, and bloody hand."
The rhyme
in
inscribed beneath the effigy of
King Athelstan
Beverley Minster commemorating his traditional grant to the inhabitants,

"
Als fre
mak
the
see,"
As heart may think or eigh may

perhaps,
says Sir Laurence Gomme, records the ancient form of manumission or enfranchisement.
Banffshire schoolboys ratified a bargain, says Dr. Gregor,
by
linking their little fingers,

:
moving
!
their
hands up and
down, and repeating

"
Ring, ring the pottle bell

Ye'll
Gehn ye brak the bargain

gang
t'
hell."
It was regarded as the height of wickedness to break a bargain thus sealed. Another form was
:
"
Ring a
bottle, ring
a bell
The
ye cum till Ye'll fa' doon an brack yer neck, And that'll the bargain brak."
first
brae
it
third form ran

"
'
'
Will ye brak the bargain No.'
'
Swear then.'
'
As sure
Cut
as death
ma
breath
t*
Ten mile aneath the earth, Fite man, black man, burn me
death.'
"
Proverbial Rhymes and Local Sayings.

If
289
the bargain was broken, the
doom
of the breaker
was looked
on as sure, and with awe. (Handbook, ist ed., pp. 153-157.) There seems little difficulty in believing that these boyish formulae were once the property of grown men. Memorial rhymes are the natural expedient of unlettered
folk for preserving the knowledge of anything deemed Most of our popular of record or remembrance.
are concerned with the weather and the crops, and bad luck, and with observations of natural history. They form a vade-mecum for the conduct of affairs.
"
worthy rhymes with good
On
St. Valentine's
Day
Cast beans in the clay. But on St Chad Sow, good or bad."
" Cuckoo oats and woodcock hay Make the farmer run away."
" If the cuckoo comes to an empty thorn Sell your horse and buy your corn."
"
A wet March and a
windy May,
little
Plenty of good grass and

"
good hay."
hay,
1
A swarm of bees in May is worth a load of A swarm in June is worth a silver spoon, A swarm in July is not worth a fly."
" If the cock crows on going to bed. He's sure to rise with a watery head." "
A man
had better
ne'er been born

his horn."
Than on the Sabbath pare
Sometimes popular rhymes commemorate

stances.
historical circum-
The
"
following lines,
Ring-a-ding ding, I heard a bird sing, The Parliament soldiers are gone for the king
'
'
!
"
in
(with which, late in the nineteenth century, an old

1
woman
Worth a noble the same day." (Clee Hills, Shropshire.) The last king of England under whom nobles were coined was Henry VIII.
"
290
the Staffordshire Potteries was heard hushing a baby), must undoubtedly refer to the action of General Monk in 1660.
Usually, however, such rhymes record matters of merely
local interest.
"
Saltash
was a borough town

a furzy down."
(Said also of Plympton.)
When Plymouth was

"
While muir grows moss, and nowt grows
hair,
A Roddam
"
of
Roddam
for ever mair."
(Northumberland.
Nowt, neat
cattle.)
While ivy is smooth and holly is rough, There'll always be a Blest of The Hough."
(Staffordshire.)
A
istics
or the
rhyme may enumerate the boundaries of a franchise number of farms in a valley, or record the characterof neighbouring places and their inhabitants.
"
We
An
Monk Hopton, Round

"
otter in the
go from Beckbury and Badger to Stoke upon Ciee. Acton, and so return we."
Wear you may
But an
"
otter in the Tees
you may
find but once a year, find at your ease."
Sutton for mutton, Tamworth for beef, Walsall for bandy-legs, and Brummagem for a thief."
"
A new church, an old steeple, A drunken parson, a wicked people."
(Said of
many
places.)
Local gibes in verse or prose are to be found everywhere, and especially where a number of small communities are
situated within a short distance of each other.
will
Then each
nickname, and one will be the butt of all the rest. Every neighbourhood too has its natural baro" weather-hole," or its cloudy peak. meter, its
probably have
its
"
Wenn
Pilatus tragt sein

er
Hut
Degen
Dann wird Aber wenn
das Wetter gut.
nimmt
sein
Kommt
"
War-cries,
slogans,"
es
Regen."
family
nicknames
and sobriquets,
Proverbial
proverbial
Rhymes and Local
Sayings.
291
"the gay Gordons," "the gallant epithets, Graemes/' and the like none should escape the collector's " watchful care. Even bell- jingles," or the words which the " different peals of church-bells are supposed to say," may be
admitted for the sake of
of St. Clement's."
"
Oranges and lemons, say the

lies
bells
Not a
"
little social
history
hidden beneath these
trifling
life
relics of
an unrecorded past."
They
reflect
the rural
of past generations, with its anxieties, its trivialities, its intimate familiarity with Nature, and its strong local preoccupations. And, to quote once more words read too long since " if it be true that nothing human to trace their source now, is without interest to a man, then that which tells us of the
thoughts and ways of our forefathers should be of the deepest and nearest interest to us, for it has had something to do with making us what we are."
%*
in
The task
of rewriting the brave little pioneer
work
of
1890 is now concluded, but the writer cannot lay down the pen without expressing a final hope that the compressed form
has been necessary to present the various examples not mislead any reader into supposing that such summaries are all that it is needful to give of any scenes of
it
which
cited, will
the kind which he or she
may be
so fortunate as to witness,
particulars would only be tedious. contrary, the fuller the details supplied, the more will the record be to the scientific world.
and that minute
On
the
welcome
THE END.
APPENDICES.
APPENDIX
A.
TERMINOLOGY.
IT will help to
make
descriptions both of social groups
and magico-
religious functions intelligible if the commoner technical terms are used in accordance with the definitions and explanations
given below. These have been drawn up by a conference representing the Editors of Notes and Queries on Anthropology and Proalso of this volume, for the common use of both works. visional definitions framed by this conference were submitted also on its behalf to experienced students of social anthropology, and amended to give effect as far as possible to their recommendations. It is hoped, therefore, that the result may be generally accepted as a standard vocabulary.
group of a simple kind, nomadic or settled in a speaking a common dialect, with a rude form of government, and capable of uniting for common
Tribe.
more or
less definite locality,
action, as in warfare.
Clan.
An exogamous
division of a tribe, all the clansmen or
members of which are held to be related to one another and bound together by a common tie of clanship. This tie may be a belief in common descent from some ancestor, real or mythical
;
or it may be of possession of a totem some other kind. In some cases the most obvious tie is the common habitation of a village or district, but in such a case there is little doubt that the real tie has been of some other kind.
it
may
be the
common
Sept, Gens, and Totem-kin have been used synonymously, but Clan is recommended. Some American authors use Gens only where there is patrilineal descent, Clan where there is matrilineal descent.
In some cases Clans are grouped in Phratries.
296
Appendix A.
Phratry. An exogamous division of a tribe, which division sub-divided into clans or classes though it may sometimes happen that, owing to the disappearance of clans, a phratry may have only one clan. When there are only two divisions, admitting of no further sub-division, in a tribe, they may be called Moieties.
is
;
Non-Exogamous Divisions such as are often found to exist in a tribe, will usually be found to be based on the principle of locality, and in that case may be called Local Divisions.
Caste should be limited to the institution as
it
exists in India,
and to similar forms which may be found elsewhere. 1

tralians, or to similar
Class should be limited to the matrimonial classes of the Ausgroups which may be found elsewhere.
Family. This term should be limited to the group consisting of parents and children ; including all children (adopted or other) who are treated by law and custom as conventional descendants of the person, whether father or mother, through whom descent is traced.
Kindred may be used for a group of persons descended, or regarded as descended, from the same grandfather or grandmother, or more distant progenitor, where the descent can be demonstrated genealogically and is not mythical, as is often the case with the clan. Occasionally the clan and the kindred may coincide with each other.
Kin and kinship should be limited to relationship, real and conventional (see Family above), which can be demonstrated
genealogically.
Clansmen and Clanship should be used up by membership of the Clan (v. above).
for the relationship set
The
kindred,
when
living
under one
roof,
may
be called the
Undivided Household.
1 [Mr. Gait defines a Caste as "an endogamous group, or collection of such groups, bearing a common name and having the same traditional occupation, who are so linked together by these and other ties, such as the tradition of a common origin and the possession of the same tutelary deity, and the same social status, ceremonial observances, and family
priests, that
they regard themselves, and are regarded by others, as forming a single homogeneous community." Indian Census Report, E. S. H.] 1911, vol. i. p. 367.
Terminology.
297
Polygamy is a generic term including polygyny and polyandry. Polygyny is a union of one man with two or more women. Polyandry is a union of one woman with two or more men. When the husbands are brothers the polyandry is called adelphic [or when one or more of the husbands has a position fraternal']
;
superior to the others it is disparate. Polygyny is disparate when one or more of the wives has a position superior to the others.
when a Supplementary Unions may be described as follows has one or more supplementary partners, they are his concubines, and their status is concubinage. Supplementary unions by which a woman has one or more supplementary partners or
:
man
cicisbei are
described as cicisbeism.
Group-Marriage has been used to denote a form of marriage which all the men of a definite social group are the husbands of all the women of another social group. No such form of
in
marriage
is
known
one
to exist at present.
Cross-Cousin Marriage.
and
sister, i.e.
in
which a
Marriage between children of a brother man marries the daughter either
of his mother's brother, or of his father's sister.
Marriage is Matrilocal when the husband lives, temporarily or Patriloeal if the wife permanently, with the group of his wife lives, temporarily or permanently, with the husband's group.
:
Patrilineal or Matrilineal Descent should be used to express that membership of the family or other social group is reckoned through the father or the mother.
Authority in the family or kindred in the : noted whether the authority is in the mother (3) (2) of the maternal uncle
Patripotestal or Matripotestal
;
should be described as
latter case it should
be
hands
of the actual of the mother's relatives

(i)
in general,
and so on.
Mother-Right
acterised
may be
by the presence
used to describe a state of society charof two or all of the three conditions,
Matrilineal
Descent, Matrilocal Marriage, and Matripotestal Family. The old terms patriarchal and matriarchal should be avoided altogether, as they have become ambiguous through inexact use in the sense of either -local, or -lineal, or -potestal.
Totemism (pp. 41-43). Three chief features of the relation between human beings and their totem seem to be essential to totemism in its normal form (i) The totem (generally a class of animals, plants, or inanimate
:
298
;
Appendix A.
objects occasionally an individual animal or thing) is connected with a definite social group, and in the typical form of the institution this social division is exogamous. Often the group takes its name from the totem, or uses it as a badge, but these points are less constant and essential. (2) The members of the social group believe themselves to be " related to the totem or "of one flesh with it, and not infrequently they believe that they are descended from the totem. the mem(3) There is a magico-religious bond between them bers of the social group look for protection from their totem and show respect to it, and the most usual method of showing this respect is the prohibition to eat, kill, or injure the totem. When a clan or corresponding social group owns more than one totem, these totems should be spoken of as Associated Totems. When one of these is more important than the rest, the latter should be called the sub -totems. When different parts of an animal are associated with different divisions of the social group, they should be called Split Totems.
;
It is convenient to limit soul to the Soul, Ghost, and Spirit. separable personality of the living man or other being ghost to the same thing after death spirit to a soul-like being which has never been associated with a human or animal body. Soul, ghost, and spirit are all essentially of the same type, representing
; ;
a personality independent of a body though usually possessing an apparitional form of its own (e.g. like a dream-image or a
shadow).
Familiar is preferable to demon as the name for the spirit attached to a person or a rite. " " the belief in spiritual beings Animism is (E. B. Tylor). This includes soul, ghost, and spirit, as above defined.
Animatism
is
the attribution of
life
and personality to
things,
but not of a separate or apparitional
soul.
Fetishism has been used in so many different and contradictory Its use should senses that it is very likely to be misunderstood. Even the word Fetish should only be therefore be avoided. used in its historic sense, to describe a limited class of magical
objects in
West
Africa.
Anthropomorphic should be limited to outward shape, not used to describe the attribution of human behaviour or thought. Similarly, the terms Zoomorphic, Phytomorphic, Hylomorphic, mean that something is conceived or represented as having the outward shape of an animal, a plant, or an inanimate object.
Terminology.
299
Rite : a customary practice of a magico-religious character. (The word ceremony has lost this special sense.) A rite may consist of a number of ritual acts. There may be a negative
consisting in refraining from doing things religious reasons, as well as a positive ritual.
ritual,
for
magico-
Prayer should be used in the English sense, and not used to cover every sort of oral rite.
Sacred may be used of all persons or things set apart from the profane by reason of the possession of supernatural power inherent or derived.
Sacrifice includes any kind of magico-religious rite of which the essential feature is that something is consumed. It may embody various purposes, being intended, for instance, as a communion feast, or as an offering to propitiate a supernatural being, or as an expiation.
Tabu should be limited to describe a prohibition resting on a magico-religious sanction. Various other prohibitions are observed in uncivilized society ; e.g. Legal Prohibitions, put forth by authority and Customary Prohibitions, which appear to rest but the term tabu should be resimply on social disapproval stricted as above.
;
[The following additional suggestions
may
be useful
:]
Votive Offering, an object dedicated in consequence of a vow. This frequently takes the form of an image or simulacrum.
Wizard, a professor of occult science.

Conjurer, cunning man, wise man, dialectal equivalents for wizard.
Sorcerer, a wizard
who
is
chiefly
poncerned with
evil.
by a god or
Shaman, a wizard or wizard-priest who is liable to be possessed spirit (Siberia, North America).
Medicine-man, a wizard magical power.
who endues
material objects with
Witch, a practitioner of evil magic, an enemy of society. Forstill so used in South merly used of both men and women Africa, and dialec tally in England.
;
Spell,
(i)
curse, or its equivalent
a form of words having magical power to impose a (2) the work of a witch, an enchantment.
;
3OO
Appendix A.
Charm, a form of words having magical power to convey a
N.B. The practice of carrying such blessing, or its equivalent. formulas about in writing has led to a confusion between the
charm and the amulet.

in the latter sense.
The word charm should never be used
Charmer, white witch, a practitioner of healing or counteracting magic, often including divination.
Myth, a story told to account for something.

Legend, a story told as true, but consisting either of fact or
fiction,
or both indifferently.
;
Folk-tale, a popular story
often used as equivalent to the
German Marchen.
APPENDIX
B.
QUESTIONARY.
Let it be clearly understood once for all that these questions are not intended to be addressed to the persons from whom inforsought. Formal questioning, and especially direct is the sure road to failure and disappointment. The Questionary is intended as a summary of the points to be noted by the observer, and his notes made on the spot may be usefully compared with it afterwards, with a view to discover and supply any omissions. An endeavour has been made to render it fairly complete, but in the present state of our knowledge it is unlikely that the attempt has been altogether successful. In any case, the observer should not allow it to limit the scope of his investigations, but should try to follow up all clues and take advantage of all opportunities, whether they come within the prescribed curriculum of enquiry or not.
is
mation
questioning,
The following practical hints are summarized from a paper by Father Augustin de Clercq (Anthropos, vol. viii. pp. 12-22), which embodies the result of many years' experience as a missionary in the Belgian Congo. In putting questions, remember three things
:
The native has not the methodizing power which intellectual culture has bestowed on you he cannot synthetize
1.
;
or combine ideas.
2. It is pretty certain that he will never have heard the question you put to him, and that he would never have
put
it
to himself.
native knows everything. 3. " Therefore ; (i) Avoid general questions (such as On what occasions do the people offer sacrifice ? "), and never ask for definitions. (2) Do not limit your enquiries to one individual,
:
No
302
Appendix B.
may
village, or district ; the replies from different persons or places will illustrate and explain each other and suggest new lines to follow.
The best way is to lead your informant up to the subject graduand unconsciously to himself and let him speak spontaneously. You can then believe what he says. The worst way is, in hopes of getting the most information in
ally
the shortest time, to send for a native, interrogate him according to your pre-arranged Questionary, and take down his answers. He will say anything that comes into his head, in order to get quit of you, and you will only obtain blunders and inventions. A third way, which looks promising at first sight, is to get a number of natives together and question them all, with the idea that what one does not know another will. The effect of this will be that they will squabble among themselves and you will
learn nothing at
all.
I.
THE EARTH AND THE

(is*
SKY,
pp. 23-30.
Edition
"
:
Great Natural Objects.")
Note what actions or kinds of The Sun, Moon, and Stars. work should be done before or after noon, sunset, or sunrise, in the waxing or waning of the moon, at the new moon, the full " " the dark of the moon movements to be made with moon,
;
the sun's course or contrary to it, the point of the compass faced in funeral or other rites prohibitions connected with the sun, influence of moon, or stars (seeing, pointing, counting, etc.) the stars on human life, of the moon on health or weather uncanny powers of midnight or noon omens from the appearance of sun, moon, or stars lucky actions or acts of reverence salutations dances towards them prayers things done seasons and festivals during an eclipse of the sun or moon dated by or held in honour of sun, moon, or stars (cf. ch. xiv.). Give the names applied to sun, moon, stars, and sky. Are they masculine or feminine ? Are they regarded as gods, or as
;
;
;
governed by special gods ? What is supposed to be the origin of the heavenly bodies ? What are supposed to be the origins of day and night ? of the changes of the moon ? the seasons ? eclipses ? comets ? shootIs the sky ing stars ? the Milky Way ? (what is this called ?). regarded as a person or a place ? Is there supposed to be a land above the sky ? who lives there ? has anybody ever been there ? what were his adventures ? Is the Land of the Dead above the sky ? Give any myths or legends concerning the sky or the
several heavenly bodies.
Questionary.
Atmospheric Phenomena.
etc.,
303
anger,
Note any signs of fear, reverence, to winds, storms, rain, thunder, lightning, the rainbow, waterspouts, sandstorms, mirages, the Aurora Borealis, or the Ignis Fatuus ; any names or nicknames applied to them ;
shown
powers ascribed to them.

rainbow, mirage,
etc.
?
What
should be done on seeing a
ticular days or occasions
Note omens drawn from them, or from the weather on parand any other weather-omens. Note what things should be done or avoided during tempest.
;
can storms be raised or allayed ? are they thought to come own will or to be sent by anyone, and for what reason ? What persons, human or otherwise, have influence over them ? Is there a Storm-god ? a Thunder-god ? (cf. ch. ix. xiii.). Are there any myths or sayings connected with any of the above ? or with clouds, snow, hail, or ice, or other atmospheric
of their
How
phenomena
Fire.
(cf.
ch. xix.).
How is fire procured ? Are ritual fires kindled by difmeans from domestic fires ? Is there any perpetual sacred fire ? where ? by whom tended ? Is there any annual rite of kindling new fire ? Are special fires lighted on special occasions ? If so, are existing fires extinguished and is the new fire kindled in any special or archaic manner ? and by whom ? Is moral,
ferent
or sexual purity required when kindling ceremonial rites practised in connection with such fires ? leaping over them, dancing round them, driving cattle through them, or through the smoke ? walking on hot stones or embers ? Are noxious animals, or effigies of offending persons, etc., conphysical,
fires
?
Are any
sumed in such fires Note all uses of
fire
or smoke, including tobacco-smoke, in-
cense, etc., in sacrifice, purification, exorcism, festivals (public or domestic), leechcraft, etc. Is Fire (See Hearth-fire, p. 313.) Is there a Fire-god ? Is there any myth or story personified ?
of the origin of fire
The Earth. Note any sites or spots inherently sacred or permanently taboo. Are trees and plants growing on them also sacred ? Are there any areas in which animals may not be hunted or killed, or where rulers have no authority ? How are obstinately-barren patches of ground accounted for ? Note any occasions on which contact with the earth is either
enjoined or forbidden (such as sleep, marriage, planting, warfare, worship, etc.). May sacred objects or vessels containing holy water or drugs be set on the ground ? What is the effect of Is there anything else which must spilling blood on the ground ? not touch the ground ?
304
Appendix B.
Note any ceremonies connected with disturbing the earth (by ploughing, digging, sinking a new shaft or a well, opening a quarry, choosing a site or laying the foundation of a
building).
Give names, habits, powers, and attributes, of any subterranean beings. Do they inhabit mines or caves ? How is their presence or existence known ? Are they feared, reverenced, or worshipped in any way ? What is supposed to be the cause of earthquakes ? Are volcanoes the abode of superhuman beings ? Note any traditions or practices connected with them (cf. Mountains, infra).
Earth-goddess
Give names applied to the earth. ? how worshipped ?
Is there
an Earth -god or
Note any legends of the Creation of the Earth, traditions about ancient earthworks.
and give any
Mountains, Hills, and Forests. Note any signs of fear or reverence towards mountains or forests. Are the people afraid to approach or ascend the mountains or traverse the forests ? Always ? or at special times ? Is it customary to leave offerings at special places in the mountains or forests (sticks, stones, flowers, leaves, shreds of dress, or other offerings) ? Note any shrines in the mountains or forests to whom dedicated, by whom resorted to ? when and what for ? Any annual assemblies held on the mountains and hills when, where, and what for ? Are any figures cut on the hillsides ? Are the mountains personified ? spoken of as if living beings ? Give the names of any mountains, etc. Are there special gods of the mountains, hills, or forests ? Are they the abode or the trysting-place of any superhuman beings or of ghosts or witches ? Are there any beliefs or practices connected with echoes ? Are they ever resorted to as oracles ? or for healing purposes ? Give any myths or legends connected with the mountains or forests, or their origin or creation, fabulous height, etc. any connection with the birth of mankind legends of giants or heroes entombed within the mountains, of an invisible axe heard
:
in forests, etc.
Rocks, Stones, Minerals, etc. Note any marks of reverence paid to rocks, boulders, great standing-stones, or stone circles. Record their names and any legends about them or about peculiar marks on them. Are such stones supposed to move ? What would be the consequence of injuring them ? Note any rites practised in connection with any of the above, or with clefts in rocks (healing, marriage, divination, ordeals, chastity
;
Questionary.
tests,
305
Are offerings made to them ? rites to obtain children). with what intent ? Note whether caves are regarded as sacred, used for burial, thought to be inhabited by superhuman beings, supposed to extend for unknown distances, or to give access to the Underworld.
What happened to him ? tried to explore them ? Note whether the principal actor in any rite, or the subject of the rite, stands or sits on a stone. Any stone or a particular one ? Does standing on a particular stone convey a challenge ? Note any practices with regard to Cairns. What do they commemorate ? Is it customary to add a stone when passing a cairn ? Is it an honour or an insult ? Ascertain if stones are believed to grow or multiply. Is magic or curative virtue attributed to special stones ? Are aerolites,
Has anyone
" " holed stones reverenced belemnites, ammonites, or naturally or treasured ? Are stone amulets carried ? stone implements used in ritual ? What precious or semi-precious stones are worn Do they influence health or fortune ? special stones as jewels ? Do they act as oracles or talismans ? What in special ways ? virtues are attributed to minerals (gold, silver, iron, salt), or to
coral,
amber, jet
?
Are they potent against witchcraft,

?
illness,
bad luck
How
are they used
Note any sacred islands, islands used as burialIslands. places, rites performed on uninhabited islands, islands believed to be inhabited by superhuman beings. Give any stories about phantom islands, sunken islands, islands inhabited only by women. Is the Land of the Dead believed
to be an island
?
Note all ritual uses of water Seas, Rivers, Lakes, Springs, etc. (drinking, bathing, purification, lustration of persons or things). Has running Is it thought wrong to take payment for water ? water any special properties ? Running in a particular direction ? Must it be dipped up with or against the stream ? Can ghosts, demons, witches, or criminals cross running water ?
Note any practice of throwing particular objects overboard
when
the water
Is the first fish caught returned to unlucky or forbidden to rescue a drowning " " laid under water ? witches or scolds person ? Are ghosts dipped in it ? dead bodies or their ashes thrown into it ? Stagnant or running water ?
crossing the water.

?
Is it
Note healing wells or springs, wishing wells, holy wells, wells which give children. Is the " life " of a well or spring thought to be an animal, or spirit in animal form, living in it ? Note rites performed (for what purpose ?), small objects or more valu-
306
Appendix B.
?
able offerings left there, apparitions seen there
shrines erected
annual assemblies held ? Is rain-water collected in the hollow of a rock thought to have special properties ? Give the native words for the sea, rivers, lakes, springs, etc., and proper names, if any, of any local rivers, etc. Are seas, lakes, rivers, cataracts, etc., regarded as personages or as places ?
Note any signs ? Are they supposed to be inhabited by any superhuman beings ? Give particulars of their names, forms, and attributes, the occasions of their
appearances, any reverence or worship paid to them ? stories connected with them ? Is there a sea-god ? a river-god ? Give any stories of the origin of the sea, lakes, rivers, etc., the cause of the tides and waves, whirlpools, cataracts, rapids. Why is the sea salt ? Is the sea supposed to have existed before the earth ? What are its relations with the earth ? Give any legends of sunken cities, etc.
H.
are any of them regarded as specially sacred of fear or marks of reverence paid to them.
THE VEGETABLE WORLD,
pp. 31-39.
Fruits,
Note native or dialectal names of Trees, Plants, Herbs, and and identify them by their Latin names when possible. Note Trees, Plants, Herbs, and Fruits, used for food or for:
bidden to be so used, with particulars of the prohibitions poisonmedicinal plants and ous and narcotic plants and their use Is there any sound knowledge of medicinal herbs ? their use. Note trees and plants used to make ordeal drinks, thought potent against lightning, credited with marvellous properties (as of drawing out iron nails, discovering springs, hidden treasure
;
and lodes
rites,
pregnancy)
ore, causing forgetfulness, insanity, invisibility, used in divination or other magical or religious in initiation, marriage, or funeral ceremonies marriage
; ;
;
of
of girls to trees practices of placing afterbirth or corpses in transference of evil to trees or plants. trees Note kinds of wood used for rods, brooms, sticks, whips, amulets,
;
talismans, sacred poles or posts, images, altars, or ritual implements of any kind, or forbidden to be so used practices of rubbing or touching wood, ritually switching girls or cattle, aspersing persons or things with sprinklers made of sprigs or boughs. What plants are used in each case ? Note species of trees or plants forbidden to be cut down or injured, planted or transplanted, taken inside buildings; ceremonies on felling trees kinds of wood used for fuel or forbidden
;
to be so used, with the reasons given by the people themselves individual sacred trees, sacred groves and for the restriction sanctuary trees (how guarded ? what would be the result of
;
Qiiestionary.
injuring them to trees, rags,
?)
;
307
etc.,
ceremonies observed in groves, offerings made hung on them, ceremonies or festivals cele-
brated under or beside them; trees thought to be embodied " " life-index spirits or the abodes of spirits, reputed to be the of any person or community plants fabled to be connected with childbirth, or thought to influence the produce of domestic
;
animals.
Note myths or legends about trees or plants, their origin, stories of haunted trees, forms, marking, or other peculiarities the birth of mankind from trees or plants, the transformation of human beings into trees, the connection of special families, clans, or individuals with special trees (name, reverence, reputed descent,
;
etc.).
See Totemism, p. 308. Obtain photographs or portions of unknown species for identiIII.
fication.
THE ANIMAL WORLD,
pp. 40-46.
(Beasts, Birds, Reptiles, Fishes, Insects.)
Give the native or dialectal names or nicknames of different

species.
Note omens drawn from the sight, movements, or cries of On what occasions ? Note domestic or semi-domesticated animals; whether informed of family events ears and tails cropped, etc. (cf. ch. xiii.). Note use of animals in medicine use of animal amulets (teeth,
animals.
;
;
if for protection animals) or to bring luck ? horns or skulls set up on or inside houses dances or other occasions when men dress as animals (wear horns, fur, or feathers). By whom worn ? Try to get specimens. Note any marvellous powers attributed to certain species of animals, human or superhuman knowledge (e.g. perceiving spirits, weather wisdom, medical knowledge, understanding of human
; ;
fur, claws, horns, feathers, figures of
speech,
etc.).
Why
do certain species migrate

;
Note any
beliefs as to the social
as that they have a king, laws, etc. " in their own
systems of particular species ; that they are human beings
country." Note any persons having power over animals, understanding How acquired ? Over certheir speech, curing their bites, etc. tain species or all ? Note belief in possible transformation into animals, descent of mankind, clans, classes, or families from animals, reincarnation If the animal dies, what happens of departed souls as animals. to the soul ? Note animals used as food forbidden as food ; to everyone or to certain persons or in particular circumstances ? usually
;
308
Appendix B.
avoided but feasted on once a year. Animals forbidden to be killed whenever seen the first seen of the species injured killed killed once a year hunted once a year (wherever found, or in a particular spot ?) ceremonially expelled once a year. Give dates and other particulars of such ceremonies. Note names of animals tabooed offerings made to animals.
;
On what
occasions ? Note signs of awe of animals, as distinct from physical fear. Is laughing at them forbidden ?
Note animal
of animals,
sacrifices (give full details).

;
When
what kind
for what purpose ? slaughtered omens drawn from behaviour of victim previous treatment of victim what is general treatment of species at other times done with each part of the carcase who shares in the sacrifice is it, or is it not, connected with any personal deity ? (cf. ch. vii.). Note animal gods animals associated with particular gods ; animals revered by special social groups, classes, or individuals
; ; ;
how and by whom
Animals kept in (See Totemism below.) temples, used in magical rites, associated with witchcraft. Note any stories ascribing the creation of the earth or of mankind to animals myths of animals bringing fire, babies, souls,
?
men
women
etc.
etc.,
animal characters in
folk-tales,
;
fabulous animals
myths
as to migration of species of certain species.
myths accounting
for peculiarities
Totemism (pp. 41-43).
Give the names of the clans with the English equivalents as far as can be ascertained. If the clans are associated with any species of natural objects, plant, or animal (Totem), give the Give the names of the several generic name equivalent to totem. totems. Are these the same as the names of the clans ? Is the totem, or part of it, used as a badge ? cut or tattooed on the body ? carved or painted on posts or on personal property ? Has the clan more than one totem ? If so, what is the cause, actual or reputed, and what are the relative positions of the several associated totems ? (See Appendix A, Terminology.}
Is marriage or sexual intercourse allowed be(a) Exogamy. tween men and women of the same totem and clan ? If the Do the same latter, under what limitations or restrictions ? rules hold good in the case of persons of different tribes but having the same totem ? What would be the consequence of
offending against the marriage regulations
Do the clan think themselves related to (b) Consanguinity. the totem ? descended from it ? Do they ever speak of it as
Questionary.
309
their grandfather, grandmother, etc. ? Do they claim or endeavour to resemble it, physically or mentally ? Have they any legends about it ? Can they or could their ancestors transform themselves into its shape ? Do their souls migrate into it after death ? is the totem of an individual determined ?
How
or circumstances of parentage (father's or mother's side ?) birth ? Are children subject to the totemic tabus ?
By
What are the mutual relations between (c) Mutual relations. the totem and the clan ? May the clansmen kill or injure their totem ? or eat it ? What happens when the totem is a valuable food-animal ? If a member of a fish totem catches his totem, what does he do ? If a man of another clan should kill the totem, how would the clansmen take it ? Do they lament over a dead totem ? give it honourable burial ? Is the totem animal ever kept hi captivity, fed and petted, addressed by titles of respect ? Has the head man of the clan any special office with regard to the totem ? Does the totem befriend the clan, help them in war or hunting ? Do the clansmen perform rites to increase the supply of the totem ? Do they disguise themselves in the form of the totem in dances ? How do husbands regard their wives' totems ? children their
parents' (not being their own), and vice versa ? Are sex-patrons revered, or have any individuals animal guardians ? How acquired ? What are their relations to the totem ? Enquire into all similar taboos and observances give a full account of all rites, and give concrete examples whenever possible.
;
IV.
(is*
HUMAN
"
:
BEINGS,
pp. 47-63.
Edition
Superstitions Generally.")
Human Life and Death. What is the accepted theory of the Give any stories of the creation of mankind origin of mankind ? as distinct from the rest of the universe. Note whether cannibalism is practised
When
on whom ? friends, enemies, children, adults ? what parts are eaten ? what persons abstain ? Note
;
any trace of human sacrifice. How is the victim disposed of ? is murder regarded ? must it be expiated ? is vengeance taken for it ? by whom ? Is there a distinction between murder within and without the social group, or between murder and is it practised ? with what manslaughter ? Head-hunting object ? if in revenge does it placate the manes of the dead ? what is done with the heads ? Is bloodshed or contact with dead bodies defiling ? what purification is necessary ? Infanticide is it practised ? with what motives and limitations ?
How
310
Appendix B.
Names and Effigies. Note the system of personal nomenclaIs ture ; when the name is given, by whom ? how chosen ? it ever changed ? on what occasions ? Are nicknames usual ? Do people conceal their names ? Have they one secret name and another for use ? May the names of the dead be uttered ? Are words in ordinary use changed to avoid mentioning names of certain persons ; living or dead ? Are women forbidden to pronounce men's names ? or those of certain relatives ? or
relatives
one's portrait taken ? seeing oneself in a mirror ? Give particulars. Note any ideas or observances connected with the shadow.
Is there
by marriage ? Vice versa ? any objection to having
to
Special Innate Powers. Note whether any groups or individuals are credited with inborn occult powers over the elements, witches, disease, the lower animals ; prophetic or visionary powers the power of the Evil Eye. (Has the colour of the eye anything to do with this ?) Are such powers hereditary or personal ? Are any such powers ascribed to kings or priests ? Note all signs of veneration paid to particular persons or offices.
:
persons. Note how lunatics are regarded epitwins, first-born children, others in order of birth ? Detail any ceremonies or beliefs connected with twins. How are abnormal births regarded ? (e.g. with teeth, with a caul, feet foremost, posthumous, etc.). How are personal peculiari-
Abnormal
leptics,
idiots
ties
? dwarfs, albinoes, red-haired, black-haired, beardsquinting, blue-eyed, black-eyed, blear-eyed, one-eyed, blind, deaf, dumb, lame, flat-footed, left-handed, ambidextrous, humpbacked, pockmarked, persons ? Are they lucky or unlucky ? to themselves or others ?
regarded
less,
Outsiders.
garded
Observe how foreigners and strangers are reAre they feared ? despised ? supposed to be wizards ?
?
credited with malformations
or reverenced as possibly super?
human
How
is
Silent a recognized code of gestures or signals ? Is the " Trade known ? How are neighbouring social groups regarded ? Are they mocked at ? nicknamed ? credited with malformations ?
Is there
communication with strangers carried on "
Are there any
local
Gotham
stories
Women. What is women ? Do women

sions
the division of labour between men and bring good or bad luck ? on what occa-
? Are special old, young, married, and unmarried alike ? prophetic or magical powers ascribed to women ? Have the women a language peculiar to themselves ? Note any rites (of
Questionary.
initiation or otherwise) at
311
which women, or men, are forbidden to be present. Do men ever avoid women ? all women ? their wives ? certain relations ? relations by marriage ? On what occasions ? Give particulars of the extent of the avoidance in the several cases (cf. chs. xii. xiii.).
Food. Note whether the men and the women eat together whether persons who eat together acknowledge a common bond " " is thereby secure from whether the stranger at the board Whether any etiquette or order of prefor how long ? injury
;
cedence
is
observed hi eating or drinking
a loving-cup passed
round ? any ceremony performed before eating or drinking ? whether omens are drawn from accidents at table ? Are any
persons or classes of persons forbidden to eat or drink together ? Do any persons eat or drink alone object to be seen eating or drinking ? What is done with the remains of the meals ? Are certain kinds of food or drink, otherwise wholesome, abstained from at certain times, or by certain persons ? What, when, by whom, and for what reason ? (See Totemism, above.) Note whether certain kinds of food or drink, not usually consumed, are partaken Are of at certain times, or by certain persons. Give particulars. any prohibitions or other observances confined to, or intensified in the case of, certain persons (as chiefs, priests, medicine-men,
;
mourners) ? When is fasting resorted to ? and what effect is thought to have ? Should certain things be done or not done, before breaking one's fast ? What is thought to be the consequence of accepting food from fairies, demons, the ghosts of the dead, etc. ?
it
The Human Body. Note reverence paid to the head e.g. forbidding to touch it, to pass over it, swearing by it (one's own head or another's) ; use of skulls, bones, or other human remains, in magic or medicine reverence shown to any other parts of the body any trace of phallic worship. Is passing over another's body or legs prohibited ? is it ever ritually performed ? on what occasions ? What part of the body is regarded as the seat of life ? Are there any beliefs or taboos as to the hands or fingers ? Note magical or ritual use of hair-ropes observances as to cutting the hair or nails what is done with the clippings ? with cast
; ;
; ; ;
amputated limbs, bones accidentally discovered, human excreta ? Are locks of hair, teeth, or impressions of teeth, used to authenticate messages ? Must one avoid spilling blood upon the ground ? Why ? Is there something more impalpable than blood a sort of vapour or essence arising from it which has a power of its own and clings to the spot where anyone has been killed ? How is the blood of sacrificial victims disposed of ? Is
teeth,
312
Appendix B.
blood-letting practised, ritually or medically ? with what ceremonies, on what occasions ? What is the consequence of acci" " dental bloodshed ? Note whether blood-brotherhood is
practised (by transfusion, swallowing, or swearing ?), and what how it affects the relations of privileges or disabilities it confers the parties with each others' kindred or enemies whether bloodfeuds are customary, and how ended give particulars of any Note all uses of saliva in magic, medicine, exorexisting feud. " cism, blessing, bargaining, etc. (must it be fasting spittle ? ") ; any beliefs or sayings about sneezing, yawning, whistling, or
;
kissing ; omens drawn from moles, birth-marks, spots on nails, itching of the nose, right or left ear, hand, foot, etc.
Marks and Mutilations. Note any mutilations practised (circumcision, filing or knocking out teeth, cutting off a finger- joint, boring the ears, nostrils or lips). When are these done ? by whom performed ? with what ceremonies ? for what alleged reason ? what is done with the severed parts (see chap, xii.) ? Note any marks made on the body (tattooing, scarifying), on what parts ? of which sex ? when made, by whom, and why ? Are the patterns tribal or individual ? Give photographs or drawings if possible. Note whether the body is ever painted, daubed with moist earth, whitened, or blackened what parts,
;
what
Note any austerities practised colours, when, and why ? fasting ? self-torture ? (as of the Indian fakirs). By whom and when ? Are they supposed to increase magical power or
sanctity
?
Note what clothing is usually worn what changes Clothing. of costume or hairdressing are made on reaching manhood or whether womanhood, on marriage, parentage, mourning, etc. any article of clothing or personal ornament is never taken off ; whether amulets are worn and for what purpose (cf. chs. ix. whether rings, bracelets, or necklaces are worn for cerex.) whether crowns, wreaths, monial, magical or medicinal purposes girdles, or caps of office are ceremonially worn, when and by whom ? Note any observances, ceremonies, or omens connected
; ; ; ;
with headgear or footgear, with girdles, garters, veils things to be said or done on putting on any article of clothing for the first time omens drawn from accidents in dressing practices of reversing articles of clothing. Are men ever dressed as women or women as men, little boys as girls or girls as boys ? when and why ? Are there any games or festivals at which men and women exchange clothing ? Can men's garments protect women from harm, or women's men ? (In New Guinea a woman can save a wounded warrior by throwing her petticoat over him.)
;
Questionary.
Are men's garments used to facilitate childbirth ? Are there any rites in which nudity is required, or dancing barefoot ?
V.
(ist
THINGS
Edition
MADE BY MAN,
"
:
pp. 64-74.
Superstitions Generally.")
Note how the site of the its Contents. who erects it (the chosen, ceremonies performed owner and his household, friends and neighbours, professional workmen ?) things done on laying the foundation (things buried under it or under the threshold), on raising the ridgepole, covering in the roof, completing the chimney (if any), kindling the first fire on the hearth ceremonies on entering into possession " first foot," fumigations, blessings, talismans, feasts. Does Is a house building a house entail a death ? whose death ? ever pulled down when a death has taken place in it ? If this is customary, how are exceptions made possible ? When pulling
The Dwelling and

is
building
house, must a portion be left standing ? what for ? Note whether any part of the dwelling is considered specially sacred, whether there is anything on which the luck of the dwelling specially depends. How can the luck be taken away ? In which direction should the house be swept and what should the broom be made of ? Is the threshold or the doorway the scene of any cult or ceremony ? is it adorned with boughs or flowers or guarded by amulets ? What parts of the house are assigned to men, women, parents, children, or guests respectively ?
down a
The Hearth.
cult
Observe whether the hearth
or ceremony.
Who
always burning ? What Is it ever purposely extinguished and re-kindled ? when and how ? Is it unlucky to give fire or light ? Always or when ? Are ashes used for divination omens drawn from the way the fire burns ? Is there a household familiar ? is the hearth his abode ? what are his habits ? is food left for him ?
;
is the object of any the hearth-fire ? Is it kept happens if it goes out accidentally ?
tends
The Furniture. What part of the household goods is provided by the husband, and what by the wife ? Is a special place or position assigned to any part of the furniture, e.g. the bed ? Note beliefs, observances, or prohibitions, connected with ladders, staircases, windows, mirrors, lamps, candles, clocks, books, brooms, sieves, shears, cooking vessels, knives, pins, other tools or implements. (The crook or chain on which the pot hangs over the fire is in many countries intimately connected with the most important events of family and domestic life.) Are omens
314
drawn from
or the like
?
Appendix B.
accidents, breakages, misplacing of tools or utensils
Cookery and other Household Work. Note all observances connected with grinding, baking, and cooking x by whom the work is done whether indoors or out-of-doors charms repeated or other precautions taken against witchcraft omens drawn from the progress or appearance of the work. Note use of alco; ;
;
:
holic drinks from what they are made by whom and how observances in drinking. prepared with what precautions, etc. Note days when particular kinds of household work (e.g. washSee Churning, p. 337 Handiing) are forbidden, (cf. p. 340).
;
;
crafts, p. 339.
Manufacture of Magico-religious Objects. Observe what talismans or sacred objects are displayed or magical or other Are the objects figures drawn, in the dwelling or elsewhere. natural or artificial ? How are they obtained ? Who makes them ? How ? Are old or new materials preferred for them ? Is purity of substances used important ? What gives them their mystic power ? What special influence is attributed to them ?
N.B.
treasures
It is impossible to give hints as to inquiry into secret

:
household,
village,
or tribal.
The observer must
keep his eyes and ears open, and only venture a remark or a question on what he sees when he feels sure it will not be resented as a liberty. It may even be years before he succeeds in being taken into confidence. Some such objects, however, are displayed
(How must e.g. the favourite British horseshoe. openly be procured ? Is it hung heels upwards or downwards ?)
;
this
VI.
THE SOUL AND ANOTHER

:
LIFE, pp. 74-89.
Ascertain the words for breath, shadow, reflection (in a mirror Is the word for image or for soul, life, spirit. or in water) If not, carefully distinguish reflection the same as that for soul ?
between them. What is thought to leave a man's body at death ? What becomes of it ? What is it like ? Has a man more than one ? What are they respectively called ? What becomes of them leave his body during life, and return ? after death ? Can )
(
What
1
could hinder
its
return
Have
:
animals,
plants,
other
Inchi Sawal, a noted Guru of Kuching, made a preserve of halfgood deal of religion was ripe oranges for the Ranee of Sarawak mixed up with the cooking of those small bobbing green balls as they simmered in the boiling syrup. A number of invocations to Allah secured a good result to his labours ... a grave religious aspect seemed de rigueur as he leant over the pot." Life in Sarawak,
"A
My
p. 161.
Questionary.
things, also got of scruple to
315
(supply the native word) ? Note any show awaken a sleeping man and enquire into it. what are they ? whence do they come ? Enquire as to dreams who sends them and for what purpose ? What are shadows or reflections supposed to be ? What would happen to a man if his shadow were to leave him ? When the ) leaves a man's body at death, where does it go ? Does it stay there, or go somewhere else after a time ? In what form ? Is it ever seen again ? If possible, be present at a funeral, and from observing, and
:
ascertaining the reasons of, the mode of disposing of the body, whether try to ascertain what is thought to become of the ( ) it is reborn in this world, as animal or human being if it goes to another. Where is that other, and how does the ( get ) there ? Does the completion of the funeral rites affect the character or condition of the dead ? Has anyone ever visited the Land of the Dead ? what were his adventures ? Do the souls ever return from the Land of the Dead ? Are they feared or welcomed ? honoured, feasted ? Periodically ? Is prayer made to them ? sacrifices or offerings given to them ? To the souls Do they take part in domestic or generally or to individuals ? communal events ? share in festivals ? Is the cult of the dead a communal worship, or special to a Society, or confined to the descendants of the deceased ? Are the remote ancestors or the recently dead chiefly venerated ? Do they become the guardian genii of the family ? warn them of coming evil, etc. ? Relate any stories of ghosts, wraiths, double-gangers, apparitions, spectres or spectral appearances (e.g. phantom funerals). Note the reasons why ghosts return, the form in which they " appear, the places they haunt, the method of exorcising or lay" them ing by whom performed ? Are they dangerous to survivors generally, or only to particular persons or in special circumstances ? Are women specially dangerous ? women
;
dying in childbirth, unmarried women ? To whom ? How may ghosts be guarded against ? Is it thought safe to speak to a ghost ? is there anything peculiar in a ghost's mode of speech ? What should be done on seeing one ? Have any individual persons or animals special powers of seeing them ? Is there
any mode
to vanish
of
?
summoning them
Observe
to appear
What will
cause them
Do
belief in re-incarnation
?
and
belief in
occur together
nation.
birth-rites in connection
a Land of the Dead with reincar-
N.B. European ghost-stories often resemble the stories of old pagan deities, and so may have been derived in the first place from that source and not have been originally stories of ghosts.
316
Appendix B.
But it is best to set them down as what they are now accounted to be, and not to attempt to assign each to its origin. Whenever there is a living belief that a certain spectre or apparition of the dead may be seen any day (or night), it should be recorded " as one of belief in another life."
VII.
SUPERHUMAN
(is*
BEINGS,
"
pp. 90-123.
Edition
Goblindom.")
Give the generic term for god or deity, state what deities are recognised and what are their personal names, with the meanings if possible. May their names be spoken ? Have they secret names in addition to the ordinary ones ?
Names.
Form. Note what is their supposed form, human or animal, beautiful or monstrous, male or female ? Are they inanimate objects ? Are there any pairs of gods or goddesses, husband and wife, brother and sister, or twin brethren ?
Abodes.
selves
?
Where do they
live
How
man
?
do they occupy them-
Do
they ever appear to
with
Means of Communication. How can they be communicated ? by signals, actions, sounds, speech, or song ? What persons know how to communicate with them ? Note by what titles they are addressed, and compare these with modes of address used to human beings. How do they make known their wishes,
?
their satisfaction or dissatisfaction
Powers. What are their powers ? Did they or any of them create the earth or mankind ? Do they still exist ? how is their existence known to man ? are they ever seen ? can they be present in several places at once ? Are they kindly or malicious ?
Functions. What are their several functions and spheres of action ? Are they connected with the elements, the heavenly Are they limited to certain bodies, or the forces of nature ? places or persons, groups of persons, particular spheres of nature or of life ? Can they be offended ? if so, by what acts ? Have they any restraining influence on conduct ?
them
How are they worshipped ? Are oaths taken by How ? Are any are they consulted ? enquired of ? gods known but not worshipped ? Are the gods of other nations recognised as real and powerful ?
Worship.
?
Questionary.
317
Prayer. Is prayer offered to the gods ? for what benefits, material or moral ? Is it common or individual prayer ? Are
forms of prayer used, extempore prayer, ejaculations, responses, Are the prayers sung or unintelligible formulas or syllables ?
said
?
are there
any
rites of praise
and thanksgiving
Is sacrifice offered ? Sacrifice. human, animal, firstfruits, portions of food ? How are vegetable or other food-offerings disposed of ? What is the object of the sacrifice ? To whom was it offered ? is it a gift with a view to benefits in return, payment of dues, propitiation of unfriendly beings, communion with the god, fulfilment of vows ? Describe in detail any sacrificial rite witnessed note the scene of the rite, who attended it, what implements were used. Was any preliminary purification
;
necessary
? fasting, bathing, fumigation, brushing, sweeping, What was the victim offered ? how aspersion, or washing ? was it selected, how previously treated, what points were
necessary qualifications ? is the species commonly used for food ? How was it slaughtered ? by whom, with what ceremonies ? was there any altar ? by whom was it made ? of what ? How was the carcase divided and disposed of ? the head, blood, entrails, flesh, and bones ? what was the god's portion, and how was it supposed to be conveyed to him ? What was the priest's portion, and what the worshippers' ? Was prayer offered ? by whom, to what effect ? Give the words if possible. Were libations made ? was incense used or any fragrant smoke ? were omens observed or rites of divination performed ? How ? (see next What was the demeanour of the worshippers ? Note chapter) any other details you observed. Are the creatures used for sacrifice held sacred at other times ? What would be the ordinary consequence of killing and eating one ? Who would enforce the penalty, if any ? Are they sacred to any particular god ? Have they themselves any divine character ? Does any direct benefit accrue to the worshippers from the actual partaking of the sacrifice ? Was the rite in question a definite offering to a personal god (so far as you can ascertain), or was it rather a solemn ritual feast without reference to any special deity ?
.
Priests.
is it
Is there
?
a priesthood
is it
hereditary
if
not,
how
? ?
recruited
what are the necessary qualifications for the office
how is the priest trained, instructed, initiated, consecrated What privileges has he ? to what prohibitions is he subjected
what
purificatory or other rites must he observe ? what are his priestly garments or insignia, his dues or emoluments, his duties What part does he (divination, exorcism, blessing, cursing) ? take in sacrificial rites ? What sacred objects or ritual secrets
318
are
Appendix B.
oaths
committed to his charge ? Does he administer ordeals ? " ? receive and release from vows ? is he subject to posses" sion his god ? by
are held specially sacred ? Are there the site of a temple or shrine ? by whom are they erected or repaired ? What rites are performed in building a temple ? do they differ from those used for an ordinary house ? What is kept in the temple or shrine, or near it ? images, emblems, relics, votive offerings, sacred birds, beasts, or reptiles ?
Temples. temples ?
What places What decides
Are idols known ? what are they made of Idols. makes them ? Is their shape human ? partly or wholly ? makes an image into an idol ? any ceremony ? Is the
the embodiment, or (ii) the abode of the god ? permanent ? or does the idol become the god
?
who What
(i)
idol
occasional or
Are images
credited with powers of consuming food, giving oracles, speaking, nodding, or moving in any way ? are any stories told of such things ? of wonder-working images ? or accounting for the attitudes or characteristics of images ? stories of images being found, falling from heaven, arriving by sea or the like ? What reverence is paid to images or idols ? are they ever beaten or maltreated ? Are they, or other sacred objects, exhibited, carried
in processions
?
pilgrimages
Festivals.
made
when, how often, and for what purpose ? Are Give particulars. to tombs, wells, or shrines ?
What festivals are observed ? with what rites ? ceremonies, water ceremonies, tree and plant ceremonies ? Give full details. Are public fasts, or penitential or rest-days observed ? periodically or on special occasions ? (See chap,
fire
xiv. p. 339.)
"
Dances.
possession
Is
"
dancing a religious exercise

?
is it
connected with
Who
takes part in
?
special companies or secret societies
the dancers masked or disguised ? What does it represent ? What it in detail. (Cf. ch. xv. p. 341.)
performed by Are ? Is the performance dramatic ?

it ? it
Is
on what occasions
it
?
is
the object of
Describe
Mysteries. Are any austerities practised ? fasting, celibacy, " " Are there any mysteries solitude or self-tortures of any kind ? or secret rites of worship ? where are they held ? who may be initiated into them ? State anything that can be ascertained
about them.
Special
and Individual
Cults.
the caste, the clan, the family
Do the several social groups practise special cults apart from
Questionary.
the general community ? What, where, and how ? Is there a Detail the rites. fire-god, a household familiar, or a hearth-cult ? Has each individual his guardian genius or patron saint ? how are these chosen, and how honoured ? To whom or what is
appeal
made
in
moments
of distress or emergency
Deified Men. Are any deceased human beings worshipped or venerated ? (i) Ancestors, (a) the founder of the tribe or family (2) Saints or heroes. (3) Restless (b) the recently deceased. and malicious ghosts. Give particulars of the rites and legends.
;
Demons. What kinds of malignant or hostile demons (not being ghosts) are recognised ? In what forms do they appear ? is their form constant or can they vary it at pleasure ? how do
how are they guarded against or propitiated ? Is ? there any belief in incubi or succubi ? what persons are specially subject to their attacks ? Any belief in demons who cause nightthey act
? demons who devour dead what can be done to banish them ? demons who haunt in what form or forms do they solitary or uncanny places appear, and how must they be treated if encountered ? Can any demons be compelled to the service of men (wizards) ? (Cf. ch. ix.) Do men or women enter the service of demons ? On what terms ?
mares
how can they be caught
bodies
Female Demons. Are there any races of female demons ? what is their origin ? are they beautiful or hideous ? do they wander about, or haunt special places ? are they dangerous ?
how
should they be treated
if
encountered
The Elfin World. Is there any belief in the Elfin World, or in a race or community of anthropomorphic, but not human, yet not divine, beings, generally invisible but sometimes seen ?
terrestrial
is
what were his or her adventures ? What are the appearance and stature of the elves or goblins ? what is their character and disDo they love, position ? are they fond of music and dancing ?
the
way
or subterranean beings ? to their abode known ? has
Where do they
anyone
visited
dwell
it ?
marry, keep house, bear children, as do human beings ? Do they ever love and intermarry with human beings ? what is the consequence of such marriages ? Do they steal human Are they generally on infants, women in childbirth ? beings good terms with mankind ? Do they borrow human implements, or lend them ? have human beings ever rendered them assistance
;
or service
gifts
are they grateful

?
from them
?
occupations
Do
accept food or other are their habits and they avoid special objects, materials or words ?
?
Is it safe to
?
Are they rich
What
320
Appendix B.
have they special names for any objects ? Do they use special implements ? Do they frequent pre-historic grave-mounds or other ancient remains ? Do they hate the dominant religion of
the country ? Have they souls their origin accounted for ?
Spectres.
Is
?
are they mortal
How
is
there
any
belief
in
an ancestral spectre who
appears to give warning of death ? any legend of a vanished hero who is still living and will one day return ? of a spectral huntsman and hounds seen riding through the air ? or of a beautiful female spectre, with or without a train of attendants, wandering about the country ? Are there any stories of spectral
fights,
spectral ships, spectral funerals, spectral lights, or

?
any
other apparitions not already mentioned
OMENS AND DIVINATION,

(ist
pp. 124-133.
Edition
"
:
Magic and Divination.")

sight,
Note
all
omens from the
appearance or movements of
beasts, birds, reptiles, insects, persons, the heavenly bodies, etc., and record them under those several headings.
what occasions Omens are particularly observed, and what purposes public or private, legal, medical, religious or other Divination is resorted to what particular times or seasons are thought especially suitable for divination what colours or numbers are reckoned lucky or unlucky ? Is the first occurrence of any act or event specially ominous ? By whom are rites of Divination performed ? by the persons interested, by priests or others connected with the religious system of the community, by specially-gifted seers, or by professional experts ? Are they performed publicly or secretly ?
State on
for
; ;
reckoned holy or unholy ? What methods are used and what implements ? Describe them if possible minutely. Are there rules of augury, or are the methods automatic ? Is any form of words used ? If so, try to obtain it. Does the same diviner use several methods, or does each man confine himself to one only ? (See list of methods,
P- I33-)
Are any Oracles consulted nection with what Powers or

IX.
if so,
with what
?
rites
and
in con-
what worship
THE MAGIC ART,

Witchcraft,
pp. 134-151.
(Sorcery,
and Charming.)
Give the generic names for wizard, witch, charmer, etc. Mention any famous individuals you can hear of. Is the wizard a public
Questionary.
321
functionary or an independent practitioner individually resorted Is he rewarded to ? on what occasions and for what purposes ? or ill-treated according to his success or failure ? Does he work for good or for evil or for both ? if for evil, is the desorcheleur (Channel Islands) or charmer resorted to, to counteract his doings ? Are the sorcheleur and desorcheleur distinct personages or not ? are they male or female or of both sexes ? How does a man or woman become a wizard (sorcerer, witch, or charmer) ? by inheritance, austerities, initiation, instruction, transmission ? Is there any connection between magical and political power ? What are the powers of the wizards ? Are they general, or Do limited to particular spheres, as the weather, or disease ? the wizards prophesy, divine, exorcise, work evil, or counteract evil ? Can they transform themselves ? into what shapes ? Can they become invisible, transport themselves through the air, travel long distances in a moment of time, control the weather, Have they compelling power raise storms, cause earthquakes ? over spirits and demons, over diseases ? Have they familiars, in animal form or otherwise ? what animals are associated with them ? Do they abduct men's souls, cause insanity, transform men into beasts ? Do they avenge injuries or affronts offered them, cause illness (especially in children), check the bodily powers and functions, injure domestic animals, steal the milk of cattle ? Is their power constant or intermittent ? do they " " or craft act individually or in concert ? do they form a hold secret assemblies, meetings with demons ? Do fraternity, they belong to the community or tribe ? If not, are they members of some more or less inferior and outcast body (like the Gypsies). Are the wizards of any particular district or people supposed to be specially powerful ? Does the sorcerer believe in his own sorcery ? How are witches recognized ? By what ordeals are they tested ? How are they treated when discovered ?
Magical Rites. Note what, when, where, how, and what for in each case. Was the rite described public or secret ? what was Note the dress and apparatus of the its object or purpose ?
feathers, wizard, or principal performer, and his assistants claws, amulets, etc., rod, staff, drum, bell, rattle; broom, the preparations for the rite whether sieve, shears, cauldron, etc.
; ;
;
ceremonial purity is insisted on and in what it consists purifying ceremonies, taking omens, fumigations, drawing the magic the circle, etc., precautions taken for the safety of the wizard the use actions of the wizard (as symbolic tying of knots, etc.) " of gestures (e.g. dancing) horns," protective gestures, as the the use of sounds, singing, muttering, ventrilothe cross, etc. the use of names, words, quism, mechanical and musical sounds
; ; ; ;
;
322
and formulas (obtain
;
Appendix B.
;
all these if possible) the materials used, as iron, salt, blood, parts of human bodies, animal or vegetable matter, fire the colours, numbers, and odours used. What would be the result to the wizard of any mistake in the ritual ? Were spirits supposed to be raised or not ? was their assistance pro-
? were they banished ? was any person or thing exorcised ? Record any instances of the leading forms of magic arts such as tying and loosening knots, making and injuring figures and representations of persons to be injured sticking pins or
cured
thorns into any object boiling iron nails with animals' hearts, etc. causing or removing sickness or plagues of vermin by " incantations medicining," or charming, natural objects to convey hurt or help to those who touch them magically treating human hair, nail-clippings, remains of food, to affect the owner sympathetically. Make every effort to obtain the words of magical formulas, whether spells or charms. What is supposed to be the effect of counting ? Record magical practices for killing or injuring enemies, blighting crops, injuring domestic animals, injuring other peoples' property practices used by thieves, e.g. to make themselves invisible, to cause others to sleep, to distract their attention examples of talismans carried, or magical ceremonies or actions used in ordinary life, to bring luck e.g. to bring prosperity generally, to bring luck in games or sports, success in journeys or business enterprises, to gain customers, to obtain the favour of the great, to win the affections of the other sex, to preserve beauty, chastity, conjugal fidelity. Is expert aid required in such cases ?
;
Record examples of ceremonies, actions, gestures, formulas, or amulets used to avert evil e.g. to protect houses, animals, crops,
;
other property, from witchcraft, fire, the elements, or any accident to protect travellers, women in pregnancy or childbirth, infants and young children, from accidents, enemies, or superhuman beings movable property from theft ; roads, boats, Is expert aid required ? bridges, etc., from accident or injury.
; ;
Amulets. talismans ?
Note what natural objects are worn as amulets or Are they animal, vegetable or mineral ? Are they
whole objects or parts of larger ones (shells, teeth, claws, seeds, Do they owe their virtue to their rarity, shape, colour, etc.). or what ? Are holed stones worn ? bezoar stones ? stones or substances found in the bodies of animals ? precious or semibeads, etc., made of coral, amber, jet. precious stones or gems
;
crystal, mother-of-pearl
are they
What artificial objects are worn, what of ? what do they represent ? From whom are the amulets obtained ? must they be given by persons of the opposite sex ? may they be purchased ?
?
made
Questionary.
Is the virtue of the
it
323
amulets innate ? or how is it imparted ? ? and how renewed ? Is there a special virtue in things stolen ? or found accidentally ? is there any virtue in special ornamental patterns ? With what object are the talismans or amulets worn for protection, cure, or luck ? How are they worn, openly or concealed ? Do they change their
How may
be
lost
appearance to give warning of evil ? Are written charms worn ? on what are they written ? are they kept in cases ? are they worn openly or secretly ? are the words kept secret ? are they taken from books ? are regular charm-books in use, either published ones, or manuscript compilations, such as, perhaps, have been handed down from one wizard to another ? Are protective figures (e.g. the cross, swastika, pentacle, magic square, open hand, etc.) drawn on walls, doors, lintels, etc., or otherwise used ?
X.
DISEASE AND LEECHCRAFT,
pp. 152-158.
thought caused ? by breach of taboo, by an offended deity, displeasure of the dead, by demon or evil spirit inside or outside the body, absence Is of the sufferer's soul, sorcery (cf. pp. 77, 145) or other causes ? any disease regarded as a mark of divine favour ? How are insanity and idiotcy regarded ? is any attempt made to cure them ? Is death ever supposed to occur from natural causes ? If the cause of the disease be doubtful, what steps are taken to ascertain it ? is a professional diviner called in ? if so, does he also treat the disease ?
to afflict victims
Nature and Cause of Disease.
by
its
own
volition
Is disease personified, If not, how is it ?
The Leech. What persons have power over disease ? how are their powers acquired ? by inheritance by circumstances " " left or surviving twin, England) of birth (e.g. a seventh son, a by voluntary action (e.g. riding a piebald horse, marrying one of the same name, England eating eagle's flesh, North Wales having a certain kind of caterpillar die in your hand, Hebrides) by transference or bequest, by possession of talismans, by profesWhat are the limisional skill, either in exorcism or medicine ? tations of their powers ? over certain diseases only, at certain times only, over patients of one sex only ? May they take payment ?
; ;
Methods of the Leech. Describe the proceedings of the diviner or medicine-man in detail (cf. pp. 153, 154). Has he an assistant ? does he require a fee, does he use ordinary household tools or
implements kept specially for the purpose ? Are the whole household or family treated as well as the patient ?
324
Appendix B.
Describe any cures by (a) exorcism, or by musical or Cures. other sounds, (b) by transference of the disease to some other body, animate or inanimate, (c) mock-birth (creeping through holes, clefts in rocks, etc.), mock-burial and resurrection, change " of name, etc. salving the weapon any cures by sympathy ; and not the wound," or bringing the affected part into contact with some decaying, dying, or dead substance cures by sacrifice to, or invocation of, gods or saints, application of sacred relics cures to the part affected, visits to sacred shrines or holy wells or by by charms, spoken or written (is secrecy enjoined ?) amulets or rings (see p. 149 how are they made and procured ?) cures by administration of drugs, is any formula repeated over " them ? do they involve the principle that like cures like," or otherwise ?
;
;
Materia
Medica.
What
plants are used in folk-medicine
what
their appearance, and have they any real medicinal What animal or mineral substances are used ? qualities ? are the materia medica procured ? with what ceremonies, and at
is
How
?
what times and seasons
Should they be stolen
How
are the
drugs administered, when,
how
often
Is fasting prescribed
Other Conditions. Note the use of colours and numbers in the influence attributed to the sun, moon, stars, folk-medicine the influence attrirainbow, tide, season of year, on disease buted to the sex, status, or person, of patient or doctor e.g. are different drugs administered to men and women ? may medical knowledge be communicated by men to men, or women to women ? Are salves, unguents, plasters, poultices, baths, blood-letting, cauteries, in use ? is painting or tattooing the body, piercing the ears, etc., considered prophylactic ? What remedies may be administered without professional aid ? Note any signs of observation, experiment, reasoning from evidence, in medical
;
Are any restrictions placed on diet during illness or practice. Are any rites of purification after recovery ? other restrictions ? observed on recovery from illness ? Are the sick waited on,
avoided placed in special houses, or allowed to remain at home ? How are the aged or incurable treated ? if abandoned, are any special ceremonies performed ? (cf. ch. xii.).
visited, or
;
XI.
SOCIAL
AND POLITICAL
Edition
"
:
INSTITUTIONS,
pp. 161-192.
(ist
Local Customs.")
Begin by making a rough plan of the village or settlement, showing every dwelling, and ascertain to what clan (etc.) each householder belongs (and what totems he owns). Later, you
Questionary.
325
can identify the individual householders and proceed by the

genealogical
method
(see p. 168).
Ascertain into what social groups the people Social groups. are divided. Give the generic and proper names of each group with the meanings if possible. Ascertain what is the mutual tie that holds each group together a common name ? (supposed) common descent ? reverence for a (supposed) common ancestor or other object of worship ? residence in a common locality ? or ties of blood genealogically proven ? Note whether the groups are totemic, that is to say, are they associated with some species of animal, plant, or other natural object ? (See Totemism, pp. 41-43.) Note whether the several groups have special functions to perform for the welfare of the community ; whether they practise
;
and crafts if so, do they keep their methods secret ? Are the groups recruited by adoption ? if so, who may be adopted, when, and by whom ? Is a lengthened term of residence necessary, and a formal ceremony ? or does intermarriage suffice to give the stranger rights in the group ?
special arts
;
is practised, domestic or comare the ranks of the slaves recruited (as by capture in war, by inability to pay debts, by purchase) ? What is the status of the children of a freeman, or freewoman, and a slave ? Have the slaves any special duties to perform in public functions, Are slaves owned by any especially in magico-religious rites ? superhuman powers or by temples ?
Slavery.
Note whether slavery
munal.
How
Marriage System. Is group-marriage known ? (See Terminology, p. 297) ; or, on the contrary, is marriage permitted only Is the marriage system to one member of each group (rare) ? one of endogamy or exogamy, with regard to (a) the caste, (b) the If exogamy rules, clan, (c) the family, (d) the village or district. are certain groups allotted to each other, or is choice free ? Is
polygyny (many must a woman's husbands or a man's wives belong to one particular group or family, or are they selected promiscuously ? If polygyny Does the husband rules, do the wives live separately or together ? take up his abode with each in turn ? Are they regarded as of
polygamy customary,
wives), or polyandry
if so, in what form ? (many husbands) ? In
this case,
how is the principal wife chosen or disthe position of the supplementary wives and of their children ? Are concubines recognized ? and may the women correspondingly have cicisbei 1 or do they in fact, though not openly ? Note any prohibited degrees of marriage, any relations-in-law (or blood-relations) with whom intercourse
equal status tinguished ?
?
If not,
is
What
is
forbidden, or towards
whom any
sort of reserve
is
practised.
326
Appendix B.
Give particulars. Are any marriages compulsory or recommended ? such as with a brother's widow (called the Levirate), " or between cross-cousins." Is a woman obliged to marry into a rank above her own (hypergamy) ? If certain matches are " reckoned the best," does the bride-price or the dowry differ from that paid in other cases ? State whether (i) the husband leaves his own social group, temporarily or permanently, to reside with that of his wife, or
vice versa
?
Note whether (2) descent is reckoned in the male or female line, or in both whether children belong to their mother's social or
;
group or their father's. Note whether (3) the authority over the family or kindred is exercised by the father, or eldest male member by the mother, her brother or maternal uncle, or her relations generally.
local
;
special duties or privileges belong to collateral relatives ? the mother's brother, father's sister, sister's son, or brother's daughter) What is the position of widows ? Do they belong to the deceased husband's group, or return to their own ? may they re-marry ? if they may, is it by different ceremony, and how does the ceremony differ from that of a first marriage ? what becomes of their dowry ? of their children by either husband ?
(e.g.
.
What
Property and Inheritance. Note what kinds of property who inherits a belong to the men, and what to the women woman's property, and who a man's whether individuals can if the children inherit, whether leave their goods as they please they take equal shares, or whether the firstborn or lastborn has whether sons and daughters share alike whether special claims the family property is divided on the death of the head, or held in common. Give details of the rules of inheritance as far as
; ; ; ; ;
possible.
Land.
To whom does
the land belong
to the tribe, to the
community, to the family, or to individuals ? How is the right to occupation determined ? and what is the consequence of ceasing to occupy or cultivate ? Does ownership of the land also carry with it ownership of the crops (e.g. fruit-trees), and Can a man or a community part with land ? Where vice versa ? a supreme chief exists, note what are the respective rights of the chief and of the people in the land, cultivated and uncultivated (cf. A.N.&Q.p. 1 68).
N.B.
is
(A right understanding of the native laws of property of the first importance in countries where white men govern or have settled among coloured races.)
Questionary.
327
Note how contracts are made and enforced, beContracts. tween master and servant, owner and tenant, buyer and seller what pledges are given, and what penalties exacted for a breach
;
of agreement, etc.
(cf.
ch. xii. p. 193).
Authority. Ascertain who is responsible for the maintenance of law and order who takes cognizance of breaches of law and custom who decides questions of (e.g.) war and peace, of holding assemblies or other public functions. Note whether there is any assembly of elders or of the whole community, how summoned and constituted when does it meet, and where, with what ceremonies ? Must its decisions be unanimous ? how are they enforced ? is there a separate organization for war and
; ; ;
peace
Law and Justice. Ascertain what offences are major, and what minor crimes ? Which are offences against the individual and which against the community ? What punishments are inflicted in each case ? Is murder a matter for private revenge, or a
question for public justice
?
If so, is
the lex talionis, blood for
blood, enforced, or is a fine (blod wife) imposed ? Who sees to the enforcement of the penalty ? What is the judicial procedure ? the ceremonial of a court of justice ? are oaths taken (by what ?), ordeals submitted to, oracles consulted ? Give details. How is the verdict arrived at and how is the judgment enforced ?
Sanctuary. What places or persons have the right of sanctuary ? churches, temples, shrines, desert spots, stables, women or women's apartments, guests ? All such, or individuals only ? Does the refuge protect against the law or only against private
foes?
Kings and Chiefs. Ascertain what are the powers and duties of the chief or king, and how his political powers are limited whether he is expected to control the weather, held responsible for any failure in the crops, or other public misfortune, supposed to possess special powers of healing or of divination. Does he officiate in the public magico-religious rites ? Is the chief's office Observe with what hereditary ? if not, how is he chosen ? ceremonies he is installed in his office what are the insignia of his office have the insignia any special powers ? What physical disabilities disqualify a man from being king ? Is the king or chief subject to any special prohibitions ? State them. Who would be injured by any breach of them ? the king, the offender (who saw him eat, partook of his food, etc.), or the commonwealth ? Does the king reign for life or only for
;
; ;
328
a fixed term
?
Appendix B.
Is
he got rid of at the end of the term, or when his

?
physical powers
fail
if so,
how
Is there a bachelors' house ? does it serve as Societies (p. 183). a guest-house ? is it the scene of any special rites ? is it the resort of all the men of the community or of certain societies only ? Have the societies (if any) any other rendezvous ? Who may belong to these societies ? what is their object or purpose ? do they include different grades or ranks ? Is membership voluntary ? Are they secret as regards the members (i.e. is it known who belongs to them ?) or only as regards the proceedings at the meetings ? are the performances public ? Are they connected with the ghosts of the dead ?
What is the code of manners are observed in greeting equals, saluting, or receiving superiors or inferiors, giving and receiving presents, method of conducting interviews, duration of interviews. What are the local rules of hospitality ? does it include lending of wife (or other woman) ? Is the person of a guest sacred ? for how long ? how long is hospitality incumbent on the host ? What rules are observed in the sending of messages from one tribe to another ? in the reception of embassies ? What ceremonies are observed on setting out on a journey ? on arriving in a strange country or district ? on leaving it ? on
Social Life,
?
Regulation
of.
practised
and what
rules
returning home ? What ceremonies are observed in buying and selling ? making known the goods offered ? the price asked or offered, the conclusion of the bargain, the receipt of the payment, taking possession of the property, etc. (See ante, Contracts, p. 327, and ch. xiii. 335~337 * or ceremonial of travel.) PP-
The
Village
Community
in
England
(p.
iSS).
Ascertain the position of the ancient " the common pastures (" Dolemoors,"
like),
Common Lammas
Fields (arable)
lands,"
and their situation with regard to the village. course of old roads, lanes, and paths ; the relative positions of the sites of the mill and the the church and the manor-house of houses known as the Lodge, the Park, the Grange, smithy names of fields indicating obsolete crops or the Dairy House and or customs e.g. the Hempbutt, the Herdsman's Croft any other points discoverable from old maps or Enclosure Acts. Enquire for Manor Court Rolls and Churchwardens' Accounts, and note anything that may help to reconstitute the obsolete
; ; ;
;
and the Note the
local
social
system
services
and payments due
when due
Questionary.
heriots, privileges of the lord of the
329
ecclesiastical rights
manor,
; keyhold tenure," common-rights, hearth-rights, privileges confined to one part of the village or township, local rivalries, traditions of old local contests. Village officers, how
Note any peculiar tenures, rose-rents, etc. peculiar customs of inheritance, borough English, dower rights of annual entry into enclosed ground (when, and for what "
and
dues,
and the
like.
purpose)
chosen,
how
paid
their duties.
The pound, the

;
stocks, the
village green, tree, or well ; the courthouse or other meeting the name and position of place of the court, indoor or outdoor the village inn. Local weights and measures (these varied sur-
Fairs or markets, past or present; when held, how opened, any special laws or privileges during the fair. Kind of business transacted, hiring servants, ceremonies and terms of contract. The dedication of the church (is it the original dedication ?). Annual feast or wake any special ceremonies (choice of a Mock Mayor, etc.), games, performances, or festival viands. (See How to Write the History of a Parish, by Dr. J. C. Cox. London Geo. Allen & Sons, 1909.)
prisingly).
;
XII.
RITES OF INDIVIDUAL LIFE,

(ist
pp. 193-219.
Edition
"
:
Ceremonial Customs."}
;
what practices are Birth. sterility is regarded Describe what a woman should resorted to to obtain children. do when she finds that she is pregnant, what precautions or prohibitions she must observe during pregnancy, what her husband must observe, what methods are practised for divining the sex of the unborn child, and what is done to procure an easy in a dwelling Note where the birth takes place delivery. specially provided, at the woman's own dwelling, at her mother's, or where ? Who acts as midwife, is this the duty of any parWhat is done with the after-birth, 'with the ticular relative ? umbilical cord ? has any special person the charge of the latter ?
Note how
;
about birth with a caul, what is done with the done in the case of birth of twins, deformed infants, infants born feet foremost, or other abnormal births ? Give the reasons assigned. Note restrictions, prohibitions, length of separation or seclusion of the mother. Does the father submit to a period of seclusion or restriction ? Give particulars. Describe supernatural dangers to which mother and infant are exposed things done to protect them from witchcraft or other evils, rites or ceremonies performed or submitted to before resuming ordinary life, things done to promote or check the flow of milk ceremonies at weaning.
Note any
caul
?
belief
What
is
330
What
Appendix B.
?
Are omens drawn from the time or circumstances of birth

is
the first food given to the child, by whom is it given ? How is the child received or treated when first taken abroad ? is any public exhibition made of it to the community, or to the sun and moon ? Note any beliefs connected with the cradle, and enquire for
cradle-songs
and
lullabies
(cf.
chs. xv., xvii.).
Describe the ceremony of naming the child. When does it take place, how is the name selected, by whom given ? Do the parents change their names on the birth of the first child (cf. Is the name-giving accompanied by any other rite ? p. 310) ? Is there any rite, unconnected with purification ? circumcision ?
naming, performed for a young child, boy or girl ? any ceremonies connected with the first tooth, first hair-cutting, etc. ? What amulets or talismans are worn by children ? To what How long do prohibitions or restrictions are they subjected ? they last ? till weaning, end of first year, change of teeth, or when ? What is done with the cast milk-teeth ? Is there any difference in the rites observed for boys and girls, for the firstborn infant and succeeding children ? Are children preferred or required as priests or priestesses ? or to perform any special rites, and if so, on what occasions ? or to do any act which would be injurious if done by an adult
who may have violated some prohibition ? What becomes of women who die in childbirth, or children who die in infancy ? How are their corpses disposed of ?
Adoption.
Is this
what change
confer
?
of status
Who may
What
?
customary ? when ? with what ceremonies ? do they convey ? what rights do they adopt and who may be adopted ?
Initiation.
compulsory
society ? ordeals,
is the customary age of initiation ? is it does it admit the candidate to clan, tribe, or Describe the rites, especially noting (i) endurance
instructions in conduct, belief, and morality, (3) representations, (4) communication of secrets, (5) physical operations, (6) subsequent restrictions or privileges. Describe any special dances, and compare with death-dances. are Note any ceremonies representing death and resurrection they connected with the initiation rites ? are women and the uninitiated made to believe that the candidates are put to death and raised to life again ? does the candidate receive a new name ? does he afterwards affect forgetfulness of his former life ? Is initiation repeated on admission to successive social grades or " " (cf. ch. xi., Societies}. age-classes Are girls secluded on arriving at womanhood ? Where, for
(2)
dramatic
Questionary
how
long,
331
and under whose charge ? What ceremonies do they ? To what prohibitions and restrictions are they subjected ? are these repeated periodically ? Do they undergo any further rites, physical or other, previous to marriage ? Are " " school under superintendence, and inthey collected in a
go through
structed in
womanly
duties
Marriage. Note any love-charms or love-divinations in use. Ascertain the customary age for marriage, what liberty of choice is permitted to the parties, whether infant betrothal is customary, (if so, at what age the marriage is consummated), what relatives have the right of disposing of the hand of a girl, of a boy who makes the first overtures, how, and to whom ? Is there any ceremony of betrothal ? of what does it consist ? what rights does it confer ? Is pre-nuptial chastity desired ? is proof of it required ? does the validity of the marriage depend on it ? What special duties in connection with the marriage devolve upon the father and mother or the several paternal and maternal relatives of the bride and bridegroom respectively ? Is there more than one form of marriage ? if so, what is the status of the wife (or husband) in each ? Is a bride-price paid, or a bridegroom-price ? (how much ? what does it consist of ? who finds it and who receives it ?) Does the bride receive a
;
dowry
(ibid.).
Is there a special season for marriages ? What are auspicious days for it ? what omens are observed in connection with it ?
Note the preparations for marriage. What ceremonies, purificatory or other, do the bride and bridegroom undergo ? what precautions are taken to ensure good luck or avert evil, what before, during, and after prohibitions are either subjected to the marriage ceremonies ? what presents do they exchange ? what special garments does either wear ? Is the bride veiled ? Is the bride or the bridegroom required to satisfy any test or to perform any feat ? Does the bride go to the bridegroom's home or he to hers ? Do they remove at once or after an interval ? Is the first removal temporary only ? Is any opposition offered to the entrance of
;
the bridegroom or the departure of the bride ? Is she hidden or disguised ? How does she behave ? What companions accompany them ? What does she take with her ? How are the pair conveyed ? Describe all the ceremonies connected with the change of domicile both at the departure and subsequent Is the marriage consummated at once, or after what reception
delay
?
Where
What
is the bridal feast held ? Is there more than one guests are present ? what special viands are provided
?
?
332
what
Appendix B.
special songs, dances, or
games are performed ? Does the the priest, or medicine-man take a leading part in the rites ? Give all the ceremonies in order of time, and state which is the essential part of the rite, which makes the marriage binding. In the case of matrilocal marriage record all the details with special care, and state whether there is any mock-fight or ceremonial change of domicile. Note what is the subsequent status of the
chief,
husband
(see p. 209).
What changes of costume or of hair-dressing do men or women make on marriage, or on widowhood ? What marriage-tokens
are
worn
are the bride's relations with her husband's mother, father, brothers, sisters, or other relations ? what are the bridegroom's with hers ? If prohibitions occur, give particulars, and
What
long they last and how they may be removed. customary to repeat the marriage ceremony after the birth of a child ? Are conditional, temporary, or irregular marriages entered upon ? on what terms and with what rites ? Remarriage of widows, see p. 326.
say
how
Is it
Divorce.
What causes are held to justify divorce or separation
one party only ? or of either ? Is the consent of any other persons needed ? With what ceremonies
Is divorce at the will of
What are the consequences of divorce, (a) to the effected ? parties themselves (how soon can they re-marry ?), (b) to the children, (c) to the bride-price ?
is it
What events give warning of death death is imminent how is the sick man treated ? is he abandoned, buried alive, or put to death ? is he removed from the house or bed ? is anything done to ease
Death
ch.
(cf.
chs. vi., x.).
(cf.
viii.) ?
When
or expedite the departure of the soul ? Ascertain what is the first thing to be done after a death. Are deaths formally announced ? how, by whom, and to whom ? To what is death attributed ? Are any steps taken to find out the cause ? or (if attributed to witchcraft) the author ? Is there any idea of death from natural causes ? How is the corpse prepared for the funeral ? washed ? (what is done with the water ?), clothed, adorned, bound, mutilated, embalmed ? in what position ? Is food offered to it ? is it watched ? Does it sit or lie in state ? how long, and with what ceremonies ? How is the corpse disposed of ? How is the body disposed of ? by interment (temporary or permanent ? in extended or contracted position ? describe cremation (where ? detail the ceremonial position in detail) who lights the fire, by what method, with what fuel, how are the
; ;
Qtiestionary.
ashes disposed of immersion (where
?)
333
;
exposure (on what and for how long ?) preservation (by desiccation, or other means ? detail them. What parts are preserved, how adorned or painted, where kept, for what purpose and for how long ?) If more than one mode of disposal is in use what determines the choice in each case ? sex, status, mode of death ? State the exact relationship to the dead man of gravediggers and others who perform specific functions in connection with the death. Note all observances or prohibitions with regard to
?)
;
fire,
water,
salt, food,
and cookery.
:
Lamentations and dirges are these formal ? by hired mourners ? extempore or in a set formula ? Give the words. When do they begin and how often are they repeated ? How long a time elapses between the death and funeral ? What is the usual hour for funerals ? Is there a preliminary feast ? who is invited, or comes ? Is the deceased supposed to partake of it ? Is a portion given to the domestic or semi-domestic animals, or doles to the poor ? Must the guests touch the dead ? Are coffins used ? How is the corpse taken out ? feet foremost ? by what exit ? Note any precautions taken on the threshold. May the house door be shut ? What route is taken to the grave ? any beliefs about it ? Does the corpse show any reluctance to go ? The grave what are its locality, shape, position, orientation ? its furniture food, drink, wives, dependants effigies of above tools, weapons, ornaments, children's toys ? whole or property broken ? Are the objects used in the funeral rites destroyed at the grave-side ? any other property destroyed ? What is the tenor of the farewells at the grave ? How soon is the soul supposed to be at rest ? Is the burial permanent ? or is the corpse
:
afterwards exhumed and re-interred ? In this case, are any bones retained by the relatives ? Which bones ? and what for ? If cremation is practised, how are the ashes disposed of ? where, and with what ceremonies ? What is done in the case of suicides, women dying in childbirth,
uninitiated persons, slaves, criminals, persons dying by lightning " " or other visitation of God," or evil death." Note any ceremonies performed or undergone by the attendants at a funeral on their return. What special duties are incumbent on particular relatives in
worn
? what signs of mourning are used or do they differ according to degree of relationship ? How long are they continued ? what prohibitions does a state of mourning involve ? State exactly whose duty it is to remove the signs of mourning. Is this done publicly ? with any special ceremony or feast ?
connection with a death

?
334
Is there a
Appendix B.
second or third funeral feast
?
after
what
intervals
provides and who partakes of them ? Are any games, Describe them. Do they dances, dramatic performances, held ? make any difference to the state of the soul of the deceased ? Where is the soul supposed to be between death and the comIs there any attempt to drive pletion of the funeral rites ? away the soul, or to retain it ? is any receptacle provided for it (image, tablet, etc.) ? In the case of death away from home, is anything done to recall the soul ? is a cenotaph erected for it ? Is any memorial (stone, cairn, etc.) set up to the deceased ? if Are tombs cared for or neglected ? Compare so, describe it. the beliefs as to another life with the funeral rites (pp. 75-89).
XIII.
Who
OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES,
pp. 220-235.
War.
;
sacrifices offered, war-dance performed, omens separation of the sexes enforced, weapons blessed or " medicined Are magical formulas engraved on sword? Do the warriors take any means to make themblades, etc. ? selves invulnerable, invisible ? do they carry amulets, talismans ? Is any sacred object carried by the army to the battlefield ? Note whether the warriors are subject to any prohibitions previously or while on the war-path. Are they accompanied by with what object ? Are their wives priests or medicine-men subject to any prohibitions during their absence, or are any particular actions enjoined on them ? Note how the bodies of slaughtered enemies are treated, and what trophies the victors bring back is head-hunting practised, with what object ? Must the warriors observe any particular rites or prohibitions on their return ? How is peace settled ? is there any ceremony of declaring a peace or truce ?
;
sation how war of attack given ? are made for war
Ascertain whether there is any definite military organiis declared are enemies surprised, or is notice Note what preparations, positive or negative,
;
taken, "
Hunting. Ascertain whether there is a class of professional hunters what days or times are thought auspicious for hunting what are the preliminaries of a hunting expedition what previous preparation do the hunters undergo, and with what object ? (to give skill, ensure safety, procure success ?) what amulets, if
;
;
any, are carried ? To what prohibitions are they subjected, as to diet, actions, relations with women, etc. Are the traps, or " is any medicined," or treated in any way weapons, charmed, sort of personality attributed to them ? How are the dogs treated, are they also charmed, etc. ? are they rewarded with a portion of the game ? Note whether anything is done before
;
Questionary.
;
335
dances or masquerades, the party starts to attract the game Are pantomimic representasacrifices offered or charms recited ? Give full tions of the catching and killing of the game enacted ? particulars of the rites. Note any acts or conduct prescribed or whether any forbidden to women and others left at home words or names are prohibited while out hunting whether any ceremony is observed after killing the game. How is it divided ? who has a right to share in it, and to receive what portions ?
; ;
Are any parts
(horns, teeth, claws, whiskers, etc., etc.) preserved Is there any as amulets or talismans, or simply as trophies ? ceremony in eating game, particularly the first of the season ? are the bones treated ? What is done to a new hand the
How
first
time of going out hunting
Fishing, Fishermen, and Sailors. Note whether there is a professional class of fishermen, whether their occupation is hereditary, whether they intermarry with other classes or trades, whether they live in a separate district or area, whether they have any special festival or religious patron apart from the rest
of the population.
;
What
?
part do the
men
take in the industry,

;
and what the women
Note rites performed to attract the fish lucky or unlucky omens observed on going fishing anyacts prething done to bring luck and anything forbidden
;
scribed or forbidden to the women in their husbands' absence ceremonies practised in launching boats, especially new boats articles taken in the boat to bring luck, and articles prohibited words or names which must not be spoken at sea. Must silence be observed while letting down or hauling in the nets ? Note charms repeated or anything said or done to obtain a good haul what is done with the first fish taken any fish returned to the kinds of fish or other objects which water (particular kinds ?) kinds of fish which may not it is unlucky to find in the haul be eaten what is done with the bones, blood, entrails and eyes of the fish eaten anything said or done on salting, smoking, Is there any annual ceremony of blessing selling, or buying fish. the sea ? any ceremony in eating the first fish of the season caught ? How are the bones treated or disposed of ? Describe rites of building or launching boats. Is their ulti; ;
mate
from accidents during building or launching ? names ? how bestowed ? Are eyes painted on them ? Why ? Are they personified, supposed to have What special characters, to be individually lucky or unlucky ? amulets are carried on board ? Note any peculiarity about the shape or material of the vessel or fishing-rod, the make of the net or fish-hook, etc., which brings luck or the reverse any days specially lucky or unlucky for putting to sea.
fate foretold
Have they
personal
336
Is labour,
Appendix B.
accompanied by songs
such as rowing, weighing anchor, hauling on ropes, ? traditional or improvised ? sung in chorus or as a solo with a chorus burden ? Note what is done to a new hand on joining the vessel, on first seeing open sea, first going up the rigging, first crossing the Are sailors tattooed ? are the patterns original or Line, etc. ? copied from each other ? have they any significance ? does each man choose his own pattern or is some special pattern
allotted to
him by
right
Are any talismans carried to prevent wreck or drowning ? Are any spots haunted by mermen or mermaids ? do they drag unwary victims under the water ? can these be rescued ? how ? Is it unlucky or unlawful to save a drowning man ? how is wreckage regarded, and wrecks ? Note things done to influence the weather ? Does whistling affect it ? Do witches control it ? do they raise storms ? do sailors buy favourable winds of them ? Note what persons or animals are unlucky passengers (natives of certain countries, a corpse; etc.). Are any noted landmarks clergy, women;
saluted in passing ? how ? Describe rites relating to the birth of an infant at sea, a death and burial at sea can the captain of a vessel celebrate marriages at sea ? Note what rites are observed on landing, or returning from a voyage. Describe them. Note any legends told by sailors of ghostly ships, the Flying Dutchman, the sea-serpent, or other marvels. Have they any special songs ? How are they regarded in folk-tales, songs and proverbs ?
;
Flocks and Herds. Note what domestic animals are kept and attends to them, men or women ? or both ? whether cattle are housed during part of the year and pastured during the other whether they are pastured in the uplands and lowlands part at different seasons rites and ceremonies observed on changing Are the cattle ever driven through fire or smoke ? pasture.
who
What
is
done
(cf.
in
case of murrain
ch.
?
practice
births
Leechcraft,
?
the cattle from witchcraft
ominous
What
is
Enquire into veterinary is done to preserve to secure fecundity ? Are strange done to prevent abortion ? if it
?
x.).
What
is the occurs, how is the immature foetus disposed of ? What is done to console a cow for losing after-birth disposed of ? milks the cattle or sheep ? her calf or a ewe her lamb ? men, women, or young children of both sexes ? Are charms or songs used to induce the cows, etc., to give their milk ? Is
How
Who
human food ? note any taboos in connection with other food be taken before it is believed to have passed out of the system ? may it be boiled ? is butter or cheese made from it ? Do witches and demons steal milk, prevent butter
milk used for
it.
May
Questionary.
"
337
" coming ? what precautions are taken against this, or remedies used ? Note method of churning and all observances connected therewith is the presence of strangers objected to ? are charms, Is the flesh of cattle, amulets, or benedictory gestures used ? etc., eaten ? is the flesh of any animal forbidden to women ? what Note whether there is a special slaughtering season is done with the old bulls and rams, are they subjects of sport or public amusement ? whether any domestic animals are sacrificed, annually or occasionally ? with what object ? killed in any special way ? with any special implement ? what is done with the different parts of the carcase? Note whether the herdsmen have any special festivals, guardian deities, or patron saints any annual ceremony of blessing flocks or herds any festival on the occasion of sheep-shearing. Note what wood is used to make drovers' sticks or shepherds' crooks, whether they are carved, with what patterns ? Are there any stories or songs celebrating pastoral life ? do the herdsmen tell stories of the superhuman knowledge or sagacity of their charges ?
;
;
Do herdsmen and husbandmen intermarry between them ?

;
Is there
any
rivalry
Agriculture. Ascertain what is the system of land-tenure, as communal or individual ; what regards the actual cultivators what implements crops are grown (grain, vegetables, fruit ?) are used (hoes, ploughs ?) what beasts draw the plough, if used whether men or women till the ground, or is the work shared ? if so, how ? Note any rite performed to increase the observances connected with the dunghill fertility of the soil is the plough wetted the proper date for beginning ploughing before putting it into the ground ? is liquor from a festive meal ever poured over it ? is food eaten beside it ? is anything said ? When and with what is it ever carried about in procession ? ceremonies ? Is any part of the field purposely left untilled ?
; ;
; ;
What
for
?
;
Note lucky or unlucky days for sowing, planting, and grafting the proper period of the moon, the good or evil omens observed. Is anything special mixed with the seed grain ? is it carried to the field by any special person, or in any special receptacle ? Is anything said or done on beginning sowing ? on completing
the sowing ? Who sows the seed ? if a patch is missed, does it portend death ? to the sower or to someone else ? Must the sexes be separated at sowing-time ? or on the contrary, is license enjoined or recommended ? Must young plants be planted by women ? Are any rites performed, or talismans used, to protect crops or fruit from animals, birds, insects, or other dangers, or to make the newly-sown crops grow, the vines and fruit-trees bear ?
338
Appendix B.
are they ever abused and threatened ? Note all observances connected with orchards. Is bloodshed enjoined or forbidden at seed time or harvest ? What is said when the wind waves the
growing grain
With what implements are the grain-crops cut ? Is the grain bound up in sheaves at once or allowed to lie on the ground ? All crops alike ? Do the same persons both cut and bind the corn, or is the work divided between men and women, paid labourers and volunteers, men specially hired and regular labourers, or the " like ? Observe how a new workman is hanselled," made to " his footing," or otherwise made free of the harvest-field pay " " shoeing the colt," horning the ox," or any any pretext of such ceremony any drinking ceremony ? When the master enters the field how is he received ? is a gift of money demanded of him ? How are passing strangers treated ? are they roughly handled ? What compensation is demanded of anyone who Is one of the reapers chosen treads down the growing crop ? " " " What do ? to be lord," and one of the women his lady do ? have they any special privileges ? are they disguised they in any way ? Does any special person cut the first ears (or Firstfruits.
;
firstfruits
first
of the crop)
first fruit
?
sheaf (or
is
by whom
If
anything special done with the is it preserved ? consumed ? ? eaten, must anything be said or done ?
?
Is
gathered)
Who cuts it ? how ? Do the last sheaf called ? reapers all throw their hooks at it ? What is the man nicknamed who cuts it ? Is any dialogue or rhyme repeated, or song sung ? What is done with the last sheaf ? is it made into an effigy of any sort ? what is it then called ? What does the successful reaper do with it ? to whom does he give it ? must it or he
What
the
be drenched with water ? what eventually becomes of it ? Note whether such an effigy is made from each crop or only from the Is a corner of the field left unreaped ? staple crop of the district.
what
for
what
is it
called
Harvest-home. When the field is finally cleared, what reIs there any ceremony of shouting or joicings take place ? triumphing over others more backward ? Is the last load carried home with shouting, dancing, and singing ? (Give the words of " " hock-cart the songs.) Is it known by any special name, as " " or hawkey ? Must the master treat his men to a feast ? with any special delicacy ? If a load is upset, do the men forfeit it ? if the master neglects to give the feast can they exact any penalty ? Are there any games or masquerades proper to the occasion ? any sort of Saturnalia or temporary abolition of rank or order ? In cultivating common fields, who takes the part otherwise taken by the owner or master ? Are bonfires lighted
Questionary.
339
in the arable fields or the orchards ? any effigy or other object burnt in them ? At what time of the year is this done ?
Note and describe all rites performed to Rain-making, etc. produce or stop rain, or to cause sunshine. Who performs them ? a clan, or other section of the community ? members of one or the other sex ? persons having innate powers that way ? the king or chief ? or one or more professional experts (cf. ch. ix.) ?
whether the craftsmen are nomadic, whether they inhabit a special quarter whether the craft is practised by men or by women or both whether it is hereditary whether the craftsmen intermarry with the rest of the population have any social customs differing from the rest of the population. Describe any ceremonies practised on initiation or apprenticeNote whether the craftsmen have any special cult or ship. worship ? do they revere any special deity, guardian genius, or patron saint have they any festivals peculiar to themselves Note any legend about their craft days or (see ch. xiv.) ? seasons on which it is forbidden to exercise it omens they specially believe in practices on beginning or leaving off work superstitions or animistic beliefs about their tools or machines forfeits or penalties for handling tools without admission to the Do they show any marks of craft, or wrongly after admission. reverence to their tools ? do they worship them ? When ? Have they any legend of the origin of particular tools ? Give the words of any songs accompanying their labour songs about
Handicrafts.
itinerant, or stationary ; of the town or district ;
;
; ; ; ; ;
Note
the craft, in praise of it or otherwise ? How is the craft regarded by the rest of the population ? held sacred, tabooed, feared, respected, despised, thought to be under a curse ? Are the craftsmen credited with powers over disease, or over certain diseases ? Is the craft mentioned in folk-tales or proverbs ? to what effect ?
XIV.
CALENDAR FASTS AND FESTIVALS,

(ist
pp. 236-248.
Edition
"
:
Festival Customs.")
Is
and harvests
time reckoned by the sun, moon, or " "

?
Have
the
divided into weeks ? if so, Are the solstices observed ? How modated to the solar year ? Note what kinds of occupations, labour, or sport, are pursued in the several seasons, what engagements are entered into or terminated with them, what fasts or festivals mark the several
seasons.
moons names how many, and
by seasons and are they of what length ? are the lunar months accom?
stars, or
34
Appendix B.
Ascertain what event or circumstance dates the beginning of the year how many festivals there are in the year, and what state how they are called. Give an account of each festival long it lasts, where it is held, who attends it, what part the priests or other officials take in it, what the lower classes of the community. Does it specially belong to any one class, sex, trade or occupation ? Is it generally observed in the district or confined to one place or community only ? What is the occasion or object of the festival and what the central feature of the celebration ? Narrate the several incidents or ceremonies in their order as they occur. Note things brought in, things burnt, things carried out use
;
; ;
distribution of flowers, fruit, boughs, garlands feathers or other objects (are they kept for good luck ? how long ? and how finally disposed of ?) processions, perambulations, official or religious, to guard boundaries or bless crops begging expeditions (quotes), (what is begged for ? materials for the approaching feast ? liquor ? money ?) things carried about and exhibited is a reward asked for, is the demand enforced by threats, bugbears, or any terrorism ? Whipping customs ?
flowers,
;
: :
of
Masquerades, men and women exchanging clothes, buffoonery dramatic performances, songs, dances, special games (between what parties and where played, are auguries drawn from the
result ? see ch. xv.). Auguries generally as to love, marriage, death, harvest, general prosperity in the coming year or season (what methods of divination are used, and when ?). Luck" bringing rites, first-footing," exchange of gifts courtship customs, kissing practices, choosing partners for the year, by lot or otherwise. Feasting what viands are provided, and by whom ? are any special ceremonies observed in preparing them ? are they eaten in common, or household by household ? is a portion allotted to the poor, the domestic animals, the dead, non-human beings ? Drinking customs is any special drink provided, are healths drunk ? is intoxication allowed, enjoined, or approved ? Fire-customs ritual in lighting of new fires,
:
things burnt in bonfires, omens from fire, jumping over fires, or through smoke, fumigation. Water customs bathing, drinkKinds of work ing, aspersion visiting wells, springs or rivers. freedoms permitted, tricks played, enjoined or forbidden ordinary laws suspended. Is there a leader of the revels ? what is he called, how chosen, what are his powers ? how long does " his authority last ? Mock mayors " enquire into the history of any such customs. Seasons of abstention from work, food, or society dates when payments are due, contracts entered upon, servants hired, etc. particulars of such customs (cf.
:
ch. xi.).
Qitestionary
341
XV. GAMES, SPORTS,
AND PASTIMES,
pp. 248-258.
Record all games played in the district by (a) children, adults (men, women, or both together ?). Describe them, and note local variants and their probable causes (season, climate, sex of players). Record Pastimes infants' plays with fingers and toes, etc. ; feats of skill, as cats' cradle (see A. N. and Q., p. 229), sportive exercises and methods of locomotion, as cup-and-ball
Games.
(6)
:
chilsee-saw, swinging, swimming, stilt-walking, and skating Record games with a penalty on dren's singing-games and dances. the loser hide-and-seek, blindman's buff, forfeits. Games with a reward for the winner mental contests, puzzles, riddles physical contests, wrestling, boxing, fencing games of skill, with organized sides, rules, and opponents (polo, cricket) ; games of chance, or
;
;
of skill
cards).
and chance combined

"
"
(nine men's morris,
backgammon,
Note all ditties or songs used in games, with tunes if possible. " " formulas. Describe any implements or Give counting-out apparatus used (balls, bats, tops, kites, hoops, nets, whistles,
and say of what made horns, skipping-ropes, swings, etc., etc.) and how procured. Are there any public games ? who regulate and manage them ? At what time of Is there any customary public playground ? year and on what occasions is each game played ? Note games played annually between two communities or two divisions of a community on what date ? how are the sides chosen ? what is the goal or trophy played for, and what the result or effect of
; ;
victory
Note
setting
all
them
?
sports with animals, baiting or torturing them, or races. Are these sports held to fight each other
:
annually
at
what date
Gambling. Does this enter into any games, or dently pursued ? By players or by spectators ? or a new habit ? Is it regarded as a religious act
is it
Is it
?
indepenan old
Luck. Does luck in other things follow or affect luck in games, or the contrary ? What affects luck in games, and how can
ill-luck
be altered
Dancing. Note whether dancing is performed for spectators whether performed (a) or simply as a pastime for the dancers as a magico-religious exercise or solemnity (see ch. vii.), or Do the steps or figures differ accordingly ? (b) for amusement. Describe them. Who are the dancers children, or adults (men, women, or both ?), initiated persons ? What is the accompani:
34 2
ment
?
Appendix B.
What
vocal or instrumental ? Give words of songs (see ch. dress or decoration is worn ? Note articles made use of in the dance worn, carried, waved, etc. (are bells worn, or anything else to produce sound ?). How are they made or procured ? by or from whom ? are they kept from performance to performance ? Is the dance dramatic, or imitative of anything ? are the dancers disguised ? do they wear masks or animal relics ? Is it restricted to time, place or season ? connected with a particular festival ? Do they vary the performance from year to year ? give new steps ? See A. N. and Q., p. 224, for technical directions on recording dances.
xvii.).
;
Drama.
Where and on what
occasion
?
is it
performed
For
are the actors, men, women, or both ? Who take the female parts ? Describe the how are they procured ? Is there any use of songs, music, plots or dancing ? Are the performers amateur or professional ? How dressed or disguised ? Are there any puppet-shows ?
;
pleasure, or for
what other object
Who
XVI. STORIES, pp. 261-270.
On what occasions are stories told ? season ? Do particular stories belong
For what purpose are they told ? simply for amusement ? Ascertain whether there is a class of professional story-tellers if so, how recruited and rewarded ? whether each has a repertoire of his own whether there is any sort of property in stories whether special or different stories are told by men, women, and children respectively. Are any stories not told before elders, or concealed from women, children, strangers, or outsiders ? What kinds of phenomena form the subject of myths ? things
; ;
;
Is there a story-telling to particular occasions ? for instruction or warning, or
ordinary and constant, or things fitful and irregular ? novelties or accustomed objects ? natural phenomena or social institutions ? Are there opening and concluding formulas (" once upon a time "" they lived happy ever after ") ? Are snatches of verse or song Is there any attempt at dramatic interspersed in the stories ? narration ? imitation of the cries and gestures of animals or the Take note of all such features. like ? Relate the stories as nearly as possible in the speaker's own words, do not try to harmonise versions, and do not reject fragmentary stories because they are not complete. Give the name (not necessarily for publication), age, and status of the storyteller, and state whether he or she is bi-lingual, and, if possible, the source from which he learnt the story.
Questionary.
343
XVH. SONGS AND BALLADS,
pp. 271-279.
kinds of labour, of recreation, of religious and other accompanied by songs ? Are songs sung as an independent form of recreation, and not only as adjunct to something else ? At what times or on what occasions ? Is there a class of professional singers ? If so, how are they remunerated ? Do they compose their own songs, or sing those of others ? Are they retained in the service of the kings or Do they wander from place to place ? Are the subjects chiefs ? of their songs topical or historical ? Are there any competitive Are the songs traditional, prizes for singing, or singing festivals ? modern, or improvised ? Are there burdens, refrains, or choruses ? Do they contain any nonsense words, obsolete words, or words and phrases not understood by the singer ? Are there any set forms or rules of rhythm and metre ? Do men, women, and children sing different songs ? Does each singer claim property in his songs ? Are songs put into the mouths of the characters in Is song supposed to have an influence over animals prose-tales ? or over the elements ? All songs should if possible be taken down exactly, noting the occasions of hearing them. It is best if two persons can combine in this work, one to give attention to the words, the other to the melody. Let the singer go straight through the song without stopping him or asking for Then ask for the first verse (or strophe) to be rerepetitions. peated, as often as may be necessary to get the air on paper. Give your attention to the intervals at one repetition, and the rhythm at another. When you have set down the air as correctly as you can, ask to have the whole song repeated, to verify your
solemnities, are
transcript.
If
What
only one worker

is
is
available he should take
down the words
and the music at separate

transcribe the air
If no one competent to repetitions. available, do not therefore omit to secure
the words. Do not ask the singer to repeat the words without the air, as it is likely to confuse him, but take them down as he sings them, before or after you have recorded the tune. If you fail to catch any words ask to have the whole verse repeated, not part of it. Get any information you can as to the history of the song, where the singer learnt it, and from whom and give the name, age, status, etc., of the singer, as in all other cases. N.B. The address of the Folk Song Society, from one of whose leaflets the above hints are summarized, is 19 Berners
;
Street,
London,
W.
APPENDIX
C.
SOME TYPES OF INDO-EUROPEAN FOLKTALES.

(Revised by Mr. Joseph Jacobs for the original edition of the Handbook, from the classification by the Rev. S. Baring-Gould in the ist Edition of Henderson's Folklore of the Northern Counties.}
1.
Cupid and Psyche

1.
type.
beautiful girl is beloved by a 2. He appears as a man by night, at him.

3.
man
of supernatural race.
and warns her not to look
She breaks
4.
5.
his command and loses him. She goes in quest of him, and has to surmount and accomplish tasks. She finally recovers him.
difficulties
2.
Melusina
1.
type.
A man
2.
3.
4.
falls in love with a woman of supernatural race. She consents to live with him if he will not look on her upon a certain day in the week. He breaks her command and loses her. He seeks her, but never recovers her.
3.
Swan-maiden
1.
type.
A man
He
sees a
woman
bathing, with her charm-dress on
the shore.
2. 3.
steals the dress and she falls into his power. After some years she succeeds in recovering the dress and she escapes.
4.
He
is
unable to recover her.
Some Types of Indo-European

4.
Folktales.
345
Penelope type.
1.
The man goes on

She awaits
his travels,
and the wife
is left
at home.
2.
3.
his return in fidelity.
He
returns to her.
5.
Genoveva type.
1.
The man goes
to war,
is
2.
charge her death.

is
false
and the wife remains at home. brought against the wife, and he orders
3.
She
4. 5.
The husband on
driven away, but not killed. his return discovers his mistake.
He
finds her again,
and they are reunited.
6.
Punchkin or Life-Index type. A giant with his soul hidden in some external object (" Life Index ") marries a woman who has a lover. 2. The lover seeks and finds her, and urges her to kill her husband. 3. She tries to discover where the Life-Index is, and the giant puts her off several times, but at last tells the secret. She destroys the Life-Index, and thus kills her husband, 4. and
1.
5.
Elopes with her lover.
7.
1.
Samson type (cf. 6). The husband has giant strength

object.
residing in
some external
2.
The
3.
wife, unfaithful to him, asks him his secret ; he refuses long to reveal it, and at last does so. She betrays the secret to his enemies, and he is ruined.
8.
Hercules type.
1.
The husband has giant
strength.
2.
former lover of his wife, who is true to him, determines to cause his death, and persuades the wife to make him a present.
is
3.
She does so without intending harm, and he
killed
by
it.
9.
Serpent Child type.

1.
mother has no
one, were
it
is
2.
She
child. She says she would like to have a serpent or a beast. brought to bed of a child as she had desired.
346
3.
Appendix
The
it
C.
or
child she marries to a
man
woman, and by night

Thenceforth her child
assumes
human
shape.
4.
She
seizes the skin and burns it. leaves the serpent or bestial form.
10. Robert the Devil type.

1.
mother or father vows a

evil being.
child,
if
they have one, to an

it.
2.
child escapes, fights with, or tricks, the evil spirit, 3. 4. Finally overmasters it and frees himself.
11. Goldchild type.
1
.
The The
child
is
born, and the being claims
and
A mother
desires a certain food
it
;
makes her pregnant.
2.
She casts some of the food away part is eaten by a mare the mare or bitch is also or bitch, and part grows
;
pregnant.
3.
4.
child and the foal, or the whelp and the plant, are twins with strong sympathies. The mother seeks the death of her child, but his twin brother, the foal or the whelp, saves him.
The
5.
They have
Lear
type.
further adventures.
12.
1.
father has three daughters. He puts their love to the proof, and as the youngest does not profess much love, he drives her away. father falls into trouble,
2.
The
and the two
elder daughters
refuse
13.
1.
him assistance, but he obtains help from the youngest.

type.
Hop
o'
my Thumb
2.
The parents, very poor, desert The youngest child leads the
at last
fails
their children.
rest
home
several times, but
to do so.
3.
They
fall
into the
power
of a supernatural being,
all
but the
youngest robs him and they

14.
1.
escape.
Rhea Sylvia type. The mother is either

minutes.
killed, or leaves
the children for a few
2.
3. 4.
They are suckled by a wild beast. They pass through various adventures, and
Are
finally recognised
and
raised to the throne.
Some Types of Indo-Eitropean

15.
1
.
Folktales.
347
Juniper Tree
type.
A stepmother hates her stepchild, and accomplishes its death.

Marvellous circumstances follow, through the transmigration and 2nd, a bird. of the soul of the child into ist, a tree
;
2.
3.
1 6.
1.
Punishment of the stepmother.

Holle type.
A stepmother makes her stepdaughter the slave of the house.

Great good-luck falls to the lot of the girl by her amiability. Misfortune befalls the other daughter through her evil temper.
2. 3.
17. Catskin type.

1.
father,
having
lost his wife,
vows to marry one who
resembles her.
2. 3. 4. 1 8.
1.
Decides on marrying his daughter. She flees with three smart dresses.
She marries a prince

Goldenlocks type.
in
a foreign land.
2. 3.
Three princes set off to obtain a bride. Third succeeds in winning the bride.
The two
first fail.
The two
elder
waylay him, half
kill
him, and steal the bride.
4.
He
recovers and puts his brothers to flight.
19.
1.
White Cat type.
king sets his sons a task, and promises to the successful son that he shall succeed him.
eldest are enchanted the youngest breaks the enchantment, liberates them, and accomplishes the task.
;
2.
The two
20. Cinderella type.

1.
2.
The youngest of three The eldest sisters go
3.
employed as kitchen-maid. By supernatural means the youngest obtains a gorgeous dress, and goes as well. This happens three times. The last time she leaves her
sisters is
to a ball.
slipper.
4.
The
'Prince,
by means
of the slipper,
discovers her
and
marries her.
21. Beauty
i.
and Beast type
(cf. i).
The youngest
of three sisters despised.
348
2.
Appendix
C.
present^
The father goes a journey and promises them each a The youngest asks for a flower only.
3.
In obtaining the flower, the father falls into danger, and saves his life by the promise of the surrender of his daughter.
4.
5.
6.
The daughter is in great prosperity thereby, and obtains a handsome lover. The sisters injure the lover, and nearly cause his death. The youngest saves his life.
22. Beast Brothers-in-law type.

1.
brother has several sisters
who
are married to beasts.
2. 3.
The young man has a task to perform. He accomplishes it by the aid of his beast
Swans
type.
brothers-in-law.
23. Seven
1.
sister
has seven brothers
who
are turned into birds.
2. 3.
4.
She seeks their release at the cost of silence. She falls into great peril and is nearly lost, but succeeds releasing them. She marries a king.
in
24.
1.
Twin
Two
Brothers type. brothers love one another dearly. journeys.
They part on
their
2.
Before parting they give each other a token by which either may know the health and prosperity of the other.
3. 4.
One brother
falls
into danger.
The other
ascertains this
And
saves him.
25. Flight
1.
from Witchcraft
type.
2.
brother and sister (or two lovers) are in the power of a witch or stepmother, or giant. The brother learns witchcraft, or the sister obtains these
powers.
3.
By means
They
of spittle, or apple pips, they deceive their keeper
and escape.
4.
5.
are pursued, and transform themselves repeatedly (or interpose obstacles) to elude pursuit. Finally they kill the pursuer.
26. Bertha type.

i
.
A prince sends
off
for a princess
whom he will
marry.
She sets
accompanied by her maidservant.

2.
Folktales.
349
The servant throws the

herself off as the bride.
princess out of a ship,
and passes
3.
The
princess seeks the king,
and the fraud
is
discovered.
27.
1.
Jason type (cf. 25). A hero comes into a strange land and
princess.
falls in
love with a
2.
The king
sets
him
tasks,
and these he performs by the aid
of the lady.
3.
4.
He He
elopes with her and is pursued. deserts the bride (a) either through being rendered oblivious of the past mother, (b) or wilfully.
either breaks the
no
fault of his
kiss
by a
own, from his

herself.
5.
The bride
Gudrun
enchantment or revenges
28.
1.
type.
A bride is
And
is
carried off
by a monster or a
is
hero.
2.
recovered, or
the cause of misfortune and ruin on
the ravisher.
29.
1.
Taming
She
is
of the Shrew type.
2.
proud and shrewish. The husband tames her by violence.
30. Thrush-beard type.

1.
king, angry with his daughter, for her pride, marries her
to a beggar.
2. 3.
The beggar makes her
into a slave
and breaks her
spirit.
He
then discovers himself to be a king, whose suit she had formerly despised.
31. Sleeping Beauty type.

1.
A A
princess
2. 3.
She does what she

years, kisses her
warned not to touch a certain article. is forbidden and falls asleep.
prince discovers her sleeping after the lapse of
many
and wakes
her.
32. Bride
1
.
Wager type. Bride (more rarely husband) obtained by Answering a series of riddles.
Performing several tasks. Fighting with a monster.
2.
3. 4.
Making her laugh.

Discovering a secret.
5.
350
33.
1.
Appendix
C.
Jack and Beanstalk type. A man climbs a tree, or a rope, or a glass mountain, and reaches a land of wonder.
2.
3.
He He
steals
from it a harp, money, a golden egg, or a princess. returns to earth.

to
34.
1.
Journey
Hell type.
A man
land.
descends by an underground passage to a mysterious
2.
3.
He He
Jack
has several narrow escapes. rescues from beneath a princess.

the Giant-Killer type (cf. 43).
35.
1.
A man is
matched with giants or
devils.
2.
3.
He deceives them by his superior He makes them kill themselves.

Polyphemus
type.
cunning.
36.
1.
A man is
He He
2.
kept in durance by a giant. blinds the giant.

escapes
3.
4.
by
secreting himself under a ram.

is
The
giant endeavours to deceive him in turn, but
out-
witted.
37.
1.
Magical Conflict type. Two persons with supernatural powers test them against one another.
2.
3.
They pass through various transformations. The good person overcomes the wicked one.
38. Devil Outwitted type.

1.
compact entered into between a man and the

outwits the devil.
devil.
2.
The man
39. Fearless
1.
2.
3.
He is brought into contact with (r) dead bodies, (3) spirits. He has three adventures with spirits in a haunted house, and wrests from them gold. He learns how to shiver, by a pail of goldfish being upset
lad
John type. knows not fear.

(2)
men,
over him in bed.

40.
1.
Folktales.
351
Prophecy Fulfilled
type.
2. 3.
supernatural being, that a certain marry his daughter. The king seeks the death of the child. The means he used to accomplish this purpose turn to bring about the fulfilment of the prophecy.
prophecy
is
made by a
child will either kill a king or will
41.
1.
Magical Book
type.
A man
He
is
2.
obtains power over evil spirits by certain means. unable to control the means, and they ruin him.
42.
Master Thief type. A youth goes forth to learn thieving. 2. He steals from a farmer to establish his credit as a
1.
thief.
3. 4. 5.
Accepted as robber
chief,
he outwits the band.
He He
returns
is
home and
asks the squire's daughter for wife.
set tasks,
which he accomplishes.
(cf.
43.
1.
Valiant Tailor type
35).
tailor kills
seven
flies
at a blow, and believes himself to
be a hero.
2. 3.
He He
outwits
(i)
giants, (2)
men.
marries the princess.

type.
44.
1.
William Tell
tyrant sets an archer the task of shooting an apple or nut from the head of his own son. He accomplishes the
task.
is
2.
He
asked the use of the additional arrows in the archer's
belt,
3.
and
is
threatened.
The archer
kills
the tyrant after the lapse of years.
45. Faithful
1.
John
type.
A prince has
The
is
2.
a faithful servant, who saves him from danger. prince mistakes the act and punishes the servant, who turned into stone.
released from his bride.
3.
The servant prince and
enchantment by the tears of the
46. Gelert type.

1.
A man
When
has a faithful hound, which saves his child from

kills
danger.
2.
The man mistakes the act and
the dog.
3.
too late he discovers his error.
352
47. Grateful Beasts' type.
1.
Appendix
C.
A man
2.
saves some beasts and a man from a pit. The beasts make their preserver wealthy, but the man to work his ruin.
tries
48. Beast, Bird, Fish type.

1.
A man
He He
falls
creature of the
2. 3.
does a kindness to a beast of the earth, a winged air, and a denizen of the water.
into danger, or has tasks to perform. escapes, or succeeds, by aid of the thankful creatures.
obtains
49.
1
.
Man
By By
power over Beasts.
his cunning. his musical powers.

type.
2.
50.
Aladdin
has a
1.
A man has
gift
a treasure of supernatural properties, or a family given by spirits which will bring luck.
2.
By
folly this is lost.
3. It is recovered.
51. Golden Goose type.

1
.
A man has
By
It is
a similar treasure.
2.
folly it is lost.
3.
never recovered.
52. Forbidden
1.
Chamber
type.
A girl
(or
man) marries one
of superior station.
2.
3.
She (or he) is allowed free access to every room in the new house but one. The forbidden chamber is visited and found full of horrors.
4.
The spouse
discovers this,
and
in trying to punish is killed.
53. Robber-Bridegroom type.

1.
A girl is
2.
3.
engaged to a disguised robber. She visits his castle and discovers his occupation. She convicts him before her relatives by some token, and he is killed.
54. Singing
1.
Bone
type.
2.
After
another through envy or jealousy. a bone of the victim, when blown through, many days declares the murder.
brother
(sister) slays

55.
1.
Folktales.
353
Snow White
type.
2. 3.
Step-mother hates her step-daughter, and plots her death. Step-daughter at last succumbs.
But
is
restored to
life
by
hero,
and the step-mother
is
punished.
56.
1.
Tom Thumb
Such a son
type.
A mother wishes for a son,

is
even
if
no bigger than her thumb.
2.
born, who performs his cunning and small size.

type.
many
exploits through
57.
1.
Andromeda
2.
3.
dragon ravages a country, and requires a maiden to be exposed for him. The king's daughter has to be thus exposed. The dragon is slain by hero, and he marries king's daughter.
(cf.
58. Frog-Prince type

1.
21).
2.
prince He does
is
transformed into a loathsome beast.
3.
some kindness to a girl, on condition she does his bidding for one night. She does so he is unspelled and they marry.
;
59. Rumpelstiltskin type.

1.
girl is set
tasks to do.
his
2.
She is helped by a dwarf on condition she discovers name.

She does so by his accidentally revealing and escapes falling into his power.
Language of Animals
type.
3.
his
name
to others,
60.
1.
son apprenticed to a wizard learns language of animals.
2.
Is cast forth
by
his father for saying
he
will
be superior to
him.
3.
4.
Achieves tasks by knowledge of animal language.
Becomes superior to
ciled to him.
his father (Pope, King),
and
is
recon-
61.
1
.
Puss in Boots
type.
A youngest
The
2.
son has only a cat left him. The cat induces the king to believe its master has large
possessions.
cat's
3.
master marries the king's daughter.

z
354
62.
1
.
Appendix
C.
Dick Whittington type.
2.
3.
poor lad becomes possessed of a cat. sends the cat abroad as a venture. The cat is sold for a large price in a country infested with
He
mice,
63.
1.
and the lad becomes

type.
rich.
True and Untrue
Two companions
the other surly.
set out
on a journey, one good tempered,
2.
The The
surly one at first gets advantage, but the other obtains fortune by overhearing demons, etc. surly one tries to do the same, but
is
3.
destroyed by the
demons.
64.
1.
1 Thankful Dead type.
Hero pays debts

buried.
of
an unburied man, who

to achieve tasks.
is
by
this
means
2.
The ghost
Pied Piper
helps
type.
him
65.
1.
2.
magical musician frees a town from vermin. He is refused his promised reward, and in revenge decoys all the children away.
66. Ass, Table,

1.
and Cudgel
type.
reward for his services, receives an ass that drops gold, and then a table which is covered with food at word
lad, in
2. 3.
of command. Both are stolen from him by a rascally innkeeper. As a third gift he receives a cudgel that lays on at word of command, and with this makes the innkeeper restore the other two gifts.
67. Three Noodles type (Droll).

1.
gentleman
thing.
is
betrothed to a
till
girl
who
does some
silly
2.
He vows
she.
not to marry
he has found as great
sillies
as
3.
1
He
finds three noodles, returns
and marries
her.
Studied by Professor G. H. Gerould, 1908. Society's Publications No. LX.
The Grateful Dead.
Folklore

68. Titty
1.
Folktales.
355
2.
Mouse type (Accumulation Droll). Animals set in partnership one dies, the other mourns. Other objects mourn in sympathy till there is universal
;
calamity.
69. Old
1
.
Old
Woman and Pig type woman cannot get
(Accumulation Droll) she asks dog, pig over stile

.
stick,
2.
water, ox, butcher, rope, rat, cat to help her. Cat does so on condition, and sets rest in motion
fire,
till
pig
jumps over
70.
1.
stile.
Henny-Penny
type (Accumulation Droll).

tell king,
Hen
2.
thinks sky is falling, goes to duck, goose, turkey. At last they meet fox, who leads
eats
and meets cock,
them
to his
own den and
them up.
Z2
APPENDIX
D.
AUTHORITIES CITED.
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Macedonian Folklore, Cambridge 1903. The Sherbro and its Hinterland. London J.
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Emile Durkheim. Paris 1898 A.N. and Q. v. Notes and Queries.

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proceeding.
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The Ainu and their Folklore.
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THE REV. W. The Dialect of Craven 1828. York. Two vols. London
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FOR COLLECTING AND PRINTING

RELICS OF POPULAR ANTIQUITIES,

THE YEAR MDCCCLXXVIII.

THE FOLK-LORE SOCIETY

THE HANDBOOK OF FOLKLORE

CHARLOTTE SOPHIA BURNE

AND SOMETIME PRESIDENT, OF THE FOLK-LORE SOCIETY

" But men may construe

things, after their fashion,

Clean from the purpose of the things themselves."

SIDGWICK & JACKSON, LTD.

STREET, ADELPHI, W.C.

not written for the use of members of Anthropo-

whose work demands

somewhat complicated. The by Sir Laurence Gomme for

by Mr. A. R. Wright, F.S.A.

(Rites of Individual Life),

selection or rejection has rested for whatever flaws or weaknesses

each topic are touched on in the text

to suggest further details in

a gardener, in accordance with the traditional lore

TO COLLECT AND RECORD FOLKLORE

BELIEF AND PRACTICE

THE EARTH AND THE SKY

THE VEGETABLE WORLD

THE SOUL AND ANOTHER LIFE

.... .... .... ....

Cult as a Moral Sanction, (Australia,

OMENS AND DIVINATION

THE MAGIC ART

X. DISEASE AND LEECHCRAFT

SOCIAL AND POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS

XII. RITES OF INDIVIDUAL LIFE

220 236 248

XIV. CALENDAR FASTS AND FESTIVALS

XV. GAMES, SPORTS, AND PASTIMES

XVI. STORIES; (a) TOLD AS TRUE, FOR AMUSEMENT

XIX. PROVERBIAL RHYMES AND LOCAL SAYINGS

TYPES OF INDO-EUROPEAN FOLKTALES

THE word Foik-Lore

the learning oj the people

world and man's relations with

charms, amulets, luck, omens, disease, and death.

hunting, fishing, cattle-keeping, etc.

form of the plough which excites

social life of those

pression of the psychology of

of the scientific study of folklore.

and surroundings, ought

are due to the influences of race

humanity and how far they and environment and should

of commerce or of conquest, between peoples of varying

workings of the mind of man regards the facts of

Things made by Man. The Soul and Another

(7) (8) (9)

Rites of Individual Life.

Occupations and Industries. Calendar Fasts and Festivals.

Games, Sports, and Pastimes. Stories, Songs and Sayings.

() told for amusement.

Songs and Ballads. Proverbs and Riddles.