Nano Nanostructures
Nano Nanostructures
Nano Nanostructures
NANO NANOSTRUCTURES
Expresses a very tiny amount or size Structures that range between 1nm and
A unit meaning one billionth or ten raised to 100nm in the nanoscale
negative nine (10-9) exists also in nature
Illustrative examples: Cannot be seen by the naked eye
1 inch = 25, 400,000 nanometers Can only be observed using specialized
A sheet of newpaper =100,000 nanometers equipment
thick Scanning tunneling microscope
On a comparative scale Atomic force microscope
If a marble were a nanometer, the one
meter would be the size of Earth
Nanotechnology is a part of science and
technology about the control of matter on the
atomic and molecular scale - this means things
that are about 100 nanometers across.
• Refers to manipulation of matter on an atomic
to subatomic scale
NANOSCIENCE
Deals with materials that are very small using specialized microscopes and other
nanodevices.
Study of structures (NANOSTRUCTURES) and materials on the scale of nanometers
(Nanoscale)
NANOTECHNOLOGY
ANTHROPOLOGY OF BIOLOGY
HUMAN INTERVENTION AND MANIPULATION OF LIFE at the molecular level.
study of the past and present evolution of the human species and is especially concerned with
understanding the causes of present human diversity.
BIOLOGICAL TECHNOLOGIES THAT COULD SHAPE SOCIETY
Genomics & proteomics
Biotechnology including cloning, genetic engineering, CRISPR
Synthetic Biology
TRANSCRIPTION
occurs in nucleus where DNA is used as template for mRNA w help of RNA polymerase
3 stages
Initiation
promoter region of gene functions as recognition site for RNA polymerase
majority of gene exp is controlled, permitting or blocking access to site by rna polymerase
binding causes dna to unwind and open
Elongation stage
rna polymerase slides along dna template strand
complementary bases pair up, the rna polymearse links nucleotides to the 3' end of the growing rna
molecule
termination
rna polymerase reaches terminator region, messenger rna transcript is complete
rna polymerase, dna strang dissociate fr eahc other
mRNA made during transcription has exons (coding sections for protein) and introns (non-coding)
5'cap and 3' poly-A tail is added and intron is removed (intron splicing) and done by proteins and RNA
called spliceosome
revmoes introns and joins exons together to make amture mRNA and leaves nucleus thru nuclear pore and
enter cytoplasm
TRANSLATION
in cytoplasm, info in mRNA is used to make polypeptide
nitrogenous bases are grped into 3 letters called codons
genetic code has 64 codons
AUG start
UGA, UAG, UAA for stop
mRNA binding to small ribosomal subunit
amino acid is brought w transfer RNA
type of amino depends on anti-codon of tRNA
codon of mRNA and anti codon of tRNA
large ribosomal subunit binds to form translation complex INITIATION COMPLETES HERE
3 regions - E,P,A
brought to mRNA by tRNA by pairing codon and anti-codon
charged tRNA goes to A and peptide bond forms with P site and A site
complex sides one to right, uncharged molecule leaves by E site
ELONGATION continues until there is stop coodon, and polypeptide leaves thru p site
polypeptide may be modified by golgi complex and secreted using vesicles
stomach - RER< golgi, vesicles
function: to produce polypeptide quickly and accurately
GENOMICS
field of genomics deals w DNA sequence, organization, function and evo of genomes
how genome interacts with environment
study of genomes
GENOME - stored in cells, coded book to build and grow an organism, all dna in our body
DNA- code made of 4 letters (bases), codes changes a bit per person, all DNA in 1 cell is 3B long, all dna in
body, earth to moon 6k times; coils into chromosome
genomics was made possible by the invention of techniques of recombinant DNA, aka gene cloning or gene
engineering
studying whole genomes (complete sets of DNA in cell) 3.2B base pairs in humans
PROTEOMICS
proteomics aims to identify all proteins in a cell or organism inc any posttranslationally modified forms, as
well as their cellular localization, functions and interactions
studies sets of protein sequences (proteins are functional aspects of cells) 20-25k human proteins (1/4 are
unstudied, found but not sure of function)
BOTH
made possible by DNA sequencing
get protein from nucleotide sequence
Universal genetic code (known base pair seq or nucleotide seq to known amino acid seq
IMP?
allows faster identification of new drug targets (many proteins are needed for cell processes,
understanding protein (which must b increased)
better understandind of genetics (before genome was sequences, majority of genome as protein but less
than 2% codes for proteins only)
better understanding of evolution (comparing whole genomes w other species, phylogenic trees can be
made)
Variances - makes us diff from others, help contribute to certain health conditions
Copy number variation - until recently, human genome contains 2 copies of any segment of DNA BUT now
we know large segments can be duplicated or delted in genome
Combating the Mt Pine Beetle- beettle has fungus that kills trees, studying genome how fungus is made,
how trees can be resistant will save pine trees
genomes of animals are compared to see how common
free genomics resources (open access)
holistic -all genetic info of organism and how that genome interacts w environment
high through put- reads and analyzes high amts of data
resource generating - further understanding
GMOS
selective breeding- hoping for lucky hits
genetic engineering- choose what traits we want
GM crop and non-GM - introduce unwanted new uncharacteristics
terminator seed - make sterile plants
GM crops have buffer zone to not cross with non-GM
Same risk as eating non-GM and GM crop
coffee kills insects, choco kills dogs
BT crops are deadly for insects but not to us
plants that collect nitrogen or carbon dioxide (both speed up global warming, former poisons groundwater
BIOTECHNOLOGY
before, 80%chance worm inside corn but biotech fixed
sci based on biology
tech application of bio oriented to serve our life
modifying dna, make corn healthier and resistant to pests
med field, select vitamins and minerals we want host plant to have (food u eat is ful of minerals, combat
malnutrition
high yielding crops and so helps farmers and economy (GMO food)
Gene therapy (get code from other organism)
Gene crossing and Silencing (silence genes to get existing biological traits)
tech = use of techniques and sciences to make prods or modify processes
biotech = use of living organisms (bio) to make prods or modify processes
biology breakthrough -> novel biotechnology
biology principle: Genetics (DNA) or life code
Life code -> protein and life
letters -> words
C.R.I.S.P.R. TECHNOLOGY
Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats
HISTORY
selective breeding - what we did before
1960s scientists put radiation on plants to cause random mutations and get smth useful by chance
(worked sometimes)
1970s scientists inserted DNA snippets into bacteria, plants and animals to study and modify them for
research, med, and agri
1974 - earliest genetically modified animal, making mice a standard tool for research
80s - first patent was given for microbe engineered to absorb oil
1994 - Flavr Savr tomato , first food modified in lab went on sale, longer shelf life where an extra gene
surppresses the build-up of a rotting enzyme
1990s- brief foray into human engineering, to treat maternal infertility, babies were made that had genetic
info from 3 humans
now- super muscled pigs, fast growing salmon, featherless chicken, see-thru frogs, glow in dark zebrafish
CRISPR
cost of engineering shrunk by 99%
fr yr, it became few weeks to do experiment and everyone w lab can do it
can change humanity forever
bacteria and virus
bacteriophages or phages hunt bacteria (kills 40% every day)
insert genetic code into bacteria, fail to resist bc too weak
some bacteria survive and store genetic info into crispr so when virus attacks again, bacterium makes
rna copy from dna archive and makes protein CAS9
protein scans the bacterium's insides for virus invader by comparing every dna to same from archve
when it finds, it activates and its out dna
cripsr is programmable, give it a copy of dna u wanna modify and put into living system
ability to use on live cells, switch genes on and off and study particular dna sequences
works for every cell
2015- scientists used cripr to cut out HIV virus out of living cells, tried on rats w 99% HIV, 52% HIv was
gone (injecting)
can edit immune system to cure cancer
2016 cancer treatment crispr and one month later china allowed for lung cancer
genetic diseases
3k diseases are caused by 1 wrong letter
CAS9 will cut the DNA, cell will try to repair using any available DNA, so, we inject the new gene
use microscope ad tiny needle to inject or punch holes in cells with electric currents and let it float in
or introduce them encapsulated in bubbles of fat that fuse w cell membrane and let them release
their contents inside
recently, new CRISPR can deliver enzyme to gene and alter it, no need to cut
DESIGNER BABIES
edit genome of human embryo
manipulates fertilized egg before in-vitro fertilization
genetic makeup has been altered or chosen to proveide the desired genome
Preimplantation genetic diagnosis
choosing viable eggs, can be used to screen diseases and gender
1988 used for human pregnancies
Transcription activator-like effector nucleases - enzymes that remove certain parts of dna strand and
replace the dna strand
used on plants, fuels, and pets
CRISPR
in DNA sequence of bacteria
has dna sequence of virus
allows edits to be made in any genome
eggs can be screened for:
gender
appearance
intelligence
disease (most common)
personality
3 person babies
healthy mitochondria of 1
prevent muscular dystrophy and certain heart and liver conditions
may be possible to change everything: new abilities, new eye color, new hair color, higher intelligence
2015 and 2016 chinese experimented w human embryo and 1/2 successful in 2nd attempt
can edit whole gene pool
modified humans can be the new standard
2/3 of 150k people who died today died of age-related causes
Lobster, planarian, turritopsis nutricula - "immune" to aging
BENEFITS
reduce genetic and inherited diseases
better chance to succeed in life
life span may increase
children given genes their parents dont have
CONS
who decides if the trait is good or bad? individuality is eliminated
GENETIC ENGINEERING
eliminate diseases of civilization like obesity
modified immune system that could make us immune
equip for extended space travel and cope with diff environments
92% of pregancies that detect trisonomy 21 or down syndrome are eliminated
SYNTHETIC BIOLOGY
defined as the design and construction of new biological parts, devices and sytems and the re-
design of existing, natural biological systems for useful purposes
"engineer's approach to biology"
design and fabrication of biological components and systems that dont exist in natural world and
the redesign and fabrication of existing biological systems
IGEM - detect and kill fungus that kills banana supplies, competition for synthetic biologu
use BioBricks more than 25k
cost of DNA sequence is plummeting
Half pipe of doom - really scared and really cool -Drew Endy
Rob Carlson "Garage Biohacker"- a lot operate in secret
DIFF
Genetic Engineering is the direct modification of the genes of an organism which results in capabilities
being added or taken away. Synthetic Biology aims to modify the behaviors of an organism or integrate
the behaviors of multiple organisms into a singular whole
EVOLUTION
HISTORY OF EVOLUTIONARY THOUGHT
DARWINIAN REVOLUTION
Cuvier and Catastrophism
theory was based on the assertion that there Occurrence of Descent
have been violent and sudden natural “descent with modification”
catastrophes such as great floods and other Organisms share many characteristics,
very sudden physical changes to the earth leading to perceive a unity in life.
George Cuvier (1769-1832) He attributed the unity of life to the descent
Organisms living in those areas where these of all organisms from an ancestor that lived
sudden, violent changes had occurred were in the remote past.
often killed off and replaced by new life thought that as the descendants of that
forms moving in from other geographic ancestral organism lived in various habitats,
areas. they gradually accumulated diverse
Lamarck’s Theory of Use and Disuse modifications, or adaptations, that fit them
proponent of spontaneous generation, the to specific ways of life
belief that life can appear spontaneously An adaptation is a trait that helps an organism
from inanimate materials and then become more suited to its environment - prod
gradually change into more complex forms of natural selection
through a constant striving for perfection Natural Selection and Adaptation
Jean Baptiste Chevalier de Lamarck (1744- process in nature by which organisms better
1829) adapted to their environment tend to
giraffe survive and reproduce more than those less
Darwin’s Theory of Evolution adapted to their environment.
Darwin's general theory presumes the Individuals have heritable variations.
development of life from non-life and Many more individuals are produced each
stresses a purely naturalistic (undirected) generation than the environment can
"descent with modification support.
Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882)
The Origin of Species 1859
Some individuals have adaptive characteristics
enabling increased survival and reproduction. Anatomical Evidence
Increasing proportion of succeeding
Darwin was able to show a common descent
generations have these characteristics.
hypothesis offers a plausible explanation for
Populations become adapted to their local
anatomical similarities among organisms.
environment.
Despite dissimilar functions, all vertebrate
Natural Selection
forelimbs contain the same sets of bones in
The organisms that reproduce are selected by
similar ways.
the environment.
Homologous Structures are anatomically similar
The result is unpredictable.
because they are inherited from a common
The species will be better adapted to the
ancestor.
environment
Vestigal Structures are fully-developed
Artificial Selection
anatomical structures developed in one group of
Selective breeding
organisms, but reduced, and may have no
Humans select the organism that reproduce
function, in similar groups.
The result is predetermined.
whales have pelvic bones that do not attach to
The species will be more useful for humans.
legs
Galápagos Islands
Vestigial nails on flippers of manatees
Tortoises
Darwin wondered if tortoise speciation on Biochemical Evidence
islands could be correlated with a difference Almost all living organisms use the same basic
in vegetation among the islands biochemical molecules.
Finches –same DNA triplet code and same 20 amino
Darwin speculated that all the different acids in their proteins
types of finches could have descended from When the degree of similarity in DNA base
a single type of mainland finch sequences are compared, the data suggest
common descent.
Evidences for Evolution
Fossil evidence
history of life recorded by remains from the
past.
fossil record documents the pattern of
evolution, showing that past organisms
differed from present-day organisms and
that many species have become extinct.
Biogeographical evidence
Biogeography - is the study of the
geographic distribution of life forms on
earth
Darwin saw how similar species replaced
each other, and reasoned related species
could be modified according to the
environment
Geographic distributions of organisms are
influenced by many factors, including
continental drift
Distributions of many plants and animals
throughout the world are consistent with the
hypothesis that when forms are related, they
evolved in one locale and then spread to
accessible regions.
Embryological Development
Embryos of different species develop in
almost identical ways
Controversial Theories
People perceived this theory as contradictory to
the church’s teachings that the source of life is a
powerful creator.
This theory emerged at a time when most of the
population believed and accepted the biblical
version of the Earth’s creation.