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Fibers and Dye Yielding Plants of North East India

Chapter · August 2016

DOI: 10.1007/978-981-10-0620-3_6

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 Fibers and Dye Yielding Plants of North
East India 6
Himadri Das and Dipul Kalita

Abstract
India has been considered as a rich biodiversity and havens of wealth for
useful germplasm resources and there is no doubt that the plant kingdom
with treasure house of diverse natural product. The Northeast region of
India comprising of the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya,
Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram, Nagaland and Sikkim can be physio-
graphically categorized into the Eastern Himalayas, Northeast hills
(Patkai-Naga Hills and Lushai Hills) and the Brahmaputra and Barak Valley
plains. The region has been identified by the Indian Council of Agricultural
Research (ICAR) as a centre of rice germplasm while the National Bureau
of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), India, has highlighted the region as
being rich in wild relatives of crop plants. Fibers and dyes both are derived
from plants using by human society. Natural dyes are use in the colouring
textile, drugs, cosmetics etc. Because of its non-toxic effects, it is also used
for colouring various food products. Due to lack of availability of precise
technical knowledge on the extraction, dying technique, it has not commer-
cially succeeded like the synthetic dyes. Natural fibers are getting increas-
ing significance as renewable and environmental friendly raw material for
technical applications as well as civil engineering and building, construc-
tion materials. In this chapter, we discussed the fiber and dye yielding plans
in North East India, its extractions, uses, mordants, characterization, advan-
tage and disadvantages in details.

Keywords
North East India • Biodiversity • Mordant • Dye • Fiber

6.1 Introduction
H. Das (*) • D. Kalita
Cellulose Pulp and Paper Division, CSIR-North East
Both the fibers and dyes are derived from the
Institute of Science and Technology, Jorhat 785006,
Assam, India plants using by human society from the time
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] immemorial. Fibers are elongated cells having

# Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016 77

J. Purkayastha (ed.), Bioprospecting of Indigenous Bioresources of North-East India,
DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-0620-3_6
78 H. Das and D. Kalita

very dense cell walls originated in plant stems, are major resources. Nowadays, India produces
leaves, bark and seeds. From ancient time, differ- more than 400 million tonnes natural fibers (Rai
ent types of plants like cotton, flax and hemp and Jha 2004).
have been grown to use for fiber, that can used Natural fibers are used in technical
for making clothes, ropes and paper etc. Plant applications, civil engineering and construction
fibers are flexible in nature, having very little materials as renewable and environmental
elasticity and good resistance to damage by friendly raw materials. Flax, hemp, linseed,
scratch and can withstand both heat and sunlight. jute, sisal, kenaf, yucca, abaca and ramie are
All plants are fibrous, the bundles of fiber of well-known natural fiber yielding plants.
plants gives strength and pliability to their stems, Mechanical properties of natural fibers are
leaves and roots. Cells of fibers are dead when it influenced by various factors such as the growth
became mature and then support plant stems and and weather conditions, date of harvest, the
roots as a supporting tissue. The xylem and degree of maturity at the harvest, the retting
phloem tissue of monocot and dicot stems and process, decortication, processing and cleaning
roots are associated with dead fiber cells whether procedure etc. (Munder and Hempel 2006).
it is very small. But generally xylem and Like dyes are also some chemicals present in
phloem tissue are not found in the wood of the the roots, berries, bark, leaves, and wood.
gymnosperms. Fibers may differ in physical Maximum natural dyes are obtained from plant
structure but are alike in chemical composition. sources as vegetable dyes, for example nettles
All plants in nature form cellulose, but the (Urtica spp.), saffron (Crocus sativus) and mad-
amount of cellulose formed and the location of der (Rubia spp.) that has been used since ancient
cellulose in the plants vary from one species to times as a vegetable red dye for leather, wool,
another. Generally, the cellulose in the plant cotton and silk.
body is combined with starch, carbohydrates
and hemicelluloses along with a complex matrix
called lignin. To get cellulose in pure form, these 6.2 History of Natural Fibers
materials are to be removed from cellulose by
chemical methods. For preparation in our daily essential goods like
Natural fibers are derived from plant and ani- cloths, building materials, cordage etc. natural
mal origin. Based on their origin, natural fibers plant and animal fibers used as a raw material
furthermore again classified as lignocellulose which are easily available in human settled
(from plants) and protein (from animals). On region. In ancient Egypt around 3000 years
the other hand mineral fibers are occur naturally before composite was made with clay and straw
however that are not bio-based. Unlike plastics, for making house walls as known as first com-
vegetable fibers are biodegradable, annually posite material. But several of the ancient plant
renewable, non-carcinogenic and therefore fibers are no longer is use. Jute, sisal, coir and
health-friendly and environment friendly. Tradi- kapok etc. fibers are first introduced in the nine-
tionally jute like fibers are being used for pack- teenth century into European country. Nettle
aging as sacking, hessians, bags and soil savers plants leaves are good sources of fiber and have
besides being used as carpet backing, jute scrims, a long history. There was an Archaeological evi-
tarpaulins, canvas, tar felts etc. There are other dence of used of fiber for string and cloth in
diversified uses too as technical textiles, Neolithic times in Denmark and Britain. Nettle
geotextiles, agro-textiles and handicraft. In rural fiber was used for making fishing drag net in post
sector, utilization of plant fibers for creating medieval times and was used in production of
employment opportunity is cost effective process cloth from ancient times to until nineteenth cen-
and ecologically sustainable. Natural fiber yield- tury as known as Scotch cloth in Britain. German
ing plants which are abundantly available in var- compulsorily used nettles to make fabric during
ious parts of India i.e. jute, sisal, banana, coir etc. First World War facing scarcity of cotton fiber.
6 Fibers and Dye Yielding Plants of North East India 79

In ancient England bark fiber of lime tree have used as a source of natural dyes for dying cloths,
been used for manufacture cordages and halters. design and painting etc. (Das and Mondal 2012).
Among the ancient fiber yielding plants hemp Most of the flowering plants generate pigment
and linen are used for manufacture of fabrics that used as dyes. Few of them produce attractive
and in ancient China 2800 BC years ago hemp pigment as used by human and it is source of
was cultivated. Sails were also made by hemp commercially suitable dyes. Based on different
and linen at that time. India has been produced kind of application of dyes have been chosen
cotton from a period of thousand years, but in from various sources like plants, insects,
1300s, it was discovered in Europe. Some of microbes etc.
plant fiber newly introduced, wherever reflects
their source and distribution e.g. Jute originated
in India and its Bengali meaning is ‘braid of 6.3 History of Natural Dye
hair’. Ramie fiber name originated from Malay
and known as diverse name like grass linen, Natural dyes are as early as textile because of
China linen and grass cloth. Kapok name was human always attractive to colours. Dyes were
also introduced by Malay and remains silky adopted in Europe during the Bronze era and in
fiber, extracted from the East Indian tree which ancient China this is found written document in
is occasionally called silk cotton or Java cotton 2600 BC. During Indus Valley Civilization at
(Natural fiber, Sen and Reddy 2011). Mohenjodaro and Harappa in the period of 3500
According to archaeological evidence weav- BC discovered that dyes were used for coloured
ing and spinning can be used at least 5000 years garments of cloth and suggestions of madder dye
ago as known as human first discovered extrac- in the ruins and was earliest introduces Indus
tion and utilization of fiber. Linen sheets were Valley era in 2500 BC. Natural stuff was used
used for covering Egyptian mummies and known to dye hides, colouring the shells and paintings of
to that hemp was cultivated in Neolithic lake cave. The colour i.e. black, white, yellow and
inhabitants of Switzerland. All fiber yielding reddish pigments extracted from ochre have
plants do not have the good properties of fiber been used in cave painting by primitive man
to make product because of too short, inflexible (Siva 2007).
nature etc. Most of the plant fibers are used for Mummies were covered in dyed cloth have
making cordage, thread, rope etc. which are been establish in Egypt. Chemical analyses of
extracted through retting process. Depending on fabrics have revealed that madder produce aliza-
plant species retting process is varies and require rin pigment used in vault of King Tutankhamen
immersing the stalks in water until the weaker in Egypt in red fabrics. Dating of Purple robes to
tissues have disintegrated away. When the fibers 541 BC in the royal capital was discovered by the
have been detached need to arrange by a comb Great Alexander when he occupied Susa, the
and methodically dried before further processed Persian capital in recent times (Gulrajani 1992).
and spun into yarn. Henna was used earlier than 2500 BC whereas
Subsequently the discovery of oil, artificial saffron is mentioned in the Bible (Gulrajani
fibers have gradually replaced natural fibers 2001). Woad was the source of blue dye first
across the last century. Due to biodegradable used by prehistoric Britons and can have
and environmental friendly nature of natural originated in Palestine.
fiber demand has been increasing in recent The most famous and highly prized colour
times. Fibers stand as an importance material through the ages was Tyrian purple (noted in
for production of healthy cloth, insulation the Bible); a dye obtained from the spiny
materials for building and construction and to dyemurex shellfish. The Phoenicians prepared it
decrease energy consumption. Plants are not until the seventh century, when Arab conquerors
only used as a source of food, fibers, fuel, cloths destroyed their dyeing installations in the Levant.
and shelter during human civilization but also In the prehistoric times man used to crush berries
80 H. Das and D. Kalita

to colour mud for his cave paintings. Primitive wool are coloured simply by being dipped in
men used plant dyestuff for colouring animal the dye, others such as cotton require a mordant.
skin and to their own skin during religious
festivals as well as during wars. They believed
that the colour would give them magical powers, 6.4.1 Mordant
protect them from evil spirits and help them to
achieve victory in war (Siva 2003). Dyes generally do not interact directly with the
Dyes might have been discovered acciden- materials they are intended to colour. Natural
tally, but their use has become so much a part dyes are substantive and require a mordant to
of man’s customs that it is difficult to imagine a fix to the fabric, and prevent the colour from
modern world without dyes. The art of dyeing either fading with exposure to light or washing
spread widely as civilization advanced out. The mordants bind the natural dyes to the
(Krishnamurthy et al. 2002). Primitive dyeing fabrics. A mordant is an element which helps the
techniques included sticking plants to fabric or chemical reaction that takes place between the
rubbing crushed pigments into cloth. The dye and the fiber, so that the dye is absorbed and
methods became more sophisticated with time fixed. The containers which are used for dying
and techniques using natural dyes from crushed must be non-reactive (enamel, stainless steel).
fruits, berries and other plants, which were boiled Brass, copper or iron pots will do their own
into the fabric and which gave light and water mordanting. All dyes don’t need mordants to
fastness (resistance), were developed. Some of adhere with fabric. When there is no requirement
the well-known ancient dyes include madder, a of mordants, such as lichens and walnut hulls,
red dye made from the roots of the Rubia they are called substantive dyes. And if dyes
tinctorum L., blue indigo from the leaves of need a mordant, they are called adjective dyes.
Indigofera tinctoria L., and yellow from the stig- Commonly use mordants are alum (usually used
mas of the saffron plant (Crocus sativus L.) and with cream of tartar, which helps evenness and
from turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) (Siva 2007). brightens slightly); iron/copper (which saddens
In India the biggest influence has been or darken colours, bringing out green shades); tin
achieved on European dying methods. Dying in (usually used with cream of tartar, which blooms
India stretches back to at least the Indus Valley or brightens colours, especially reds, oranges and
Civilization (~2500 B.C.). Marco Polo describes yellows), and blue vitriol (which saddens colours
the use of indigo as dye in thirteenth century and brings out greens shades). There are three
A.D. sixteenth century A.D. Portuguese intro- types of mordant: Metallic mordants: Metal salts
duce Asian dyes to Europe and marks beginning of aluminium, chromium, iron, copper and tin are
of large scale European experimentation with used. Tannins: Myrobalan and sumach are com-
dying methods. By late eighteenth century, monly used in the textile industry. Oil mordants:
French chemists begin to organize and document These are mainly used in dyeing turkey red col-
dying methods, to this day France and northern our from madder. The main function of the oil
Italy remains as centres of fashion in whole mordant is to form a complex with alum used as
world. the main mordant.

6.4.2 Natural Dyes Obtained from

6.4 Types of Natural Dye
Plants
and Their Uses
Many natural dyestuff and stains were obtained
Natural dyes are classified into three categories:
mainly from plants and dominated as sources of
natural dyes extracted from plants, animals and
natural dyes, producing different colours like red,
minerals. Although some fabrics like silk and
yellow, blue, black, brown and a combination of
6 Fibers and Dye Yielding Plants of North East India 81

these (Table 6.1). Almost all parts of the plants 6.5 Advantages and Limitations
like root, bark, leaf, fruit, wood, seed, flower, etc. of Natural Dyes
produce dyes. It is interesting to note that over
2000 pigments are synthesized by various parts Natural dyes are less toxic, less polluting, less
of plants, of which only about 150 have been health hazardous, non-carcinogenic and
commercially exploited. Nearly 450 taxa are non-poisonous. They are harmonizing colours,
known to yield dyes in India alone gentle, soft and subtle, and create a restful effect.
(Chandramouli 1995), of which 50 are consid- Above all, they are environment friendly and can
ered to be the most important; 10 of these are be recycled after use. Although natural dyes have
from roots, 4 from barks, 5 from leaves, 7 from several advantages, there are some limitations as
flowers, 7 from fruits, 3 from seeds, 8 from wood well. Long procedure of extraction of colouring
and 3 from gums and resins (Siva 2003). component from the raw material, low colour

Table 6.1 Sources of different coloured dyes and mordants (Vanker 2000)
Colour Botanical name Parts used Mordants
Red dye
Safflower Carthamus tinctorius L. Flower –
Caesalpinia Caesalpinia sappan L. Wood Alum
Madder Rubia tinctorium L. Wood Alum
Log wood Haematoxylon campechianum L. Wood –
Khat palak Rumex dentatus L. Wood Alum
Indian mulberry Morinda tinctoria L. Wood Alum
Kamala Mallotus philippinensis Muell. Flower Alum
Lac Coccus lacca Kerr. Insect Stannic chloride
Yellow dye
Golden rod Solidago grandis DC Flower Alum
Teak Tectona grandis L.f. Leaf Alum
Marigold Tagetes sp. Flower Chrome
Saffron Crocus sativus L. Flower Alum
Flame of the forest Butea monosperma (Lam) Taubert Flower Alum
Blue dye
Indigo Indigofera tinctoria L. Leaf Alum
Woad Isatis tinctoria L. Leaf –
Sunt berry Acacia nilotica (L.) Del. Seed pod –
Pivet Ligustrum vulgare L. Fruit Alum and iron
Water lily Nymphaea alba L. Rhizome Iron and acid
Black dye
Alder Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn. Bark Ferrous sulphate
Rofblamala Loranthus pentapetalus Roxb. Leaf Ferrous sulphate
Custard apple Anona reticulata L. Fruit –
Harda Terminalia chebula Retz. Fruit Ferrous sulphate
Orange dye
Annota Bixa orellena L. Seed Alum
Dhalia Dhalia sp. Flower Alum
Lily Convallaria majalis L. Leaf Ferrous sulphate
Nettles Urtica dioica L. Leaf Alum
82 H. Das and D. Kalita

value and cost of dyeing with natural dyes con- Anthroquinone dyes: Some of the most important
siderably higher than with synthetic dyes. Some red dyes are based on the anthroquinone struc-
of the natural dyes are fugitive and require a ture. These are obtained from both plants and
mordant for enhancement of their fastness insects. These dyes have good fastness to
properties. Some of the metallic mordants are light. They form complexes with metal salts
hazardous. Also, there are problems like diffi- and the resultant metal–complex dyes have
culty in the collection of plants, lack of good fastness.
standardization, lack of availability of precise Alpha-hydroxy naphthoquinones: The most
technical knowledge of extracting and dyeing prominent member of this class of dye is
technique and species availability. In order to henna or lawsone [Lawsonia inermis
obtain 14 g of the dye about 1200 molluses are (Lythraceae)] produces orange to reddish-
needed (Siva 2007). brown dye.
Flavones: Most of the natural yellow colours are
hydroxyl and methoxy derivatives of flavones
and isoflavones.
6.6 Characterization of Dyes
Dihydropyrans: Closely related to flavones in
chemical structure are substituted
A dye can be defined as a highly coloured mate-
dihydropyrans.
rial used to impart colour to a number of variety
Anthocyananidins: Carajurin obtained from Big-
of materials like textiles, paper, wood, varnishes,
nonia chica Bonpl.
leather, ink, fur, foodstuff, cosmetics, medicine,
Carotenoids: In these the colour is due to the
toothpaste, etc. As far as the chemistry of dyes is
presence of long conjugated double bonds.
concerned, a dye molecule has two principal
Typical examples for this group are annato
chemical groups, viz. chromophores and
(Bixa orellana) produces yellowish-red dye
auxochromes. The chromophore, usually an aro-
derived from seed pulp and saffron (Crocus
matic ring, is associated with the colouring prop-
sativa) produces yellow dye derive from
erty. It has unsaturated bonds such as –C¼C,
stigmas
¼C¼O, –C–S, ¼C–NH, –CH¼N–, –N¼N– and
–N¼O, whose number decides the intensity of
the colour. The auxochrome helps the dye mole-
cule to combine with the substrate, thus
imparting colour to the latter (Krishnamurthy 6.8 Natural Dye Activities
1999). in Different Parts of World

Glover (1998) discussed whether there is a place

in today’s dye industry for natural dyes. It
6.7 Chemistry of Natural Dyes
describes the history of dyeing and then
describes the advantages and disadvantages of
Dyes are classified based on their chemical struc-
natural dyes under the following headings:
ture, sources, method of application, colour, etc.
limitations of natural dyes; cost efficiency of
(Table 6.1). As a model study we explain here the
natural dyes; shade range of natural dyes; process
chemistry as described by Vanker (2000). They
complexity and reproducibility; availability of
are classified into the following groups based on
natural dyes; effluent; synthetic fibers; and toxi-
chemical structure (Scheme 6.1) (Siva 2007).
cology. It concludes that there is a place for
natural dyes in today’s dye house provided that
Indigo dyes: This is considered to be the most
the dyes meet the already established selection
important dye obtained from the plant
criteria and satisfy the profile established for the
Indigofera tinctoria (Fabaceae) produces a
dyes already in use. The dyeing industry is and
blue dye.
6 Fibers and Dye Yielding Plants of North East India 83

O
O OH
O H
N

N
O O
H O
Anthroquinone
Indigo Alpha-hydroxynaphthoquinone

CH3

Beta-carotene OH
OH O
OH
O O
O
OH

O OCH3 Anthocyananidin OH O
Flavone Dihydropyrans

Scheme 6.1 Different groups of dyes with their chemical structure

will remain an equal opportunity customer. The development and a comparison of natural dyes
market place is open to dye from all sources. The with synthetics. It is concluded that a greater
constraints are on the suppliers, manufacturers or emphasis on using natural dyes could make a
cultivators of the vegetable dyes. valuable contribution to environmental
Ali (1993), from Karachi University Pakistan sustainability.
reported that increasing environmental aware- Bhattacharya et al. (1998) described bleached
ness has persuaded some of the major Asian jute fibers were dyed with natural dyes of different
countries to reassess the feasibility of natural color and shade. The dyes used were Acacia cate-
colorants. As one of the most agriculturally rich chu, Ornosmas echioides, Indigoferra tinctoria,
regions of the world, the emphasis has been on Artocarphs integrifolia, Adenanthera pavonina,
finding new colour sources, which have the Rubia cardiofolia, Terminalia chebula, etc. The
potential to yield high-quality dyes. A detailed dyeing procedure was standardized without using
programme of research and development into the any mordant except in the case of Rubia
capabilities of natural dyes is of vital importance. cardiofolia, where aluminium sulphate was used,
A case study of work carried out at Karachi and in the case of Artocarphs integrifolia where
University, Pakistan, is quoted as an example. the copper sulphate and potassium dischromate
D.J. Hill, Department for Continuing Educa- were used in small amount, (<0.1 %). Studies
tion, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1HH, UK were also carried out to investigate the efficacy
(1997) following a review of the natural dye of dyeing from used dyebaths. All the samples
industry, the range of dyes available, their agri- showed good dye uptake. The fastness properties
cultural production and use in textile dyeing are viz., light, wash and perspiration (both acidic and
discussed. The subjects covered include the dye- alkaline) were found to be good. Slight tonal
ing process and techniques, safety aspects, the variations were observed where mordants
pharmacological benefits of natural dyes, recent were used.
developments in production and application, Luciana et al. (1997) found that common
quality control, marketing, future research and madder (Rubia tinctorum L.) produces
84 H. Das and D. Kalita

anthraquinone pigments in its roots, one of them observed. Different shades of yellow, orange
being alizarin (1, 2 dihydroxy anthraquinone), and green were the dominating colours. The
which has been used for dyeing textiles since root was found to be the major source of yellow
2000 B.C. Four madder genotypes were and orange colours and green colour was mainly
evaluated for their agronomic characteristics as obtained from leaves and stems. Colouring mat-
well as for their industrial value in order to test ter was reported for the first time from 92 plants
this species domestication potential for the Med- species. Twenty five Himalayan plant species
iterranean area and to assess its value as a new have been identified as potential sources for
industrial dye crop. Pigments were separated colouring materials that are in high demand in
from methanolic and ethereal extracts and food processing. These include members of
quantified by HPLC. Good agronomic perfor- Lamiaceae, Rubiaceae, Polygonaceae,
mance was observed in the different accessions Ranunculaceae and Pinaceae. The colouring
of R. tinctorum, which were tested. Root yield matters isolated from Thalictrum javanicum,
increased from young (5 months old) to mature Meriandra strobilifera and Rumex hastatus are
plants (30 months old) reaching a mean value of suspected to be new and novel ones. Thirteen
120 g plant1, which corresponds to a yield of 8 t colour extracts with high tinctorial value
ha1. Variation in yield capacity was observed obtained from six selected plant species from
among the different accessions. Young roots Kerala, were also evaluated using cotton, nylon,
showed higher alizarin content than 15 and silk, curd, cheese and butter as substrate. Some of
30 month old plants. However, the total amount these have potential application in textile and
of alizarin present in a plant increased from food processing industries. Thelepaepala
181.8 mg plant1 to 917.8 mg plant1 in ixiocephala (Karva), a unique species of Western
5–30 month old plants. A range of variation in Ghats that flower once in 7 years, was also exam-
alizarin content was established for genetic ined for the colouring materal. A novel yellow
differences within madder. Industrial assays coloured compound was identified and purified.
demonstrated good performance when using a A number of optical isomers have been isolated
weight of dry powder, which is 30 % of the from air-dried roots of Arnebia nobilis, and these
weight of material to be dyed for dyeing cotton, may also be of therapeutic value. Culture
wool and silk yarns. Resistance to fading appears protocols for large-scale production of
to be fairly good for dyed wool. Dunaliella salina and D. bardawil have been
An All-India coordinated research project on developed. Methods have been standardized for
prospecting for food grade natural dyes from isolation of stable and high quality β-carotene.
bioresources has been initiated, with six Information on distribution, habit and natural
participating institutions. Temperate ranges of colouring matter present in 600 dye-yielding
north west Himalayas and tropical areas of north- plant species from India has also been
ern portion of Western Ghats were surveyed for documented.
collection of plant species having dye-yielding A team of experts at the Department of Sci-
properties. As many as 106 plant species belong- ence and Technology’s Philippine Textile
ing to 88 genera distributed among 46 families Research Institute successfully identified
from north west Himalaya and 46 plant species 26 new dye-yielding plants, holding a potentially
from northern Western Ghats were collected and colorful niche in natural dyes export market. The
screened for colouring materials by chemical team sewed a list of the newly discovered sources
spot tests, chromatographic and spectroscopic of natural colorants and the proper technique to
methods. Using standard color index developed extract quality dyes following months of rigorous
by the Royal Horticulture Society of Kew identification process. The list includes Samanea
(London) as many as 46 colour shades were saman (Jacq.) Merr, Arcangelisia flava, Morinda
6 Fibers and Dye Yielding Plants of North East India 85

brachata Roxb., Alnus spp., Basella lucida Linn, therapeutical point of view. They studied the
Senna spectabilis (D.C) Irvin, Rhizopbora anthraquinone composition in root-stock and
mucronata, Rhizopbora apiculata, Psidium root samples of plants originating from 11 differ-
guajava, Calophyllum inophyllum, Adonidia ent habitats. The identification of the anthraqui-
merrilli (Becc.), Anacardium occidentale Linn, none derivatives carried out after the hydrolysis
Ricinus communis L., Delonix regia Bojer, of these samples with HCl solution, by HPLC
Gmelina arborea Roxb, Cassia fistula Linn, method and by use of UV-VIS spectrophotomet-
Carthamus tinctorius L., Dillenia philippinensis, ric and mass spectrometric detection. In the
Lansium domesticum Corr., Azadirachta indica samples they identified six anthraquinone-
A. Juss., Sonneratia sp., Canarium luzonicum aglicones. The main components were alizarin
Blume, Allium haematochiton, Tradescanthia (9.6–21.8 mg/g), purpurin (3.7–12.3 mg/g), and
spathacea, Capsicum spp., and Spondias lucidin (1.8–5.7 mg/g). The total anthraquinone-
perrpurea L. derivative content varied between 15.6 and
These plant species are widely grown and 39.4 mg/g.
distributed in the Philippines and in other tropical Koshi and Miyakawa (1994) from Japan
regions including Southeast Asia and South reported that powdered florets from dyer’s saf-
America. These can be easily cultivated in areas fron (Carthamus tinctorius L.) were suspended in
with high humidity, researcher team leader a buffered solution containing KMnO4 or H2O2
Zenaida de Guzman said. Information about the and the mixtures oscillated with a supersound
plants’ morphological features and textile sonicator for 10 min at 25  1  C. Carthamin
applications are now being compiled in Gampol yield in the floral pastes was determined and the
Vol. 2, which is expected to be sold in commer- data were compared with those of the floret
cial bookstores in January. Ayala Foundation Inc pastes with no supersonic oscillation treatment.
will shoulder the printing of the book. Natural With short time sonication, carthamin yield could
dyes are high-priced coloring materials that give be increased by about 8 % higher on average.
distinct colour to food, cosmetics, and textile Bechtold et al. (2003) studied that plant
materials such as yarn, paper, natural fibers, and materials which are available from farming
cloth. Dyes are commonly extracted from plant’s regions in the moderate Austrian climate were
roots, bark, and flowers. investigated to serve as sources for natural dyes
In Bhutan, flower and fruit dyes are the most in textile dyeing operations. The extraction of the
important category of natural dyes. Most of the dye components from the plant materials was
dye species are raised from seeds by rural people, performed with boiling water without addition
and then sold. Their fruit can be used as of chemicals or solvents. Based upon a rigorous
mordants. Particularly important are selection of possible plant sources, a selection of
Choenomeles lagenaria, Rhus similata, natural dyestuffs applicable in a one-bath dyeing
Pyllanthus emblica, Cedrala toona, Michelia step was established. A broad variation in shade
champaka and Mallotus phillipenensis. The and color depth can be achieved by applying
dyes are normally used for colouring or dyeing mixtures of natural dyestuffs in various
silk clothes. Mallotus phillipenensis, for exam- combinations of iron- and alum-mordants. More
ple, produces a red dye called “sinduri,” which is than 60 % of tested dyeings achieved acceptable
commonly used in colouring cloth. fastness properties.
Boldizsar et al. (2004) carried out an On the basis of the developed natural
experiments to identify the anthraquinone dyestuff-based dyeing procedures, a comparison
derivatives in the underground organs (root- was made between the effluents from processes
stock and root) of the madder root live plant based upon them and those based upon the cur-
sortiment Rubia tinctorium L, furthermore to rent ‘state-of-the-art’ techniques utilizing syn-
isolate populations the anthraquinone thetic dyes. The comparison revealed that a
compostitions of which are optimal from lowering of the chemical load released with
86 H. Das and D. Kalita

waste water can be expected by shifting to the diversities in the orient with about 850 bird spe-
plant-based dyes. cies. The Eastern Himalaya and the Assam plains
have been identified as an Endemic Bird Area by
the Royal Society for Protection of Birds, (Collar
6.9 Fiber and Dye Yielding Plants 1992). The global distribution of 24 Restricted-
in Different States of N. range species is limited to the region. The
E. India region’s lowland and montane moist to wet trop-
ical evergreen forests are considered to be the
The North Eastern region of India covering northernmost limit of true tropical rainforests in
nearly 262,379 km2 area has been divided into the world (Procter et al. 1998).
two biogeographic zones – Eastern Himalaya North eastern region has been identified by the
and North East India, based on floristic compo- National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources
sition, the naturalness of the flora and the local (NBPGR), India, as rich wild relatives of differ-
climate (Rodgers and Panwar 1988). The North- ent crop plants. It is the centre of origin of citrus
east region of India comprising of the states of fruits. Jhum cultivation, a traditional system of
Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, agriculture, is often cited as a reason for the loss
Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram, Nagaland and of forest cover of the region. This primary agri-
Sikkim can be physiographically categorized cultural activity practiced by local tribes reflects
into the Eastern Himalayas, Northeast hills the usage of 35 varieties of different crops. The
(Patkai-Naga Hills and Lushai Hills) and the region is rich in medicinal and aromatic plants,
Brahmaputra and Barak Valley plains. At the fiber and dye yielding plant and many other rare
confluence of the Indo-Malayan, Indo-Chinese and endangered species. The North Eastern states
and Indian biogeographical realms, the NE have more than 60 % of their geographical area
region is unique in providing a profusion of under forest cover, a minimum suggested cover-
habitats, which features diverse biota with a age for the hill states in the country (Chatterjee
high level of endemism. The region is also the et al. 2006).
abode of approximately 225 tribes in India, out The aim of the chapter is to investigate the
of 450 in the country, the culture and customs of availability of fiber and natural dye-yielding
which have an important role in understanding plant species in NE India and gather information
biodiversity conservation and management on traditional knowledge system associated with
issues. extraction and use of natural dyes. Organic dye-
The north eastern region has been in focus for ing not only helps to preserve the traditional art
its high biodiversity and this region has been a of weaving and design, but also provides
priority for leading conservation agencies of the employment and economic and ecological
world. While WWF has identified the entire benefits.
Eastern Himalayas as a priority Global
200 Ecoregion while Conservation International
has upscale the Eastern Himalaya Hotspot which 6.9.1 Arunachal Pradesh
initially covered the states of Arunachal Pradesh,
Sikkim, Darjeeling Hills, Bhutan, and Southern Arunachal Pradesh is the largest among the
China to the Indo Burma Hotspot (Myers northeastern states, located between 26.28 N
et al. 2000) which now includes all the eight and 29.30 N latitude and 91.20 E and 97.30
states of North-East India, along with the E longitude and covering 83,743 km2 area. Most
neighbouring countries of Bhutan, southern of Arunachal Pradesh is covered by the
China and Myanmar. The richness of the region’s Himalayas. Arunachal Pradesh has 25 major
avifauna largely reflects the diversity of habitats tribes and 125 sub-tribes broadly belonging to
associated with a wide altitudinal range. North the Indo-Mongoloid racial stock, with varied
East India supports some of the highest bird composition of cultural diversity (Choudhury
6 Fibers and Dye Yielding Plants of North East India 87

1996). The ethnic groups inhabiting different their uses have also been documented. Another
areas of the state have indigenous knowledge 19 plant species belonging to 14 families, used as
systems and have evolved methods for utilizing dye mordants, have also been reported. The peo-
the vast plant resources available (Sarmah ple of the state use these dyes for dyeing of their
et al. 2000). Their knowledge in utilizing these world-famous handloom products.
resources is characteristic and differs from tribe Plants used by the people of Manipur for
to tribe. dyeing (Potsangbam et al. 2008)
Arunachal Pradesh, considered as a hotspot of
biodiversity, is home to a range of economically 1. Acacia catechu Willd. (Mimosaceae)
important plant species. Some of these plant spe- Local name-Kabokhajee
cies have found use in the preparation of natural Mode of preparation and uses: A fast reddish
dyes, colorants with several applications in black dye is obtained from the heartwood by
textiles, inks, cosmetics, and other products, boiling in water for about 1 h. The dye is
from more than 500 dye yielding plant species used in the preparation of local ink and dye-
(Table 6.2). ing cotton fabrics.
2. Amoora spectabilis Miq. (Meliaceae);
Local name- U-ngang
6.9.2 Manipur Mode of preparation and uses: A pale scarlet
colour is obtained from the heartwood by
Manipur is one of the seven states of Northeast boiling with water and used for dyeing cot-
India. The state is bound by Nagaland in the ton fabrics.
north, Mizoram in the south, Assam in the west, 3. Basella alba Linn. (Basellaceae);
and by the borders of the country Burma in the Local name- Urok sumbal
east as well as in the south. The state lies at a Mode of preparation and uses: A deep purple
latitude of 23 830 N–25 680 N and a longitude of dye is obtained from the ripe fruits. Different
93 030 E–94 780 E. The total area covered by the colours obtained from the leaves, and stems
state is 22,347 km2. The natural vegetation are used for dyeing fabrics and in painting.
occupies an area of about 14,365 km2 which is 4. Bauhinia purpurea Linn. (Caesalpiniaceae)
nearly 64 % of the total geographical area of the Local name- Chingthrao angangba
state. The vegetation consists of a large variety of Mode of preparation and uses: A rose purple
plants ranging from short and tall grasses, reeds dye is obtained from the fresh flowers. Fresh
and bamboos to trees of various species. petals are directly applied on the cloth or
Different ethnic groups of valley and hilly surface to be dyed and are also used in
regions of Manipur state have practiced the art painting.
of dying clothes and other items. The natural 5. Berberis manipurana Ahr. (Berberidaceae)
dyes were obtained from plants and have been Local name- U-napu
used by weaver for importing different shades of Mode of preparation and uses: A beautiful
colour to different clothes, bamboo baskets, yellow dye is obtained from the stem and
flowerpots, fishing nets etc. Vegetable dyes roots by boiling in water and mainly used
have been reported to be used by confectioners for dyeing mulberry silk fabrics.
and weavers (Ghosh 2003; Kumar and Rao 6. Bixa orellana Linn. (Bixaceae)
2003). Dying is done in the yarn stage in order Local name- Ureirom
to get the desired colour. Documentation Mode of preparation and uses: A pale red
(by Sharma et al. 2003) is available for 34 plant dye obtained from the seeds soaked in cold
species, belonging to 30 families, used in the water, the dye is used for dyeing clothes or
extraction of dyes by the Meitei community of yarn threads.
Manipur. The plant parts used in the extraction of 7. Carthamus tinctorius Linn. (Asteraceae)
dyes along with the method of extraction and Local name- Kusumlei
Table 6.2 Plant species used and having potential for natural dyes in Arunachal Pradesh (Mahanta and Tiwari 2005)
88

Parts Color
Species Local name Family Habitat Distribution and habitat used produced Regeneration
Aporusa diocia (Roxb.) Not known Euphorbiaceae Tree Changlang, Lohit and Subansiri districts below 800 m. Leaves Black Through
Muell s.l. in moist deciduous forests seeds
Baccaurea sapida Leteku (A) Euphorbiaceae Tree Endemic to northeast India. Wild, cultivated at lower Bark, Black Through
(Roxb.) Muell.-Arg elevations leaves seeds
and fruits
Bischofia javanica Bl Urium (A) Euphorbiaceae Tree Common in eastern Arunachal Pradesh. Changlang Bark and Black Stem
and Lohit districts in tropical and mixed evergreen leaves cuttings and
forests seeds
Bixa orellana Linn Hatranga (A) Bixaceae Tree Throughout India. Between 300 and 500 m in tropical Seeds Annatto Seeds
zones. Lohit and Papumpare districts (yellow-
orange)
Cudrania Pulikaint (A) Moraceae Spinous Lohit district in lower elevation in tropical evergreen Leaves Orange, Seeds
cochinchinensis Shrub forests and seeds yellow
(Lour.) Kudo and
Masam
Clitoria mariana Linn Aparajita (A) Fabaceae Climber Changlang and Subansiri districts. Common in sub- Flowers Blue/violet Seeds
tropical forests. Wild and cultivated
Colquhounia coccinea Hom (K) Lamiaceae Shrub Wild. Changlang and Lohit districts Gregarious in Whole Black Stem cutting
Wall shady places in tropical and sub-tropical forests plant
200–800 m
Daphne papyracea Shugu-Sheng Thymelaeaceae Shrub Common in sub-troical and temperate forests above Bark and Dark red Stem
Wall (M) 1,000 m. Cultivated in West Kameng district fruit cuttings and
seeds
Desmodium Not known Fabaceae Shrub Kameng, Subansiri and Siang districts in sub-tropical Flower Purple Seeds
multiflorum DC temperate forests up to 2,000 m along the slopes
Engelhardtia spicata Corcorshing Juglandaceae Tree Confined to northeast India in sub-tropical forests. Bark Dark Seeds
Lesch. ex. Bl (M) Common in West Kameng district brown
Entada purseatha D.C Ghilla (A) Mimosaceae Climber Lohit, Siang and Subansiri districts in tropical Young Dark blue Seeds
evergreen, deciduous forests. Endangered species pods
Ficus altissima Bl Gadgubar (A) Moraceae Tree Common in lower elevations in northeast India in Stem and Yellow Stem
mixed bamboo forests, Kharsang area of Changlang roots cuttings
district
Ficus gasperriniana Ru-kha (T) Moraceae Shrub Changlang and Lohit districts. Undergrowth in wet Fruits Red (fruits) Stem
Miq swampy localities, often mixed with bamboo forests and roots Yellow cuttings and
seeds
H. Das and D. Kalita

(roots)
 6

Flemingia macrophylla Not known Fabaceae Shrub Changlang, Lohit, Siang Subansiri and Tirap districts Leaves Black Seeds
(Willd.) Prain between 200 and 1200 m in sunny places along and bark
primary and secondary forests
Garuga gamblei King Sibon asing Burseraceae Tree Changlang, Lohit, Siang Subansiri and Tirap districts. Bark Brownish Seeds, stem
(Adi) Pani- Common in Arunachal Pradesh in primary forests black and cuttings
amora (A) between 100 and 1000 m
Ilex embelioides HK.f Not known Aquifoliaceae Tree Changlang district above 500–800 m in tropical Bark Black Seeds
evergreen forests. Endemic to Arunachal Pradesh and
Meghalaya
Illicium griffithii Hook Lissi (M) Illiciaceae Shrub, West Kameng and Tawang districts between 1200 and Seed, Yellow Seeds
tree 1800 m in sub-tropical and temperate forests bark and (traditional
leaves dye)
Indigofera tinctoria Zia-shing (M) Fabaceae Shrubs Well distributed throughout Arunachal Pradesh. Wild Leaves Indigo Seeds
Linn and often cultivated and pods
Juglans regia Linn Kay (M) Juglandaceae Tree West Kameng district. Wild and cultivated in Eastern Unripe Black Seeds
Himalayas under temperate climate between 1500 and fruits
3000 m
Fibers and Dye Yielding Plants of North East India

Melastoma Ke-Seng (Adi) Melastomataceae Shrub Changlang district and throughout Arunachal Pradesh Fruits Purple Seeds
Malabathricum Linn Phutkala (A) in between 400 and 1500 m black
Michelia montana Pansopa (A) Magnoliaceae Tree Siang, Changlang and Subansiri districts between Bark and Yellow Seeds
Blume 300 and 1000 m in tropical forests flower
Miliusa roxburghiana Bong-kha (T) Annonaceae Shrub, Changlang and Kameng districts between 500 and Bark and Red Seeds
small 800 m in tropical dense forests ripe fruits
tree
Nerium indicum Miller Not known Apocynaceae Shrub Changlang district. Common in tropical and Roots Black Seeds and
sub-tropical forests between 600 and 1500 m and bark stem cuttings
Phaius tankervilliae Not known Orchidaceae Orchid Widely distributed in Arunachal Pradesh in humus Leaves Indigo Rhizomes
(Ait.) Bl laden forest floor in sub-tropical zone. Chongkham and
area of Lohit district flowers
Pinus wallichiana Tongschi, Pinaceae Tree Widely distributed in sub-tropical, temperate zones in Bark Black Cones
A. B. Jackson Lamshing (M) West Kameng and Tawang districts in between 2000
and 3500 m forming extensive pine forests
Polygonum hydropiper Chhum-gon Polygonaceae Herb Common, predominant in agricultural fields in tropical Whole Blue black Seeds
Linn (M) and sub-tropical regions up to 600 m plant
Punica granatum Linn Dalim (A) Punicaceae Shrub Common and cultivated in tropical and subtropical Flower Deep blue Seeds and
regions between 500 and 700 m. West Kameng district and fruits and black stem cuttings
(continued)
89
Table 6.2 (continued)
90

Parts Color
Species Local name Family Habitat Distribution and habitat used produced Regeneration
Pyrus pashia D. Don Semo (Apa) Rosaceae Tree Open forests and in village outskirts in Subansiri Fruits Black Seeds
Naspati (A) district between 1600 and 1800 m
Rubia cordifolia Linn Lining-Ru Rubiaceae Hispid West Kameng, Tawang and Lower Subansiri districts Whole Red Seeds and
(M) Tamen climber between 1500 and 3500 m in primary, secondary plant branch lets
(Adi) forests and along forest margins
Rubia sikkimensis Kurz Not known Rubiaceae Herb Changlang, Kameng, Lohit and Siang districts Whole Red Seeds and
between 500 and 1500 m on moist soil plant branch lets
Sapium baccatum Roxb Seleng (A) Euphorbiaceae Tree Namdapha National Park, Changlang district. Leaves Blackish Seeds
Confined to North East India in tropical evergreen green
forests below 1000 m
Solanum indicum Linn Bhekuri (A) Solanaceae Shrub Chongkham and Lohit districts wild and gregarious in Half ripe Black Seeds
shady wastelands fruits
Symplocos paniculata Parehangne Symplocaceae Shrub, Eastern Himalayas in primary and secondary forests Bark Yellow Seeds and
(Thumb.) Miq (N) tree stem cuttings
Syzygium cumini Linn Barjamuk (A) Myrtaceae Tree Changlang, Lohit and Tirap districts. Well distributed Bark and Black Seeds and
Jankeng-asing in tropical primary forests all over India fruits stem cuttings
(Adi)
Tephrosia candida Bilokhoni (A) Fabaceae Shrub Changlang, Subansiri and Tirap districts in tropical Leaves Dark blue Seeds and
(Roxb.) D.C evergreen forests between 300 and 1100 m stem cuttings
Terminalia chebula Hilikha (A) Combrataceae Tree Endemic to North East India at lower elevation in Root and Dark blue Seeds
(Gaertn.) Retz Likkkha deciduous and tropical evergreen forests bark
(Nocte)
Woodfordia fruticosa Chot-tingba Lythraceace Shrub Wild in Tenga Valley, West Kameng district at Flowers Reddish Seeds
Kurz (M) 300–1400 m in subtropical forests yellowish
H. Das and D. Kalita
6 Fibers and Dye Yielding Plants of North East India 91

Mode of preparation and uses: A golden also offered to God on Manipuri New
yellow dye is extracted from the flowers Year’s Day.
using different extraction techniques. The 14. Melanorrhoea usitata Wall.
flowers especially the petals are collected (Anacardiaceae);
and kept until they become decayed or Local name- Khe-U
fermented. The decayed or fermented petals Mode of preparation and uses: An oily black-
are mixed with water and filtered and used ish dye is obtained from the woods and roots.
for dyeing of cotton and silk clothes, and also The tree is used for furniture as it gives
in painting. natural colour.
8. Celosia argentea Linn. (Amaranthaceae) 15. Melastoma malabathricum Linn.
Local name-Haorei angangba (Melastomataceae);
Mode of preparation and uses: A pink red is Local name- Yachubi
obtained from the flowers and is used for Mode of preparation and uses: The dark
painting. blackish red fruits of the plant were basically
9. Clerodendrum odoratum D. Don used for staining teeth in olden days by the
(Verbenaceae); Meitei and the Maring tribes of Manipur. It
Local name- Kuthap strengthened the teeth and protect from gum
Mode of preparation and uses: A pale green diseases and cavities. However, the method
dye is obtained from the leaves. The fresh that can be successfully employed for the
leaves are crushed and boiled in water until extraction of dye from the fruit in a similar
the dye is fairly concentrated. After cooling, way as that employed for other dye plants is
acidic dye mordants are added before use. documented, where the ripe fruit is boiled in
Then, the cloth or thread to be dyed is soaked water and filtered.
overnight. 16. Pasania pachyphylla (Kurz.) Schottky
10. Clitoria ternatea Linn. (Papilionaceae) (Fagaceae)
Local name- Aprajita Local name- Kuhi
Mode of preparation and uses: A blue dye is Mode of preparation and uses: The Bark has
obtained from the dried flowers by extracting been used as a source of reddish-brown to
with water and the dye is used for painting. brown dye. Though its main use is as fire-
11. Curcuma domestica Valeton syn. C. longa wood, the brown dyes from its bark extract
Linn. (Zingiberaceae) have been used in potteries and in
Local name- Yaingang fishing nets.
Mode of preparation and uses: A yellow dye 17. Solanum incidum Linn. (Solanaceae)
is obtained from the rhizomes which are Local name- Khamu
crushed into pieces and allowed to soak in Mode of preparation and uses: Purple dye
water. By adding lime water or alkali, a red was prepared from the plant was used for
dye could also be obtained. making the artistic design of Khamenchappa
12. Emblica officinalis Gaertn. (Euphorbiaceae) (a specific cloth which was reserved for the
Local name- Heikru use of kings and noblemen). The ripen fruits
Mode of preparation and uses: A black dye is of Khamu are made into pieces or powdered
obtained from the barks or fruits which are to which water is added (about 1 L of water
soaked in water for 4–5 days or boiled. The into half kilogram of the sample). The solu-
dye is used for dyeing fishing net. tion is stirred with the help of a wooden
13. Iris bakeri Wall. (Iridaceae) spoon or stick. The solution is kept for
Local name- Komberei about 6 h and is then filtered using a coarse
Mode of preparation and uses: A blue colour cloth. The filtrate could be used as such or it
is obtained from the flowers. The flowers are is concentrated. To make the dye fast in
92 H. Das and D. Kalita

colour, a mordant usually an alkaline mor- 20. Averrhoea carambela Linn. (Oxalidaceae)
dant derived from the plant, Achyranthus Local name: Heinoujom
aspera (Khuchumpere) could be added. The Mode of preparation and uses: Mature fruits
alkaline mordant is obtained as ash by burn- are taken and its juice is squeezed into the
ing the plant. The ash solution of the mor- water containing tub. It is used as a good
dant and the solution of Khamu are mixed in adhesive to the Ureirom (Bixa orellana) dye
equal amounts and the mixture is boiled till (Akimpou et al. 2005).
the desired colour is obtained. Khamu-dye is
usually used for dyeing turban, dhoti and
chadar which are used by noblemen. It is
also used as dance costume of Lai-Haraoba 6.9.3 Assam
(festival of worshipping Gods), martial arts
and sports like wrestling (Mukna), Polo Assam is one of the biodiversity hotspots that
(Sagol Kangjei), and hunting games occupies a special place in Northeastern India is
(Bahadur 1997). located between 24 440 N to 27 450 N latitude and
18. Strobilanthes flaccidifolius Nees. syn. 89 410 E to 96 020 E longitude covering 2.4 %
S. cusia (Nees) Imlay (Acanthaceae) (i.e. 78,438 km2) of the geographical area. The
Local name-Kum fiber yielding plant (Table 6.3) is used in the
Mode of preparation and uses: Mature leaves manufacture of strong ropes, twines and cordage,
are collected and soaked in a pitcher (Andro cheap and rough textiles such as blankets,
chaphu) containing water and covered with carpets, hessian-like cloth, galicha, mats,
clothes. The pitcher is then kept at the corner mattresses and, manufacture of fine textiles, the
of the open room where proper air and light fiber is also used in the manufacture of straw
(not direct sun light) are available, kept boards, writing paper parchment paper, cigarette
undisturbed until the leaves get completely paper, toys etc. (Dr. Balakrishna Gowda). Indig-
decayed. The pitcher is uncovered and enous handloom textile is intrinsically associated
stirred with a multi-pronged stick known as with social and cultural life of ethnic groups of
“Yakabi or Kumsu-chei”. Solid things are Assam. Every community of the state has their
removed while stirring. Then Kum-sunu own dresses dyed with indigenous herbal dyes
(ashes taken from burning Oysters) is added (Table 6.4). Although, use of herbal dye is no
and stirred continuously. At this stage, longer commonly practiced but preparation of
bubbles are formed, which are removed dye from locally available plants to dye their
with soft things like feather, etc. Now the silk, cotton and woollen yarns and garments
kum liquid is ready for dyeing clothes or was the only option in the absence of chemical
threads and mainly used to dye black colour dyes a few decades back. However, in many
(Akimpou et al. 2005). remote areas, vegetable dyes are still in use in
19. Tectona grandis Linn.f. (Verbenaceae) many parts of Assam (Kar and Borthakur 2008).
Local name: Chingsu
Mode of preparation and uses: Leaves or barks 6.9.4 Mizoram
are cut into pieces and soaked for about
2–3 days in water. Clothes or yarn threads In north-east India particularly in the state of
which are dipped into this dye gives somewhat Mizoram, there is conspicuous lack of statistics
reddish colour (Akimpou et al. 2005). on the non-timber forest products even though
6 Fibers and Dye Yielding Plants of North East India 93

Table 6.3 Some of fiber yielding plants of Assam

Vernacular
Plant/family name Uses
Gossypium Kapah Fiber is used in textile industry
sp. (Malvaceae)
Boehmeria nivea Rhea Fiber is used for products requiring exceptional strength and is used to make
(Urticaceae) such products as industrial sewing thread, packing materials, fishing nets
etc.
Agave sisalana Perr. Sisal Fibers used for floor mats, rope, tea bags etc.
(Amaryllidaceae)
Hibiscus sabdariffa Chukiar Fiber is employed for sacking, cordage, rope, fishing nets and generally for
(Malvaceae) all purposes for which jute is used. Bags made of this fiber are extensively
employed in Java for packing sugar. The stalks left over after extractions are
used as a fuel
Bauhinia vahlii Nak kati Fiber is obtained from stem bark. Fiber is used for making ropes, threads etc.
(Caesalpiniaceae) lewa Leaves used as a fodder for cattle and making leaf plates. Seeds edible and
bark used for dyeing and tanning (Sahu et al. 2013)
Cocos nucifera Naricool Only fruit from which fiber is extracted; used in ropes, doormats mattresses,
(Arecaceae) twins etc.
Musa sp. (Musaceae) Kol Fibers extracted from pseudo stem, used for clothing, cigarette filters,
teabags, rope etc.
Corchorus Pata Fiber extracted from stems, fiber used for burlap, rope, carpet backing etc.
sp. (Malvaceae)
Ananas comosus Matikothal Fibers extracted from leaf and used mainly textile, mats etc.
(Bromeliaceae)

these form an important area of research owing were also known as Comilla cotton. The variety
to the fact that the state is located in one of the D. 46-2-1 belonging to the Gossypium arboreum
12 Mega biodiversity Hotspots of the world has a good market as short staple cotton, which is
(Myers et al. 2000) with high degree of ende- also used sometimes for mixing with wool.
mism but under severe anthropogenic threats.

6.9.6 Nagaland
6.9.5 Meghalaya
In Northeast India, the areas occupied by the
The state of Meghalaya is mountainous, with Nagaland considered as one of the most biodi-
stretches of valley and highland plateaus, and it verse in this biodiversity hotspot region. Follow-
is geologically rich. Cotton (Gossypium ing species are used as dye by the ethnic group of
hirsutum, G. barbadense, G. arboreum and Nagaland. This includes three species of
G. harbaceum), Jute (Corchorus capsularis and Acanthaceae family i.e. Acanthus leucostachys
C.olitorious) and Mesta (Hisbiscus Sabdariffa Wall., Strobilanthes cusia (Nees) Imlay,
and Hibiscus Cannabinus) are the important Strobilanthes decurrens T. Anders, two species
fiber crops grown in the State. These crops have of Ericaceae, Fagaceae, Papilionaceae and
been the traditional cash crops of Garo Hills. verbenaceae family, one species of Apo-
Among these, Cotton has the highest area under cynaceae, Asteraceae, Averrhoeaceae, Bixaceae,
cultivation and is grown exclusively in the Garo Buddlejaceae, Caesalpiniaceae, Clusiaceae,
Hills districts. It is also widely known in the Combretaceae, Cuscutaceae, Ebenaceae, Jug-
country and was marketed during the landaceae, Loganiaceae, Magnoliaceae, Melia-
pre-independence period through the Comilla ceae, Mimosaceae, Moraceae, Myrsinaceae,
market. As such, the Garo hills varieties of cotton Myrtaceae, Plumbaginaceae, Polygonaceae,
94 H. Das and D. Kalita

Table 6.4 Some of dye yielding plant of Assam (Kar and Borthakur 2008)
Parts yielding dye and
Plant name (family) Local name method of preparation Colour
Acacia catechu Willd. (Mimosaceae) Khoyar Dry stem bark mixed with Blackish
(Assamese) slakes lime boiled in water brown
Adina cordifolia Kelikadam Chips of heart wood boiled Yellow
Benth. and Hook.f. (Rubiaceae) (Assamese) in water
Aegle marmelos Correa ex Roxb. (Rutaceae) Bel Crushed fruit shell boiled in Yellow
(Assamese) water
Albizia odoratissima Benth. (Mimosaceae) Jatikoroi Fresh stem bark boiled in Brick red
(Assamese) water
Artocarpus lakoocha Roxb. (Moraceae) Ingtat arong Chips heart wood boiled in Yellow
(Karbi) water
Baphicacanthus cusia (Nees) Brem. (Acanthaceae) Sibu (Karbi) Dry leaves and stem powder Dark
mixed with hot water indigo
Basella alba L. (Basellaceae) Rongapuroi Fresh ripe fruit mixed with Maroon
(Assamese) alum
Bauhinia purpurea L. (Caesalpiniaceae) Kurial (Deori) Stem bark boiled with slake Yellow
lime
Berberis aristata DC. (Berberidaceae) Kath halodi Stem boiled in water Yellow
(Assamese)
Bixa orellana L. (Bixaceae) Jorot Dry seed powder mixed with Orange
(Assamese) slake lime
Butea monosperma (Lam.) Kuntze (Papilionaceae) Polash Dry flower powder mixed Yellow
(Assamese) with slake lime
Caesalpinia sappan L. (Caesalpiniaceae) Bakam Stem bark and heart wood Red
(Assamese) decoction in water with iron black
Croton joufra Roxb. (Euphorbiaceae) Gosmahudi Fresh leaf paste Blue
(Mishing)
Curcuma domestica Valeton (Zingiberaceae) Haludi Rhizome boiled in water Yellow
(Assamese) with slakes lime
Delonix regia Raf. (Caesalpiniaceae) Radha sura Gum mixed with alum Yellow
(Assamese)
Eclipta prostrate Linn. (Asteraceae) Keheraj Fresh plant paste Black
(Assamese)
Emblica officinalis Geartn. (Euphorbiaceae) Rong goch Leaf paste mixed with alum Black
(Assamese)
Emblica officinalis (Euphorbiaceae) Amla Dry fruits of both the plants Black
(Assamese) boiled in water
Terminalia chebula (Combretaceae) Silikha
(Assamese)
Ervatamia divaricata (Linn.) Alston (Apocynaceae) Togor Fruit pulp around the seeds Yellow
(Assamese) boiled in water
Garcinia morella Desr. (Clusiaceae) Kuji thkera Gum from ripe fruit mixed Yellow
(Assamese) with alum
Garcinia xanthochymus Hk. f. (Clusiaceae) Teportenga Stem bark and fruit gum Yellow
(Assamese) grinded and boiled in water
Gossypium herbaceum L. (Malvaceae) Kopah Fresh flowers paste Yellow
(Assamese)
Impatiens balsamina L. (Balsaminaceae) Ushahul Stem and leaves crushed into Orange
(Bodo) paste. Flower paste used Red
Indigofera tinctoria L. (Papilionaceae) Sibu (Karbi) Leaves and twigs paste Blue
mixed with slake lime
Lawsonia inermis L. (Lythraceae) Jetuka Leaves crushed with leaves Bluish-
(Assamese) of Indigofera tinctoria for black
paste
(continued)
6 Fibers and Dye Yielding Plants of North East India 95

Table 6.4 (continued)

Parts yielding dye and
Plant name (family) Local name method of preparation Colour
Mallotus philippensis Gongai Ripe fruits crushed and Orange
(Lamk. Muell.- Arg. (Euphorbiaceae) (Deori) boiled in water
Mangifera indica L. (Anacardiaceae) Psidium guajava Aam Madhuri Dried stem bark of all the Black
L. (Myrtaceae) Terminalia chebula Retz. four plants powdered and
(Combretaceae) boiled
Syzygium cuminii (L.) Skeels (Myrtaceae) Hilikha Jamun
(Assamese)
Mirabilis jalapa L (Nyctaginaceae) Godhuli gopal Flower paste boiled in water Red
(Assamese)
Morinda angustifolia Roxb. (Rubiaceae) Achu Stem chips treated with Red,
(Assamese) lime. Root and slake lime yellow
boiled in water
Mussaenda frondosa L. (Rubiaceae) Chubaiata Leaves boiled in water Yellow
(Assamese)
Myrica esculenta Buch.-Ham. (Myricaceae) Noga tenga Stem bark boiled with slake Yellow
(Assamese) lime
Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. (Nyctanthaceae) Sewali Fresh flower paste boiled in Orange
(Assamese) water to which alum is
added
Piper betle L. (Piperaceae) Pan Leaves and root paste mixed Blue
(Assamese) with slake lime
Poinsettia pulcherrima Graham (Euphorbiaceae) Rongapotia Flower boiled in water with Red
gos alum
(Assamese)
Pterospermum lanceaefolium Roxb. (Sterculiaceae) Bonbogori Stem bark, leaves, gum Orange
(Assamese) grinded and boiled in water
Rauvolfia tetraphylla L. (Apocynaceae) Arsontita Fruit juice mixed with alum Black
(Bodo)
Rubia cordifolia L. (Rubiaceae) Majathi Root crushed by adding Red
(Assamese) water
Sarcochlamys pulcherrima Gaud. (Urticaceae) Mesaki Jati Leaves and stem bark boiled Dark
koroi in water brown
(Assamese)
Symplocos cochnichinensis Moore (Symplocaceae) Noga Leaves and stem bark boiled Yellow
bhomloti in water
(Assamese)
Symplocos oxyphylla Wall. (Symplocaceae) Tam tingali Stem bark boiled in water Yellow
(Assamese)
Syzygium cuminii (L.) Skeels (Myrtaceae) Jamun Stem bark boiled in water Black
(Assamese) and slake lime
Tectona grandis L.f. (Verbenaceae) Sagoon Stem bark boiled in water to Yellow
(Assamese) produce dye
Terminalia catappa L. (Combretaceae) Silikha Fruit with alum boiled in Black
(Assamese) water
Trema orientalis Blume. (Ulmaceae) Machmai Stem bark boiled in water Brown
(Assamese)
Trifolium pratense L. (Papilioinaceae) Rongalong Flowers boiled with alum Yellow
(Assamese)
Woodfordia fruticosa Kurz (Lythraceae) Dhaiphool Flowers paste in little water Reddish
(Assamese) yellow
96 H. Das and D. Kalita

Table 6.5 Some of fiber yielding plant of Sikkim

Plant
part
Plant Family Vernacular name used Uses
Eulaliopsis binata Poaceae Sabai grass Leaf Broom, ropes, threads and matting
Grewia optiva Tiliaceae Bhimal Stem Used as orange cordage and in manufacturing
bark paper
Laportea Urticaceae Morungay; Stem Making ropes
crenulata Ongyalop bark
Pandanus Pandanaceae Keura, Ketki, Leaf Basket, decorative box, mat, sandal, eyeglass
odoratissimus Ketaki case, etc.
Pueraria tuberosa Fabaceae Bidarikand, Stem Rope-making
Saral, Siralu bark
Saccharum Poaceae Bagdya, Munj, Leaf Making Pullas (traditional carpet), thatching
spontaneum Kansh, Kasa roofs and religious purposes
Sterculia villosa Sterculiaceae Odal, Stem Making ropes
Kanhlyemkung bark
Wikstroemia Thymelaeaceae Dhawe, Stem Strong cordage material; manufacturing of
canescens Meissn Chamliya bark rice paper
Agave sisalana Agavaceae Sotabdi goch, Leaf Rope, cap, bag, carpet, etc.
Sisal
Bauhinia vahlii Caesalpiniaceae Kariyala, Malu, Stem For making ropes, threads, etc.
Maljan bark
Betula utilis Betulaceae Bhojpatra, Birch Stem Stem bark used as paper for writing
bark

Punicaceae, Rubiaceae, Solanaceae, Theaceae, 6.9.8 Tripura

Zingiberaceae (Neli et al. 2014).
Tripura, a small state (10,169 km2) located in the
North East, is surrounded in the three sides by the
international border with Bangladesh. This small
6.9.7 Sikkim hilly land locked state shares the fate of hilly
terrain, difficult topography, and remote inacces-
Sikkim is a small multi-ethnic State, located on sible places like the other seven sisters of North
the Eastern Himalaya covering a geographical East India. But similarly the State also shares a
area of 7096 km2. The temperate eco-region very rich biodiversity and is a treasure of natural
extends from 3000 to 4000 m with mixed conif- resources especially, plant species. Although, the
erous forests of Hemlock, spruce, pine, fir and state occupies 0.32 % area of India but accounts
junipers with shrubby undergrowth of Rhododen- for 12.78 % of the plant resources species found in
dron and Arundinaria. Wild edible cum dye plant the country. Scientific studies have revealed that it
Seabuckthorn (Hippophae sp.) and fiber yielding possesses 1545 plant species. The State also has
plants (Table 6.5) are also found. 24 species of orchids and 266 species of medicinal
Dye yielding plants are also available in plants. Scientific study has also shown that the
Sikkim which is used by different tribes. Some Maximum Plant Diversity Index lies at 5.23; one
of dyed yielding presented in Table 6.6. of the highest in India (Bhattacharjee 2012).
6 Fibers and Dye Yielding Plants of North East India 97

Table 6.6 Some plant based dyes used in Sikkim Himalaya (Sundriya et al. 1998)
Plant species Local name Family
Abies webbiana Gobray salla Pinaceae
Ailanthus grandis Gokool Simarubaceae
Alnus nepalensis Utish Betulaceae
Bauhinia purpurea Tanki Caesalpiniaceae
Betula utilis Bhojpatra Betulaceae
Castanopsis hystrix Jat katus Fagaceae
C. indica Dhalne katus Fagaceae
C. tribuloides Masure katus Fagaceae
Celtis tetrandra Khari Ulmaceae
Duabanga drandiflora Lampate Sonneratiaceae
Engelhardtia spicata Mahuwa Juglandaceae
Ficus cunia Khaniu Moraceae
F. hirta Khasrey Moraceae
F. hookerii Nebara Moraceae
F. nemoralis Dudhilo Moraceae
F. roxburghii Nebara Moraceae
Juglans regia Okhar Juglandaceae
Litsaea polyantha Kutmero Lauraceae
Macranga pustulata Malata Euphorbiaceae
Magnolia campbellii Ghogechanp Magnoliaceae
Michelia excels Ranichanp Magnoliaceae
M. lanuginose Phusrechanp Magnoliaceae
Quercus lamellose Book Fagaceae
Q. fenestrate Arkhaulo Fagaceae
Q. spicata Arkhaulo Fagaceae
Rhododendron grande Patleykurlingo Ericaceae
R. campanulatum Kurlingo Ericaceae
Saurauia napaulensis Gugun Sarauiaceae
Schima wallichii Chilaune Theaceae
Shorea robusta Sal Dipterocarpaceae
Symingtonia populnea Pipli Hamamelidaceae
Symplocos theifolia Kharane Theaceae
Terminalia myriocarpa Panisaj Combretaceae
T. tomentosa Pakhasaj Combretaceae
Toona ciliate Tuni Meliaceae

considered for sustainability, conservation and

6.10 Conclusions value based selection of use pattern. As a whole
systematic approaches with scientific attitude
In the modern phases of development, dyes have would help the conservation of economically
become the most important resources, owing to important plant as well as indigenous knowledge
their diverse utilization. Natural fibers replace base available in North East India.
synthetic fiber due its comfort, availability, bio-
degradable, environmental friendly in nature.
Indigenous traditional knowledge on various Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the
Director, CSIR-North East Institute of Science and Tech-
resources including dye and fiber yielding plants nology, Jorhat for his kind permission to publish this book
is very essential for rural based development and chapter. HD thankfully acknowledge UGC for RGNF to
provided proper precautionary measures are carry out the research work at CSIR-NEIST, Jorhat.
98 H. Das and D. Kalita

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