PHILIPPINE POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE

 Concept of Political Science, State, Politics, Government, Governance and Administration

Political Science it is the systematic study of and reflection upon politics. Politics usually describes the processes by which
people and institutions exercise and resist power. Political Science is the systematic study of the state and
government.The word political is derived from the Greek polis, meaning a city, of what today would be equivalent of
sovereign state. Science comes from the Latin scire, “to know”

Scope of Political Science:

1. Political theory

2. Public Law

3. Public Administration

Political Theory- It refers to the entire body of doctrines relating to the origin, form, behaviour, and purposes of the
state are dealt with the study of political theory.

Public Law – the (a) organization of governments, (b) the limitations upon government authority, (c) the powers and
duties of governmental offices and officers, and (d) the obligations of one state to another are handled in the study of
public law.

Private Laws are the one which govern the relations among individuals, public law is so specialized that separate
courses offered in each of its subdivisions, namely: (a) constitutional law, (b) administrative law, and (c) international
Law.

Public Administration - attention is focused upon methods and techniques used in the actual management of the state
affairs by executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government.

Legislative bodies have been forced to delegate greater discretion to executive officers responsible for the conduct of
government policies and powers. Thus we find many administrative agencies exercising quasi-legislative and
quasi-judicial powers.

 Interrelationship of Political Science with other branches of learning:

1. History “History is past politics and politics is present history.”

Political Scientist adopts a “historical approach and employs knowledge of the past when he seeks to interpret present
and probable developments in political phenomena.

2. Economics- refers to the study of production, distribution, and conservation, and consumption of wealth.

Political Scientist adopts an “economic approach” when seeking to interpret matters like public financial policies and
government regulation of business.

3. Geography Geopolitics

It is concerned with the study of the influences of physical factors such as population pressures, sources of raw
materials, geography, etc. Upon domestic and foreign politics.

4. Sociology & anthropology

 It is deeply concerned with the origins and nature of social control and governmental authority, with the abiding
influences of race and culture upon society, & with the patterns of collective human behavior.

5. Psychology

It promotes studies of the mental and emotional processes motivating the political behavior of individuals and
groups. Particular topics under this are: public opinion, pressure groups, and propaganda.

6. Philosophy

The concepts and doctrines of Plato, Aristotle & Locke are important to the specialist in academic philosophy and
also to the political scientist.

 Concepts of State

Meaning of the State- state is a community of persons more or less numerous, permanently occupying a definite
portion of territory, having a government of their own to which the great body of inhabitants render obedience, and
enjoying freedom from external control.

Elements of State:

1. People

2. Territory

3. Government

4. Sovereignty

5. Recognition

1. People

This refers to the mass of population living within the state. There is no requirement as to the number of people
that should compose a state. But it should be neither too small nor too large: small enough to be well-governed and
large enough to be self-sufficing. The smallest state is Vatican. China has the largest population.

2. Territory

Components of Territory:

1. Terrestrial/land mass

2. Aerial

3. Fluvial

4. Maritime Domain

The smallest state is Vatican State with an area of 0.43 square kilometres. It would fit in Rizal Park in Manila. The
biggest state is Canada with an area of 3,852,000 square miles which covers a surface nearly as large as Europe.

The Philippines has a total land area of about 115,707 square miles .

3. Government- refers to the agency through which the will of the state is formulated, expressed and carried out.

4. Sovereignty refers to the supreme power of the state to command and enforce obedience to its will from people
within its jurisdiction, and to have freedom from foreign control.

Two manifestations of Sovereignty:

 Internal or the power of the state to rule within its territory;

 External or the freedom of the state to carry out its activities without subjection or control by other states. External
sovereignty is often referred to as independence. These internal and external aspects of sovereignty are not
absolutely true in practice because of the development of international relations and consequently international
law.

5. Recognition

 Legal sovereignty is the possession of unlimited power to make laws. It is the authority by which law has the power
to issue commands.

 Political sovereignty is the sum total of all the influences in a state which lie behind the law. It is roughly defined as
the power of the people.

What is imperium? Dominium?

 Imperium is the right of the State to pass or enact its own laws and employ force to secure obedience thereto,
maintain peace and order within its territorial limits, defend the State against foreign invasion, and do any other act
of government over its people and territory.

 Dominium refers to the independent proprietary right of possession, use, conservation, disposition or sale, and
control by the State over its territorial lands.

How do you treat the Claim of the Philippines Over Sabah? Is it Imperium or Dominium?

Answer:It is both imperium and dominium. We seek to own exclusively Sabah and in so owning, we have to exercise our
sovereignty to govern the same.

Characteristics of Sovereignty

 Permanence means it exist in the same form forever or for a very long time.

 Exclusivity means it is limited to a group of people

 Comprehensiveness means including everything, so as to be complete comprehensive knowledge of the subject.

 Absoluteness means possessing unlimited power: having total power and authority.

 Individuality means the state or condition of being separate from others.

 Inalienability means it is impossible to take away or not able to be transferred or taken away, e.g. because of
being protected by law.

 Imprescritibility it means not to be taken away or impossible to remove or violate the people's imprescriptible
rights.

GOVERNMENT

Forms of Government:

The principal forms are the following:

1.As to number of persons exercising sovereign powers;

2. As to extent of powers exercised by the central or national government;

3. As to relationship between the executive and the legislative branches of the government;

4. As to source of power or authority:

1. As to number of persons exercising sovereign powers:

A. Government by one

A1) Monarchy or one in which the supreme and final authority is in the hands of a single person without regard to the
source of his election or the nature or duration of his tenure. Monarchies are further classified into:
Monarchy, form of government in which one person has the hereditary right to rule as head of state during his or her
lifetime; the term is also applied to the state so governed.

Monarchs include such rulers as kings and queens, emperors and empresses, tsars, and kaisers.

Two types of Monarchical government:

1. Absolute Monarchy or one in which the ruler rules by divine right; and

2. Limited monarchy or one in which the ruler rules in accordance with a constitution.

The power of the monarch varies from absolute to very limited; the latter is exemplified in modern-day constitutional
monarchies.

A2 Authoritarian or one in which the supreme power of the dictator whose power is usually through force.

1. strict and demanding obedience: favoring strict rules and established authority;

2. demanding political obedience: belonging to or believing in a political system in which obedience to the ruling
person or group is strongly enforced.

B. Government by few

B1 Aristocracy or one in which political power is exercised by few privileged class.

1. people of highest social class: people of noble families or the highest social class

2. superior group: a group believed to be superior to all others of the same kind

3. government by elite: government of a country by a small group of people, especially a hereditary nobility

4. state run by elite: a state governed by an aristocracy.

B2 Oligarchy

1. small governing group: a small group of people who together govern a nation or control an organization, often for
their own purposes;

2. entity ruled by oligarchy: a nation governed or an organization controlled by an oligarchy;

3. government by small group: government or control by a small group of people.

Sources of their power:

1. By birth 2. By wealth 3. By wisdom

In an aristocracy, although the power of government is wielded by a few, theoretically the administration of
government is carried on for the welfare of the many. Whenever the interests of the people as a whole are made
subservient to the selfish interests of the rulers, aristocracy becomes a form of government known as oligarchy.

C. Government by many

C1 Democracy or one in which political power is exercised by the majority of the people. It is further classified
into:

C1.1 Direct or pure democracy or one in which the will of the state is formulated or expressed directly and immediately
through the people in a mass meeting or primary assembly rather than through the medium of representatives chosen
by the people to act for them.

C1.2 Indirect, representative or republican democracy or one in which the will of the state is formulated and expressed
through the agency of a relatively small and select body of persons chosen by the people to act as their representatives.

2. As to extent of powers exercised by the central or national government:

A. Unitary government or one in which the control of national and local affairs is exercised by the national government;

B. Federal government or one in which the powers of government are divided between two sets of organs, one for
national affairs and the other for local affairs, each organ being supreme within its own sphere.
Distinction between Federal & Unitary Government

Federal states, such as the U.S. and Switzerland, comprise unions of states in which the authority of the central
or national government is constitutionally limited by the legally established powers of the constituent subdivisions.

In unitary states, such as the United Kingdom and Belgium, the constituent subdivisions of the state are
subordinate to the authority of the national government.

Countries with federal political systems have both a central government and governments based in smaller political
units, usually called states, provinces, or territories. These smaller political units surrender some of their political power
to the central government, relying on it to act for the common good. In a federal system, laws are made both by state,
provincial, or territorial governments and by a central government. In the United States, for example, people who live in
the state of Ohio must obey the laws made by the Ohio legislature and the Congress of the United States.

Federal political systems divide power and resources between central and regional governments. Central governments
decide issues that concern the whole country, such as organizing an army, building major roads, and making treaties
with other countries.

In unitary systems, with laws giving virtually all authority to the central government. The central government may
delegate duties o cities or other administrative units, but it retains final authority and can retract any tasks it has
delegated.

The central government in a unitary system is much more powerful than the central government in a federal system.

3. As to relationship between the executive and the legislative branches of the government:

A. Parliamentary government or cabinet gov’t. is one in which the executive and legislative branch of the government
are dependent or executive branch is part of the legislative branch.

B. Presidential government or one in which the state makes the executive independent from the legislative.

Distinctions bet. Presidential & Parliamentary

In parliamentary governments, of which the United Kingdom, India, and Canada are examples, the executive
branch is subordinate to the legislature.

In presidential governments, such as in the U.S., the executive is independent of the legislature, although many
of the executive's actions are subject to legislative review.

As to source of power or authority:

A. De facto is one not so constituted or founded with the existing constitution but has the general support of the people
and has effective control of the territory over which it exercises its powers.

B. De Jure is one which is constituted or founded in accordance with the existing constitution of the state but has no
control of the territory.

C. Hereditary & Elective

 Checks and Balances, the doctrine and practice of dispersing political power and creating mutual accountability
among political entities such as the courts, the president or prime minister, the legislature, and the citizens.
The system of checks and balances is a basic feature of the United States government. The first check comes from the
fact that different branches of the government have overlapping authority, so each branch can act as a limit on the
other. For example, the president can veto an act of Congress. A two-thirds majority in Congress can then override the
president’s veto. The president appoints major federal officials, but only if the Senate by majority vote agrees.

Separation of Powers, the doctrine and practice of dividing the powers of a government among different branches to
guard against abuse of authority. A government of separated powers assigns different political and legal powers to the
legislative, executive, and judicial branches. The legislative branch has the power to make laws. The executive branch
has the authority to administer the law—primarily by bringing lawbreakers to trial—and to appoint officials and oversee
the administration of government responsibilities.The judicial branch has the power to try cases brought to court and to
interpret the meaning of laws under which the trials are conducted.

A government of separated powers is less likely to be tyrannical and more likely to follow the rule of law: the principle
that government action must be constrained by laws.

A separation of powers can also make a political system more democratic by making it more difficult for a single ruler,
such as a monarch or a president, to become dictatorial. The division of powers also prevents one branch of
government from dominating the others or dictating the laws to the public. Most democratic systems have some degree
of separation of powers.

POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES

 Liberalism, attitude, philosophy, or movement that has as its basic concern the development of personal freedom
and social progress. The course of liberalism in a given country is usually conditioned by the character of the
prevailing form of government.

For example, in countries in which the political and religious authorities are separate, liberalism connotes, mainly,
political, economic, and social reform.

In countries in which a state church exists or a church is politically influential, liberalism connotes, mainly, anticlericalism.
In domestic politics, liberals have opposed feudal restraints that prevent the individual from rising out of a low social
status; barriers such as censorship that limit free expression of opinion; and arbitrary power exercised over the individual
by the state. In international politics, liberals have opposed the domination of foreign policy by militarists and military
considerations and the exploitation of native colonial people, and they have sought to substitute a cosmopolitan policy
of international cooperation.

In economics, liberals have attacked monopolies and mercantilist state policies that subject the economy to
state control.

In religion, liberals have fought against church interference in the affairs of the state and attempts by religious pressure
groups to influence public opinion

 Conservatism, a general state of mind that is averse to rapid change and innovation and strives for balance and
order, while avoiding extremes. Originally conservatism arose as a reaction against the Age of Enlightenment.
Conservatives advocated belief in faith over reason, tradition over free inquiry, hierarchy over equality, collective
values over individualism, and divine or natural law over secular law.

Conservatism emphasizes the merits of the status quo and endorses the prevailing distribution of power, wealth, and
social standing.

 Democracy (Greek demos,”

the people”; kratein, “to rule”), political system in which the people of a country rule through any form of government
they choose to establish. In modern democracies, supreme authority is exercised for the most part by representatives
elected by popular suffrage.

The representatives may be supplanted by the electorate according to the legal procedures of recall and referendum,
and they are, at least in principle, responsible to the electorate.

 Socialism, economic and social doctrine, political movement inspired by this doctrine, and system or order
established when this doctrine is organized in a society. The socialist doctrine demands state ownership and control
of the fundamental means of production and distribution of wealth, to be achieved by reconstruction of the existing
capitalist or other political system of a country through peaceful, democratic, and parliamentary means.

The doctrine specifically advocates nationalization of natural resources, basic industries, banking and credit facilities,
and public utilities. It places special emphasis on the nationalization of monopolized branches of industry and trade,
viewing monopolies as inimical to the public welfare. It also advocates state ownership of corporations in which the
ownership function has passed from stockholders to managerial personnel.

 Capitalism, economic system in which private individuals and business firms carry on the production and exchange
of goods and services through a complex network of prices and markets. Capital in this sense means the buildings,
machines, and other equipment used to produce goods and services that are ultimately consumed.

Second, economic activity is organized and coordinated through the interaction of buyers and sellers (or producers) in
markets.

Third, owners of land and capital as well as the workers they employ are free to pursue their own self-interests in seeking
maximum gain from the use of their resources and labor in production.

This principle, called consumer sovereignty, reflects the idea that under capitalism producers will be forced by
competition to use their resources in ways that will best satisfy the wants of consumers. Fourth, under this system a
minimum of government supervision is required; if competition is present, economic activity will be self-regulating.

 Communism, a theory and system of social and political organization that was a major force in world politics for
much of the 20th century. As a political movement, communism sought to overthrow capitalism through a workers’
revolution and establish a system in which property is owned by the community as a whole rather than by
individuals.

In theory, communism would create a classless society of abundance and freedom, in which all people enjoy equal social
and economic status. In practice, communist regimes have taken the form of coercive, authoritarian governments that
cared little for the plight of the working class and sought above all else to preserve their own hold on power.

POLITICAL THINKERS

Ancient Political Thinkers:

Socrates

Plato

Aristotle

1. Socrates- Greek philosopher and teacher who lived in Athens, Greece, in the 400s bc. He profoundly altered Western
philosophical thought through his influence on his most famous pupil, Plato, who passed on Socrates' teachings in his
writings known as dialogues.
Socrates taught that every person has full knowledge of ultimate truth contained within the soul and needs only to be
spurred to conscious reflection in order to become aware of it. His criticism of injustice in Athenian society led to his
prosecution and a death sentence for allegedly corrupting the youth of Athens.

Attitude towards Politics

Socrates was obedient to the laws of Athens, but he generally steered clear of politics, restrained by what he believed to
be divine warning. He believed that he had received a call to pursue philosophy and could serve his country best by
devoting himself to teaching, and by persuading the Athenians to engage in self-examination and in tending to their
souls. He wrote no books and established no regular school of philosophy. All that is known with certainty about his
personality and his way of thinking is derived from the works of two of his distinguished scholars: Plato & Xenophon

2. Plato- Plato (428?-347 bc), Greek philosopher, one of the most creative and influential thinkers in Western philosophy.

He was born to an aristocratic family in Athens. His father, Ariston, was believed to have descended from the early kings
of Athens. Perictione, his mother, was distantly related to the 6th-century bc lawmaker Solon.

The Republic, Plato's major political work, is concerned with the question of justice and therefore with the questions
“what is a just state” and “who is a just individual?”

The ideal state, according to Plato, is composed of three classes. The economic structure of the state is maintained by
the merchant class. Security needs are met by the military class, and political leadership is provided by the
philosopher-kings.

3. Aristotle

Aristotle was born at Stagira, in Macedonia, the son of a physician to the royal court. At the age of 17, he went to Athens
to study at Plato's Academy.

In politics, many forms of human association can obviously be found; which one is suitable depends on circumstances,
such as the natural resources, cultural traditions, industry, and literacy of each community. Aristotle did not regard
politics as a study of ideal states in some abstract form, but rather as an examination of the way in which ideals, laws,
customs, and property interrelate in actual cases.

4. John Locke (1632-1704), English philosopher

Locke was born in the village of Wrington, Somerset, on August 29, 1632. He was educated at the University of Oxford
and lectured on Greek. Locke's views, in his Two Treatises of Government (1690), attacked the theory of divine right of
kings and the nature of the state as conceived by the English philosopher and political theorist Thomas Hobbes. Locke
argued that sovereignty did not reside in the state but with the people, and that the state is supreme, but only if it is
bound by civil and what he called “natural” law.

5. THOMAS HOBBES

He was born 1588-1679, English philosopher and political theorist (see Political Theory), one of the first modern Western
thinkers to provide a secular justification for the political state. Hobbes held that since people are fearful and predatory
they must submit to the absolute supremacy of the state, in both secular and religious matters, in order to live by reason
and gain lasting preservation.

6. Karl marx

Karl Marx (1818-1883), German political philosopher and revolutionist, cofounder with Friedrich Engels of scientific
socialism (modern communism), and, as such, one of the most influential thinkers of all times.

That the history of society is a history of struggles between exploiting and exploited, that is, between ruling and
oppressed, social classes. That the capitalist class would be overthrown and that it would be eliminated by a worldwide
working-class revolution and replaced by a classless society.
He believed that between the capitalist and communist systems of society lies the period of the revolutionary
transformation of the one into the other.

This corresponds to a political transition period, whose state can be nothing else but the revolutionary dictatorship of the
proletariat.”

7. Adam Smith

He was born in 1723-1790, British philosopher and economist. The central thesis of The Wealth of Nations is that capital
is best employed for the production and distribution of wealth under conditions of governmental non-interference, or
laissez-faire, and free trade.

In Smith's view, the production and exchange of goods can be stimulated, and a consequent rise in the general standard
of living attained, only through the efficient operations of private industrial and commercial entrepreneurs acting with a
minimum of regulation and control by governments.To explain this concept of government maintaining a laissez-faire
attitude toward commercial endeavors, Smith proclaimed the principle of the “invisible hand”

Every individual in pursuing his or her own good is led, as if by an invisible hand, to achieve the best good for all.
Therefore any interference with free competition by government is almost certain to be injurious.

Jean Jacques Rousseau. He was born on 1712 & died 1778. He is French philosopher, social and political theorist,
musician, botanist, and one of the most eloquent writers of the Age of Enlightenment.

He contributed greatly to the movement in Western Europe for individual freedom and against the absolutism of
church and state. His conception of the state as the embodiment of the abstract will of the people and his
arguments for strict enforcement of political and religious conformity are regarded by some historians as a source of
totalitarian ideology.