1450 Religion and Politics

Bohrnstedt, George W. “Reliability and Validity Assessment in Attitude

Research.” In Attitude Measurement, edited by Gene F. Summers, 80–99.
Chicago: Rand McNally, 1970.
Carmines, Edward G., and Richard A. Zeller. Reliability and Validity
Assessment. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1979.
Johnson, Janet Buttolph, and H. T. Reynolds. Political Science Research Methods.
With Jason D. Mycoff. 6th ed. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2008.
King, Gary, Robert O. Keohane, and Sidney Verba. Designing Social Inquiry:
Scientific Inference in Qualitative Research. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton
University Press, 1994.
Zeller, Richard A., and Edward G. Carmines. Measurement in the Social
Sciences:The Link between Theory and Data. New York: Cambridge
University Press, 1980.

Religion, Freedom of
See Freedom of Religion.

Religion and Politics

Religion and politics are concepts that designate two differ-
ent and interdependent subsystems of society. Although the
concepts are separated analytically, the relationship between
religion and politics is characterized by interdependence. A
definition of religion widely accepted among social scientists
is provided by Peter Berger (1967, 1999), who defines religion
as a “set of beliefs that connects the individual to a commu-
nity, and in turn to a sense of being or purpose that transcends
the individual and the mundane.” The concept of politics
denominates the regulative power to make collectively bind-
ing decisions, allocate resources, and solve social problems.
SECULARIZATION AND SECULARISM
The relationship between religion and politics experienced
a systematic restructuring in the context of the early mod- Archbishop Desmond Tutu, left, visits with African National Congress
ern secularization processes, which led to the emergence of leader Nelson Mandela shortly after Mandela’s 1990 release from
the modern secular state. While the past century has seen a prison in South Africa. Political and religious figures often interact
myriad of often contradictory usages of the concept of secu- with one another to serve their causes.

larization, most social scientists today agree, at a minimum, source: Corbis

on the historical-descriptive conception of secularization
as denominating the process of differentiation of the secular
spheres (e.g., state, law, economy, science, administration) from practices, and beliefs to the private realm. John Rawls postu-
religious institutions and norms (e.g., the transfer of persons, lated that religion be taken “off the agenda” in liberal demo-
things, meanings) from ecclesiastical or religious to civil or cratic politics and, in his 1993 work Political Liberalism, asserted
lay use, possession, or control. This conception is also closest that secularization as privatization is a requirement to the lib-
to the etymological origin of the term. Other conceptions of eral democratic state. The Rawlsian postulate has been rejected
secularization are of teleological nature, as used, for instance, by recent democratic theory, and Rawls himself moderated his
in Berger who prognosticated a worldwide decline in the position in a later journal article.A decisive revision of the Rawl-
relevance of religious beliefs in social and political life with sian postulate was undertaken by Alfred Stepan’s (2001) concept
increasing societal modernization and rationalization. This of the twin tolerations between religion and the state. Stepan pos-
conception of secularization has been refuted most promi- its that democratic politics requires the separation of religious
nently in the discipline of the sociology of religion, which and political authority, but beyond this allows for a variety of
has shown that declining levels of religiosity in the twentieth arrangements of cooperation and accommodation between the
century were a phenomenon confined to Europe and thus a two spheres. Democracy needs the twin tolerations, defined as
global exception rather than the rule. Contrary to prognoses mutually respected spheres of autonomy between religion and
about the “end of religion” in the twentieth century, a world- the state, “freedom for democratically elected governments, and
wide resurgence of private and public religion has taken place. freedom for religious organizations in civil and political society,”
A third conception of secularization denominates the but does not require secularity in the sense of a strict institu-
privatization of religion—the relegation of religious norms, tional separation of state and religion.
 Religion and Politics 1451

Secularism commonly refers to the division of the religious and legislation. Because nondemocratic regimes tend to regu-
and political spheres in modern society, and therefore, contrary late society and societal affairs more intensively than demo-
to secularization, to a condition rather than a process. At times, cratic regimes do, this also applies to religion: nondemocratic
secularism denotes “an ideology or set of beliefs that advocates regimes often exhibit higher levels of regulation of religion
the marginalization of religion from other spheres of life.” than democracies. Due to requirements of certain rights stand-
ards in democratic politics in the realm of civil rights, human
RELATIONS BETWEEN POLITICS rights, and religious freedom, there are limits with regard to
AND RELIGION IN THE how much democratic regimes can regulate religion before
CONTEMPORARY STATE violating or undermining their democratic foundations. Too
STATE REGULATION OF RELIGION much regulation of religion necessarily involves the violation
Contemporary states exhibit great variation in the formal of human or civil rights (for instance, tying citizenship to a
relationships between religion and politics. Some level of particular religious affiliation; recognizing only certain reli-
interweavement of religion and politics in the modern state gions and not others; limiting the rights of certain religions to
is the rule, while a strict institutional separation between the organize, practice, and assemble).
two is the exception. Most states entertain complex relation- Jonathan Fox (2007) has classified countries around the
ships between religion and politics, in that they, for instance, world with regard to the level of separation between religion
allow for religious instruction in public schools, provide and state. In its first round, Fox’s Religion and State Data-
public subsidies for private religious schools, recognize reli- set comprised five main indicators that measure the relations
gious holidays as state holidays, provide welfare through (or between state and religion (RAS) in 175 countries for the years
in partnership with) religious institutions, grant tax breaks 1990 until 2002: (1) formal establishment or nonestablishment
to religious organizations, allocate to religious institutions of religion in the state, (2) regulation of the majority religion,
and authorities time in public broadcasting, and maintain or (3) regulation of minority religions, (4) religious elements in
subsidize buildings and venues used or owned by religious general legislation, and (5) enforcement levels.The five indica-
institutions. These arrangements are prevalent in most socie- tors in turn consist of numerous subindicators. A composite
ties, irrespective of the majority religion—they can be found score that comprises all five dimensions ranges from 0 (the
around the world, whether the majority religion is Hindu, lowest score, given to the United States) to 77 (the highest
Jewish, Muslim, Christian, or otherwise. Some states even score, given to Saudi Arabia). RAS ranges in most democra-
recognize an official state religion; this is the case among cies between 0 and 35. Long-standing democracies show great
long-standing democracies such as Denmark, Finland, Greece, variation in the extent to which the state regulates religion:
Norway, and the United Kingdom, as well as nondemocratic from the near absence of regulation (i.e., strict formal separa-
regimes, such as Iran and Saudi Arabia. tion) in Australia, South Korea, and the United States to high
Within the great variance of religion-state relationships, levels in Finland or Greece. Generally, it can be observed that
it is useful to identify some archetypes. At one extreme of Christian-Orthodox states tend to exhibit higher levels of state
the continuum of institutional religion-state relations stands regulation of religion than is the case in Catholic or Protestant
strict separation of religion and state, such as is de jure in the countries. Muslim-majority countries showcase great variance
United States. Since 1947, the U.S. Supreme Court interprets in the level of regulation, between Senegal (3), Albania (8),
the Establishment Clause as constituting a “wall of separa- Mali (17), Lebanon (22), and Iran (66).
tion” between religion and state. At the other extreme of the Apart from the relationship between politics and religion
continuum stand regimes that highly regulate religion, such as elucidated above, religion plays a political role in contempo-
theocratic and atheist regimes. The Islamic Republic of Iran rary states through two formal institutions: religious law and
presents an example wherein religious and political authority religious political parties.
is merged, the legal system purports to be Islamic, conversion
away from Islam is punishable by death, and religious institu- RELIGIOUS LAW
tions (e.g., mosques, seminaries, religious schools) are highly Most states outside the Christian-majority world, but even
regulated by the state. Albania between 1967 and 1989 is an several Catholic and Christian-Orthodox countries, uphold
example of an atheist regime, where all religions, religious sizable bodies of religious laws and statutes. This is the case
organizations, and religious practice were prohibited; religious most prominently in the realm of personal status law, where
schools were closed, religious authorities persecuted. Between issues of marriage, divorce, and custody are regulated accord-
these extremes of strict separation on the one hand and high ing to positivized religious norms (for instance, in India; Israel;
regulation of religion by the state on the other are several most Muslim-majority states except for Turkey, Albania, and
archetypes that present mixed systems. the former CIS states; as well as Catholic-majority states like
The state is the principal authority structuring relations Ireland and Italy; and Christian-Orthodox countries like
between religion and politics. Because state policies aim at the Armenia, Georgia, and Greece). Beyond personal status law,
allocation of goods and resources as well as the solution of matters such as inheritance and common-law trusts are often
social conflicts, they also tend to involve some regulation of regulated by religious law. Religious law is usually prom-
religious affairs. This is done through constitutional provisions ulgated by the state or a state-instituted body of religious
1452 Religion and Politics

authorities who are granted a mandate over the delineation of (post-1989) has involved numerous Orthodox-Christian and
religious law. non-Christian majority countries with Buddhist, Confucian,
The existence of religious law brings to light the continu- and Muslim backgrounds. While the question of the compat-
ing tensions that exist between liberal notions of citizenship ibility of democracy with certain religions occupied a great deal
that do not differentiate between citizens based on religion, of scholarship until recently, the fourth wave has given empirical
language, or ethnicity, and the demands that religious norms credence to the argument that all religions are multivocal and
continue to exert on adherents. Some of the questions related can be reconciled with democratic values and human rights,
to religious law provoke the most heated normative debates. if and where local religious intellectuals succeed in generat-
Controversies usually revolve around the extent of religious ing arguments within their own religious traditions supportive
jurisdiction; which body is authorized to positivize and reform of such values. In turn, given the interdependent relationship
religious law; the composition of this body; the methodology between religion and politics, religious beliefs and practices
of deriving religious law and the sources of law; the training evolve within the context of sociopolitical institutions. That is,
and appointment of those adjudicating on the basis of religion; the political regime type can significantly shape religious beliefs
and ways in which national law, including religious law, can be and practices in the medium to long term.
brought in line with international human rights conventions RECENT TRENDS IN POLITICAL
that states have signed and ratified. SCIENCE RESEARCH ON RELIGION
RELIGIOUS POLITICAL PARTIES AND POLITICS
The second institution through which religion may exert a The interest for the role of religion in politics and society
major impact on politics of the contemporary state are reli- dramatically increased in the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks in
gious political parties, which range from Christian parties in the United States. Methodologically, empirical-analytical and
Catholic countries, to the Hindu-nationalist Bharatiya Janata institutionalist approaches have since been dominant in the
Party (BJP) in India, Jewish Orthodox parties in Israel, and study of religion in comparative politics. In more sociological
Islamic parties in countries of the Muslim world. The prohi- accounts, the religious economy approach has been popular,
bition of religious parties in democracies as, for instance, in which treats religious organizations as firms competing in
Mali, Portugal, Senegal, and elsewhere is problematic from a religious market to increase or maintain their adherents.
the perspective of democratic theory. Political parties are a Research agendas focus on the function, collective actions,
constitutive element of democratic systems because of their and political significance of religious actors, religious move-
intermediary functions of representation and aggregation of ments, religious authorities, and religious political parties in
interests in processes of political decision-making. Liberal domestic and international politics.
notions of democracy posit that any societal group must Three research programs are particularly salient in the lit-
have the right to found and run a political party and rep- erature on religion and politics:
resent their interests in politics. Not the ethos of a political 1. The relationship between religion, religious actors, movements,
party is decisive for democratization but its conformity with and institutions on the one hand, and the state on the other,
constitutional provisions and democratic norms, behavior, and the impact of this relationship on a number of issues:
and attitudes. Constraints on political parties ought only be regime stability, development, and rights standards. Of par-
imposed after a party, by its actions, is proven to have violated ticular interest is the extent to which state regulation
democracy. limits religious freedom, how state regulation of reli-
RELIGION AND DEMOCRACY gion impacts regime stability and erosion, and how the
While most democratic theorists will agree that the values provision of welfare by religious authorities affects the
of democracy and human rights derive from extrareligious quality of citizenship and, in turn, regime stability.
sources, democracies rely on the existence of a certain ethos 2. The transnational character of religion. Religion increas-
for citizens to obey laws and rulers to prioritize the pub- ingly crosses national boundaries and exerts an impact
lic good over individual pursuits. It is here that religion can as a transnational phenomenon on domestic politics.
play an important role. In the words of Abdolkarim Soroush, For a long time, the Catholic Church functioned as
“Democracy cannot prosper without commitment to moral the largest transnational religious organization, which
precepts. It is here that the great debt of democracy to reli- until today with very few exceptions controls clerical
gion is revealed: Religions, as bulwarks of morality, can serve appointments and finances across the world from its
as the best guarantors of democracy” (2000). While democra- center in the Holy See and enjoys the status of a sov-
cies need to be neutral toward worldviews, including religious ereign entity in international law. Besides the Catho-
views, they do rely on certain sources of morality, for which lic Church, numerous Protestant, Islamic, Jewish, and
religion may be a source as well as constitutional and repub- Hindu movements have begun to catch the attention
lican values. of political scientists as transnational actors. Research in
Whereas the first two waves of democracy were pre- this area focuses on the effects of the charitable nature
dominantly Protestant waves, the third wave (post-1974) is of transnational religious movements, as well as violent
often referred to as the “Catholic wave and the fourth wave and terrorist religious activism.
 Religious Minorities 1453

3. Religion as an independent variable in peace and conflict stud- Rawls, John. Political Liberalism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993.
ies. Studies concentrate on the question of whether reli- ———. “The Idea of Public Reason Revisited.” University of Chicago Law
Review 64 (Summer, 1997): 765–807.
gion and religious actors contribute to the emergence, Shah, Timothy Samuel, and Daniel Philpott. “The Fall and Rise of Religion
continuity, or management and solution of conflict.The in International Relations—History and Theory.” In Religion and
results of these studies show that (a) religion lends itself International Relations Theory, edited by Jack Snyder. New York: Columbia
to the political instrumentalization for the mobilization University Press, 2010.
and polarization of conflicting parties (examples reach Soroush, Abdolkarim. Reason, Freedom, and Democracy in Islam: Essential
Writings of Abdolkarim Soroush, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.
from post-Hussein Iraq to conflict on the Molukkas Stepan, Alfred. “The World’s Religious Systems and Democracy: Crafting the
in late 1990s to Darfur), but also (b) religious authori- ‘Twin Tolerations.’” In Arguing Comparative Politics, 213–254. New York:
ties can function as powerful managers and mediators Oxford University Press, 2001.
in violent conflicts (as happened in apartheid South Taylor, Charles. A Secular Age. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
Africa, post-genocide Rwanda, and post-independence 2007.
East Timor).
Religious Minorities
See also Buddhist Political Thought; Church and State; Civil In 1843, Karl Marx announced, “Religion is the sigh of the
Religion; Clericalism; Concordat; Confucian Political Thought; Cul- oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, just as it is
ture Wars; Evangelicalism; Faith-based Initiative; Fundamentalism; the spirit of spiritless conditions. It is the opium of the people.”
Hindu Political Thought; Islamic Political Thought; Jewish Political And it seemed that a little more than one hundred years later,
Thought; Laicite; Orthodoxy in Political Thought; Papacy; Pente- many Westerners had kicked their religious habits. Shortly after
costalism; Protestant Political Thought; Puritanism; Religion and Marx, God’s obituary writer Friedrich Nietzsche famously
Politics; Religious Minorities; Religious Parties; Religious Persecu- stated that God was dead and that we had killed Him, and by
tion; Roman Catholic Social Thought; State Church;Theocracy. the 1960s, religion was indeed supposed to be dead. In 1967,
. . . . . . . MIRJAM KÜNKLER AND JULIA LEININGER Martin E. Marty (2004) suggested that spirituality as a topic of
public discourse had been abandoned in that decade; however,
B IB L IO G R A P H Y religion turned out to be the great vanishing act of the twenti-
Appleby, R. Scott. The Ambivalence of the Sacred: Religion,Violence, and eth century, reappearing in a flood of intolerance.The past two
Reconciliation. Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2000. decades have seen a dramatic resurgence in religious interest,
Berger, Peter L. The Sacred Canopy: Elements of a Sociological Theory of Religion. and religious minorities have been at the center.
New York: Random House, 1967.
———. The Desecularization of the World: Resurgent Religion and World Politics. RELIGIOUS FRAGMENTATION
Washington, D.C.: Eerdmans/Ethics and Public Policy Center, 1999. For most of the twentieth century, the principal interest in
Böckenförde, Ernst-Wolfgang. “Rise of the State as a Process of religious minorities was as a sociological group deserving of
Secularisation.” State, Society, and Liberty: Studies in Political Theory and
particular rights, but of little interest to politics other than that,
Constitutional Law, translated by J. A. Underwood. New York: Berg, 1990.
Casanova, José. Public Religions in the Modern World. Chicago: University of and an array of international, regional, and national declarations
Chicago Press, 1994. and laws were introduced to protect their rights. Gradually
Davie, Grace. Europe:The Exceptional Case, Parameters of Faith in the Modern accepting its marginalization in relation to the state, Western
World. London: Darton, Longman, and Todd, 2002. Christianity relinquished most of its political functions to the
Fox, Jonathan. A World Survey of Religion and the State, Cambridge:
state and loosened hold on the status of national religion, while
Cambridge University Press, 2007.
Gill, Anthony. “Religion in Comparative Politics.” Annual Review of Political religious minorities increasingly demanded recognition.
Science 4 (2001): 117–138. This move to a religious level playing field had the dual
Greenawalt, Kent. Does God Belong in Public Schools? Princeton, N.J.: benefits of recognizing emerging minority rights while neu-
Princeton University Press, 2005. tralizing religious influence on the national political scene, or
Habermas, Jürgen. Between Facts and Norms: Contribution to a Discourse Theory
so it seemed. Jonathan Fox (2008) argues that religious dis-
of Law and Democracy. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996.
Huntington, Samuel P. The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth crimination has, in fact, increased since 1990, and he offers six
Century, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991. major reasons: policies of domestic protection from external
Jelen, Ted G., and Clyde Wilcox, eds. Religion and Politics in Comparative influence, religion seen as challenging the state, perception of
Perspective:The One, the Few, and the Many. New York: Cambridge religious movements as dangerous, religion already linked to
University Press, 2002.
national identity, existence of a symbiotic relationship between
Juergensmeyer, Mark. Religion in Global Civil Society. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2005. religion and state, and state religion itself creating discrimina-
Moyser, George. Politics and Religion in the Modern World. London: Routledge, tion against competitors.
1991. Religious resurgence has fragmented majority religions
Norris, Pippa, and Ronald Inglehart. Sacred and Secular: Religion and Politics into minority groups from within and led to the emergence
Worldwide. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
of new religions. Some religious minorities are dismissed uni-
Philpott, Daniel. “Explaining the Political Ambivalence of Religion.” In
American Political Science Review 101, no. 3 (2007): 505–525. versally as a cult, and new religions are frequently ridiculed or
———. “Has the Study of Global Politics Found Religion?” Annual Review discriminated against.They can be perceived as dangerous cults
of Political Science 12 (2009): 183–202. like the Branch Davidians and Aum Shinrikyo, as harmful like