Preloading and PVDs for Hydraulic

modifications of clay soils

Preloading and vertical drains

When highly compressible, normally

consolidated clayey soil layers lie at limited/large
depths, large consolidation settlements are
expected as the result of the loads from large
buildings, highway embankments, or earth dams
etc. Pre-compression and provision of vertical
drains in soft soil may be used to minimize post-
construction settlement.
This approach has resulted in a number of
techniques involving
•Pre-compression or Pre-loading
•Sand drains
•Pre-fabricated Vertical Drains
•Vacuum consolidation
•High Vacuum Densification Method (HVDM)
Embankment on Clay Foundation
Effect of Surcharge Treatment
Surcharge
Fill
Without Surcharge
Clay

With
Surcharge

Time Time for Equivalent Time for Total

Settlement With Settlement Without
The principle of pre-compression is explained in
figure 1 shown below
The proposed structural load per unit area is (p)
∆σ’ the thickness of the clay layer
and
consolidatio
undergoingis Hc. The primar
n settlemen
maximum y
consolidatio t caused by the structura
n load is l
then
Eq
(1)
The settlement-time relationship under the
structural load is shown in figure 1(b). However, if a
surcharge of ∆σ’(p) + ∆σ’(f) is placed on the
ground, the primary consolidation settlement will
be

Eq (2)
Sequence of steps in
“Precompression”:
The total settlement of Sc(p) will occur at time t2,
which is much shorter than t1.
Hence, if a temporary total surcharge of ∆σ’(p) +
is
∆σ’applied
(f)
on the ground surface time t2,
settlement
for will be equal to Sc(p) . the
At that time, if the surcharge is and a
structure with a permanent load per unit area ∆σ’(p) is
removed
built and no appreciable settlement will occur.

Note: The total surcharge ∆σ’(p) + can be

∆σ’(f) applied
by means of temporary fills.
Derivation of equations for obtaining and
∆σ’(f) the figure 1(b), under a surcharge of ∆σ’
From t2:(p) +
∆σ’(f )degree of consolidation at
the t2 after
application
time of load is the

Eq(3)

By substituting Eq(1) and Eq(2) in Eq(3) we get

Eq(4)
Figure gives magnitudes of U for varies combinations
∆σ’
of (p) / σ’
0
o and ∆σ’(f) / ∆σ’(p ) Figure
. 2
0.5

0.1 0.5 1 2 5 10
1

1.5

2.5

3
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

U (%)
 The degree of consolidation from Eq(4) is actually
the average degree of consolidation at time t2 as
shown in figure 1(b).

 But due to the removal of surcharge and placement of

structural load, the portion of clay close to the
drainage surface will continue to swell, and the soil
close to the midplane will continue to settle.

 A conservative approach may solve this problem i.e.,

assume that U in Eq(4) is the midplane degree of
consolidation
U = f (Tv)
where U = midplane degree of consolidation
Tv = time factor = Cvt/H2
Cv = coefficient of consolidation
t = time
H = maximum drainage path

The variation of U and Tv is given in figure 3.

Figure
3
Example:
During construction of a highway bridge, the
average permanent load on the clay layer is
expected to increase by about 115 kN/m3. The
average effective overburden pressure at the
middle of the clay layer is 210 kN/m3. Here, Hc =
10m,Cc = 0.81, eo = 2.7 and Cv = 1.08m2/month.
The clay is normally consolidated.
Determine
a.The total primary consolidation settlement of
the bridge without precompression.
b.The surcharge, ∆σ’(f), needed to eliminate the
entire primary consolidation settlement in nine
months by precompression.
Solution

Part a
The total primary consolidation settlement may
be calculated from Eq(1):

= 0.4152m =
415.2mm
Part b We have,

Cv = 1.08 m2/month.
H = 6m (two way drainage) t2 = 9 months.
Hence,

According to Figure 3, for Tv = 0.27, the value of

U is 40%.
 we have,
∆σ’(p) = 115 kN/m2 and
∆σ’o =
210kN/m2

so

According to Figure 2, for U=40% and ∆σ̕(p)/σ̕o = 0.548,

∆σ̕(f)/σ(p) =2.5; ∆σ̕(f) = (2.5)(115) =287.5kN/m2

Assuming a bulk density of 20 kN/m3 for fill material and a

height of 5m gives a pre-load of 100 kN/m2. The required
surcharge is higher than pre-load and hence
consolidation by sand drains/PVDs is required.
Prefabricated Vertical Drains
 Equivalent Drain Radius of Band-
shaped Vertical Drain
The radius of sand drains, or their derivatives such
as sand wicks or plastic tube drains, can easily be
determined from the size of the mandrel, which is
usually circular in cross section.
For prefabricated drains, however, the situation
different.
The band shape of prefabricated drains, the flow
pattern around the drain is considerably altered from the
cylindrical case. Therefore, an equivalent drain radius
ought to be calculated.
Typical dimensions of strip
drain
Type Core Filter Dimension
(mm)
Kjellmann Paper Paper 100*3

PVC PVC PVC 100*2

Geodrain PE Cellulose 95*2

Colbond Polyester polypropyle 100*6

ne

Equivalent diameter =

Where B= width of the strip, t =

thickness
 Pre-load enables consolidation of soil in vertical direction
only and hence sand drains in addition to pre-loading are
used to accelerate the consolidation of soils. This resultsin
reduction of lesser pre-load.
 It facilitates radial consolidation in addition to vertical
consolidation, significantly increasing the consolidation
rates.
 Sand drains were used since 1930s and pre-fabricated
vertical drains in the form of card b`oard wicks were used
initially. Now pre-fabricated vertical drains are being used.
 In addition, vacuum consolidation along with pre-loading
and PVDs is done to increase the efficiency of the whole
process.
To increase degree of consolidation using sand
drains/PVDs, average degree of consolidation due
to drainage in (Uv,r)

Uv,r = 1-(1-Ur)(1- Eq (1)

Uv )
wher Ur = average degree of consolidation with radial
e drainage only
Uv = average degree of consolidation with
vertical drainage only
Average degree of consolidation due to
radial drainage only
Eq (2)

wher
e
Eq (3)

in
which Eq (4)
 Eq (5)

kh =hydraulic conductivity of clay in the

horizontal direction in the unsmeared zone
kr = horizontal hydraulic conductivity in the
smeared zone
Tr = non-dimensional time factor for radial
drainage only

Eq (6)
Cvr = coefficient of consolidation for radial
drainage
Eq (7)

For a no-smear case, rs = rw and kh = kr , so S=1

and Eq (3) becomes

Eq (8)
 Drain Design

Vertical drains and preloading are very effective

and economical ground modification techniques for
accelerating primary consolidation and compensating
some secondary compression of soft compressible soils.
The design of vertical consolidation using wick drains
is based on theory developed by S. Hanbo in 1979,
which is used to calculate the spacing of the wick drains
based on the horizontal coefficient of consolidation (Ch)
of the subsoil. The drains are normally installed in a
triangular or square pattern
The rate of soil consolidation or settlement is controlled
by how rapidly the pore water can escape from the soil
The controlling variables are the spacing between the
wick drains and the permeability of the soil.
The amount of consolidation is independent of
whether wick drains are present and is determined
by the soil compressibility and the weight of the fill
above the wicks.
By developing a set of design curves of drain spacing, fill
height, and consolidation time, the most economical
drain spacing and height of fill can be selected to achieve
a given degree of consolidation in a specified time period.
Advantages of PVDs over
sand drains
The installation rate of PVDs is typically 5,000
linear meters per day, which results in a
significantly lower project cost.
There is no risk of PVDs breaking installation,
while sand drains may have discontinuities if the
mandril is withdrawn too fast.
There is no risk of shear failure of PVDs
during settlement, while sand drains are vulnerable
to shear failure during settlement.
PVDs have discharge capacities, typically 30 X 10-6
to 90 X 10-6 m3/s, while a 0.35 m diameter sand drain
has a discharge capacity of 20 X 10-6 m3/s (Van
Santvoort 1994)
When installed with a properly designed
mandril, smear effects are much less for PVDs
than for large diameter sand drains. The zone of
smear is directly proportional to the diameter of
mandril used for installation.
PVDs are factory produced materials and are
quality controlled, whereas sand drains are
subject to the quality variance of naturally occuring
sands.
 Prefabricated Vertical Drains

The prefabricated band drains are used for

accelerating the consolidation of marine deposits or soft
soils.
In general, prefabricated band drains consist of a
central core, whose function is primarily to act as a free
drainage channel, and a non-woven filter jacket, which
prevents the soil surrounding the drain from entering
the central core but allows water to flow in.
Band drain is commonly used because of its
easy prefabrication, easy quality control, economy
and small disturbance to the surrounding soil during
installation.
 Vertical Drain Spacing
Vertical drains are generally
installed in either triangular or square
patterns.
The consolidation problem
is simplified to an axisymmetric one
in most vertical drain
consolidation theories, in which a
drain well is enclosed by a cylinder
of soil.
An equivalent radius of the
soil cylinder based on the same
total area for different installation
patterns is used in the analysis.
Layout of square grid pattern
 Trial Embankments
 These are useful to determine the feasibility of
preloading and vertical drains in the field and
avoids uncertainties in sampling, field
properties and installations.
 It needs to reproduce stress and field
conditions that are representation of actual
structure.
 It should be part of final structure.
 It needs to be instrumented using
piezometers, settlement gauges, levelling
points etc.
 Instrumentation of Vertical Drains
Surcharge

Settlement Platform
Drainage Blanket
Permanent Fill

Clay
 Vertical Drain Installation
Sequence
 Position Rig at Drain Location
 Place Anchor on Drain End
 Penetrate Mandrel to Desired Depth
 Withdraw Mandrel
 Cut Drain Material Above Drainage
Blanket
Process of PVD installation
POTENTIAL ADVANTAGE OF VERTICAL DRAINS
The advantages of vertical drains are threefold:
1.INCREASED RATE OF GAIN OF SHEAR STRENGTH
OF CLAY
Enable the load to be applied more
rapidly, thus better use of construction plant
In case of embankments, steeper
slopes and provision of berms can be
avoided
Lower amount of fill required
Increased rate of consolidation
Consequent savings in construction cost
2.INCREASED RATE OF CONSOLIDATION
Reduction in time required for primary settlement.
Structure or embankments can put into commission
and use far earlier
Reduction in cost of maintenance
3.STABILITY TO EMBANKMENTS
Many soft clay strata contain thin band, or
parting, of sand or silt
Excess horizontal spread of pore
pressure along these partings take place
Vertical drains installed can relieve
these excess pore pressure
 Application of PVDs
 Airport Runways
 Golf Courses
 Dredge Consolidation
 Mine Tailings Consolidation
 Tailing Ponds
 Swampland/Wetland
Development
 Building Foundations
 Retaining Walls
 Parking Lots
 Landfills
 Installation of vertical drains
Drains shall be installed with approved modern
equipment of a type which will cause a minimum of
disturbance of the subsoil during the installation operation
The first step in the installation is to prepare a
working surface for the installation rig. This working
surface must be level and have enough bearing
capacity so that the installation rig can operate
Typically this working surface is also part of the
gravel drainage layer. After the site is stripped a
geogrid is often placed for support and then the
drainage/working layer placed.
 Continued…

 Once the working layer is in place the installation

unit starts work. Layfield's new bottom-mount
hydraulic wick drain rig is mounted on an excavator.
It presses a steel mandrel into the ground up to 120 ft
deep. The PVDs are placed in a pattern as specified by
the projectitengineer
Typically is a triangular pattern 2 m (6 ft) on center. In
some cases there will be a cap of hard soil on top
of the soft subsoil. In these cases pre-drilling may be
required. A suitable drill will operate ahead of the PVD
installation rig to prepare holes through the hard upper
layer
Once the wick drains (PVDs) are placed a drainage
layer is placed on top to preventing PVDs. This drainage
layer is typically a free draining gravel or a drainage
geosynthetic
 Continued
…

The drainage layer needs to be sloped so that

the water will flow away from the foundation. The
slope needs to take into account any planned
settlement so that water flow is maintained
throughout the consolidation phase of the project.
INSTALLATION METHODS OF VERTICAL
DRAINS

GROUP PARTICULA REMARK

DESCRIPTIO R S
N METHODS
Driving A mandrel with
Vibration or without a
DISPLACEMN Pull Down(static disposal shoe is
T METHODS Force) Washing used in each
Combinations case
of Above
 Continued
GROUP PARTICULA …
REMARK
DESCRIPTIO R S
N METHODS
Rotary drill, with A mandrel with
or without a or without a
casing Rotary disposal shoe is
anger, including used in each
DRILLING continuous case.
METHOD standard and
S hollow fight
augers
Percussive(shell
and auger)
methods, with or
without casing
Hand auger
 Continued
…

GROUP PARTICULA REMARK

DESCRIPTIO R S
N METHODS
Rotary wash jet Methods in which
Washed open sand is washed in
WASHIN ended case via the jet pipe
G Weighted wash are not suitable
METHOD jet head on for prefabricated
S flexible hose drains
 Vertical Drain
Installation of drains on a
barge
Case Study For Ground Improvement Using
PVD With Preloading For Coal & Iron Ore
Stackyard
Development of New Port at
Project Details
Gangavaram at 15 km south of
Visakhapatnam Port , AP Development
of Port Facilities included
development of backup facility for
coal and iron ore storage and
stacking and handling
The Proposed Heights were – Coal
facilities
Stacks : 12.00 m
Iron Stacks : 10.00 m
Sub-soil stratification Natural Moisture 12 - 81 %
content
Specific Gravity 2.52 –
2.65
Bulk Density 1.24 – g/cc
• Ascertain 1.52
Design Gravel 00 %
Geotechnical
Investigation
Parameters Sand 2 – 31 %
• 8 Nos
Silt + Clay 7 – 63 %
Boreholes
Liquid Limit 21 – 102 %

Plastic Limit 15 – 47 %

• Dredged Sand: 0.20~0.30 Initial Void Ratio, e0 0.627 –

m thick 2.249
• Marine Clay with Shells: Compression Index, Cc 0.38 –
1.00~3.00 m thick
Stratification • Soft Marine Clay: 0.92
7.00~15.00 m thick Coefficient of 0.72 – m²/y
• Below 12- 18m N values Consolidation, Cv 1.95 r
increased to a tune of 30
Cohesion, Ccu 0.19 – kg/c
1.05 m²
Angle of Friction, Φcu 18 – 29 Deg
The available SBC was 3 T/m² Shear Strength from 0.095 – kg/c
which was very less than VST 0.991 m²
required – Ground
Ground Improvement Scheme

Depth of 10.00 m to 18.00 m

PVD below OGL

Spacing of 1.00 m c/c below

PVD stacker reclaimers
(Triangula 1.50 m c/c in other
r area
) For 1.00 m spacing:
Consolidati 65 days
on Period For 1.50 m spacing:
174 days
Thickness
of Sand 300 mm
Mat

Horizontal Geotextile pipes filled

Drainage by boulders / gravels;
System PVD laid horizontally

Machinery
Hydraulic Stitchers
Used
 Post treatment Assessment &
Analysis
Post Treatment Assessment

Piezometers
Casagrande : 5 Vibrating Wire :
Nos 14 Nos

Settlement Recorders
Plate Type: 13
Magnetic: 7 Nos
Nos

Readings every 4 days when loading started.

Later at every 7 days

IN 5 IN 7 IN 1

Section 5
Preload As Per Design

CP4(9m) VWP1(9m)
IN 10 CP5 (6m)
VWP13(6m) VWP12(9m IN 4 MS6 MS1 IN 2

VWP4(6m) VWP6(9m) VWP9(6m) VWP2(6m)

MS3 PS5 PS8 PS1
)
VWP14 (9m) IN 3 VWP7(6m)
MS7 PS12 PS11
PS6
GL PS13 CP2(9m)
C'
CP PS 3mMS AREA - B IN 9 PS3

Soft Clay 6m
6m 9m MS4 PS9
9m MS2

VW VWP5(6m)
VWP10(6m)
VWP3(6m)

CP3(6m) CP1(9m)
P PS4
PS7
VWP11(9m)
PS10 PS2
Vwp8(9m)
MS5
Hard / Stiff Strata
C IN 6 IN 8

Section 4 Section 3 Section 2 Section 1

SECTION - C-C'
AREA - A
 U max Ut
%U  x100
Excess Pore Pressure
Analysis of Data
Ut  Ui

St
Settlement %U  x100
S 100

Asaoka Method - PS2

800 Hyperbolic
Asaoka Method 700 Method
600
500
Settlement at 400 Graph of Time
equal time / settlement
300
interval Δ t Vs Settlement
Settlements (Si)

200
100
0 Graph in the
Points (Si, Si-1) 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
are plotted 800
form of
Settlements (Si-1) Hyperbole
H y p erb o l i c M eth o d - P S
2
1.00
Interception of 0.90 Inverse of
this line with line 0.80 slope of
having slope = 1 0.70
Hyperbola
0.60
0.50
0.40

Settlement 0.30
0.20
Settlement
S100 S100
/Settlements

0.10
0.00
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Time

Time (Days)
 Analysis of Data – Pore
1.40
Pressure
1.30
1.20
1.10
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300
VP 2 VP 11 VP 10 VP 9 VP 8 VP 5
1 CP 2 CP 3 CP 4
Piezomet Ui Umax Ut %U
er
CP 1 0.543 0.884 0.665 64.22
CP 3 0.579 0.981 0.688 72.89
CP 4 0.843 1.035 0.889 76.04
VP 2 0.597 1.062 0.753 66.45
CP 2 0.807 1.189 1.039 39.27
VP 5 0.534 0.918 0.793 32.55
VP 8 0.621 0.961 0.835 37.06
VP 10 0.567 1.004 0.833 39.13
VP 11 0.920 1.226 1.070 50.98
VP 9 0.610 1.222 0.894 53.59
 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300

Analysis of Data
0

100

200
Settlement (mm)

300

400

500

600
No of Days
Settlement PS1 PS2 PS4 PS6 PS9 PS10

Settlement Observed Asaoka Method Hyperbolic Method

Marker Settlement
S100 %U S100 %U
PS 1 532 460 115.65 833 63.87
PS 2 385 380 101.32 556 69.24
PS 4 261 335 77.91 500 52.20
PS 10 390 450 86.67 732 53.28
PS 6 239 260 91.92 735 32.52
PS 9 289 340 85.00 667 43.33
 Conclusions
Plate Settlement Recorders are more reliable than
the Magnetic Settlement Recorders for marine clays.
With the application of the load the pore
pressure increased and dropped down slowly with
time. The pore pressure variation indicated about 55 -
60 % dissipation
i.e. degree of consolidation.
Hyperbolic Method is more comparable with the
Pore Pressure Dissipation Results. Further the
results obtained with theoretical slope of hyperbola as
1.00 are more closer to the predicted by pore
water pressure analysis.
The consolidation settlements worked out
theoretically from laboratory test results were much
higher than that predicted by Asaoka and Hyperbolic
VACUUM
CONSOLIDATION
 VACUUM CONSOLIDATION
Vacuum consolidation was first proposed in the early
1950s by Kjellman (1952), the developer of the
prefabricated vertical “wick” drain. In the 1960s,
isolated studies of vacuum induced or assisted
consolidation continued for the next two decades
(Holtz 1975). However, except for specialized
applications like landslide stabilization, vacuum
consolidation was not seriously investigated as
an alternative to conventional surcharging until recently
due to the low cost of placing and removing surcharge fills
and the difficulties involved in applying and maintaining
the vacuum. The steadily increasing direct and indirect
costs of placing and removing surcharge
now madefill and the
gas
adventextraction systems for sealing landfills with
of technology
consolidation
have an vacuum- viable
impervious membranes for landfill method as a
replacement foreconomically
or supplement to surcharge
fill.
Vacuum Consolidation is an effective means for
accelerating the improvement of saturated soft soils.
The soil site is covered with an airtight membrane and
a vacuum is created underneath it by using a dual
Venturi and vacuum pump.
The technology can provide an equivalent pre-loading
of about 4.5 m high as compared with a conventional
surcharging fill.
Instead of increasing the effective stress in the soil
massincreasing the total stress as in conventiona
by
mechanical surcharging, vacuum- l
assisted the soil by reducing the pore consolidatio
preloads whil
maintaining a constant total stress.
pressure n e

The effectiveness can be increased when applied

with combination of a surcharge fill. Field experience
indicates a substantial cost and time savings by this
technology compared to conventional surcharging.
Figure1: Menard Vacuum Consolidation
The current main application of vacuum assisted
consolidation include:
·Replacement of standard pre-loading techniques,
eliminating the risk of pre-loading induced foundation
failures.
·Combining VCP with water pre-loading in scare fill areas.
The method has been used to build large development
projects on thick compressible soil.
·Combining VCP with surcharge pre-loading to increase
foundation stability and thereby optimize pre-loading stage
sequence and reduce project time.
Field trials conducted over the past two decades in
China (Choa, 1989), France (Cognon, 1991; Cognon et
al., 1996), USA (Jacob et al., 1996; TETC, 1990),
Japan
(Shinsha et al., 1991), Bangkok (Woo et.al., 1989),
Sweden (Tortenssen, 1984; Holm, 1996) and
elsewhere have verified the effectiveness of vacuum-
assisted consolidation in conjunction with vertical
drains for site improvement.
Cost estimates based on these projects indicate a
significant potential for cost savings over conventional
surcharge fill pre-loading for an equivalent surcharge of
4.5m height.
Equipment and Construction Process
The Vacuum Consolidation construction process involves
(Cognon et al, 1996):
1.Placing a free drainage sand blanket (60 – 80 cm
thickness) above the saturated ground in order to provide for
a working platform.
2.Installation of vertical drains, generally of 5 cm in
equivalent diameter, as well as relief wells from the sand
blanket.
3.Installation of closely spaced horizontal drains at the base
of the sand blanket using a special laser technique to
maintain them horizontal.
4.The horizontal drains in the longitudinal and transverse
directions are linked through connections.
Equipment and Construction Process
The Vacuum Consolidation construction process
involves
5. of trenches around the of
preload
Excavatio perimeter to a depth of belo
groundwater
n are level and 50
about filled
cm with an impervious
w th
Bentonite
a Polyacrolyte slurry for subsequent
e
sealing of the impermeable membrane along the th
perimeter. e
6.The transverse connectors are linked to the edge of
the peripheral trench. They are then connected
to a prefabricated module designed to withstand
future pressure due to the vacuum.
7.Installation of the impermeable membrane on the ground
surface and sealing it along the peripheral trenches.
The membrane is delivered to the site folded and
rolled in elements of approximately 1000m2.
Equipment and Construction Process
The Vacuum Consolidation construction process involves
(Cognon et al, 1996)
The membrane elements are welded together and laid in the
peripheral trench where they are sealed with the Bentonite
Polyacrolyte slurry. The trenches are backfilled and filled with
water to improve the tight sealing between the membrane
and the Bentonite Aquakeep slurry.
8. Vacuum pumps are connected to the prefabricated
discharge module extending from the trenches. The vacuum
station consists of specifically designed high-efficiency
vacuum pumps acting solely on the gas phase in conjunction
with conventional vacuum pumps allowing liquid and gas
suction.
The process combines dewatering and vacuum action
to maintain the water table at the base of the granular
platform during the entire application of the
consolidation process. Eventually an additional
drainage system is installed at a required depth to
allow for a conventional de-watering under the
membrane. Indeed, the fill will maintain a non-
submerged action even when it has settled below
the original ground water level. Therefore, with this
technology,
will unlike the
decreas case the
durin of a vacuum
surchargeapplication.
preloading,The
the
load intensity
discharge
no e drains are
g manufactured by of
cylindrical
t and perforated PVC .Use of a suitable filter
extrusion
cloth with proper filtering properties to cover the
perforated PVC avoids infiltration of sand and
fines during vacuum application. The discharge drains
are brought to the surface at every 150 meters spacing
where they are connected by transverse drains to the
vacuum station
Conceptual
Design
Vacuum-assisted provide an
alternative to surcharging for pre-loading
consolidatio s soils. Instead
effectivof
increasing
n the stress in the e mass by
increasing effectiv stress using a soiconventiona
mechanica esurcharging
the total , vacuum- l l
lpreloads the, soil by reducing consolidatio
assisted por pressure
maintaining
thea constant total e n whil
stress. e
Figure 3 shows a typica pore pressure at the end of
vacuum consolidation
l China (Choa,
measured in during 1989) Tianjin
consisted of about
vacuum 4m thick hydraulic Harbor
consolidation. fill (thinly
laminated silty clay/clayey silt) underlain site
The by 15 m of
silty clay, 3m of clayey loam, and another 3m of
sandy loam, respectively. The site overlies a fine sand
deposit. The groundwater level was very close to the
ground surface at this site. Vertical band drains
(100mm*4mm) were installed at a spacing of
1.3 m up to a depth of about 20-m into the clayey
loam above the sandy loam.
Figure 3 portrays two profiles of initial hydrostatic
and
pressures por pressures durin vacuu
consolidation
fina e after 110 days measure
and 180 days
g of m
application
l at the site.
d The straight lines indicate vacuu
theoretical pore pressures under various vacuum m
pressures.
Figure 3: Initial and final pore pressure data during Vacuum Pre-
loading: Tianjin Harbor (Choa, 1989)
An atmospheric pressure corresponds to about 100 kPa.
For a site where the water level is at the ground
surface, cavitation of water at negative 1 atmosphere (gage
pressure) theoretically limits on-land vacuum-
consolidation to an effective surcharge pressure of
about 100 kPa, equivalent to approximately 6 m of
surcharge.
Practical problems in maintaining the efficiency of a
vacuum system may reduce its effectiveness in the field. A
system with an efficiency of 75 percent results in only 4.5 m
of equivalent surcharge height.
For the case presented in Figure 3, about 70 to 80 per
cent efficiency is evident near the ground surface. At large
depths, however, the efficiency was only about 50
percent or less. Vacuum consolidation in underwater site
conditions (off-shore land reclamation) can yield much
higher equivalent preloads.
In geotechnica design used to
evaluat wic l drain spacing, and analyse gain for
essence
preload
e
, kfills are equally
strength
s applicable to the
engineering design of vacuum consolidation
system. There are many technical and
operational factors, which play important roles in
vacuum consolidation.
Primary considerations governing the effectiveness
and economics of a selected VCP scheme
include:
(1)integrity of the membrane at the ground surface
(2)seal between the edges of
the membrane and the ground
(3)soil stratification including permeable and seams within
the clay deposit, and
(4)depth to groundwater.
Breaks in the membrane, a
layers ofpoorhig hydrauli seal between
conductivit all to the
vacuum
membranehefficiency,
and the reducing
c ground, equivalent
y and wick surcharge
drainstenextending
reduc
height
into and increasing pumping yields d and epumping
costs. The success of a vacuum consolidation system
depends upon a combination of technical know-
how and careful implementation of design details.
Case History
The advantages of vacuum assisted consolidation is
well demonstrated by the pilot testing conducted in
Ambes, France, for the construction of a highway
embankment on a very compressible saturated clayey
soil (Cognon et al, 1996).
As shown in Figure 4a, the soil profile at this site
indicates the presence of about 1.7 m thick peat layer with
a moisture content ranging from 400% to 900 % underlain
by about 2.0 m thick highly organic, compressible clay
layer with moisture content ranging from 140% to 210%.
Case History
The project plan called for the construction of a
highway embankment, 2.15 m high, across the site
in order to protect the highway from floods.
Alternative solutions, including soil replacement, raft
foundation supported by piles and conventional
surcharge pre-loading were considered and rejected
for economic reasons.
pre-loading
For example, system
due required very concerns,
to stability gently the
embankment
conventional with a base sloping of 65 m,
economically width which was
prohibitive.
Case History
As vacuum consolidation has not been previously
under
appliedsuch soil moistur conditions a field
testing and
program e implemented.
, combine
pilo -
application
wasof surcharge (1.3 m) and vacuum
Th t provided
d
equivalent
an pre- of e 150 kPa only
months
load of vacuumabouapplication,
after where tw as
under conventional surcharge,
t slope failure would
o have
occurred at this site under a pre-loading stress of 35
kPa.
Case History
Figure 4 b depicts the monitored settlement record
during the consolidation process. It indicates that the
recorded settlement with vacuum consolidation is
approximately equivalent to that induced by a
4.5m high surcharge embankment. Analysis of the
settlement records indicated that at the end of the
consolidation process the settlement of the peat layer
reached about 80% of the reference settlement that
would have been induced by a 4.5 m high surcharge
embankment, while the settlement of the
underlying highly organic clay reached about 50% of
that reference settlement.
Case History
At the end of the vacuum application the ground
surface rebounded by about 3 cm during 48-hour
period and then stabilized. During the vacuum
application the groundwater level rose by about 40 cm
up to the level of the horizontal drains while the upper
part of the granular fill remained dry.
Following the pilot testing the vacuum consolidation
was selected as the best available solution
consolidation
for the of about m2 along this
17,550 highway
construction site.
Figure 4: (a) Typical Soil Profile at Ambes Site, France, and (b) Measured
Settlement vs. Time Record during Vacuum Consolidation (Cognon et al.
1996
Case History
The A837 Highway in the western part of France,
crosses three (3) swamps. The site is divided into
three parts each distant of 15 km. The first two
swamp crossings are 500 meters long (1640') and the
third one 70 meters (230') long.
The thickness of the highly compressible material
reaches 12 meters
(40'). The final embankment height varies between 4 and
9 meters (13' - 30') above grade.
An initial study of the potential settlement had indicated
that approximately 2 meters (6') were to be expected
fifty
for a 4 meterThus (13') preloadin
embankmentbecam necessary
height over to
a period
accelerate
of more the, consolidation
than
years g ande to reduce post
construction
. settlement to a manageable
the -
magnitude.
Case History
In view of the project size and the highly
developed agriculture tenure surrounding the proposed
embankment, the transportation of additional fill for
surcharge from a long distance (50 miles) became
economically prohibitive.
The Vacuum Consolidation Process was thus
selected as the only viable alternative to Conventional
Surcharge.
Figure 5 shows the settlement recorded
during construction, first due to the vertical drains
only, and then the substantial increase as vacuum is
applied. V.C.P. has permitted the construction of up to
a 6-meter (20') high embankment within a 3-month
period. Total settlement during this period was 1.7
meters (5.5') and the residual deformation anticipated
for the next thirty years is estimated at 10 cm (4")
only.
Figure 5: A837 Saintes Rochefort Highway, France, Measured Settlement
(Cognon, 1991)
Technology Assessment
The efficiency of this technology has been
demonstrated under different site conditions where it
has successfully provided cost effective solutions to
substantially accelerate the consolidation process
while leading to significant savings in project costs.
Unlike the case of a conventional surcharge, VCP does
not raise any stability concerns, while resolving
the environmental problems associated with the
conventional method of surcharge preloading.
The vacuum consolidation technique is often combined
with surcharge preloading either by placing an
additional backfilling surcharge or by using water placed
at the top of the impervious membrane.
Technology Assessment
The major practical advantage of the
vacuum consolidation is that it generates in the
granular layer an apparent cohesion due to the
increase of the effective stress and the granular
layer provides a useful working platform to accelerate
the surcharge backfilling process.
Experience indicates that within days after vacuum
pump is turned on, construction vehicles can
maneuver on the top of the membrane.
 CONCLUSIONS
 Vacuum consolidation is an effective means
for improvement of highly compressible soft
soils. In essence, vacuum consolidation can
yield an effective equivalent preload of about
4 to 5 m of conventional surcharge fill.
 A combination of conventional surcharge
with vacuum application can yield much higher
equivalent preload.
 Experience from US and China, and the case
histories from France indicate that this
technology can be applied cost effectively
under various challenging site conditions.
 In certain difficult site conditions where the
stability under the conventional surcharge is
In Europe, the engineering use of vacuum consolidation
CONCLUSIONS
is currently rapidly expanding and it is of interest to note
that this technology has been used to cost effectively
replace conventional surcharge preloading for the
development of about 57,000 m2 of industrial on land
applications at the Channel Euro Tunnel Terminal.
On-land applications are most suitable for soft soil
sites with shallow ground water level.
Presence of stratifie soils can render vacuu
consolidatio d unles deepe vertica m cut-
systems
n are installed.
ineffectiveRecent
s field
r trialsl also indicate
off-
that on-land vacuum consolidation combined with
dewatering can be an effective solution to further
accelerate the consolidation process.
 Electro-osmosis

The process of dewatering assisted by the application

of a direct electric current is known as electro-
osmosis thus resulting in consolidation
soft clays whose moisture content cannot be reduced by
conventional dewatering methods.
In Electro-osmosis method, Electrodes are installed in
the soil and a DC current supplied which results
water
movement from anode to the cathode
A wellpoint system or ejector well system used as
cathode which collects and removes the water from the
ground.
 Mechanism
Electro-osmosis transports
water of the clay pore space
to the cathodically charged
electrode
When these cations move
toward the cathode, they also
bring water molecules along
with them
These water molecules
clump around the cations as a
consequence of their dipolar
nature
Macroscopic effect of this
process is reduction of water
content at anode and an
increase in water content at
the cathode
Free water appears at the
interface between the clay and
the cathode surface
 Molybdenum Electrodes

Graphite Electrode
Metallic Electrodes

Shapes of Electrodes
 Connecting Wires

Electrodes Before Installation

DC Current Source
Flow of Water under Electro-osmosis
Advantages and Limitations
Advantages Limitations
 Practical application limited
 Can be used for dewatering of
silty and clayey soils which are since very costly.
difficult to drain by gravity.  Before actual application on
 Method is fast and instantaneous. site Laboratory tests and site
 Environment-friendly method tests are imperative.
 Equipments required are few in  Huge amount of electricity.
number and easy to carry to the needed
site.
 Method useful for all types of  Highly skilled labour needed
soils.  Electrodes replacement
 Efficiency of this method is very needed from time to time.
high.
 Method becomes ineffective
 Less man-power required to
implement this method.
If the moisture content of the
soil is extremely low
 Vacuum consolidation

Vacuum consolidation,
Both liquid and gas (water and air) are extracted from the
ground by suction
This Suction is induced by the creation of vacuum on the
ground surface and assisted by a system of vertical and
horizontal drains
Vacuum is applied to the pore phase in a sealed membrane
system
The vacuum causes water to drain out from the soil and
creates negative pore water pressure in the soil
This leads to an increase in effective stress to the magnitude
of the induced negative pore water pressure, without the
increase of total stress
•For rapid pre-consolidation,
vertical drains
(Prefabricated Vertical
Drains) along with the
vacuum preloading are used
•Vertical drains helps to
distribute the vacuum
pressures to the deeper
layers and drain out water
from the sub soil
•Vacuum preloading with
PVD substantially reduces
the lateral displacement and
potential shear failure
•Maximum achievable
vacuum pressure in the field
is only about 80kPa
Schematic view vacuum consolidation technique
Advantages of Vacuum preloading technique over the
Surcharge preloading technique
•Ground improvement with vacuum preloading does not
require any fill material and there is no need of heavy
machinery
•Construction period is generally shorter
•The increase in effective stress under vacuum preloading is
isotropic. Therefore, the corresponding lateral displacement
is in the inward direction and there is no risk of shear
failure
•Application of Vacuum Preloading improves Bearing
capacity of soil by 100% in the case of soft clays and
eliminates 70% of the total estimated settlement of design
load
•The overall cost of vacuum preloading is only about 2/3rd
of that with surcharge preloading