16 Rewi – Structural System of Whaikorero – Junctures, 2, Jun 2004

POIA REWI

Ko te waihanga me nga wehewehenga o te

whaikorero: The Structural System of Whaikorero
and its Components *

Figure 1 (opposite page)

Copied with permission from Tania M Ka’ai et al. (eds), Ki Te Whaiao: An Introduction to Maori Culture and
Society (Auckland: Pearson Longman, 2004), xii.

* Note to readers: It is the practice of this journal to italicise Maori words in text unless they are proper
nouns (e.g., place names, names of tribes, names of people). Each Maori word will be translated in
parentheses in the text on its first occurrence; or where longer explanations are necessary these will
be found in endnotes.

Rewi – Structural System of Whaikorero – Junctures, 2, Jun 2004 17

Prior to European colonisation, the Māori people of New Zealand used whaikōrero1
(oration) as the primary medium for expressing opinion; presenting topics for discussion;
and enabling decision-making regarding all matters affecting living arrangements and
work, including decisions concerning daily, monthly and annual activities critical to the
safekeeping of the people.2 While Cleve Barlow defines whaikōrero as the “greetings
expressed by elders on marae3 courtyards during assemblies of people,”4 this is an
inadequate description of whaikōrero in that it does not take into account many of its
functions and its vagaries. In the 21st century, whaikōrero remains a system pivotal to the
operation of Māori culture yet like any system, it is affected by the changing context. This
article examines systemic limitations to whaikōrero and how these are manifested duly or
unduly within contemporary Māori oration practices.
Through several interpretations of whaikōrero provided by a number of kaumātua (Māori
elder/s)5 , this article will discuss the systemic structure of whaikōrero and its components,
specifically regarding the system of whaikōrero that occurs during the formal rituals of
encounter between tangata whenua (hosts) and manuhiri (visitors); that is, the system of
whaikōrero followed by kaikōrero tangata whenua (or the oration of host speakers) and
kaikōrero manuhiri (the oration of visiting speakers).6
My informants, or kaumātua, are those qualified men over fifty years of age who have
proved themselves competent in speech-making. Although one of the kaumātua who
informs this present article is under fifty years of age, he is still considered a kaumātua
because of his knowledge of whakapapa or genealogy.
The majority of these kaumātua are renowned as repositories of knowledge in their own
tribal areas, and throughout the whaikōrero circuit. These kaumātua are individually
affiliated to the following geographical tribal areas of the North Island of New Zealand:
Ngāpuhi, Ngāti Awa, Ngāti Kahungunu, Ngāti Porou, Ngāti Whare, Te Arawa, Te
Whakatāhea, Tūhoe, Waikato-Maniapoto (see Figure 1).
A restriction generally accepted and adhered to by most tribes is that the performance of
whaikōrero is restricted to men. The rationale for this restriction is based on the protection
of women as the progenitors of future generations. The marae, where whaikōrero play a
dominant role, is viewed as the arena for competitive verbal engagement that,
consequently, also has the potential for the use of mākutu or kanga (verbal curses) and,
thus, those tribes that follow this cultural practice do so to protect the future of the tribe
itself. Te Rangihau suggests women hold the ‘physiological key’ to reproduction and, thus,
it is unwise for them to whaikōrero where in the process they may become the target of
mākutu or kanga and be rendered infertile. Katerina Mataira counters this argument by
pointing out that, under the rubric of the above rationale, women who have reached
menopause should therefore be exempt from such prohibition. While the debate regarding
the rights of women to whaikōrero is important to develop, this is not the focus of the
present article and deserves separate analysis.
For those international readers who may never come into direct contact with whaikōrero, it
is hoped this article will initially provide insights into the complexities of Māori cultural
practices, but will also demonstrate the convolution that occurs when a pre-colonial
indigenous ‘traditional’ cultural system survives within a colonial society. This article asks
the question: what is a traditional system?

18 Rewi – Structural System of Whaikōrero – Junctures, 2, Jun 2004

For those Māori (and non-Māori) readers interested in or actually practicing whaikōrero,
the discussion to follow will potentially provide a means by which the ‘spirit’ of past
whaikōrero practices can be re-instituted into modern speech-making. The article hopes to
re-envisage whaikōrero as a practice where orators are given the leeway to develop their
‘personal touch,’ whilst remaining within traditional etiquette. With regard to advancement
of Māori culture, the ultimate aim of this article is to add to the resurgence of whaikōrero
excellence throughout New Zealand, where all its virtues can be advanced, better
understood, appreciated, and extolled.
Whaikōrero has important structural components. These components are arranged in
accordance with both traditional practices and situational context. The structure of this
article reflects the component parts of the whaikōrero, and is developed around
description of the whaikōrero components and their position in the oratory presentation.

TE WHAKARĀRANGI I TE WHAIKŌRERO: SEQUENCE OF WHAIKŌRERO COMPONENTS

Historian Michael King describes the traditional whaikōrero sequence as follows:
The speeches follow a set pattern beginning with a tauparapara . . . This is
followed by a eulogy to the dead, which may contain mythological illusions
and a statement of philosophy of life and death. The eulogy culminates in a
farewell to the dead, passing them on to the ancestors. Once the separation
between the living and the dead has been stated the living are then
addressed and welcomed. 7
Anne Salmond provides more detail: “The routine speech of greeting follows a clear
structural sequence”8 and proceeds in the following order: whakaaraara (call); tau (chant);
mihi mate (greeting to the dead); mihi ora (greeting to the living); take (subject of oration);
and, finally, waiata (song).9 The sequence described by Salmond is illustrative of the
oration of the kaikōrero tangata whenua, or the hosts. In contrast, Hiwi and Pat Tauroa
describe the sequence of whaikōrero adhered to by the guests, or kaikōrero manuhiri as:
tau; ko te mihi ki te wharenui, ki te marae (acknowledgements to the meeting house and
to the ground where the gathering is taking place); mihi mate; take; waiata; and finally, he
kapinga kōrero (concluding comments).10

KO NGĀ WEHENGA O TE WHAIKŌRERO: THE COMPONENTS OF WHAIKŌRERO

—— Ko te tauparapara: the Tauparapara11

King defines tauparapara as “a tribal poetic chant containing a traditional or philosophical
statement.”12 I was informally told by Wharehuia Milroy that tauparapara13 have pre-
colonial roots, deriving from two words which mean prayer or incantation and the blood
spilt on the battlefield. Tauparapara may be described today as the means used for lifting
oneself or one’s group out of a sacred state of being. In yesteryear, this sacred state
resulted from blood being spilt in warfare.

Rewi – Structural System of Whaikōrero – Junctures, 2, Jun 2004 19

According to an elder from Tūhoe14 (for all locations, see Figure 1), tauparapara should be
the first utterance by the opening speaker of the tangata whenua (host speakers) to act as
a prayer or dedication to their spiritual life-force.15 The tauparapara is also described as
the component of whaikōrero that awakens both the speaker’s and listener’s mind16 by
alerting the listener to the intention of a speaker to orate, and by bringing out the
speaker’s emotion. It also has the role of protecting the speaker, focusing his
concentration on the task of orating, and encouraging and giving strength to the orator.17
According to one kaumātua, tauparapara may include pātere (chants with geographical
mention), tau (which may be interpreted as karakia or an abbreviation for tauparapara),
waiata, and manawa wera18 (chants that vent the spleen).19 However, another kaumātua
believes that tauparapara are different to manawa wera and ngeri (chants of derision).20
Contemporary speakers often employ the words manawa wera, karakia, waiata, haka (war
dance) and ngeri as interchangeable for tauparapara. Tauparapara usually contain
genealogical references. Genealogy is an important factor in Māori culture and infuses
most practices. The link to the ancestors is almost invariably acknowledged in all
ceremonial settings.
One other type of oration that may be employed in place of tauparapara is the waerea; a
traditional prayer, chant or incantation used to clear the path (i.e. the platform for
speaking) or as a safeguard, especially for visitors, against any ill omens.21 Waerea are
significant during the process of whaikōrero because of the tapu22 state into which
speakers are deemed to enter while performing whaikōrero.
Tauparapara may also be used by a speaker to contextualise their speech, 23 while in
some cases, speakers use songs or proverbs in the place of tauparapara.24 A common
example of a tauparapara genre used for contextualisation purposes is the hoa tapuwae
(a chant to assist an individual group on a journey). For example, on an occasion where the
take is education, speakers often employ a particular hoa tapuwae, which describes the
acquisition of knowledge by Māori gods, because it pertains to the quest for knowledge
and/or educational achievement.
Where tauparapara have direct significance for the content of the take, they serve as
appropriate openers to whaikōrero.25 One kaumatua reported that when attending a
funeral on a marae he has never visited before, he uses tauparapara of the type that
protects a traveller, to assist and protect himself as well as those who have accompanied
him on this occasion.26 If, on the other hand, he is not a stranger to a marae he will then
focus on ‘death’ itself and utter a tauparapara that has relevance to the deceased rather
than a tauparapara used to protect a travelling party.
Not all orators use tauparapara to open their whaikōrero, although some kaumātua
believe they should, and feel that the presence of tauparapara can raise the standard of
the oration to a higher level27 by adding importance, esteem and status to the occasion.
Tauparapara can serve to animate the speakers and to demonstrate that they are learned
and well taught.28 In some cases, whaikōrero can be composed mainly of tauparapara.
This is dependent upon the content of the tauparapara in relation to the take at hand. For
instance, some contain an abundance of references to historical events. By merely
expressing such tauparapara the listener is given information regarding the origin of that
tauparapara: the reason it was uttered, the person who uttered it, and/or the region that it
pertains to. Thus, the tauparapara itself becomes the whaikōrero.

20 Rewi – Structural System of Whaikōrero – Junctures, 2, Jun 2004

However, while some tribes place great importance on tauparapara, others see them as
useless and merely time-consuming,29 only employing tauparapara as fillers when the
speaker has little to say relevant to the take. In other cases, where tauparapara are
employed with little relevance to the take at hand, this may merely indicate a speaker’s
lack of breadth of knowledge and lack of understanding of the use of tauparapara.30 For
instance, at times speakers will use a tauparapara despite incongruity between its
meaning and the occasion. Yet, ignorance is not always the cause of this incongruity as
sometimes speakers use particular tauparapara to replace a protective chant or
incantation (as described above regarding the role of waerea).
The absence of tauparapara within a speaker’s whaikōrero may, at times, be explained
through historical tradition. In the past, not all exponents of whaikōrero used
tauparapara.31 Specifically, often only the opening speaker would use tauparapara to
initiate his whaikōrero. Successive speakers were increasingly unlikely to do so because
they were cognisant that the use of tauparapara by the opening speaker had initiated the
tapu state into which all speakers enter during the whaikōrero exchange.
Of particular note is the use of tauparapara after a speaker has acknowledged any other
visitors who have accompanied him onto the marae to which they are being welcomed.32
In this case, a visitor acknowledges other visitors. It should also be noted that, unlike
those tribes who conduct whaikōrero outside, there are tribes who, at times, fulfil this
ceremony inside the wharenui (literally ‘large house’ – referring to the ‘meeting house’ and
the main building on marae used for sleeping). The whaikōrero is structured differently if
the guests are formally welcomed inside the wharenui, in that they do not recite
tauparapara. 33

—— Ko te whakaaraara: the ‘whakaaraara’ sometimes referred to as the ‘call of alert’

While in some protocols, the whakaaraara comes before the tauparapara,34 it may also
come after the tauparapara.35 It is this component which alerts the audience that a
speaker is preparing to rise and begin his oration. The utterance ‘Tihei’, derived from the
longer version ‘Tihei mauri ora,’ (tihei, to sneeze; mauri, life force; and ora, healthy state)
derive from the Māori story of creation, which shows the god Tāne’s creation of humanity
by breathing life into earth from Kurawaka36 to form Hine-ahu-one.37 Both utterances
signify new life. For instance, when a baby is born their first sneeze is referred to as the
‘sneeze of life’. Accordingly, speakers adopt these expressions to signify new breath for
orating or the intention to begin their whaikōrero. Tīmoti Kāretu asserts that “most
tauparapara begin with the words ‘Tihe mauri ora’” serving to announce “‘Here I am.
Listen to me. I am about to speak.’”38 In some cases, speakers recite their tauparapara
while seated, and often only rise after they announce ‘Tihei mauri ora.’ The reason for this
is unclear, but it appears to be dictated by personal preference. Kāretu also comments
that some speakers end their tauparapara with these words, signifying that while
something is about to end (i.e. their whaikōrero) something else is about to begin.
One popular whakaaraara used extensively by Māori speakers, especially by members of
the Te Arawa tribe (see Figure 1), begins with the words ‘kia hiwa rā’ (‘be alert’) 39 . As
Dewes explains, the origin of ‘kia hiwa rā’ can be seen in pre-1840 inter-tribal conflict

Rewi – Structural System of Whaikōrero – Junctures, 2, Jun 2004 21

where most attacks occurred at dawn: “The rising of the sun ended the watchman’s vigil
and ushered in a day of peace and light.” Kia hiwa rā was a call that informed one sentry
that another sentry was still alive; failure to respond alerted others that they were under
attack.40 Kia hiwa rā is a popular whakaaraara commonly used by speakers to alert their
audience of their intent to begin oration.
One Tūhoe elder41 suggests the whakaaraara is also used by the orators to signify the
specific area or tribe from which they hail. A seasoned attendee of whaikōrero, who has
witnessed whaikōrero throughout the country, should be able to deduce from the
whakaaraara where the speaker is from and/or who they are representing in their
whaikōrero.

—— He mihi, he whakamihi: acknowledgments

The mihi, or acknowledgements, may include a mihi ki te Atua (acknowledgements to
Gods), mihi ki te hunga ora (acknowledgements to the living), mihi ki te papa
(acknowledgements to the ground where the proceedings are taking place), mihi (poroaki)
ki ngā mate (acknowledgements [in the main farewells] to those who have died), and mihi
ki te kāhui ariki (acknowledgements to the aristocracy of Māoridom). The order of
acknowledgements varies with some speakers initiating their mihi by acknowledging God,
and, notably those from Tainui, starting with the Māori Queen.42

Ko te mihi ki te Atua: acknowledgments to God

While acknowledgments to God are not standard practice everywhere,43 they have become
an expected and regular component of modern whaikōrero.44 Six Tūhoe kaumātua, one of
whom was previously an Anglican minister, believe that tributes to God are a post-colonial
development and do not issue from traditional origins.45 An important observation made by
one kaumātua was that many Tūhoe elders, although steeped in the Ringatū46 faith, did
not include acknowledgments to God in their whaikōrero.47 Another Tūhoe kaumātua
believes that the inclusion of acknowledgments to God is a result of the influence of
Christianity.48 A kaumātua of Ngāti Porou (see Figure 1) posed the question: who or which
God is it that a speaker should acknowledge?49 I take this to mean that the variety of
religions present in contemporary New Zealand convolute the practicability of
acknowledging only one ‘God’.
Speakers may open their whaikōrero by acknowledging God, followed by the whakaaraara
and the tauparapara.50 One Te Arawa kaumātua reflected that as a youth he observed
some of his elders acknowledging God for bringing everyone together on that marae, but
these references were not made by all speakers.51 Like tauparapara, whilst the opening
speaker may acknowledge God, successive speakers may opt not to duplicate this
acknowledgement. Today, the majority of kaikōrero (speakers) include acknowledgments
to God because their omission would be generally unacceptable52 despite being a post-
colonial development. Thus, many budding speakers currently make reference to God as a
precaution, lest they be chastised for omitting this component.

22 Rewi – Structural System of Whaikōrero – Junctures, 2, Jun 2004

 Ko te mihi ki te hunga ora: acknowledgments to the ‘living’
Acknowledging visitors is one of the roles of the kaikōrero tangata whenua,53 as King
suggests: “Once the separation between the living and the dead has been stated, the
living are then addressed and welcomed.”54 If the host speakers omit acknowledgements
to the visiting party, it would likely be interpreted as a blatant slight.

Ko te mihi a ngā kaikōrero manuhiri ki te pae, ki te hunga ora:

acknowledgments by visitors to the designated host speakers, and to the ‘living’
Acknowledgement of the designated host speakers, sometimes referred to as the ‘pae’ or
the ‘taumata,’55 is a component of whaikōrero says one kaumātua.56 By making this
acknowledgement, the visiting speaker is also acknowledging the host people as a group.
A visiting speaker will often greet an individual amongst the hosts that they know in a
personal capacity; or the person given recognition may be a designated speaker or may
have some connection to the host tribe. When giving personal recognition, the speaker
should be aware that an individual may suffer embarrassment for being mentioned when a
more distinguished person is present and omitted from the acknowledgements. Likewise,
those not given personal recognition and/or those accompanying them may become
offended if they believe they should also be personally recognised.
With regard to sequence, one kaumātua suggests visiting speakers acknowledge host
speakers following comments regarding the take.57 For example, in the event of a funeral,
acknowledgements to the pae follow tributes to the tūpāpaku (the deceased). Another
kaumātua stated that acknowledgements are made to the host people prior to
acknowledgements directed at the marae and its buildings. 58

Ko te mihi a te manuhiri ki te manuhiri:

acknowledgment of visitors by visiting speakers
One Tūhoe kaumātua received instructions from his own kaumātua that, as a visiting
speaker, his first task was to acknowledge other visitors amongst the manuhiri with whom
he may be unfamiliar.59 A Te Arawa kaumātua suggests that only the first visiting speaker
should acknowledge other visitors, 60 by turning and greeting those visitors who did not
come as part of his own party.61 Acknowledgements among visiting speakers occur either
after the tauparapara or at the end of the speaker’s whaikōrero.

Ko te mihi ki te wharenui, ki te marae: acknowledgments to the

‘meeting house’ and to the ‘ground’ where the proceedings take place
The wharenui (traditional meeting house) and marae (courtyard) embody living forms from
the past and, consequently, often receive acknowledgement in the whaikōrero. Both
places are affixed with identity which surpasses the structural. The marae or marae ātea
(as it is also known) resembles Papatūānuku (Earth Mother), whose procreation with
Ranginui (Sky Father) produced the Gods of Māori cosmology and, ultimately, human
beings. Wharenui are often named after an eponymous ancestor of the tribe in question
(further discussed below).

Rewi – Structural System of Whaikōrero – Junctures, 2, Jun 2004 23

Three kaumātua, all from different iwi (tribes), stated that kaikōrero tangata whenua
should not, however, acknowledge their own buildings or marae.62 Acknowledging one’s
own wharenui and marae could be interpreted as acknowledging oneself, and could be
seen as placing too much importance on oneself.
The speakers normally acknowledge the following structures: the whare hui (building for
meeting), the wharepuni (guest house), the whare tipuna (building of ancestors),63 or the
tipuna whare (house with ancestral name). These buildings are acknowledged primarily
because they are often named after and represent ancestors of the hosts. Therefore, in
acknowledging this whare, the visiting speakers pay homage to the descendants of that
ancestor.
Another building that may be acknowledged is the wharekai (dining room) because, as
above, this may be named after an ancestor of the host people. In the case of marae in
the Ngāti Awa, Tūhoe, and Te Whakatōhea areas (see Figure 1), many wharekai were given
the name of the wife of the ancestor represented by the tipuna whare. Acknowledgments
may also be given to the marae as a demonstration of respect to Papatūānuku as the
eponymous ancestral mother of all Māori.
Two kaumātua, one from Tūhoe and one from Te Arawa, explained that if they are
welcomed onto marae they have previously visited, and where they have previously paid
tribute to the wharenui and the marae, then they refrain from re-acknowledging them.64
Another Tūhoe kaumātua adds that as he was growing up he seldom observed his elders
paying tribute to the marae and/or its buildings.65 However, this viewpoint may be
attributed to this kaumātua only witnessing his kaumātua speaking as hosts, or on marae
they had previously visited. In the case of Ngāti Porou speakers, they will acknowledge the
marae and the whare to safeguard themselves and their group from any ill omen when
they go onto marae outside their area. 66

Ko te poroporoaki i ngā mate: acknowledgments or farewells to the dead

Eulogies to the dead are a way of acknowledging all the ancestors who are part of Māori
history. All those who are deceased are given special reference during whaikōrero because
of their own achievements and because of the loss to their families. One Tūhoe kaumātua
says that acknowledging those who have died is very important nowadays,67 although one
Ngāti Porou kaumātua observed that not all speakers from his iwi address the dead.68
There is no clear protocol regarding when acknowledgments to the dead should occur
during whaikōrero, although some believe that farewells to the deceased lying in state on
the marae should follow after the tauparapara.69 Te Arawa speakers, for instance, often
address the deceased following their tauparapara, after which they acknowledge God, and
then the whare mate (family members seated in close proximity to the deceased).70
However, at funerals, speakers from the Mātaatua71 area address the deceased first and
foremost, rather than initially acknowledging the marae and buildings.72
One kaumātua argues that when host speakers present their whaikōrero at tangihanga,
then they should keep their farewell to their deceased to a minimum, leaving the more
comprehensive eulogies to be expressed by the visiting speakers.73 This allows host
speakers to avoid the embarrassment of giving too great an acknowledgment to their own
relative lying in state. Because the deceased is related to the host speakers, they also

24 Rewi – Structural System of Whaikōrero – Junctures, 2, Jun 2004

inherently embody the kaikōrero tangata whenua. Thus, to speak of one’s dead is to also
speak of oneself. Hence, the following saying applies: “Kāre te kūmara e kōrero mō tōna
reka,” 74 which suggests that for humility’s sake the kūmara (sweet potato) should not tell
others of its own sweetness.

Mihi ki te kāhui ariki: acknowledgments to aristocracy

After some lengthy deliberation and consultation amongst the Māori tribes, Pōtatau Te
Wherowhero, of the Waikato tribe, was appointed as ‘King’ for the Māori people in 1858.75
The Kingitanga (‘Kingite’ movement) has been in existence since then and continues
under the auspices of the Waikato people and the Māori Queen – Te Ata-i-rangi-kāhu.
Descendants of Te Wherowhero are termed kāhui ariki (aristocracy, or the ‘royal family’).
Waikato speakers always acknowledge the Māori Queen and the kāhui ariki in their
whaikōrero. Likewise, when visitors from Waikato are welcomed on a marae outside of the
Waikato area, host speakers usually acknowledge the kāhui ariki, and/or the Māori Queen.
Such acknowledgments give recognition to the Waikato people and the King Movement
legacy. Subsequently, a reciprocation of respect to the kaikōrero tangata whenua and the
people(s) they represent is afforded. Because this sort of acknowledgment has become
common, its omission on Waikato marae, or in the presence of Te Arikinui, can be
perceived as ignorance, arrogance and/or a sign of disrespect on the speaker’s behalf.

Ko te kaupapa o te rā: discussion on the reason for the gathering

Following the farewell to the dead, speakers focus their whaikōrero on the reason for the
gathering. For instance, if the occasion is a funeral, then the deceased is the focal point.76
(In itself, the take deserves considerable treatment, but the scope of the present article
does not allow for this).

Ko te waiata: the accompanying song

According to one Tūhoe kaumātua, the main function of the waiata is to add importance to
the whaikōrero.77 A rule in whaikōrero, says one Ngāti Porou kaumātua, is that the waiata
ensures a speaker’s statements are endorsed.78 This is even more the case if the waiata is
appropriate to the content of the speaker’s whaikōrero. Two Tūhoe kaumātua believe that
in former times the waiata was the last whaikōrero component to be performed.79 Another
Tūhoe interviewee80 , however, recalled that he didn’t hear his elders conclude their
whaikōrero with waiata. It is possible that the difference stems from these kaumātua
coming from separate areas within Tūhoe. Presently, from personal observation of
whaikōrero among Tūhoe and other tribes, concluding waiata is very much a norm of
whaikōrero.
To bring whaikōrero to a close, the most widely used type of song is called waiata koroua
(traditional song without instrumental accompaniments), although in cases where school
groups are being formally welcomed or welcoming others, waiata-ā-ringa (action songs)
and himene (hymns) may also be delivered. Nonetheless, there is the perception that
whaikōrero are afforded more kudos when they are concluded with the traditional waiata
koroua.

Rewi – Structural System of Whaikōrero – Junctures, 2, Jun 2004 25

Speakers may circumvent the expectation of others to conclude their whaikōrero with
waiata by jovially ‘passing on’ the prospect to successive speakers, with a statement like:
‘Mā te mea i muri i ahau te waiata’ (the next speaker has the waiata). Thus, there are
times when not all speakers will conclude with waiata, but rather one waiata is performed
to encompass all.81 Often this arrangement occurs when the visitors are from the same
area and/or belong to the same organisation and, therefore, have come as a unified entity.
Salmond says that the “speech closes when the old women stand to join the orator in an
ancient song.” However, despite Salmond’s comment, some speakers deliver waiata to
commence their whaikōrero.82 Eric Schwimmer concurs, suggesting that “oratory had
customary forms, beginning with the intoned welcome to the dead and the living and
interrupted by suitable songs, which are called the ‘relish’ of the speech.”83 Some
exponents of whaikōrero do not restrict themselves to one waiata, at times performing
three, four or even more.84 On occasion, I have witnessed kaikōrero who have an obvious
plethora of waiata at their disposal (as they seemingly are able to reel pertinent waiata off
at will), and who intersperse a number of different verses from one song or different entire
songs throughout their whaikōrero. This may occur to emphasise a point or merely as a
part of the theatre of whaikōrero. Undoubtedly, it is an effective method of maintaining the
interest of the spectators and the momentum of the whaikōrero.

—— He kapinga kōrero: the conclusion of whaikōrero

The following section focuses on the ways speakers conclude their whaikōrero. The reader
should be cognisant that the list of ways to conclude whaikōrero provided is not
exhaustive.

‘Apiti hono tātai hono’: ‘draw the link’

The following expression (or a similar expression) is often heard from speakers concluding
their whaikōrero: ‘Apiti hono, tātai hono. Te hunga mate ki te hunga mate. Apiti hono, tātai
hono. Te hunga ora, ki te hunga ora’ (‘Let the dead be united unto themselves, and let the
living continue to interact with the living’).
This expression may be used by speakers from Tainui and Te Arawa, and sometimes by
orators from Ngāti Manawa. There are also recorded whaikōrero samples that contain this
expression by individuals from Ngāti Raukawa, Ngāi Te Rangi-Ngāti Ranginui, and
Rongowhakaata. When a Tūhoe speaker expresses the above phrase, it is likely that that
person has genealogical ties to Waikato, or Te Arawa,85 because it is a phrase that two
kaumātua from Tūhoe say is not an expression normally used by Tūhoe orators.86 However,
on occasion I have heard this expression uttered in the Mātaatua area, an occurrence,
argues another kaumātua from the same region, that reflects the fact that contemporary
speakers now have access to oratory practices from other areas.87 Thus, it has become a
common expression among younger speakers, who have heard it at many gatherings
around New Zealand and who have, subsequently, adopted it into their own whaikōrero.
I believe that the inclusion of this expression is merely formulaic for many modern
speakers.

26 Rewi – Structural System of Whaikōrero – Junctures, 2, Jun 2004

 Ko te haka: The dance/challenge of warriors
Contrary to the general consensus that waiata is the final component of whaikōrero, two
Tūhoe kaumātua believe that in former times the haka (warriors’ challenge) was used to
conclude whaikōrero.88 It was asserted that, following waiata, haka were performed to
release the speaker from the ‘sacred state’ adopted during whaikōrero.89 Whaikōrero
exponents may also incorporate haka, verses of haka, or lines of haka to enhance their
oration. 90

Ko te tuku koha: the presentation of a gift

One kaumātua suggested that the concluding component of whaikōrero is the
presentation of koha (a gift) following the waiata.91 In former times this gift may have
consisted of food, mats, or baskets, made as offerings by visitors to the hosts, but today
the usual form is money.92

KO TE WHAKATAUIRA I TE WHAIKŌRERO: CONCLUSION – THE STANDARDISATION

OF WHAIKŌRERO
This article has, in part, focused on the structural uniqueness of whaikōrero, both intra-
and inter-tribally. While whaikōrero are increasingly seen by younger speakers to follow a
set pattern which should be emulated, the variations in whaikōrero structure described
within this article suggest that whaikōrero should not be viewed as one-dimensional.
According to one Ngāti Porou kaumātua, Tāmati Reedy, the diversity of whaikōrero is
waning because of a false belief that whaikōrero need to follow a rigid system. He explains
that the standardisation of whaikōrero has caused its creative dimension to be lost. For
example, often whaikōrero are seen to be sub-standard if they are not opened with
tauparapara. Similarly, omissions within whaikōrero of acknowledgements to the dead or
even to God (despite this being a post-colonial development) are viewed as failings; the
effect being that whaikōrero are becoming overly standardised and formulaic. Typical
expressions are employed regardless of the take and, ultimately, many whaikōrero have
become monotonous, boring; and they cause inattentiveness in the listener as the fluidity
and ability of many whaikōrero to inspire listeners are seemingly disappearing.
Tāmati Reedy is not alone in this view. Tāmati Kruger, of Tūhoe, argues that a whaikōrero
prototype has developed that, while enabling the proliferation of whaikōrero, has caused a
lack of variation in the way speakers orate. Kruger also laments the decreasing ability of
whaikōrero to inspire due to the increasing similarity of whaikōrero caused by speakers
imitating others. Sir Robert Mahuta also stressed that the increasing standardisation of
whaikōrero occurs because speakers conform to avoid verbal admonishment from other
speakers, typically from those who are more experienced.
As alluded to by Reedy and as gleaned from my own observations, the standardisation of
whaikōrero can be overcome by the mana (esteem) of the speaker. Where a person is
renowned as a whaikōrero expert, he has greater flexibility in the organisation and delivery
of his whaikōrero. He is also less likely to be criticised for not conforming precisely to the
contemporary standards of whaikōrero. Salmond describes an occasion where the
boundaries of typical whaikōrero were broken. A speaker, who was infuriated by events,

Rewi – Structural System of Whaikōrero – Junctures, 2, Jun 2004 27

demonstrated his disapproval by “ditch[ing] all preliminaries,” launching himself straight
into the take and, later . . . refus[ing] to sing an accompanying waiata.”93 In comparison,
fledgling whaikōrero exponents have greater obligations to adhere to current protocols,
and need to be more cautious than the more established speaker. The dilemma young
kaikōrero face is whether or not they should conform to the standards of contemporary
whaikōrero, or test the boundaries. Whatever they choose, they still risk meeting with the
support or rejection of their elders.
Another factor to take heed of when considering a speaker’s ability to challenge the
structure of whaikōrero, is the knowledge that the speaker possesses, including
knowledge of historical accounts, culture and etiquette, motto maxims, songs, proverbs,
and an array of other significant factors. If speakers are able to skilfully incorporate such
knowledge into their whaikōrero they will gain respect that will subsequently allow them to
go beyond the boundaries of average whaikōrero.
The wide-ranging description of the whaikōrero from the perspective of numerous
kaumātua suggests that speakers should be conscious of the impact (or lack of it) of their
whaikōrero on the audience. While whaikōrero should remain within the boundaries of
etiquette, there should be space for innovation. When conscious deviations from
whaikōrero norms occur where the speaker does so because of his knowledge and
understanding of whaikōrero, then whaikōrero will be more interesting, elaborate, and
reach the quintessence of whaikōrero, that is, quality oration as opposed to prototypical
oration. With only slight deviations in mind at this stage, I look forward to a future when
whaikōrero are alive, and not limited to the rigid and predictable structures; a future where
whaikōrero can hold the attention of their listeners purely because individual speakers are
creative enough to apply their ‘personal touch’.
Tragically, the art of whaikōrero has been undermined and, possibly through ignorance,
arrogance, or complacency, a sense of impiety has developed regarding the true value of
whaikōrero. The effect of such impiety has been to the detriment of quality whaikōrero, as
Kāretu outlines:
What was once a noble and lofty art is fast degenerating into a perfunctory,
platitudinous, recited litany of rote-learned words and phrases. The
occasions are becoming fewer when one could be moved and stirred by the
command of rhetoric, of metaphor, of mythical allusion, of pithy and apposite
aphorism, of wit and candour, of subtlety and nuance interspersed with
chant where appropriate and concluded with haka.94
The present article has provided an outlet for a number of kaumātua to ‘speak’ about
whaikōrero, its role and its structure within the system of Māori oratory traditions. It is
hoped that the analysis put forward demonstrates, albeit through only one component of
whaikōrero, the intricacies of whaikōrero and the difficulties of maintaining and developing
an indigenous culture within a larger society. For those parties with a more vested interest
in whaikōrero, the analysis provided largely does not seek to answer questions, but rather
to pose them. For instance, does having a ‘system’ of whaikōrero strengthen or weaken
the art of whaikōrero? Are whaikōrero formulae merely taken from generalised research
findings that tend to fixate Māori culture? And why should an orator who chooses to

28 Rewi – Structural System of Whaikōrero – Junctures, 2, Jun 2004

deviate from the system or structure of whaikōrero be deemed arrogant, ambitious,
ignorant or naïve, as opposed to innovative and/or inspiring?
This article is also a challenge to up and coming orators. Is the system of whaikōrero
nothing but a ‘psychological fence’ of behavioural normality, whereby an orator who tests
its boundaries is wounded by the ‘barbs’ of conformity. Are there orators, or potential
orators, courageous enough to shift the ‘fence’, and are there elders who will allow the
‘fence’ to be moved by the orator, so that it may better encapsulate the vast and beautiful
landscape of oratorical potential? Will time tell?

1 KTH Mataira, Te Kura Pūaotanga (Hamilton: Waikato Polytechnic, 1995).

2 KTH Mataira, Te Kura Pūaotanga (Hamilton: Waikato Polytechnic, 1995).
3 “The Marae is an institution that has persisted from pre-European Maori society. While a
whole living complex may be referred to as a marae, the marae proper consists of an open
space of ground in front of an ancestral meeting house…In traditional times the marae and
the meeting house together made up the focal point of every permanently inhabited village.”
M King (ed.), Te Ao Hurihuri (Wellington: Hicks Smith, 1975), 21.
4 C Barlow, Tikanga Whakaaro (Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1991), 165.
5 Please note that the references below do not necessarily follow strict academic tradition in
the form of citation, which would treat the informants as anonymous ‘subjects’ whose identity
requires protection. In this article, stating the identity of the kaumātua (elders), whose views
have formed this description of the whaikōrero, is important. It is through their identification
that the writer honours their knowledge and experience. Much of the information that frames
the basis of this article was taken from responses by kaumātua from different tribes, either
during structured interviews that formed the research component of the author’s PhD, or
during informal discussions. Throughout this article I acknowledge (via footnoting) the
information given to me by these elders.
6 The kaumātua often talked of whaikōrero in relation to tangihanga (funeral), however, many
of the responses were also made with relevance to other gatherings where formal welcoming
ceremonies are afforded the visitor.
7 King, Te Ao Hurihuri, 23.
8 A Salmond, cited in M Bloch, Political Language and Oratory in Traditional Society (London:
Academic Press, 1975), 52.
9 Salmond, Political Language, 52-3.
10 H Tauroa & P Tauroa, Te Marae: A Guide to Customs and Protocol (Auckland: Reed, 1986),
65-66.
11 The components of whaikōrero examined here were provided by the responses of the
previously mentioned kaumātua but these may not be the only components that constitute
whaikōrero.
12 King, Te Ao Hurihuri, 23.
13 Kaumātua Hiko Hohepa of Te Arawa uses the term ‘pōhuatau’ when referring to
tauparapara.
14 This is a tribe situated in the Eastern Bay of Plenty, named after their eponymous ancestor
‘Tūhoe Pōtiki.’
15 Kaumātua Hohepa Kereopa of Tūhoe.
16 Kaumātua Pou Te Mara of Tūhoe.

Rewi – Structural System of Whaikōrero – Junctures, 2, Jun 2004 29

17 Kaumātua Hirini Melbourne of Tūhoe and Kahungunu.
18 Formerly, such compositions would have been used by an individual or group to express their
frustration or anger in response to the death of tribal members by other tribes. Today, they
are used to announce the speaker’s tribal affiliation or to enhance their whaikōrero.
19 Kaumātua Hīeke Tupe of Tūhoe.
20 Kaumātua Pou Te Mara of Tūhoe.
21 Kaumātua Kei Merito of Ngāti Awa
22 This is an assertion of importance, reverence, formality, status, or restriction to behave
appropriately.
23 Kaumātua Ranginui Walker of Te Whakatōhea.
24 Kaumātua Te Kotahitanga Mahuta of Waikato-Maniapoto.
25 Kaumātua Awanui Timutimu of Tūhoe.
26 Kaumātua Kei Merito of Ngāti Awa.
27 Kaumātua Tïmoti Kāretu of Tūhoe and Kahungunu
28 Kaumātua Awanui Timutimu of Tūhoe.
29 Kaumātua Tāmati Reedy of Ngāti Porou.
30 Kaumātua Mauriora Kingi of Te Arawa.
31 Kaumātua Tāmati Reedy of Ngāti Porou. This view was also supported by kaumātua Tīmoti
Kāretu of Tūhoe and Kahungunu.
32 Kaumātua Hapi Winiata of Te Arawa.
33 Kaumātua Hohepa Kereopa of Tūhoe.
34 Kaumātua Kimoro Pukepuke of Tūhoe.
35 Kaumātua Whitu Waiariki of Tūhoe.
36 According to Māori belief, Kurawaka is the location where the deity Tāne procured the soil
from which he fashioned the first woman and breathed life into her.
37 Hine-ahu-one (woman-fashioned from-earth).
38 T Kāretu, “Language and protocol of the marae,” in M. King (ed.) Te Ao Hurihuri, 35.
39 P Awatere & K Dewes, Tauparapara from Te kawa o Te Marae, Audio-tape recording.
(Wellington: Victoria University Anthropology Department, 1963).
40 Eric Schwimmer also talks about one other instrument working in this capacity: “Finally, they
had a huge wooden war gong (pahu) used by sentries at night to show the people of the pa
that they were awake and watching.” E Schwimmer, The World of the Māori (Wellington:
Reed, 1974), 88.
41 Kaumātua Tīmoti Kāretu of Tūhoe and Kahungunu.
42 Kaumātua John Tahuri of Tūhoe.
43 According to kaumātua Te Kotahitanga Tait of Tūhoe, Te Arawa are a people who often
acknowledge God, whereas Kuia Mana Rangi of Ngāti Porou commented that some Ngāti
Porou speakers do not acknowledge God.
44 Kaumātua Tāmati Reedy of Ngāti Porou.
45 Kaumātua Tïmoti Kāretu of Tūhoe and Kahungunu, kaumātua Taua Pouwhare of Tūhoe,
kaumātua Hīeke Tupe of Tūhoe, kaumātua Kimoro Pukepuke of Tūhoe, and kaumātua Pou
Te Mara of Tūhoe.
46 This is a religious sect based on the New Testament founded by Te Kooti Arikirangi Te Turuki
and observed by some Māori from Ngāti Maniapoto, Mātaatua, and Te Tairāwhiti.
47 Kaumātua Tïmoti Kāretu of Tūhoe and Kahungunu.
48 Kaumātua Hīeke Tupe of Tūhoe, who himself was sent by his kuia and kaumātua to learn the
Presbyterian faith.

30 Rewi – Structural System of Whaikōrero – Junctures, 2, Jun 2004

49 Kaumātua Tāmati Reedy of Ngāti Porou.
50 Kaumātua Pita Iraia of Ngāti Whare.
51 Kaumātua Hiko Hohepa of Te Arawa.
52 Kaumātua Tāmati Reedy of Ngāti Porou.
53 Kaumātua Tïmoti Kāretu of Tūhoe and Kahungunu.
54 King, Te Ao Hurihuri, 23.
55 Pat Hohepa, a Ngāpuhi (see Figure 1) kaumātua, stated that what most tribes termed pae or
paepae he would refer to as the ‘taumata’.
56 Kaumātua Tīmoti Kāretu of Tūhoe and Kahungunu.
57 Kaumātua Awanui Timutimu of Tūhoe.
58 Kaumātua John Tahuri of Tūhoe.
59 Kaumātua Tïmoti Kāretu of Tūhoe and Kahungunu.
60 Kaumātua Hapi Winiata of Te Arawa.
61 Kaumātua Hapi Winiata of Te Arawa.
62 Kaumātua Tīmoti Kāretu of Tūhoe and Kahungunu, kaumātua Pita Iraia of Ngāti Whare, and
kaumātua Te Kotahitanga Tait of Tūhoe, in reference to Te Arawa.
63 This whare is termed whare tipuna because its carvings are often representations of
ancestors. Carvings may be supplemented or complemented by photographs of deceased
family members.
64 Kaumātua Tïmoti Kāretu of Tūhoe and Kahungunu.
65 Kaumātua Te Kotahitanga Tait of Tūhoe.
66 Kaumātua Koro Dewes of Ngāti Porou.
67 Kaumātua Taua Pouwhare of Tūhoe.
68 Kaumātua Tāmati Reedy of Ngāti Porou.
69 Kaumātua Pita Iraia of Ngāti Whare and kaumātua Kimoro Pukepuke of Tūhoe.
70 Kaumātua Te Kotahitanga Tait of Tūhoe.
71 Generally, this area would cover Ngāti Awa, Tūhoe, Te Whakatōhea, and parts of Ngāi Te
Rangi and Ngāti Ranginui.
72 Kaumātua John Tahuri of Tūhoe.
73 Kaumātua Tīmoti Kāretu of Tūhoe and Kahungunu.
74 Kaumātua Tïmoti Kāretu of Tūhoe and Kahungunu.
75 There is some debate whether the year was 1858 or 1859.
76 Kaumātua Awanui Timutimu of Tūhoe.
77 Kaumātua Hīeke Tupe of Tūhoe.
78 Kaumātua Tāmati Reedy of Ngāti Porou.
79 Kaumātua Awanui Timutimu of Tūhoe and kaumātua John Tahuri of Tūhoe.
80 Kaumātua Kimoro Pukepuke of Tūhoe.
81 Kaumātua Pat Hohepa of Ngāpuhi.
82 An observation by kaumātua Te Kotahitanga Mahuta of Waikato-Maniapoto.
83 Schwimmer, The World of the Māori, 86.
84 Kaumātua Tāmati Kruger of Tūhoe.
85 Kaumātua John Tahuri of Tūhoe and kaumātua Te Kotahitanga Tait of Tūhoe.
86 Kaumātua Awanui Timutimu of Tūhoe and kaumātua Kimoro Pukepuke of Tūhoe.
87 Kaumātua Mehaka Herewini of Tūhoe.
88 Kaumātua Tïmoti Kāretu of Tūhoe and Kahungunu, and kaumātua Hohepa Kereopa of
Tūhoe.

Rewi – Structural System of Whaikōrero – Junctures, 2, Jun 2004 31

89 Kaumātua Tīmoti Kāretu of Tūhoe and Kahungunu.
90 Kaumātua Tāmati Kruger of Tūhoe.
91 Kaumātua Hiko Hohepa of Te Arawa.
92 Barlow, Tikanga Whakaaro, 49.
93 A Salmond, cited in M Bloch, Political Language and Oratory in Traditional Society, 55.
94 Kaumātua Tīmoti Kāretu of Tūhoe and Kahungunu.

Poia Rewi is a senior lecturer at Te Tumu, the School of Māori, Pacific and
Indigenous Studies at the University of Otago in Dunedin, New Zealand. He is
currently working on his PhD thesis on Whaikōrero (Māori Oratory).

32 Rewi – Structural System of Whaikōrero – Junctures, 2, Jun 2004