PHILOSOPHY animals, plants, mineral resources, and so on)

are resources that may justifiably be exploited

CHAPTER 4 : THE HUMAN PERSON IN HIS / HER for the benefit of humankind.
ENVIRONMENT
 How does Philosophy define man’s
 “You think you own whatever land you land on. relationship with the environment?
The earth is just a dead thing you can claim. But  Environment Philosophy is the branch of
I know that every rock and sea and creature has philosophy that is concerned with the natural
a life, has spirit, and has a name.” – Stephen environment and humanity’s place within it.
Schwartz (Colors of the wind) o Environmental philosophy is a branch
 Three Main Approaches to Understanding of philosophy that is concerned with the natural
Human Relationship with the Environment environment and humans' place within it.
1. Cosmos – centric approach  Anthropocentrism is the belief that humans are
o Shows that human beings are a microcosm of the central and most significant species on the
the cosmos; the universe is reflected in us, we planet. This view believes that humans are
are a small version of the universe. considered the primary cause that drives
o A vision of reality that places the highest changes in the environment.
importance or emphasis in the universe or o Anthropocentrism refers to a human-centered,
nature, as opposite to an anthropocentric or “anthropocentric,” point of view. In
vision, which strongly focuses on humankind as philosophy, anthropocentrism can refer to the
the most important element of existence. point of view that humans are the only, or
o What does it mean? It’s a way of primary, holders of moral standing.
viewing universal life and nature as more than  Deed Ecology, on the other hand sees the
just a backdrop to our lives, but as an integral natural world as being maintained by the
part of who we are. It is seeing both ourselves interrelationship among living organisms and
and the source of life as being at one with that every living thing on the planet is
nature… it is learning to live in harmony with dependent on each other for survival.
the universal rhythms of life. o An environmental movement and philosophy
2. Theocentric approach which regards human life as just one of many
o Refers to an understanding coming from a equal components of a global ecosystem.
religious interpretation; we are the stewards of  Gaia Hypothesis is suggest that non-organic
creation as mandated by God. elements in the planet play a significant role in
o To be Theocentric means to live in a way that maintaining balance in the environment as they
puts God at the center of life or makes Him the interact with living organisms to regulate the
main focus of life. To be Theocentric is to be various systems that enable life to continue
“God-centered.” thriving on Earth.
3. Anthropocentric approach o The Gaia hypothesis, also known as the Gaia
o Puts the human person in dominion over the theory or the Gaia principle, proposes that
earth but deemphasizes the role of God. living organisms interact with their inorganic
o Anthropocentrism, philosophical viewpoint surroundings on Earth to form a synergistic and
arguing that human beings are the central or self-regulating, complex system that helps to
most significant entities in the world. This is a maintain and perpetuate the conditions for life
basic belief embedded in many Western on the planet.
religions and philosophies. Anthropocentrism  Theological Views show mankind as steward of
regards humans as separate from and superior creation, and their stewardship as a
to nature and holds that human life continuation of the work of the creator.
has intrinsic value while other entities (including
o Theology is the systematic study of the nature the environmental protections and
of the divine and, more broadly, of religious conservation movement, animal rights and
belief. green politics.
 How do philosophical views influence o Environmentalism or environmental rights is a
environmental action? broad philosophy, ideology, and social
1. Environment Ethics movement regarding concerns
o Emphasizes key ideas that combine for environmental protection and improvement
philosophical, pragmatic, and theological of the health of the environment, particularly as
perspectives. the measure for this health seeks to incorporate
o Environmental ethics is the discipline in the impact of changes to the environment on
philosophy that studies the moral relationship humans, animals, plants and non-living matter.
of human beings to, and also the value and 5. Ecofeminism
moral status of, the environment and its non- o This theory argues that ecological crisis is a
human contents consequence of male dominance. Male traits in
2. Social Ecology the anthropocentric model are superior as
o Applies an ecological ethical approach in opposed to the female traits as in the
analyzing society; and sees a relationship ecocentric model.
between social problems and environmental o For the adherents of this view, freeing nature
problems. ad humanity means removing the superior vs.
o The growing concern with climate change has inferior in human relations.
inspired a number of views and concepts such o Ecofeminism is a branch of feminism that sees
as climate ethics and climate justice, which environmentalism, and the relationship
consider climate changes a significant ethical, between women and the earth, as foundational
social, and political issue. to its analysis and practice. Ecofeminist thinkers
o Applies an ecological ethical approach in draw on the concept of gender to analyses the
analyzing society, and sees a relationship relationships between humans and the natural
between social problems and environmental world.
problems.  Understanding our relationship with the
o Social ecology may refer to: Social environment can also refer to the human beings
ecology (academic field), the study of with ecology and nature.
relationships between people and their
environment, often the interdependence of  Hebert Marcuse
people, collectives and institutions. o Argues “humanity had dominated nature; there
3. Environmental Aesthetics can only be change if we will change out
o This perspective originally discussed concepts of attitude towards our perception of the
beauty in nature but has recently been environment.
increasingly influenced by environment  George Herbert Mead
concerns. o Maintains that as human beings, we do not
o Aesthetics is the field of philosophy that studies have only right but duties. We are not only
the ways in which humans experience the world citizens of the community but how we react to
through their senses. It is especially concerned this community and in our reaction to it, change
with the appreciation of particular objects when it.
they strike the senses in a pleasing manner.  Demonstrate Virtues of Prudence and Frugality
4. Environmentalism toward Environment
o Significant social movements that were inspired o In view of the increasing need to protect the
by increased environmental awareness include environment, Erich Fromm proposed a new
 society that should encourage the emergence in myriad petty little unsexy ways, everyday.” –
of a new human being that will poster prudence D.F Wallace
and moderation or frugality toward  “True freedom is not advanced in the
environment. permissive society, which confuses freedom
 These are some of the functions of Fromm’s with license to do anything whatever and which
envisioned society: in the name of freedom proclaims a kind of
o The willingness to give up all forms of having, in general amorality. It is a caricature of freedom
order to fully be. to claim that people are free to organize their
o Being fully present where one is. lives with no reference to moral values, and to
o Trying to reduced greed, hate, and illusions as say that society does not have to ensure the
much as one is capable. protection and advancement of ethical values.
o Making the full growth of oneself and of one’s Such a attitude is destructive of freedom and
fellow beings as supreme goal of living. peace.” – Pope John Paul II
o Not deceiving other, but also not being  “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that
deceived by others; one may be called innocent, all men are created equal, that they are
but not naïve. endowed by their Creator with certain
o Freedom that is not arbitrariness but possibility unalienable rights, that among these are life,
to be oneself to, not as a bundle of greedy Liberty and the pursuit of happiness- that to
desires, but as a delicately balanced structure secure these rights, Governments are
that at any moments is confronted with the instituted… Deriving their just powers from the
alternatives of growth or decay, life or death. consent of the governed….” – Declaration of
 Happiness in the process of ever-growing Independence of the United State of America
aliveness, whatever the furthest point is that  How is freedom defined in the quotes?
fate permits to reach, for living as fully as one  Which idea regarding freedom is most
can is so satisfactory that the concern for what acceptable to you?
one might or might not attain has little chance  If you were to make your own definition of
to develop. freedom what will it be?
o Joy that comes from giving and sharing, not  What is FREEDOM or LIBERTY?
from boarding and exploiting. o It is social and political which has great
o Developing one’s capacity for love, together significance in how people participate in
with one’s capacity for critical, unsentimental society. The concept of freedom has emerged
thought. as an important philosophical issue in 18th
o Shedding one’s narcissism and accepting that century in Europe during the Age of
tragic limitations are inherit in human Enlightenment.
existence. o Political freedom consists of two types of
liberties:
o Positive Liberty refers to a person taking
control of his or her own life and fulfilling one’s
CHAPTER 5 : FREEDOM OF THE HUMAN PERSON
potential.
 “You are FREE to choose, but you are NOT FREE o Positive liberty is the possession of the capacity
from the consequences of your choice.” – An to act upon one's free will, as opposed
Universal Paradox to negative liberty, which is freedom from
 “The really important kind of freedom involves external restraint on one's actions.
attention, and awareness ad discipline, and o Negative Liberty is freedom from external
effort and being able truly to care about other restraint, barriers, and other interferences from
people and to sacrifice for them, over and over, other people.
o Negative liberty is freedom from interference o Accordingly, freedom is related to our capacity
by other people. to choose; and “in choosing the personality is
 Liberalism upholds the preservation of consolidated.”
individual rights and stresses the role of the o Freedoms mean exercising our capacity to make
government in protecting these civil liberties. decisions choose our life path and direct the
o Liberalism, political doctrine that takes course of our lives through our own steering.
protecting and enhancing the freedom of o Genuine freedom is acted upon, it requires a lot
the individual to be the central problem of of daily work.
politics. Liberals typically believe  Natural Rights refers to innate rights of a
that government is necessary to protect person such as the right to life. These rights are
individuals from being harmed by others, but considered universal and alienable.
they also recognize that government itself can o Our natural rights as human beings include
pose a threat to liberty. being treated fairly regardless of race, religion,
 Libertarianism believes that the individual, not ethnic background, gender, or sexual
the government, is the best judge in upholding orientation.
and exercising rights.  Legal Rights are rights that are based on
o Libertarianism is a political philosophy society’s customs and laws, and are enacted by
advocating the individual freedom as Natural legislation and enforced by a government.
Law, as a fundamental value of social relations, o Legal rights are, clearly, rights which exist under
economic exchanges and political system. the rules of legal systems or by virtue of
 Socialism considers freedom as the freedom to decisions of suitably authoritative bodies within
acquire economic resources and the ability to them.
work and act according to one’s desires.  What makes us free? How does freedom shape
o Socialism, social and economic doctrine that our experiences?
calls for public rather than private ownership or  Human Agency refers to the capacity of a
control of property and natural resources. person to act and exert control over his or her
 Existentialism: Freedom is exercised through behavior.
choices o Human agency is the capacity for human beings
o Existentialists argue that freedom should not to make choices and to impose those choices on
only be conceived as an idea or notion. the world.
o Freedom is something that is exercised through  Human freedom is expressed in two ways:
our choices. When a person exercised his 1. Free will – is the capacity to choose from
freedom, he becomes real. alternative courses of action or decision.
o The main tenet of existentialism is that we are 2. Free action – freedom to perform an action
the authors of our own lives; it is the author without any obstacle or hindrances.
who creates the turning points in every story or  Philosophers identify various ways that people
plot twists. can exercise free will and free action, the
o If we take responsibility over our own lives, following are:
then we can say that those plot twists are not 1. Faculties Model
the products of fate or destiny, but of our own o Refers to free will as the use of our mental
choices. facilities. It assumes that we have free will due
 Freedom as choosing for oneself that leads to to our intellect and that each human action is
personality consolidation based on rationality and sound judgment.
o Main precursor of his movement is Soren 2. Hierarchical Model
Kierkegaard (1813-1855) o Argues that free will is based on human wants
and desires that need to be met.
3. Reason – Responsive View b. Will I be able to answer the grievances
o Believes that man has free will because he or of those who will be hurt by these
she is able to entertain reasons not to enact a consequences?
certain decision and act upon them when the c. Will I be able to face people with a
need arises. dignified and resolved stance when I am
 What can prevent us from exercising our chastised, criticized for my choice?
freedom? d. Will I be prepared to give a reasonable
o Prohibitions of law, and other social controls answer to their questions?
imposed by society  Freedom is not a privilege, but a responsibility
o Coercion exerted by another person o Freedom can only be genuine when one
o Weather, accidents or poverty takes responsibility for it; when it is done
o Physical condition socially, declared in broad daylight before
 Philosopher also pondered how free will can be witnesses.
exercised deterministic world. Determinism is a o Freedom is responsible when one commits
philosophical view that believes that every oneself to fulfilling it before witnesses;
event in the world is brought about by when one is prepared to defend it with
underlying factors or causes. good reasons.
 An example of free will being exercised in a  Freedom, commitment and the Strengthening
deterministic scenario is how people deal with of Oneself
things that are “outside of their control.”  Listen to David’s predicament
 Another example is how people deal with the o Making a choice and commit oneself to it is to
tragic news of an impending loss. Other views, put oneself out there – body and soul – for the
however, contend that there is no free will and entire world to see.
that all things are determined by underlying o When we refuse to make choices, we are afraid
causes. to show ourselves to the world.
 This is most evident in Marxist philosophy that o “Freedom is not the absence of commitments,
believes that society imposes certain controls but the ability to choose and commit myself to
on people, and that a person’s social group what is best for me.”
largely influences how he or she thinks or acts.  Existentialism maintains that when we make a
 The issue between free will and determinism is decision among a set of choices, it is not just a
also important in Theology. Theologians discuss strong resolve we are creating; we are creating
free will against the concept of an omniscient ourselves.
God.  When we make a choice, this entails the painful
 How can we effectively exercise freedom in process of letting go of other possibilities and
our life? putting our whole mind and body to the choice
o Free will is necessary for moral responsibility, we made and gain oneself as a free and mature
moral responsibility refers to a person’s status being.
of deserving praise and reward, or blame and  David’s Predicament
punishment or an action. o David currently has three girlfriends. He is 27
 The Exercise of Responsible Freedom years old, the age when one is more or less
o The exercise of freedom is a social act. likely to get married and settle down. But David
o A responsible exercise of freedom takes the does not to get married. He knows that
following questions in mind: marriage means finally committing to only one
a. Am I aware of the consequences of my person. This means he has to choose among the
choices as soon as I act on them? three. David ends up answering to the three
women. He is different person to each woman.
 He is unsure which side of him is the most o A dialog is a conversation that is attuned to
genuine among the three selves he present to each other and to whatever they are talking.
different persons. o For Buber, a life of dialog is a mutual sharing of
our inner selves in the realm of the interhuman.
Between two persons is a mutual awareness of
CHAPTER 6 : THE PERSON AND OTHERS each other avoiding objectification.
( INTERSUBJECTIVITY ) o An authentic dialog entails a person-to-person,
a mutual sharing of selves, acceptance, and
 “There is a “we” that emerges that was not sincerity.
there before this intersubjective encounter.” –  How does relationship define the human
Gabriel Marcel person?
 How does an individual relate with other o One view considers genuine relationships as
persons? difficult and almost impossible to attain. The
 Existentialism and Phenomenology are the existentialist philosophers Jean-Paul Sartre
major philosophical branches that devote much considers human relationship as frustrating and
discussion on the concept of interpersonal is often inauthentic and ambiguous.
relations. o According to Sartre humans tend to view others
 The existentialist perspective defines as a means to achieve certain desires. This view
interpersonal relations as the “self” being aware gives rise to feeling of alienation – where the
of the “other”. individual ceases to view the other as a distinct
 The interaction between self and other is authentic person, and considers him or her as a
related to the philosophical concept of mere object. Karl Max believes that alienation
intersubjectivity, which is the shared awareness gives rise to the exploitation of people.
and understanding among persons.  Edith Stein – defines self-other relationship as
 Philosophers identify various levels of self-other being driven by empathy-awareness that the
interaction, the first is the simple awareness of other is a person with thoughts and feelings.
the existence of other.  Edmund Husserl believes that intersubjectivity
 A deeper level of interaction between the self is more than just shared understanding, but is
and the other, on the other hand, is the the capability to put oneself “in the place where
awareness of the self as being seen by other. the other is”
 Also, you are aware of another significant fact,  Gabriel Marcel defines genuine relationship
you know that the stranger staring at you is based on availability or the willingness of a
aware of you as a person. This self- person to be present and be at the disposal of
consciousness is considered by philosophers as another.
a defining characteristic of the self-other  All in all, the human person is regarded by
relationship. philosophy as a “being-with-other” and that
 Seeming by Martin Buber where an individual seeking and maintaining meaningful and
presents himself or herself in a certain way harmonious relationship with others is
when dealing with other relationship, identifies necessary of personal development.
another, mush deeper level of interaction which  Intersubjectivity is a relationship that is
is the dialogue. supported by genuine communication founded
 We are a Conversation on mutual respect for each other as subject,
o Martin Heidegger says that humankind is a and on co-presence – the openness of one’s
conversation. Conversation is more than an idle presence to the presence of the other.
talk but a dialog.  How does Christianity define interpersonal
relations?
 o The Christian respective considers human  Social Philosophy
relations in the context of community. o Focuses on studying society and its influence o
o Even greater still is the relationship between the human person. It applies philosophical
God and man which is defined as a fellowship concepts in a social concepts in a social context
and covenant. and looks into how social interactions shape
 “Love your neighbor as you love yourself” (Mark people’s perception, experience, ideas and
12:31) and “Do unto others what you would values.
have them do unto you” (Matthew 7:12)  How is society formed?
 Appreciating PWDs and Under privileged  Humans are recognized to have a natural
Sectors of Society tendency to cooperate and organize, and
a) On PWDs society is a natural outcome of this human
b) Underprivileged sectors of society tendency to socialize. During the
c) On the rights of women Enlightenment, social philosophers pondered
on the natural laws that govern human
societies, and in their discussions, several
CHAPTER 7 : THE HUMAN PERSON I SOCIETY philosophers put forth their ideas regarding the
formation of societies.
 What is Society?  Enlightenment Philosophers:
o Refers to a large, independent, and organized  They are among the most prominent social
group of people living in the same territory and theorist who tackles the origins of human
sharing a common culture and heritage. society. In order to fully understand the true
 Forms of Society character of society, they imagined humans as
1. Hunter – and – Gathering Societies living in a s0-called “natural state”, removed
o The simplest and earliest form of society. This from modernity and civilization.
society adopts a lifestyle dependent on 1. Thomas Hobbes
resources readily available from their o Man in his natural state is governed by his
surroundings. desires. These often lead conflict with his
2. Agricultural Societies fellowmen.
o Are those engaged primarily in agricultural o Society is the means by which men seek to
activities such as fishing, farming, and livestock- control their natural tendencies and impose
raising as primary way of life. order.
3. Industrial Society o Individuals who establish societies enter into a
o Are centered on mechanized production and “social contract”.
the exchange of goods and services. o Social Contract an agreement where individuals
4. Modern Society sacrifice some of their wants and submit to a
o Are technologically-advance societies higher authority. In this way, society is able to
characterized by industry, mass production, and function and meet the needs of many, ensuring
advance communication and transportation. the survival of humanity.
5. Virtual Society 2. John Locke
o Advancement in technology have enable people o Proposed his own ideas on social contract with
to establish “virtual societies” that are not different assumption.
confined by territory and are composed of o Considered man in his natural state as more
individuals coming from various social cooperative and reasonable, and that society is
backgrounds. formed through the consent of the individuals
 that organized it, a concept known as the
 “consent of the government”
3. Jean Jacques Rousseau  Though socialization, the process by which an
o Ideas on the social contract led him to advocate individual learns the prevailing behaviors,
the concept of “general will” attitudes, and values within his or her society, a
o Rousseau believed that even if the people are person adopts a set of ideals and behavior
the ones who organized society and established considered appropriate within his or her
an authority or government, in extreme cases, society.
the government, in extreme cases, the
government is able to impose its will on the
people
4. John Rawls
o Social contracts give emphasis to individual
decision-making in society.
o Introduced a version of the natural state which
he called the original position to explain social
function.
o He imagined humans as having a “veil of  Relationships are personal where interactions
ignorance” or no knowledge of one’s own are based on a mutual regard for each other as
characteristics such as gender, race, or social a person.
status.  Traditional relationships involve interactions
o Try out Rawl’s thought experiment based on regard for each other as a means of
1) Imagine humankind before society came into attaining one’s goals.
being – a natural state.  In Haberma’s Social Theory, theory is made up
2) People then asked to create a society which of three main spheres:
decides how wealth and goods are to be 1. The social system of money ( economic /
distributed. market )
3) However, before they make any decisions they 2. The social system of power ( political / state )
are placed behind a “veil of ignorance”… which 3. Life world ( everyday world of communicative
means they do not have any idea of how relations )
successful they will be, or how wealthy they will  In the market and state, relationships are more
become. Life is a lottery! transactional.
5. David Gauthier  In the life world, participants are expected to
o Described man’s self-interest as a significant treat each other as subject.
factor in building and maintaining societies.  The influence of society in behavior and human
o People choose to cooperate since it is beneficial interaction was the focus of a classical
to meet their self-interest. psychological experiment known as Stanford
o This self interest benefits society as a whole, Prison Experiment. This experiment was
since the actions of individuals in meeting their conducted in 1971 in Stanford University.
individual need also further the interests of the  In the experiment, individuals were assigned
other members of society. certain roles and were expected to behave in
 How does society influence the human accordance with these roles. In society, we are
person? also assigned certain roles based on our social
 Society has a significant influence in almost all status, gender and other traits.
aspects of an individual’s life. Becoming part of  Social Roles a set of expected behavior that
the group can often result in significant changes must be performed by a person.
in the prevailing behavior of an individual.
 Social Groups specific people tend to behave a
certain way and continuous interaction within
their group reinforce such behavior.
 Normative Democratic Theory is a perspective
which considers democratic society as morally
desirable.
 Cultural Difference in society also affects
individual behavior.
 How does our own society define our identity as
Filipino?
 Our own Filipino society has a set of social
values that govern our everyday interactions
and define our character as uniquely Filipino.
 Several traditions that contribute to
harmonious relationship within Filipino society
such as pakikisama, pakikipagkapwa-tao, utang
–na-loob, damayan at Bayanihan.
 Religion also occupies some, like Christmas,
Holy week and others.

CHAPTER 8 : THE HUMAN PERSON AS A BEING UNTO o Other beliefs relate to reincarnation and eternal
EATH oblivion.
o How people deal with death is often influenced
 “Do not act as if you were going to live ten by culture. Death is a life event which is
thousand years. Death hangs over you. While surrounded by the most ceremony and
you live, while it is in your power, be good.” – symbolism in many cultures. Communities and
Marcus Aurelius societies also assign a great significance death,
 What is Death? as evidenced by various celebrations and
o Death is the end of the biological functions that commemorations across the cultures such as All
sustain living organisms. In medical terms, the Souls Days, The Chinese Ghost Festival, and The
death of a human being is associated with Mexican Day of Dead.
“brain death” or the ceasing of all brain o In Philippines society, death is considered as an
functions. The causes of death include aging, experience that involves not only the family but
disease, and fatal injury. also the community. Various belief and
o Death is considered to be a natural occurrence, superstitions surrounds event activity related to
and as person advances in age, the certainty of death form mourning to burial.
death is seen in the gradual decline of the  How does the prospect of death give
human body. This process is called aging or significance to our life?
senescence.  Philosophers see death as defining
o One view considers aging as being brought characteristics of human existence. The
about by gradual mutations and defects in the prospect of death, however, causes feelings of
genes as the body ages, leading to damage and anxiety and dread in person. This anxiety can
loss of tissue in aging people. only be overcome if one accepts the
o Another view considers aging as part of inevitability of death and strive to find meaning
evolution. in life.
o In other disciplines, the definition of death is  Philosophers have long pondered death and
not merely confined to physical death. what lies beyond it. Though death is an
Philosophy, psychology, and the other social inevitable phenomenon in life, philosophers
sciences consider death as an experience which have observed that people often treat the
involves not only the deceased individual but subject with dread.
also other people and the community.
 Most human actions are seen as being intended
o In psychology, the experience of death is often
to delay or even deny the prospect of death. As
associated with negative emotions such as grief,
a result, a number of philosophical views have
anxiety, anger, and fear. The death of a loved
arisen regarding the best attitude or
one is a powerful emotional experience which
prospective regarding death, and how to deal
often leads to stress and depression.
with the reality of death in our lives.
o Various individuals’ scope emotional support is
 Life asked Death “Why do people love me and
required of death in different ways, and
hate you?” Death replied “Because you are a
adequate emotional support is required for a
beautiful lie and I’m a painful truth.”
person to overcome it. On the other hand,
 A major question that philosopher consider
death can also be an opportunity for people to
when discussing death is what happens to the
recall and memorialize the life and achievement
person when he dies. The dualist perspective
of loved one.
believes that the mind or spirit, being
o Cultures have varied ideas, values, and beliefs
incorporeal, persist after the body’s demise.
regarding death and these are reflected in
 The complete annihilation of the body,
traditions, funerary practices, religion, and
therefore, does not mean that the person no
philosophy.
 longer exists because his spirit endures after  Ego integrity refers to aperson achieving his/her life
death. This thinking gives rise to the idea of an as failure or her life’s purpose or having come to
afterlife, where it is believed that the spirit of terms with his or her life.
the dead survives and continues to persist.  How can faith help us understand death?
 A controversial topic related to the belief in the  Considers death in the context of man’s
existence of the afterlife is the phenomenon known spiritual nature. Death entails the destruction of
as “near death experience” people who were close the physical body, as man is created from duct
to death reported experiences of an afterlife. These and in death, he returns to dust (Genesis 3:19).
experiences often include the person having an  How should one face death and loss?
“out-of-body experience”, where the person views 1. Grief, the natural reaction death and dying.
his or her body or the events surrounding his or her 2. Bereavement, the state of loss brought about
apparent death from a distance. by death.
 The opposite view to the belief in the afterlife is 3. Mourning, the process by which person deal
eternal oblivion, or the belief that death totally with death.
extinguishes the consciousness of the person.  Five stages of grief by Elisabeth Kubler-Ross
Various ancient philosophers such as Socrates, 1. Denial – the dying person initially expresses
Cicero, and Lucretius have entertained the notion of disbelief regarding his or her situation.
eternal oblivion, while a number of modern beliefs, 2. Anger – the person expresses frustration with
such as skepticism and atheism, consider this as a his or her situation. They express that their
feature of human existence. situation was “unfair”
 Apart from the debate regarding the aferterlife, 3. Bargaining – the dying person often voices his
philosophers have also focused on the significance or her with that his or her life be prolonged and
of the inevitability of death in shaping the course of he/she is willing to do whatever it takes to
human life. Philosophers, define man’s awareness survive.
of the inevitability of death as morality salience. 4. Depression – the dying person experiences
 One significant view on death and how it defines intense sadness and exhibits disinterest in life
human life is that of Martin Heidegger, believes that and its normal routines.
a man is being oriented towards death (being- 5. Acceptance – this is the last emotional stage of
toward-death), and that human existence is grief when the person finally comes to terms
fundamentally defined by the awareness of one’s with his or her impending death and has
impending death. embraced his/her impending death and
 Karl Jaspers, he considered death as the most embraced his or her morality.
significant :limit situation”, and that one should  Four trajectories of grief by George Bonnano
have the capacity to alter his/her perspectives and 1. Resilience – the person remains emotionally
ideas to be able to live with the fact that he/she is stable despite the loss, continues with his or
destined to die. her normal activities.
 Ludwig Wittgenstein echoes Heidegger’s view on 2. Recovery – the person experiences a period of
the acceptance of death. He believes that death is a grief, but this eventually gives away to recovery
phenomenon that is outside of human experience – and a return to normalcy.
in essence, we do not live to experience death. 3. Chronic Depression – the grieving person
 For psychologist Erik Erikson, death as an important experiences intense and chronic depression
aspect in the development of man. In the later which continues long after death or traumatic
statement of life, man undergoes a challenge of experience has passed.
balancing his life between ego integrity and despair. 4. Delayed Grief – the person may seem to be well
– adjusted but experiences feelings of grief,
anxiety, and distress at a later time.