Water Purification by Membrane: Technology

Module I
Water purification by Membrane

technology
Water Purification Technologies
• Distillation
• Ion exchange
• Carbon Adsorption
• Filtration
• Membrane
- Microfiltration (MF)
- Ultrafiltration (UF)
- Nanofiltration (NF)
- Reverse osmosis (RO)
• Electro deionization
• Ultraviolet (UV) radiation

Distillation:
• Oldest method of purification
• Water is heated to boiling. Vapor rises to a condenser where low
temperature prevails so that vapor is condensed, collected and stored.
Most contaminants remain behind in the liquid phase vessel.
Ion exchange:
• Water percolates through bead like spherical resin materials (ion
exchange resins). Ions in water are exchanged for other ions fixed to
the beads.
• Two most common ion exchange methods – softening & deionization.
Softening is used primarily as a pre treatment method to reduce water
hardness prior to deionization processing. Softeners contains beads
that exchange two sodium ions for every calcium and magnesium ion
removed from the ‘softened’ water.
Carbon Adsorption:
• Organics can be cationic, anionic or non-ionic.
• Ion exchange resins remove only ionic particles from water but non
ionic particles either coat the resin (resulting in resin fouling) or
escapes purification.
• Carbon filters can be placed upstream of ion exchange process to
remove these non ionic organics by adsorption process.
Electro deionization:
• New technology combining electro dialysis and ion exchange,
resulting in a process which effectively deionizes water while the ion
exchange resins are continuously regenerated by electric current in
the unit. This electrochemical regeneration replaces the chemical
regeneration of conventional ion exchange systems.
UV radiation:
• Widely used as germicidal treatment of water.
• Mercury low pressure lamps generating 254 nm UV light are an
effective means of sterilizing water.
• Absorption of UV light by the DNA and proteins in the microbial cell
results in inactivation of the micro-organism.
Water Purification by Membrane Technology
• Membrane technology is a generic term for a number of different, very
characteristic separation process. These process are of same kind,
because in each of them a membrane is used.
• Membrane – Barrier which separates two phases and restricts

transport of various chemicals in a selective manner. It achieves the
separation of solutes of a fluid mixture when a driving force is applied.
• Transport through membrane – effected by convection or by diffusion

of individual molecules – induced by electric field or concentration,
pressure or temperature gradient.
• Membrane – Physically or Chemically modify the permeating spices

(Eg: ion exchange).
• Permselectivity – important characteristic of membrane.

• Classification – Based on driving force used for membrane
separation.
• Pressure, Concentration, Electrical potential.
• Pressure driven membrane process – Technically and commercially

most relevant process.
- Reverse Osmosis (RO)
- Nanofiltration (NF)
- Ultrafiltration (UF)
- Microfiltration (MF)
- Pervaporation (PV)
- Membrane gas separation
• Micro filtration – Used for particulate removal
• Ultra filtration – Used for dye concentration, color removal and caustic
recovery
• Nano filtration – Used for color removal, water softening, heavy metal
removal, BOD reduction and acid clarification
• Reverse osmosis – Used for desalination of brackish water and sea

water, metal ion recovery, pre and post treatment of ion exchange and
BOD / COD reduction.
These process are distinguished by pore size, transport mechanism,

applied pressure, and range of applications. Pore size decreases from
MF to RO membranes. Pressure that is required to perform NF and RO is
much higher than the one required for MF and UF. Flux decreases from
MF to RO.
Pressure driven processes – pore size and pore size distribution
plays an important role in transport phenomena
Pressure driven processes – Range of particle sizes, molecular weights

and particle characteristics
Membrane systems
• Choice of membrane systems is determined by a number of aspects
such as costs, risk of plugging of membranes, packing density and
cleaning opportunities.
• Membranes are never applied as one flat surface, because this results
in large surface and hence large costs. Hence systems are built
densely to enable a large surface area to be put in smallest possible
volume.
• Membranes are implemented in several modules. They are

- Plate and Frame
- Tubular
- Spiral wound
- Hollow fibre
Membrane Systems - Modules
Plate and Frame Spiral wound
Tubular
Hollow fibre
Membrane Systems - Modules
Membrane Cleaning:
Forward Flush:
• Purpose of forward flush is to remove a constructed layer of
contaminants on the membrane through the creation of turbulence.
• A high hydraulic pressure gradient is in order during forward flush.
Backward flushing:
• When backward flush is applied, pores of membrane are flushed
inside out. The pressure on the permeate side of the membrane is
higher than the pressure on the feed side, causing back flow and
cleaning of pores.
• A backward flush is executed under a pressure that is about 2.5 times

greater than the production pressure.
Membrane Cleaning:
Air Flushing:
• In air flushing, air is added to forward flush causing air bubbles to
form, which results in higher turbulence. Because of this turbulence,
fouling is removed from the membrane surface.
• Smaller pumping capacity is required in comparison to forward flush.
Chemical cleaning:
• When all above mentioned methods are ineffective to reduce the
fouling, the membrane is cleaned chemically.
• Method involves addition of chemicals such as HCl, HNO3 or

disinfection agents such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) are added to
permeate during backward flush.
Reverse Osmosis:
• RO water purifier uses a semi permeable membrane that allows pure
water to pass through it, while contaminants are trapped by the tiny
pores of the membrane.
• Effectiveness of a reverse osmosis water purifier depends on the

density of the membrane & pore size. Also, regular cleaning of
membrane accounts for its performance.
• High quality reverse osmosis water filters use a process known as

“cross flow” which allows the membrane to continuously clean itself.
Cross flow directs the feed in a way to sweep the rejected
contaminants away, so that they do not build up or block the
membrane.
Reverse Osmosis:
Concept of Osmosis:
Fig (a) Fig (b)

Reverse Osmosis:
Concept of Osmosis:
• Osmosis may be defined as the physical movement of a solvent
through a semi permeable membrane based on the difference in
chemical potential between two solutions separated by that of a semi
permeable membrane. Osmosis is a natural phenomenon most
commonly observed in plants.
• In fig (a), Thick dotted line represents the semi permeable membrane
which has the capacity to diffuse only solvent molecules in this case
water.
• A small amount of common salt (NaCl) is added to the solution on one

side of the membrane, causing a difference in water potential .
• The water potential of the salt solution becomes less than that of the
pure water, causing the diffusion of the water from the water side to
the slat water side.
• This movement is called osmosis and the pressure exerted by this

mass transfer is called ‘osmotic pressure’.
Reverse Osmosis:
Concept of Osmosis:
• With reference to fig (b), diffusion of water will continue until one of the
constraints is met.
• One constraint is that the solutions essentially equilibrate at least to

the extent that the remaining difference in chemical potential is offset
by the resistance or pressure loss of diffusion through the membrane.
• The other constraint is that the rising column of salt water exerts
sufficient hydrostatic pressure to limit further diffusion.
• Second constraint helps us in indirect measure of the osmotic

pressure of a solution by noting the point at which the head pressure
impedes further diffusion.
Reverse Osmosis:
Phenomenon of Reverse Osmosis:
• To reverse the natural process of osmosis, it is required to overcome
the osmotic pressure equilibrium across the membrane because the
flow is naturally from dilute to concentrate.
• To achieve the concept of reversing the osmosis, pressure is to be

increased on the salty side of the membrane and force the water
across.
• The amount of pressure is determined by the salt concentration on the

feed side of the membrane.
• As water is forced out, the salt concentration increases requiring even

greater pressure to get pure water.
• By exerting a hydraulic pressure greater than the sum of the osmotic

pressure difference and the pressure loss of diffusion through the
membrane, water is diffused in the opposite direction i.e. into the more
concentrated side of water. This is called reverse osmosis.
Reverse Osmosis:
Phenomenon of Reverse Osmosis:
• The greater the pressure applied , the

more rapid will be the diffusion.
• It follows that, if other variables for the

separation process are kept constant, the
water flow rate becomes proportional to
the net pressure.
• Using RO, it is possible to concentrate various solutes either

dispersed or dissolved, in a solution.
• RO has the separation range 1 to 10 A particle size.

Reverse Osmosis:
• There are two types of membranes commonly used for RO water
filters
a) Thin film composite (TFC)
b) Cellulose Triacetate (CTA) of polyamide on polysulfone substrate
• TFC membranes are more effective than CTA membranes but they
tend to be less resistant to the deteriorating effects of chlorine.
This problem can be avoided by using an activated carbon pre-filter to
remove the chlorine first.
Reverse Osmosis:
Five stage purification process:
• Stage 1 – 5 Micron sediment filter: Removes dirt, sediments, sand and

other physical particles.
• Stage 2 – Carbon Block: Reduces chemicals such as chlorine that

may be present in the water supply.
• Stage 3 – 2nd Carbon Block: Further reduces organics, odors and

other chemicals may be present in the water supply.
• Stage 4 – RO membrane: 50 gallon per day; membrane removes 93 –

97% of dissolved salts and other contaminants in the water supply.
• Stage 5 – Post Carbon filter: A final polishing process that enhances

and clarifies the drinking water.
Reverse Osmosis:
Advantages:
• Efficiently removes all contaminants to maximum possible extent.
• Equipment is compact
• Easy to operate
• Requires minimal maintenance
• Highly energy efficient in comparison to distillation.
Disadvantages:
• More expensive than carbon filter treatment systems
• Requires the use of pressurized water.
• Flux is very less
Reverse Osmosis:
Applications:
Desalination of Brackish water
Natural color concentrates
Concentration of Landfill Leachate
Concentration of Fruit Juice
Concentration of Digested sludge Liquid
Removal of metal ions from metal solutions
Effluent treatment (especially Bio-process industries)
Dewatering of Pulp in paper industries
Concentration of sulfuric acid in sulfuric acid industries

Nanofiltration:
• Nanofiltration (NF) – in concept and operation – same as reverse
osmosis but membranes are slightly more permeable.
• Size of solute excluded in this process is of order of 1 nanometer.
• Degree of removal monovalent ions such as chlorides varies from 80

% to 90% in case of NF whereas in RO, the removal is about 98 –
99% .
• Variety of NF membranes are available which shows high degree of

selectivity for the ion removal.
• Each type of membrane is particularly suited to a certain application

and may not be applicable to another application.
• In water treatment, NF is applied for water softening, discoloring and

micro pollutant removal.
Nanomembrane:
• NF membranes consists of 2 parts
a) a thin barrier layer (membrane) which serves as separating layer
b) a microporous sub layer (base fibre) supporting the barrier layer
• Polysulfone provides an excellent support for very thin, high selective

desalination membranes.
• The thin filter layer is made up of uniquely designed cross linked

matrix of engineered polymers & nanoparticles designed to draw in
water ions but repel nearly all contaminants.
These membranes are structured at the nanoscale to create molecular
tunnels through which water flows more easily than contaminants.
The water loving nanoparticles repels the organics and bacteria which
usually tend to clog up the conventional membranes over time.
Nanomembrane:
• Channelize the flow of water through nanotubes using a low voltage
electricity .
• When nanotubes are given a small positive potential of 1.7 volts and
water is given negative potential, the nanotubes were able to pump
water through them at a faster rate. When charge on water was
raised, the water flow increased exponentially.
• Research shows the fact that the nanotube walls was electrically
oxidized as result of water electrolysis, meaning that oxygen atoms
coated the surface of the nanotubes enabling the movement of water
through the tube.
• Reversing the charges on nanotubes and water didn’t produce good

results as compared to the previous case.
Nanofiltration:
Advantages:
• Low operating costs

• Low energy costs
• Low discharge (less waste water than reverse osmosis)
• Reduces TDS & heavy metals
• Reduces nitrates and sulfates
• Softens hard water
• Chemical free process
• Minimal maintenance
• Low pumping costs
• Larger life span
Nanofiltration:
Applications:
• Removal of heavy metals from waste water

• Waste water recycling in laundries
• Water softening – Ca / Mg salts removal
• Removal of pesticides from ground water
RO Vs NF:

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Module I

Water purification by Membrane

• Ultraviolet (UV) radiation

• Membrane – Barrier which separates two phases and restricts

• Transport through membrane – effected by convection or by diffusion

• Membrane – Physically or Chemically modify the permeating spices

• Permselectivity – important characteristic of membrane.

• Pressure, Concentration, Electrical potential.

• Pressure driven membrane process – Technically and commercially

• Reverse osmosis – Used for desalination of brackish water and sea

These process are distinguished by pore size, transport mechanism,

Pressure driven processes – Range of particle sizes, molecular weights

• Membranes are implemented in several modules. They are

Plate and Frame Spiral wound

• A high hydraulic pressure gradient is in order during forward flush.

• A backward flush is executed under a pressure that is about 2.5 times

• Smaller pumping capacity is required in comparison to forward flush.

• Method involves addition of chemicals such as HCl, HNO3 or

• Effectiveness of a reverse osmosis water purifier depends on the

• High quality reverse osmosis water filters use a process known as

Fig (a) Fig (b)

• A small amount of common salt (NaCl) is added to the solution on one

• This movement is called osmosis and the pressure exerted by this

• One constraint is that the solutions essentially equilibrate at least to

• Second constraint helps us in indirect measure of the osmotic

• To achieve the concept of reversing the osmosis, pressure is to be

• The amount of pressure is determined by the salt concentration on the

• As water is forced out, the salt concentration increases requiring even

• By exerting a hydraulic pressure greater than the sum of the osmotic

• The greater the pressure applied , the

• It follows that, if other variables for the

• Using RO, it is possible to concentrate various solutes either

• RO has the separation range 1 to 10 A particle size.

• Stage 1 – 5 Micron sediment filter: Removes dirt, sediments, sand and

• Stage 2 – Carbon Block: Reduces chemicals such as chlorine that

• Stage 3 – 2nd Carbon Block: Further reduces organics, odors and

• Stage 4 – RO membrane: 50 gallon per day; membrane removes 93 –

• Stage 5 – Post Carbon filter: A final polishing process that enhances

Natural color concentrates

Concentration of Landfill Leachate

Concentration of Fruit Juice

Concentration of Digested sludge Liquid

Removal of metal ions from metal solutions

Effluent treatment (especially Bio-process industries)

Dewatering of Pulp in paper industries

Concentration of sulfuric acid in sulfuric acid industries

• Size of solute excluded in this process is of order of 1 nanometer.

• Degree of removal monovalent ions such as chlorides varies from 80

• Variety of NF membranes are available which shows high degree of

• Each type of membrane is particularly suited to a certain application

• In water treatment, NF is applied for water softening, discoloring and

• Polysulfone provides an excellent support for very thin, high selective

• The thin filter layer is made up of uniquely designed cross linked

• Reversing the charges on nanotubes and water didn’t produce good

• Low operating costs

• Removal of heavy metals from waste water

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