3.

The elements of the buildings’ envelope

3.1. Different types of buildings

The building’s envelope and structure define to a large extend the thermal integrity of
the building and its energy saving potential.

The elements of the building’s envelope

Buildings in Bulgaria can be classified in four categories according their use:

industrial, residential, public (incl. commercial) and traditional (houses built in the 18th
–19th century or new houses in which have been used the same materials and
contemporary structure system).

Industrial buildings
They are used for industrial purposes or warehouses. Their types of construction are:

Prefabricated constructions:
• Metal structure and prefabricated concrete panels. 85-95% of all industrial
buildings are of this type of construction, but it is not longer in use due to its
high cost.
• Entirely metal construction. Used for specific factory buildings as the big
machine-building plants in Radomir and Russe. The span between columns
ranges from 36 to 54m and big roof cranes can be used.

26
Reinforced concrete structure and brick masonry.
This type of construction has the lowest cost and is mainly carried out at the
moment.

Residential buildings
Residential buildings in Bulgaria can be categorized in four groups according to their
structures. These four groups and their distribution are as follow:
- half timbered structure 8%
- monolithic structure 53%
- reinforced concrete skeleton structure 18%
- prefabricated panel structure 21%

Traditional buildings (according the old Bulgarian architecture)

The main characteristics of these buildings are:
- stonework foundations and stonework walls for the first floor
- wooden structure for floors and roofs
- pitched roof covered with stone tiles.
- single glazed wooden windows

Public buildings
The main characteristics of these buildings are the same as these of residential
buildings with reinforced concrete skeleton.
Due to specific requirements, large show-windows are common for these buildings.

3.2. External walls

External walls are one of the most important elements of the building’s envelope. They
have several functions: bearing, enclosing, insulating and shaping. They should suit
several requirements:
• Static requirements such as strength, stability, stiffness, etc. Depending on
the static characteristic, external walls are bearing and non-bearing;
• Structural-technical requirements connected with the methods of erection.
External walls can be monolithically erected, mason and sectional
depending of the methods of construction. They can be heavy, light or
extra-light depending on the material;
• Structural-physical requirements such as thermal insulation, sound
insulation, water-resistance, waterproofing, heat conductivity, etc.;
• Aesthetic requirements connected with the texture, the relief, the colour,
the shape of the façade and the situation of the windows;
• Exploitation requirements for an easier maintenance and low cost repairs.

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As external walls can be the cause for 25 to 35% of the heat losses through a building’s
envelope, we will examine the structural-physical requirements.

Thermal losses of a single-family house

The main problem with external walls is their thermal insulation and the connected
with it phenomena: heat conductivity, heat absorption capacity, sweat condensation
and several others. All these factors determine the thermal-technical characteristic of
the building.
The main factor is the thermal protection of the premises, which should ensure
constant favourable conditions (internal climate) regardless of the variable external
atmospheric conditions. These conditions can be achieved through the heating and the
ventilation of the premises and through a suitable structure of the enclosing elements,
which should obstruct the exchange of heat between the premises and the external
environment.
Usually, building materials have low thermal insulation qualities (except the wood).
Because of this, external walls have thermal insulating layers that can be:
• Air insulating layer placed between the structural layers of the wall.
Several air layers are more effective than one air layer, with a thickness
equal to the sum of the several layers’ thickness;
• Separate insulating layer placed between the structural elements of the
wall. This layer can be from all kinds of plates, blocks, mattresses, etc.
made of different materials;
• Insulating fillings, where the insulating material fills in cavities of the
structure elements of the walls.

28
 • These insulating methods can be combined. The choice of insulating
methods and materials depend on the type of construction of the building
and the wall.
Another aspect of the insulating characteristics of external walls is their heat
absorption capacity that depends on the mass and the relative heat absorption of the
wall’s materials. As much massive is a wall as much heat it absorbs before to let heat
pass through it. But during the evening, when it is cooler, mass wall radiate heat in the
premises. The main problem connected with massive external walls is the over-heating.
This problem can be solved by means of shading elements or screens, this can be
terraces, loggias, eaves, grilles, etc.
Another problem is the sweat condensation. When water’s vapour reaches a cold
surface, it condenses. The probability of condense depends on the type and the
disposition of the external wall’s layers. The probability of condense is especially high
when effective thermal insulation is placed on the side of the premises. In this cases the
external layers of the wall are highly cooled, because of the thermal insulation and
there is a high probability of condense. To avoid the appearance of condense the
following measures can be undertaken:
• Avoid the penetration of humidity in the wall’s structure through a suitable
vapour insulation on the premises’ side or through such a thermal insulation
on the external side, which ensure a temperature in the wall higher than the
condensation temperature;
• Lead water vapour got into the wall through ventilation canals and openings
or through vapour-permeable layers on the external side.
It very suitable to put vapour proofing barriers in the elements of the building
envelope, which will avoid the penetration of water vapour in them. Vapour insulating
material can be asphaltic felt or plastering, synthetic sheet, folio, paint, etc.

3.3. Roofs
As 25 to 30% of the heat losses of a house can be through the roof, it is very important
to insulate them in a suitable way.
The covering layers of roofs have several functions:
• Protection of the building against rainfall, snowfall, hailstorm, atmospheric
humidity and condense of internal humidity in the roof;
• Protection of the roof against other factors – cold, heat, overheating, wind,
noise;
• Fire protection.
To fulfil these tasks, the roof covering should have at least the following structural-
physical qualities:
• Waterproofing insulation: waterproofing, low water absorption, cold
resistance, possibility for a freely water drainage;

29
 • Thermal insulation: protection against cold and heat, against overheating
due to solar radiation, reverberation of solar radiation, measures against
condense;
• Wind stability: assurance against damages from strong (tornado) wind as
detaching from the base, raising and blowing away parts of the covering,
etc.;
• Sound insulation: protection against air noise of inhabitable parts of the
roof structure, and against percussion noise from rain, hailstorm, strong
winds for all roofs.
Roof covering should have also several structural-technical qualities:
• Solidity, safety and durability, including for the fasten elements of the
covering;
• Easy and convenient technology of execution;
• Low cost;
• High fireproofing degree;
• Low maintenance costs;
• Good external appearance.
There are two main types of roofs:
• Pitched roofs: they can have different shapes:

Different types of pitched roofs

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 • Flat roofs with inclination less than 10-12%.
Roofs can be regarded as inhabitable (when there are tenantable premises under the
roof covering) and unutilized (when the space under the roof covering is not foreseen
for utilization).
Another categorization of roofs is heated roofs and cold roofs.
• Heated roofs: these are roofs where the space under the roof structure is
heated (they are often inhabitable roofs). To avoid the water vapour
condensation a vapour barrier is required for this type of roofs;
• Cold roofs: the roof structure is over unheated space (they are usually
unutilized roofs). This space should be ventilated, as humidity from the
building should be lead out of the roof. In case of pitched, roof the
ventilation can be ensured by openings near the eaves (for air entrance) and
near the ridge (for air exit). In case of flat roof, the ventilation is ensured
through openings in the wall between the last slab over heated space and the
roof slab. In both cases thermal insulation is installed over the last slab over
heated space.

3.4. Windows
Windows and external doors are very important elements of the building envelope in
regard to the thermal integrity of the building. Their thermal insulating qualities
depends on three main elements: glazing, frame, and specification and installation.

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 ¾ Glazing
Improving the thermal performance raises the surface temperature of the inner pane of
glass and improves the occupant comfort
Most of the new windows and balcony doors are double-glazed but it should be taken
into consideration that higher thermal performance glazing out-performs standard
double glazing in a number of areas:
- Heat loss and fuel bills are significantly reduced.
- Warmer internal surfaces reduce cold downdraughts and improve the
comfort.
- This type of window has an even lower risk of condensation.
- In some cases the heating system may be reduced.
The thermal performance of glazing depends on the glass and the air gaps.
• Glass
There is a wide range of laminated glasses with excellent thermal performances. For
example the low-emissivity glass has a microscopically thin metal coating applied to
one glazing surface. As the coating does not affect visible radiation it is transparent to
the eye (early low-e glass had a tint). However, longer wavelength radiation – heat that
is radiated from surfaces in a room – is not transmitted through the coating, but
reflected back into the building, so reducing heat loss.

• Cavity width
Increasing the width of the cavity between the panes of glass will reduce the
conductive losses and improve performance. The optimum cavity is approximately 16-
20 mm but cavities of 12 mm are a good compromise where the choice of window
frame limits the size of the glazing unit.

• Gas filling
In a gas-filled unit the air in the glazing unit is purged and replaced with an inert gas.
Inert gases have a low thermal conductivity than air so they help to suppress
convection within the unit, reducing heat loss and possibility to condense. The quantity
of the inert gas in the unit must not decrease under 75-80% in order to the gas-filled
unit can isolate with full value. At well-executed gas-filled units the outflow is about
1% annually.

The following table gives the characteristics of the gases used for filling of gas-filled
units.

Density Thermal Specific thermal

Gas
kg/m³ conductivity W/mK capacity J/kgK

Air 1,232 2,496x10 ?² 1,008x10³

Argon 1,699 1,684x10 ?² 0,519x10³
SF6 6,360 1,275x10 ?² 0,614x10³
Krypton 3,560 0,900x10 ?² 0,245x10³

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• Triple glazing
Triple glazing has the effect of allowing a larger insulating air gap while preventing the
convective losses that can occur in an equivalent single air space. When used without
coating and inert gases, triple glazing is comparable to double glazing with low-e, but
the addition of coatings and inert gases will improve the performance beyond that
achievable by double glazing.
• Advanced glazing
Very high performance glazing with coefficient of heat transmission 0,8 W/m²K
(centre of panes) can be created using three or four panes of glass with different
combinations of coatings and gas-fills. Thin films of coated polymers suspended
between outer and inner panes can be used instead of glass. In some designs one pan of
glass is installed in a separate sub-frame.

¾ Frame and materials

The choice of timber, PVC or aluminium frame depends of factors such as aesthetics
and maintenance. All are suitable for use with double glazing systems. However, when
specifying aluminium units, care should be taken to avoid thermal bridge problems.
The frame must be strong enough to support the weight of the glazing unit.
Windows and balcony doors frames should be designed with integral draughtstripping.
Ideally, two separate draughtstrips should be installed.
Correct specification and installation of hardware (hinges, locks, etc) is also important
for ensuring compression of draughtstrips.
In appendix 2 are given the evaluation values of the coefficient of heat transmission for
glazing and frames of windows and balcony doors.

3.5. Basements
As low insulated slabs over basements or ground can account for 10% to 15% of the
heat losses of a house, it is necessary to foresee a thermal insulation on the first slab
under heated space. If the basement is heated, thermal insulation should be installed on
the slab over ground. If the basement is not heated, thermal insulation should be
installed on the first slab over the basement. It is better to install the thermal insulation
on the upper side of the slab, but if there is no such a possibility, this can be done on
the lower side of the slab.
According the Bulgarian Norms for design of building’s thermal insulation, the
coefficient of heat transmission Umax for floors over unheated basements is 0,50 and
this coefficient for floors that are directly on the ground depends on the whole area A
of the floor according the following table:

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N° Total area of the floor A Coefficient of heat transmission U
1 <100 2,15
2 500 1,26
3 1000 1,00
4 1500 0,87
5 2000 0,79
6 2500 0,74
7 3000 0,69
8 5000 0,58
9 >8000 0,50

3.6. Thermal bridges

Thermal bridges are the places in the
construction structure which thermal
resistance is lower than this of the
neighbouring structural elements.
As the heat is diffusing not only from
inside to outside and vice versa, but in
all directions following the principle of
the lowest resistance, some connections
between the enclosing elements are in
fact thermal bridges. Such elements are
columns, beams, lintels, walls, metal
structural elements, etc. In these zones
during the winter, when the
temperatures differences outside-inside
are higher, the thermal flux in direction
inside to outside increases and the
difference between the temperatures of
internal side and the external air layer
augments.
With regard to the energy efficiency,
important are the situation of the
thermal bridge toward the heat source
and its place in the building structure.
The heat absorbing surfaces should be
larger than the heat radiating surfaces
for each thermal bridge.

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3.7. Economic thickness of insulation
A good thermal insulation can not only improve the thermal comfort in a building, but
also it can improve its energy efficiency and respectively cost maintenance can be
reduced. It is established that in Bulgaria an energy efficient dwelling with an area of
130m² can save more than 1600 BGN per year (1BLN = 0,51129Euro BLN =
Bulgarian Leva).

The economic thickness is understood as the thickness giving the largest energy
savings for the lowest investment cost. This figure depends on the climate and the
thermal characteristics of the material (energy consumption), the costs of the material,
the cost of installation and the energy price (energy savings). The total costs for
installation of insulation
is not linear (as it is
shown on the following
figure), because the cost
of the installation is a
fixed cost per m² surface
and the cost of the
material depends on the
thickness of the
insulation. Therefore the
first cm of insulation is
relatively more
expensive than the next
cm.
The energy losses
depend on the thickness of the insulation material and the climate. This figure is also
not linear. The difference in the extra savings will be smaller and smaller per extra cm
of insulation. The economic thickness of insulation is where the sum of the costs for
energy losses and the costs for investment for the insulation is lowest. With the current
world market prices for energy the economic thickness of insulation for a normal wall
in Europe is 8-12cm.

35
Experience from the past shown that energy prices are subject to rapid changes and are
very unstable. The prices are influenced by political decisions and although the trend at
the moment is towards a reduction in the energy prices, it is economically sensible to
choose a larger thickness than the current economic thickness.

3.8. Insulation materials

The ability to hold air is the most important characteristic for a good insulation
material since air has a very low thermal conductivity. Many different types of
insulation materials exist, but for all materials it is important to fulfill the criteria listed
below.

• Low heat conductivity

• Operating temperature flexibility
• Optimal distribution of heat within the material
• Optimal density
• Low fire and explosion hazard
• Good physical properties, strong enough not to be damaged during
handling
• High resistance to water and vapour penetration
• Good durability, the material should not shrink or deteriorate under
the influence of weather or insects
• Chemical resistance
• No hazard to health

To get the same thermal insulating effect, different thickness is required for the
different materials

36
 Following are the characteristics of some of the most common insulation materials:
• Gas concrete is from the group of autoclaved cellular concrete. It is a natural
product made from sand, cement, lime and alumimium dust. The porosity of its
structure is a result of a gas releasing chemical reaction between the aluminium and
the other components. This material has a low density: 450 to 650 kg/m³, it is fire
resistant and has good compressive strength of 2,5 to 7,5 Mpa. The elements of gas
concrete are easy to work and are suitable for a wide range of purposes: external
and internal walls, bearing and non-bearing walls, decoration elements, etc. In the
following tables are given the main characteristics of walls erected with gas
concrete blocks.

Walls of gas concrete blocks YTONG with thin joint 1 to 3mm

Coefficient of Thickness of the wall in mm without plasters
Class of heat
Density
Symbol Measure strength
kg/m³ conductivity λ 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 250 300
MPa
W/mK
Coefficient of 2.5 500 0.17 2.16 1.64 1.32 1.10 0.95 0.83 0.74 0.61 0.52
heat W/m²K
transmission U 3.5 600 0.20 2.38 1.82 1.49 1.25 1.05 0.95 0.85 0.71 0.60

Walls of gas concrete blocks YTONG with ordinary joint and grout 10mm
Coefficient of Thickness of the wall in mm without plasters
Class of heat
Density
Symbol Measure strength
kg/m³ conductivity λ 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 250 300
MPa
W/mK
Coefficient of 2.5 500 0.17 2.50 1.96 1.61 1.35 1.18 1.03 0.93 0.76 0.65
heat W/m²K
transmission U 3.5 600 0.20 2.63 2.08 1.72 1.45 1.25 1.11 1.00 0.83 0.70

Walls of gas concrete blocks YTONG with ordinary joint and light grout 10mm
Coefficient of Thickness of the wall in mm without plasters
Class of heat
Density
Symbol Measure strength
kg/m³ conductivity λ 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 250 300
MPa
W/mK
Coefficient of 2.5 500 0.17 2.08 1.56 1.25 1.05 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.58 0.49
heat W/m²K
transmission U 3.5 600 0.20 2.33 1.79 1.43 1.20 1.04 0.92 0.82 0.67 0.57

• Stone wool is a natural material formed through volcanic activity. It was

discovered when scientists visited Hawaii at the beginning of the 20th century.
Nowadays it is produced from diabase rock and briquettes with stone wool
remnants and other recyclable materials that are molten at 1500ºC. By applying a
centrifugal process, the liquid stone mass is spun and solidifies in the air as fibres

37
 to which small amount of binder and water-repellent oil are added. After hardening
and moulding, a strong, versatile insulation material is obtained.
The unique properties of stone wool make it highly suitable for many applications:
- Thermal insulation
- Acoustic ceilings
- Façade panels
- Reinforcement fibres
- Noise and vibration control.
Products of stone wool are available as rolls, semi-rigid and rigid boards. Following
are the main characteristics of stone wool products manufactured by ROCKWOOL,
Denmark.

Coefficient of
Recommended for
Bulk thermal Thickness
thermal insulation
density conductivity mm
of:
W/mK
Attics, internal
Rolls (Rollbatts) 30 kg/m³ 0.036 50, 70, 100
walls, floors
Semi-rigid boards 50, 75, 100, Internal walls, attics,
34 kg/m³ 0.035
(Flexi-Batts) 125, 150 roof structures
Rigid layer
Rigid boards (Venti- 90 kg/m³ 75, 100, 125, Ventilated façade
0.035
Batts) Soft layer 150, 175, 200 structure
45 kg/m³
6.5 kg/m² 50
Rigid boards (Façade 9.4 kg/m² 80
0.035 External insulation
Slab) 11.6 kg/m² 100
14.0 kg/m² 125
7.1 kg/m² 50
Upper layer of multi-
11.0 kg/m² 85
Rigid boards layer insulation or
13.0 kg/m² 0.036 100
(Hardrock) under water proofing
14.0 kg/m² 120
insulation
19.0 kg/m² 180
Rigid boards (Lamella 50, 92, 126,
100 kg/m³ 0.037 Roofs
Roof ) 144, 166, 193
Rigid boards (Underlay 35, 40, 50, First insulating layer
110 kg/m³ 0.035
Roof Slab) 90, 100 on roofs
Rigid boards (TF- Roofs covered with
175 kg/m³ 0.039 20, 25, 40
Board) metal sheets
Rigid boards (Concrete Sandwich concrete
70 kg/m³ 0.036 50, 75, 100
Element Slab) panels
Rigid boards (Floor-to- 6.2 kg/m² 50
0.035 Ground floors
Ground Slab) 11.3 kg/m² 100

38
 • Glass wool is produced from sand, fluxing agents and recycled products that
are molten at 1100°C. By applying a centrifugal process, the liquid stone mass
is spun and solidifies in the air as fibres to which small amount of binder is
added, after that the wool
blanket is polymerized and
calendered. Before
packing the products are
tightly compressed. The
unique properties of glass
wool make it highly
suitable for many
applications:
- Thermal insulation
- Acoustic ceilings
- Façade panels
- Reinforcement fibres
- Noise and vibration
control.
Products of glass wool are
available as rolls, semi-
rigid and rigid boards.
Following are the main
characteristics of glass
wool products:

Coefficient of thermal conductivity

Bulk density
W/mK
Rolls 30-60 kg/m³ 0.038-0.040
Semi-rigid boards 80-100 kg/m³ 0.036-0.038
Rigid boards 120-150 kg/m³ 0.036-0.037

• Extruded polystyrene is an organic insulating material from the group of foamed

plastics. This material has a comparatively low water-absorption capacity (0,15 –
0,30%), a coefficient of thermal conductivity of 0.025 – 0.029 W/mK and a
compressive strength of 0.25 – 0.40 Mpa for 10% deformation. This material is
combustible and must therefore be covered on all sides with fire resistant materials.
This material is available in slabs and blocks in different sizes. It is suitable for
insulation of internal and external walls, roofs, beams, columns, and floors with
normal and heavy loading.

39
• Expanded polystyrene is an organic insulating material from the group of foamed
plastics. This material has a water-absorption capacity of 1,5 – 2,5%, a coefficient
of thermal conductivity of 0.032 – 0.037 W/mK and a compressive strength of 0.1
– 0.20 Mpa for 10% deformation. This material is combustible and must therefore
be covered on all sides with fire resistant materials. This material is available in
slabs and blocks in different sizes. It
is suitable for insulation of internal
and external walls, roofs, beams,
columns, and floors with normal and
heavy loading.

• Polyurethane foam is available in

sheets, slabs, blocks, prefabricated
panels and laminated sheets. This
material has low moisture
permeability, low density and a good
resistance to oil and chemicals. CFC’s
are normally used as a foam blowing
agent. When exposed to the atmosphere, air steadily diffuses inwards through the
cells. This results in a decrease of the thermal resistance of the insulation material
and a release of CFC’s into the atmosphere. Polystyrene and polyurethane foam
should only be used if there are no other alternatives. In addition, the energy
needed for its production is significantly higher than for other insulation materials.

• Expanded perlite is notable for its high quality. It has a low loose density 80 – 100
kg/ m³, a thermal conductivity of 0,03 – 0,04 W/mK and a homogeneous
granulometry.
Expanded perlite is used mainly for the preparation of thermal insulating perlite
concrete. This mixture is used for floors’ thermal insulation. Another use of the
expanded perlite is for thermal insulating plaster. This plaster is prepared on the
basis of expanded perlite, cement, lime or gypsum.
THERMOFIX is a new ecological thermal insulating material based on the material
perlite. It represents a dry mixture for plastering. It is not only a very good thermal
and acoustic insulating material, but it is also fire resistant and easy to apply, it is
suitable for a wide range of buildings.

Specialists from the building sector have looked for new materials and technologies in
order to improve the energy efficiency of buildings. These researches have two main
goals:
• To improve the longevity of traditional thermal insulating building materials
(foamed polystyrene, glass and mineral wool etc.) and to make easier their
installation.

40
 • To improve the efficiency of traditional thermal insulating building materials
through the use of additional thermal insulating plastering or paint.
Most of these technologies and materials are available on the market.

POLYNOR, the Nederlands, produce medium

size prefabricated elements for construction of
external walls of residential and commercial
buildings. The elements are based on:
-facing and/or load bearing material: fired clay
bricks, concrete blocks, calcium silicate blocks
-thermal insulation: PU rigid polyurethane foam,
XPS extruded polystyrene foam or EPS expanded
polystyrene foam
This technology saves up to 70% of time required for wall construction and insulation
and ensures continuous thermal insulation without thermal bridges as well as
substantial reduction of the possibility of mistakes while applying the thermal
insulation.
Following are the characteristics of three types of elements.

POLYNOR – T elements: represent an element that is a combination of two hollow

ceramic bricks with thermal insulation.

Bricks (thick.
9 9 12 12
cm.)
Insulation (cm.) 5 8 5 8
Coefficient of 0.48 0.35 0.46 0.33
heat
transmission
(W/m²C)
Weight of 1 10 10 14 14
elem. (kg.)
N° of elements 15 15 15 15
(m²)
Thickness of 23 26 29 32
wall (cm)

POLYNOR – B elements: combination of ceramic and thermal insulation for insulation

of concrete elements of buildings (slabs, beams, columns, jetties) or for insulation of
ground floor and attic slabs.

41
Insulation (cm.) 2 3 4 5
Coefficient of heat
1.89 1.20 0.98 0.75
transmission (W/m²C)
Weight of 1 elem. (kg.) 4 4 4 4
N° of elements (m²) 13 13 13 13

POLYNOR – Y elements: combination of ceramic, thermal insulation and gas concrete

type YTONG in one element for erection of external walls.

YTONG (thick. cm.) 15 25

Insulation (cm.) 4 2
Coefficient of heat 0.48 0.45
transmission (W/m²C)
Price (BGN/ m²) 36 42
Weight of 1 elem. (kg.) 19 26
N° of elements (m²) 6.6 6.6
Thickness of wall (cm) 20.5 28.5
The above mentioned characteristics are for
elements with insulation of expanded
polystyrene.

The product “THERMO-SHIELD”, USA,

is an energy efficient coating for use as
additional insulation. Its thermal insulating
qualities are due to the micro-ceramic
vacuum capsules, which represent 40-60%
of the dry substance. The product has an
unique heat reflecting capacity (86%) and
lows heat conductivity.The product is
suitable for a wide range of purposes.
The advantages of the product are:
- additional thermal insulation equal in value of 3cm. foamed polystyrene at a
standard thickness of the insulating coat of 0.3mm.
- easy to apply with brush or applicator roll
- good waterproofing qualities
- no need of supplementary decorative coat
- no problems with insulation of surfaces with sophisticated shapes
- protection against UV light
- good acoustic insulation
- longevity

42