American Journal of Plant Sciences, 2015, 6, 334-343

Published Online February 2015 in SciRes. http://www.scirp.org/journal/ajps

http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ajps.2015.62038

Dietary Fiber Content of Waterleaf

(Talinum triangulare (Jacq.) Willd)
Cultivated with Organic and Conventional
Fertilization in Different Seasons
Nuri Andarwulan1,2, Didah Nur Faridah1,2, Yolanda Sylvia Prabekti1,
Harum Fadhilatunnur1, Leo Mualim3, Sandra Arifin Aziz3, Luis Cisneros-Zevallos4
1
Department of Food Science and Technology, Bogor Agricultural University, Bogor, Indonesia
2
Southeast Asian Food and Agricultural Science and Technology (SEAFAST) Center, Bogor Agricultural
University, Bogor, Indonesia
3
Department of Agronomy and Horticulture, Bogor Agricultural University, Bogor, Indonesia
4
Department of Horticultural Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, USA
Email: [email protected]

Received 15 December 2014; accepted 7 February 2015; published 12 February 2015

Copyright © 2015 by authors and Scientific Research Publishing Inc.

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution International License (CC BY).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Abstract
Waterleaf (Talinum triangulare (Jacq.) Willd has long been eaten in Indonesia as vegetable and the
main parts consumed are leaves and young shoots. Waterleaf is sticky presumably due to its pec-
tin content which is associated to dietary fiber. The dietary fiber which was analyzed in the pre-
sent study was influenced by cultivation practices. The aim of this research was to study the effect
of organic and conventional fertilization as well as the seasonal changes to the level of TDF (total
dietary fiber), IDF (insoluble dietary fiber), SDF (soluble dietary fiber), and pectic substances in
waterleaf. This research was conducted in four phases: sample cultivation, sample preparation,
chemical analysis, and data analysis. This research used five samples cultivated with 5 different
compositions of organic fertilizers and vice versa for conventional fertilizers. The cultivation was
done in the experimental field of University Farm, Bogor, Indonesia during rainy season and dry
season. Samples were harvested 8 weeks after planted, dried using drying oven for 17 hours at
60˚C, ground and filtered to 40 mesh; and kept at −10˚C until analysis. The overall result showed
that the conventional samples contain higher dietary fiber than the organically fertilized samples,
except the pectic substances of plant in dry season. Although its IDF content is higher than the SDF,
the SDF content of waterleaf is relatively high compared to other vegetables, especially in dry
season.

How to cite this paper: Andarwulan, N., et al. (2015) Dietary Fiber Content of Waterleaf (Talinum triangulare (Jacq.) Willd)
Cultivated with Organic and Conventional Fertilization in Different Seasons. American Journal of Plant Sciences, 6, 334-343.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ajps.2015.62038
 N. Andarwulan et al.

Keywords
Total Dietary Fiber, Soluble Dietary Fiber, Insoluble Dietary Fiber, Pectic Substances

1. Introduction
Waterleaf (Talinum triangulare (Jacq.) Willd) has long been eaten in Indonesia as vegetable and the main parts
consumed are leaves and young shoots. It contains a sticky substance that is presumably due to its pectin content
which is associated to dietary fiber. Waterleaf is also an important source of phenolic antioxidants [1]. The die-
tary fiber which was analyzed in the present study as influenced by cultivation practices.
Fertilization may be applied in organic and conventional practices which have been reported to influence a
broad range of chemical constituents. Several studies have shown higher polyphenol content [2]-[5] and anti-
oxidant activity [6] in organic plants compared to conventional grown plants. Furthermore, trends of higher
content of vitamin C, iron, magnesium, and phosphorus [7] and sugar [8] and lower levels of nitrates [2] [9]
have also been reported. As plants grow, nutrients in soil are reduced, therefore the addition of fertilizer in the
form of organic or conventional is important to maintain the soil fertility.
Another cultivation practice that will affect plant growth and chemical constituents is the selection of the
growing season, such as a rainy or dry season. For example, dietary fiber content in plants has been associated to
seasonal changes [10] [11] while the synthesis of secondary metabolites has been associated to environmental
changes, including temperature changes between day and night, rainfall, drought, and sunlight intensity [12]-
[14]. Reference [14] reported that waterleaf dry season crops showed high content of phenolic compound but
low level of PAL (phenylalanine ammonia lyase) and low level of chlorophyl. This suggest that phenolic
compounds were synthesized through the malonic acid pathway rather than the phenilpropanoid. This pathway
uses acetyl coenzyme A as a precursor, causing substrate competition with the chlorophyl synthesis pathway,
since both are using the same precursor. As the chlorophyl level decreased in the dry season, the photosynthesis
process was affected decreasing the products of photosynthesis and affecting the synthesis of other compounds,
such as dietary fiber.
Thus, in the present study, we characterized the dietary fiber constituents of waterleaf as influenced by culti-
vation practices including a comparison between organic and conventional fertilization as well as the influence
of a rainy and dry growing season conditions.

2. Method
2.1. Chemical and Reagent
Ethanol, acetone, phosphate buffer pH 6.0, NaOH, HCl, celite C-211, K2SO4, HgO, H2SO4, NaOH, H3BO3,
EDTA-4Na, H2SO4, o-hydroxydiphenyl, NaOH, Na2B4O7, Na-oxalate (p.a E.Merck), distilled water, Termamyl
(120 L, Novo Laboratories), protease (P-3910, Sigma Chemical), amyloglucosidase (A-9913, Sigma Chemical),
viscozyme (V-2010, Sigma Chemical), galacturonic acid standard (Sigma Chemical).

2.2. Sample Cultivation

Samples used in this research included 5 samples cultivated with organic fertilizer (Table 1) and 5 samples cul-
tivated with conventional fertilizer (Table 2). The plants were cultivated in the different seasons, i.e. rainy sea-
son (February-April) and dry season (May-July). The plants were harvested after 8 weeks, it was taken three
replication for dietary fiber and pectic substances analysis to obtain representative data.
Dung contains N level of 1.29% with 71% of moisture content in wet basis. Guano contains P level of 10.43%
in the form of P2O5 with 8.69% of moisture content, and husk ash contains K level of 1.10% in the form of K2O.
The dose of each element (N, P, and K) was obtained by multiplying the amount of fertilizer (kg/ha) in each
treatment with the percentage of each element, except for the n element, there was a slightly different calculation
because the fertilizer has moisture vontent of 71%. Example of calculations in organic treatment 1:
• dose of N element: (100 − 71)% × 1.29% × 6.1 ton/ha = 22.82 kg/ha;
• dose of P element (in the form of P2O5): (100 − 8.69)% × 10.43% × 75.6 kg/ha = 7.20 kg/ha;

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Table 1. Treatment of organic fertilizer.

Treatment Dung (ton/ha) N-dose (kg/ha) Guano (kg/ha) P2O5-dose (kg/ha) Husk ash (ton/ha) K2O-dose (kg/ha)

Organic 1 6.1 22.82 75.6 7.20 2.7 29.70

Organic 2 9.2 34.42 151.2 14.40 4.1 45.10

Organic 3 12.3 46.01 226.8 21.60 5.5 60.50

Organic 4 15.4 57.61 302.4 28.80 6.8 74.80

Organic 5 18.4 68.83 378 35.99 8.2 90.20

Table 2. Treatment of conventional fertilizer.

Treatment Urea (kg/ha) N-dose (kg/ha) SP-36 (kg/ha) P2O5-dose (kg/ha) KCl (kg/ha) K2O-dose (kg/ha)

Conventional 1 50 23.00 20 7.20 50 30.00

Conventional 2 75 34.50 40 14.40 75 45.00

Conventional 3 100 46.00 60 21.60 100 60.00

Conventional 4 125 57.50 80 28.80 125 75.00

Conventional 5 150 69.00 100 36.00 150 90.00

• dose of K element (in the form of K2O): (1.10% × 2.7) ton/ha × 1000 = 29.70 kg/ha.
Urea contains N level of 46%, SP-36 contains P level of 36% in the form of P2O5, K2O fertilizer contains K
level of 60%. The dose of each element (N, P, and K) was obtained by multiplying the amount of fertilizer
(kg/ha) in each treatment with the percentage of each element. Example given for conventional 1 treatment:
• dose of N element: 46% × 50 kg/ha = 23 kg/ha;
• dose of P element (in the form of P2O5): 36% × 20 kg/ha = 7.20 kg/ha;
• dose of K element (in the form of K2O): 60% × 50 kg/ha = 30 kg/ha.

2.3. Sample Preparation

Edible portion of the sample, which is about 15 cm from the top was obtained from the harvested 8 weeks old
plants. Then, samples selection was performed as an initial step to obtain representative and uniform samples.
The sample were cleaned and divided into wet samples and dried samples. The moisture content of wet samples
was then analyzed. Most of the other samples were then dried with drying oven for 17 hours at 60˚C. Dried
samples was ground to 40 mesh to obtain powder leaves. Water content, dietary fiber, and pectic substances of
the dried sample were then analyzed. Moisture content of fresh and dried samples are determined by oven
method [15].

2.4. Dietary Fiber Analysis

Total dietary fiber content analysis was determined using the gravimetric method [16]. All procedures are also
performed on the blank to see if there are deposits of non-fibers derived from reagents or enzymes remaining in
the residue and can be counted as dietary fiber. About 0.5 mg of sample was weighed in 200 ml of beaker glass.
Then, 25 ml of phosphate buffer pH 6.0 was inserted into the beaker glass, pH value was adjusted to 6.0 ± 0.2.
After that, 0.05 ml of termamyl added. Then, the beaker glass was closed using aluminum foil paper (alufo) and
was placed in boiling water for 15 minutes, shaken slowly in every 5 minutes. The heating time can be added
until 30 minutes to reach an internal temperature between 95˚C - 100˚C. Subsequently, the solution was cooled
at room temperature, pH value was adjusted to 7.5 ± 0.2 with NaOH 0.275 N. Then, 2.5 mg of protease was
added into the sample. Protease can also be used in the form of solution (50 mg in 1 ml phosphate buffer), was
pipetted as much as 0.05 ml and was put into the sample just before used.
Recovered sample was then incubated for 30 minutes at 60˚C with continuous agitation. The sample was
cooled and was added with 5 ml HCl 0.325 N, pH value was measured to 4.0 - 4.6. If the pH value has not

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reached, more acid can be added. A 0.15 ml of amyloglucosidase enzyme (AMG) was added, and then the
sample was recovered with alufo, was incubated for 30 minutes at 60˚C with continuous agitation. A 140 ml of
ethanol 95% which had previously been heated to 60˚C (volume was measured after heating) was added to form
the precipitation. Sample was left at room temperature for 60 minutes. The precipitate was then filtered
quantitatively through the crucible. Previously, the crucible and its celite were weighed to the accuracy close to
0.1 mg.
The residue was washed with 3 × 5 ml of ethanol 78%, 2 × 5 ml of ethanol 95%, and 2 × 5 ml of acetone,
respectively. Some samples can form resin. Filtration may be assisted by stirring using a spatula. The time
needed for washing and filtration can be varied from 0.1 to 6 hours, the average time taken is 20 minutes per
sample. The length of time can be reduced by using vacuum suction during filtration. Crucible containing the
residue was then dried overnight in a drying oven at 105˚C, and then it was cooled in desiccators and was
weighed to the accuracy reached 0.05 mg. To obtain residue weight, subtract with the weight of crucible and
celite.
Residue analysis of one replicate was then used for protein analysis using the Kjeldahl method. The conver-
sion factor used is N × 6.25. Another sample test was then burned for 5 hours at 475˚C to obtain ash weight, and
then cooled in desiccators and was weighed to the accuracy close to 0.1 mg. Subtract of crucible and celite to
obtain ash weight.
The procedure performed for insoluble dietary fiber analysis [17] was closely similar with total dietary fiber
analysis until quantitatively sample filtration step into the crucible. Subsequently, the residue was washed with 2
× 5 ml of water (to dissolve SDF), 2 × 5 ml of ethanol 95%, and 2 × 5 ml acetone, respectively. The steps for
drying crucible until the final stage of the procedure are similar to the total dietary fiber. Determination of
soluble dietary fiber was done by subtracting the content of total dietary fiber with the content of insoluble
dietary fiber.

2.5. Pectic Substances Analysis

Pectic substances is calculated based on colorimetric method of [18] which has been modified by [19]. Anhy-
drogalacturonic obtained from the hydrolysis of the substances together with o-hydroxydiphenyl will produce
color that can be measured at 520 nm.

2.6. Data Analysis

Data are presented as the mean ± standard deviation of at least triplicate determinations. Statistical significance
was by one-way ANOVA and student t-test, with p value ≤ 0.05 considered significant.

3. Results
3.1. Dietary Fiber Content and Growing Season Effects
In conventional fertilized waterleaf, TDF showed distinct ranges between the rainy and dry season crops ranging
in values of ~74 - 81 and 39 - 44 g/100g dw, respectively. Similar trend was observed for IDF between rainy and
dry season crops with range values of ~69 - 76 and 26 - 28 g/100g dw, respectively, however, this trend was re-
versed in SDF showing range values of ~4.6 - 5.8 and 13 - 17 g/100g dw, respectively. In general there was no
clear trend between the different doses used in conventional fertilization and the observed values corresponding
to TDF, IDF and SDF (Table 3).
When comparing the average values of all conventional fertilized treatments we observe that values for TDF
and IDF in rainy season crop > dry season crops (p < 0.05). However, for SDF values results indicate that rainy
season crops < dry season crops (p < 0.05) (Figure 1).
On the other hand, in organic fertilized waterleaf, TDF also showed distinct ranges between the rainy and dry
season crops ranging in values of ~63 - 79 and 36 - 42 g/100g dw, respectively. Similar trend was observed as
well for IDF between rainy and dry season crops with range values of ~59 - 74 and 25 - 28 g/100g dw, respect-
tively, however, once again this trend was reversed in SDF showing range values of ~4.4 - 4.7 and 11 - 15
g/100g dw, respectively. Like in conventional fertilization there was no clear trend between different doses used
in organic fertilization and the observed values corresponding to TDF, IDF and SDF (Table 3).
When comparing the average values of all organic fertilized treatments we observe that values for TDF and

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∗∗ ∗∗
∗∗ ∗∗
100 ∗∗ 100 ∗∗
TDF (g/100g dry basis)
∗∗

IDF (g/100g dry basis)

78.74 73.55
80 73.04 80 68.42
60 60
40.52 42.57
40 40 27.12 27.12
20 20
0 0
organic conventional organic conventional
Fertilization Fertilization
(a) (b)

100 100
SDF (g/100g dry basis)

Pectic substances (g/100g

80
∗∗ 80
∗∗ ∗∗
60 ∗∗
∗∗

dry basis)
60 ∗∗
40 40 ∗∗ ∗∗
13.4 15.41
20 4.62 5.18 20
3.64 6.58 4.27 6.01
0 0
organic conventional organic conventional
Fertilization Fertilization
(c) (d)
**
: rainy season : dry season : significant different (p < 0.05)
Figure 1. Dietary fiber profile of waterleaf that were cultivated using organic and conventional fertilization at different sea-
son (a) TDF; (b) IDF; (c) SDF; and (d) pectic substances.

Table 3. Dietary fiber content of Talinum triangulare (Jacq.) Willd in dry weight.

TDF (g/100g dw) IDF (g/100g dw) SDF (g/100g dw)

Fertilizer
Rainy season Dry season Rainy season Dry season Rainy season Dry season

Conventional 1 81.33 ± 0.75f 43.16 ± 0.30e 76.56 ± 0.84f 28.45 ± 0.40cde 4.76 ± 0.13c 14.71 ± 0.24ef

Conventional 2 74.41 ± 0.86e 44.39 ± 0.86f 69.74 ± 0.66e 27.57 ± 0.66f 4.67 ± 0.21c 16.83 ± 1.25f

Conventional 3 80.40 ± 0.85bc 43.35 ± 0.03d 75.10 ± 0.58ab 26.48 ± 0.37a 5.30 ± 0.28c 17.17 ± 0.91def

Conventional 4 79.31 ± 1.04d 39.60 ± 0.54cd 73.98 ± 1.14d 26.38 ± 0.12cd 5.33 ± 0.28c 13.62 ± 0.69bc

Conventional 5 78.24 ± 1.01e 40.79 ± 0.78cd 72.39 ± 1.04de 27.77 ± 0.29de 5.85 ± 0.03c 13.86 ± 1.74b

Average 78.74 ± 2.60 42.57 ± 1.84 73.55 ± 2.54 27.12 ± 0.75 5.18 ± 0.48 15.41 ± 1.85
a bc a ab c
Organic 1 63.58 ± 0.58 39.51 ± 0.58 59.14 ± 0.77 27.17 ± 0.33 4.44 ± 0.24 12.34 ± 0.78bc

Organic 2 72.98 ± 1.03de 36.24 ± 0.47a 68.25 ± 1.20de 25.08 ± 0.57bc 4.73 ± 0.36c 11.16 ± 0.51a

Organic 3 79.58 ± 0.89ab 41.47 ± 0.35eb 74.83 ± 0.92ab 28.94 ± 0.69e 4.75 ± 0.20b 12.53 ± 0.75a

Organic 4 74.72 ± 0.73bc 42.35 ± 0.32e 70.08 ± 0.80b 27.63 ± 0.62e 4.65 ± 0.09b 14.72 ± 0.92cd

Organic 5 74.34 ± 0.80c 42.35 ± 0.26d 69.81 ± 1.03c 27.00 ± 0.17bcd 4.53 ± 0.27a 15.35 ± 0.19cd

Average 73.04 ± 5.46 40.52 ± 2.72 68.42 ± 5.38 27.12 ± 1.54 4.62 ± 0.24 13.40 ± 1.68

Samples with same letter in the same group of treatment indicate that they were not significantly different at α = 0.05.
a-f

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IDF in rainy season crop > dry season crops (p < 0.05). However, for SDF values results indicate that rainy sea-
son crops < dry season crops (p < 0.05) (Figure 1).

3.2. Pectic Substances Content and Growing Season Effects

In conventional fertilized waterleaf, pectin substances showed distinct ranges between the rainy and dry season
crops ranging in values of ~3.6 - 5 and 5.4 - 6.2 g/100g dw, respectively. Similar trend was observed in organic
fertilized waterleaf between rainy and dry season crops with range values of ~3.1 - 4 and 5.7 - 7.4 g/100g dw,
respectively. In general there was no clear trend between different doses used in conventional or organic fertili-
zation and the observed values corresponding to pectin substances (Table 4). When comparing the average val-
ues of all conventional and organic fertilized treatments we observe that values for pectin substances in rainy
season crop < dry season crops (p < 0.05) (Figure 1).
In general, the average moisture content of Talinum triangulare (Jacq.) Willd in the present study was 90.39%,
which is within the range of 90% - 92% previously reported for waterleaf (Rifai, 1994; Mensah et al., 2008).
Since waterleaf is consumed fresh, we present the values for TDF, IDF, SDF (Table 5) and pectin substances on
fresh weight basis as well, which show similar trend as those described above for conventional and organic fer-
tilization based on dry basis (Table 4).

3.3. Comparison of Dietary Fiber and Pectin Substances Content in Organic and
Conventional Fertilized Waterleaf
When comparing the average values of all conventional and organic fertilized treatments we observe that for
TDF, IDF and SDF, the values in conventional crops > organic crops (p < 0.05). The only exception is IDF in
dry season crops where there was no difference between both methods production (p > 0.05) (Figure 1). When
comparing the average values of all conventional and organic fertilized treatments for pectin substances, we ob-
serve that values in conventional crops > organic crops (p < 0.05) in rainy season while the opposite trend in dry
season (p < 0.05) (Figure 1).

4. Discussion
During a dry season, plants experience water stress due to the limited rainfall and high light intensity. Mualim

Table 4. Pectic substance content of Talinum triangulare (Jacq.) Willd.

Pectic Substances (g/100g dw) Pectic Substances (g/100g fw)

Fertilizer
Rainy season Dry season Rainy season Dry season

Conventional 1 4.13 ± 0.02h 5.42 ± 0.10e 0.40 ± 0.00 0.52 ± 0.01

f b
Conventional 2 4.33 ± 0.08 6.20 ± 0.09 0.39 ± 0.01 0.60 ± 0.01
e a
Conventional 3 4.23 ± 0.07 6.28 ± 0.19 0.36 ± 0.00 0.60 ± 0.02

Conventional 4 3.67 ± 0.05d 5.88 ± 0.10b 0.35 ± 0.00 0.56 ± 0.01

g d
Conventional 5 5.00 ± 0.01 6.25 ± 0.00 0.52 ± 0.00 0.60 ± 0.00

Average 4.27 ± 0.44 6.01 ± 0.35 0.40 ± 0.06 0.58 ± 0.03

d e
Organic 1 3.16 ± 0.02 5.77 ± 0.15 0.28 ± 0.00 0.55 ± 0.01

Organic 2 3.73 ± 0.07b 6.89 ± 0.05c 0.35 ± 0.01 0.66 ± 0.00

c c
Organic 3 3.87 ± 0.01 7.47 ± 0.04 0.37 ± 0.00 0.72 ± 0.00
f d
Organic 4 4.05 ± 0.04 7.03 ± 0.16 0.43 ± 0.00 0.68 ± 0.02
a c
Organic 5 3.37 ± 0.00 5.76 ± 0.07 0.33 ± 0.00 0.55 ± 0.01

Average 3.64 ± 0.34 6.58 ± 0.74 0.35 ± 0.05 0.63 ± 0.07

Samples with same letter in the same group of treatment indicate that they were not significantly different at α = 0.05.
a-f

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Table 5. Dietary fiber content of Talinum triangulare (Jacq.) Willd in fresh weight.

TDF (g/100g fw) IDF (g/100g fw) SDF (g/100g fw)

Fertilizer
Rainy season Dry season Rainy season Dry season Rainy season Dry season

Conventional 1 7.08 ± 0.06 4.15 ± 0.03 6.66 ± 0.07 2.73 ± 0.04 0.41 ± 0.01 1.41 ± 0.02

Conventional 2 6.03 ± 0.07 4.27 ± 0.08 5.65 ± 0.05 2.65 ± 0.06 0.38 ± 0.02 1.62 ± 0.12

Conventional 3 6.29 ± 0.07 4.19 ± 0.07 5.88 ± 0.04 2.54 ± 0.04 0.41 ± 0.02 1.65 ± 0.09

Conventional 4 6.93 ± 0.09 3.84 ± 0.07 6.46 ± 0.10 2.53 ± 0.01 0.46 ± 0.02 1.31± 0.07

Conventional 5 7.35 ± 0.10 4.00 ± 0.17 6.80 ± 0.10 2.67 ± 0.03 0.55 ± 0.00 1.33 ± 0.17

Average 6.74 ± 0.52 4.09 ± 0.19 6.29 ± 0.47 2.60 ± 0.07 0.44 ± 0.06 1.49 ± 0.17

Organic 1 5.08 ± 0.05 3.80 ± 0.07 4.72 ± 0.06 2.61 ± 0.03 0.35 ± 0.02 1.19 ± 0.08

Organic 2 6.22 ± 0.09 3.48 ± 0.05 5.81 ± 0.10 2.41 ± 0.05 0.40 ± 0.03 1.07 ± 0.05

Organic 3 6.92 ± 0.08 3.99 ± 0.03 6.51 ± 0.08 2.78 ± 0.07 0.41 ± 0.02 1.20 ± 0.07

Organic 4 7.12 ± 0.07 4.07 ± 0.03 6.67 ± 0.08 2.66 ± 0.06 0.44 ± 0.01 1.41 ± 0.09

Organic 5 6.49 ± 0.07 4.07 ± 0.03 6.10 ± 0.09 2.59 ± 0.02 0.40 ± 0.02 1.48 ± 0.02

Average 6.36 ± 0.74 3.88 ± 0.26 5.96 ± 0.72 2.61 ± 0.15 0.40 ± 0.03 1.28 ± 0.16

[14] reported that waterleaf in dry season have significantly lower chlorophyll content than the rainy season
possibly due to a low supply of nutrients (including N) and substrate competition. Thus, the substrate for com-
plex compound like dietary fiber may decrease causing low levels of dietary fiber such as TDF and IDF in the
dry season waterleaf as observed in the present study. Another adaptation mechanism of plants in response to
abiotic stress is by undergoing osmotic adjustment. This is done by accumulating compatible solutes, such as
sucrose, amino acid (proline and glycine betaine), sorbitol, mannitol, and inositol and its derivatives [20]-[22].
The transgenic tobacco (Nicotina tabacum) that accumulates D-ononitol showed less photosynthesis inhibition
in salinity and water stress condition [22]. Inositol, D-ononitol, and D-pinitol protect the plant by protecting the
cell structure againts radical oxygen species (ROS) and controlling the cell turgor pressure [22]. Inositol is a
precursor of dietary fibers. Inositol will be oxydized into UDP-D-galacturonic and other sugar UDP, like
UDP-glucuronic and UDP-L-arabinose [21]. The glucuronic compound is a precursor of many soluble dietary
fiber like hemicellulose, gum, mucilage, and pectin. The inositol accumulation will possibly lead the plants to
synthesize more SDF, including pectic substances, in dry season waterleaf compared to rainy season crops as
observed in the present study.
The proportion of dietary fiber varies among many vegetables, affected by some factors including level of
maturation, part of plant to be consumed, and cultivation practices [23]. Compared to other common vegetables
in Indonesia, TDF and IDF contents of waterleaf dry season crops are relatively low (Table 6) whereas TDF and
IDF contents in waterleaf rainy season crops are above most vegetables. When consumed regularly, waterleaf
may contribute with a significant amount of dietary fiber to the diet. FDA recommends a daily diet containing
25 g of dietary fiber for adult women and 38 g for adult men. The present study shows that 100 g of waterleaf
dry season crops will supply ~3.89 - 4.09 g of dietary fiber and contribute to fulfill ~10% - 16% of TDF needs
and ~9% - 13.9% of IDF needs per day. On the other hand, 100g of waterleaf rainy season crops, with its high
TDF and IDF content, will contribute to fulfill ~17% - 26% of TDF needs and 21.3% - 32.6% of IDF needs per
day.
In relation to SDF, waterleaf dry season crops contain the highest SDF content compared to most vegetables
(Table 6). In previous reports, a meta-analysis on 67 studies focusing on SDF, showed that there was a signifi-
cant reduction in serum cholesterol with increased dietary fiber intake [24]. It was further reported that 2 - 10 g
consumtion of dietary fiber per day can reduce total serum cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol concentration. Ac-
cordingly, 200 g of waterleaf dry season crops could supply ~2.8 g of SDF, which is within the range needed to
potentially reduce blood cholesterol levels. Thus, the recommended daily consumption of waterleaf is 200 g

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Table 6. Dietary fiber content of common vegetables in Indonesia.

Dietary fiber content (g/100g dw)

Vegetable Scientific name Method
TDF IDF SDF

Peanuta Arachis hypogaea L. Asp, 1995 10.91 ± 2.84 9.63 ± 2.50 1.18 ± 0.24

Podsb Pisum sativum AOAC, 1983 13.17 ± 1.64 11.31 ± 1.51 1.86 ± 0.86
c
Carrot Daucus carota L. AOAC, 1990 26.78 ± 1.13 10.46 ± 1.26 16.32 ± 4.79
d
Green tomato Solanum lycopersicum Asp, 1983 32.84 ± 0.23 25.22 ± 0.47 7.62 ± 0.24

Genjerd Limnocharis flava Asp, 1983 39.38 ± 1.29 31.74 ± 0.94 7.62 ± 0.35

Soybean 1e Glycine max (L.) Asp, 1992 35.22 ± 0.23 30. 43 ± 0.25 4.79 ± 1.98
Organically fertilized Talinum triangulare (Jacq.)
AOAC, 1999 40.52 ± 2.72 27.12 ± 1.54 13.40 ± 1.68
waterleaf (dry season) Willd
Conventionally fertilized Talinum triangulare (Jacq.)
AOAC, 1999 42.57 ± 1.84 27.12 ± 0.75 15.41± 1.85
waterleaf (dry season) Willd
Cashew nut leavesd Anacardium occidentale L. Asp, 1983 45.64 ± 1.29 39.98 ± 0.20 5.66 ± 1.09

Sweet potato leavesd Ipomoea batatas Asp, 1983 46.66 ± 1.41 39.82 ± 0.28 6.82 ± 0.56

Bitter cucumberd Momordica charantia Asp, 1983 49.34 ± 1.09 42.96 ± 0.35 6.38 ± 0.42
d
Sweet basil leaves Ocinum bassilicum ferina citratum Asp, 1983 50.63 ± 0.89 43.51 ± 2.00 7.12 ± 1.11
d
Cassava leaves Manihot utilissima Asp, 1983 52.26 ± 2.72 43.03 ± 2.74 9.23 ± 0.01

Melinjo leavesd Gnetum gnemon Asp, 1983 57.45 ± 0.16 48.69 ± 0.25 876 ± 0.09

Papaya leavesd Carica papaya Asp, 1983 57.46 ± 2.26 48.75 ± 0.35 8.71 ± 0.49
e
Soybean 2 Glycine max (L.) AOAC, 1999 59.42 ± 0.10 57.65 ± 0.23 1.31 ± 0.02
d
Ferns Cycas rumphii Asp, 1983 60.97 ± 0.52 53.64 ± 0.81 7.33 ± 0.25

Poh-pohand Pilea trinervia Asp, 1983 67.03 ± 0.44 57.04 ± 0.25 9.99 ± 0.15

Beluntasd Pluchea indica Asp, 1983 70.26 ± 1.06 67.29 ± 1.09 2.97 ± 0.03
Organically fertilized Talinum triangulare (Jacq.)
AOAC, 1999 73.04 ± 5.46 68.42 ± 5.38 4.62 ± 0.24
waterleaf (rainy season) Willd
Conventionally fertilized Talinum triangulare (Jacq.)
AOAC, 1999 78.74 ± 2.60 73.55 ± 2.54 5.18 ± 0.48
waterleaf (rainy season) Willd
a
[29], b[30], c[31], d[32], e[33].

fresh weight/ day with serving size of 100 g fresh waterleaf. From dry season waterleaf, this amount will fulfill
20% - 32% of TDF daily needs and 36% - 55% SDF daily needs. We need to combine with other food to fulfill
the dietary fiber needs completely.
In relation to pectin, waterleaf dry season crops are a rich source of pectin substances. Compared to the pectin
level of many fruits and vegetables [25], the pectin level in waterleaf rainy season crops (0.58 - 0.63 g/100g fw)
is higher than pectin levels in longan fruit (0.34 g/100g fw), raspberry (0.34 g/100g fw), apple (0.39 - 0.49
g/100g fw), legumes (0.43 - 0.63 g/100g fw), orange (0.57 g/100g fw), and sweet potato (0.61 g/100g fw)
among others. Several studies have reported that pectin as part of SDF has the ability to reduce blood cholesterol
[26]-[28]. Baker [28] reported in in-vivo studies that pectin levels of 0.23 g/100g from citrus orange mixed into
the diet could reduce LDL level of rats by 5% and decrease the glucose response. Thus, waterleaf due to its high
pectin content could be considered a good source of pectin substances for these biological activities.

5. Conclusions
In the present study, we reported that season growing conditions for waterleaf had a large effect on TDF, IDF,

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N. Andarwulan et al.

SDF and pectin substances content. For example, waterleaf rainy season crops had larger levels of TDF, IDF
than waterleaf dry season crops, while the latter had higher levels of SDF and pectin substances than the former.
On the other hand, despite that there were statistically differences between conventionally and organically
fertilized waterleaf crops in relation to TDF, IDF, SDF and pectin substances, these differences were minimal
and would not make a major difference in the contribution to the diet.
According to our results, diets which could include 100 - 200 g of waterleaf rainy season crops would signifi-
cantly contribute to the recommended levels of daily intake of TDF and IDF, while 100 - 200 g of waterleaf dry
season crops would significantly contribute to the recommended levels of daily intake of SDF and pectin sub-
stances.

Acknowledgements
This publication was produced under USAID Cooperative Agreement No. AID-497-A-11-00003. This report is
made possible by the generous support of the American people through the United States Agency for Interna-
tional Development (USAID). The contents are the responsibility of Bogor Agricultural University & Texas
A&M Borlaug Institute for International Agriculture, and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the
United States Government.

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