CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

“ …we need more than a mother tongue to come into our own; we also

need a native language.”

- Gaston Miron, L’Homme rapaille

Language is an essential aspect required for communication. There are about

4000 languages in the world and one cannot restrict oneself to his/her native language

or his/her mother tongue alone. Each person develops a natural tendency to learn

more than one language, other than his/her mother tongue. In order to learn a new

language, he/she seeks an interpreter or a translator, who is well-versed in both the

languages which are referred as the Source Language and the Target Language of the

learner. Thus translation plays a vital role in inter - connecting two or more languages.

In order to understand a country in its entirety, it is essential to read the

literary works of that country. India is a multilingual nation, which is known for its

rich and varied culture and heritage. Indian Literature reflects the growth of diverse

ages, religions, and races of different cultural levels. As Krishna Kripalani exclaims,

If India is a land of contrasts, of sweltering heat and perennial snow, of

fabled ease, and brutalizing want, of the wisdom’s calm and the

clamour of ignorance, so is its literature many-faced, many- voiced, here

primitive, there sophisticated, now inspired, now imitative, at once sublime

and grotesque, exhilarating and trite. (332)

The best way of appreciating a literary work is by juxtaposing literatures. The

reader should compare and contrast the literature of one region with that of another.

This could happen within one language or between different languages. In order to
 2

understand and appreciate a country like India, one has to read the literatures of her

complex and diverse regions, which is possible only through translation. In a

multilingual and multicultural country like India, most people are not aware of the

history, literature or anthropology of a linguistic group that is different from their

own. In such a case, translation comes to the rescue of the reader who is unfamiliar

with the language, by unsealing in English some of the works from other languages,

thus facilitating the reader to appreciate the history, culture, customs, rituals, etc., of

that language. It is with the help of translation that the classics and religious scriptures

of various countries have become easily accessible to the whole world. An indepth

study of the history of translation would reveal the role of translation in civilizing and

modernizing a nation - a necessity in the current global scenario.

Translation is an interpretation of one language into another language for

communication purpose. It is an art which has been practised everywhere. It is

considered an intermediate form which develops a link between two languages called

the ‘Source Language’ (SL) and ‘Target Language’ (TL). Translation can neither be

called an ‘imitative’ art nor a ‘creative’ art. As Peter Newmark says, the transferring

of the meaning of a text from one language to another is translation. Different critics

refer to translation as an act of transferring, or transpositioning of hermeneutic motion

(186 ), or the substitution or an artificer or a version or interpretation or performance.

According to Nida, “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the

closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning

and secondly in terms of style” (1969 12). Translation is the only source which

enables a reader to understand the culture, tradition, custom, habits, etc. of other

countries. J.Venkateswara Sastry calls Translation “a craft wherein attempts are made
 3

to replace message or statement in one language by another language” (149 ). It could

also be taken as an act of interpretation that happens in different ways sometimes within

the language and sometimes between any two languages. Nida describes the system of

translation in three steps as follows:

A (source language) B (receptor language)

(analysis) (restructuring)

X (transfer) Y

(1969,33)

Apart from the authorized version of the Bible, a number of translations like

Chapman’s Homeric Poems, Pope’s Iliad, Dryden’s Vergil, the translations of

Goethe’s Faust and Edward Fitzgerald’s Rubaiyat , could be quoted as some of the

important translations. The Greek slave Livius Andronicus could be called the first

translator in Europe, who presented Odyssey in Latin verse in about 240 B.C. The first

actual translation dates back to the Rosetta Stone of the pre- historic and pre -Roman

era. A few centuries before the ‘Christian Era’, a large number of books from Greek

literature entered Rome through translation. Translation brought a large number of

books from Greek literature into Latin. The Romans, being bilingual, were proficient

in using Latin and Greek and had numerous translated works. This made some

scholars to believe that the Romans were not capable of creating their own literature.
 4

The Romans however considered their work to be a continuation of the Greek models.

The translators of this period adopted literal translation, whereby, they rendered word for

word, which made it look like a ‘meta text’. Translators like Horace and Cicero

felt that word for word translation would not make much sense and suggested the

sense for sense translation, which could be called ‘conceptual translation’. Translation in

reality began to flourish with the spread of Christianity. The translators of this

period had a two - fold mission, one to be evangelistic and to spread the religion and the

other to be aesthetic in spreading the message. It was Pope Damascus who

appointed St. Jerome to translate the New Testament of the Bible, later followed by

people like Wycliffe, Purvey and Tyndale.

Though the study of translation as an academic discipline has come into

practice only in the past fifty years, history has a record of the act or process of

translation in both spoken and written forms. Translation Studies is one of the new

academic disciplines that deals with the study of the ‘theory’ and ‘phenomena’ of

translation. A translation, according to Petrus Danielus Huetius, as quoted by Anne

Dacier, is, “a text written in a well-known language which refers to and represents a text

in a language which it is not as well known.”(1)

If we consider the question whether there is a need for translation in a

globalised world, the answer would be ‘yes’. Because, translation is a process which

enables a reader to understand the culture, tradition, custom, habits, etc. of other

countries. Though the growth of Translation Studies as an independent discipline

emerged in the 1980s, the subject developed in various parts of the world and

continues to develop in the 21st century. Translation studies brings together works of

different fields like history, psychology, literature, linguistics and economics. This
 5

would expose the various advancements in these disciplines and would enable the

readers to update the new developments that take place in these fields across the

world. It is a genre that involves multilingual and interdisciplinary approach involving a

range of varieties of cultural studies.

Translation Studies could be called the branch of the humanities that deals with

the systematic, interdisciplinary study of the theory, the application and the description

of translation, interpreting and sometimes both these activities. The two forms of

translation are ‘written’ and ‘oral’, where the oral form is called ‘interpreting’ or

‘interpretation’.

Although translation was considered a part of the “language learning

methodology” or “comparative literature”, or “contrastive linguistics courses’, it was

James S. Holmes, in The Name and Nature of Translation Studies, who gave a

“name” and a “structure” to this new field (8).

Translation Studies served as research subject in the fields of ‘comparative

literature’ and ‘contrastive analysis’. In comparative literature, transnational and

transcultural study and comparison of literature is done, which results in the reading

of some literature in translation, whereas contrastive analysis is “the study of two

languages in contrast in an attempt to identify general and specific differences

between them” (Holmes 9). “Translation Studies bridges the gap between the vast

area of stylistics, literary history, linguistics, semiotics, and aesthetics”(Bassnett 16).

Translation is the rendering of a Source Language Text (SL) into the Target

Language Text (TL) in order to bring out the approximate similarities of the surface

meaning of the SL and TL. Translation may be considered a rewriting of an original text.

Rewritings “manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way”

(xi). In this way rewritings try to introduce “new concepts, new genres, new devices,

and the history of translation is the history also of literary innovation, of the shaping

power of one culture upon another”. (Bassnett & Lefevere xi) At the same time,

…rewriting can also repress innovation, distort and contain, and in an age

of ever increasing manipulation of all kinds, the study of the

manipulative processes of literature as exemplified by translation can

help us towards a greater awareness of the world in which we live.

(Bassnett & Lefevere xi)

Translation is not just a “window opened on another world,” but a “channel opened,

often not without a certain reluctance, through which foreign influences can penetrate the

native culture, challenge it, and even contribute to subverting it.”(Lefevere 2).

Translation though considered as an act of “rewriting” is not considered on a par with the

literature of that language. Benjamin explains thus:

Unlike a work of literature, translation does not find itself in the center

of the language forest but on the outside facing the wooded ridge; it

calls into it without entering , aiming at that single spot where the echo

is able to give, in its own language, the reverberation of the work in the

alien one. Not only does the aim of translation differ from that of a

literary work - it intends language as a whole, taking an individual

work in an alien language as a point of departure-but it is a different

effort altogether. (20)

Translation enables a person to transcend linguistic barriers. Especially in the Indian

subcontinent which consists of people from different ethnic groups with vast cultural

diversities, and languages which have their own unique identities with a rich literary
 7

tradition. In the post- colonial scenario, in India, translation has played a significant

role in the growth of a pluralistic national identity.

Globalization has helped in the breaking down of artificial barriers between

languages and cultures that were created as a result of colonization. All the real and

imaginary boundaries that existed between the Orient and the Occident have been

annihilated, as a result of which there is a remarkable increase in the number of

translations and the publication and marketing of translation works. English is

considered a powerful language.

It is the unquestioned language of the new information highway, it

takes you to cyberspace, it is the important language of law, of science, of

commerce and administration besides being the most adhesive link

between the people of a nation or of many nations. (48).

India could be called a translation area; firstly as two or three languages are

used at a time. Secondly, as the nuances of language, spoken and written, have always

differed from one caste to caste and from one stratum to another even within the

precincts of the same community and the same language. As Indra Nath Choudhury

says, translation has become an effective tool “for negotiating social tensions,

language - conflicts, social transitions and for identifying a plurality of linguistic

expressions and cultural experience as also for understanding the remarkable unity

underlying them” (32). In his essay, Multilingualism, Colonialism and Translation,

R.K.Agnihotri talks about the condition how when ‘vernacular’ languages failed to

communicate with the Western or Oriental language, the Charter Act of 1773

employed English teaching in India for the purpose of ‘Universal dissemination of

Christianity in India’ (37). Macaulay’s role in insisting on the medium of English in

education was the result of his wish in making a group which was ‘Indian in blood

and colour, but English in opinions, in morals, and in intellect’ (38). He wanted this

class of people not only to be interpreters between “the rulers and the ruled” (38), but

also to “rejuvenate” and “modernize” Indian languages and dialects (Agnihotri 38).

English became a tool for the freedom fighters from different parts of the country,

enabling them to share their knowledge and to communicate among themselves. It

became the language of the judiciary, administration, journalism, etc. The 1949

constituent Assembly debates stressed the importance of English in India. Hindi became

a threat to the people of South India as they felt it would impose the “North Indian

supremacy over the South” (Agnihotri 39). Thus English and English translation in the

Indian subcontinent gained immense importance.

A new wave of translation is seen in the past two decades in the form of many

books on translation, many journals of translation studies, translation courses in many

universities, etc.

There now appears to be a conscious effort on the part of publishers to

find Indian translators and native speakers of the source language to

present texts in English. There also seems to be a shift towards

translating primarily for Indian audiences, which is their main market.

What this means is that common Indian words are left untranslated

words partly because it is assumed that Indian readers will understand

them and partly because the attempt is to carry a little of the flavour and

rhythm of the original. (Sattar 423)

A translation was always considered to be inferior when compared to the original. But

in the post-colonial context, both the original and its translation are seen alike as the
 9

creation of the writer and translator. Translations must now emphasize linguistic and

cultural difference instead of smoothing them over in an attempt to approximate

Western literary modes and rhetoric. It is only fitting that translations, like so much else,

should reflect the times in which they are made.

Translation, though not a natural process, one may not call it an imitation or a

copy. The translator is expected to have mastery over both the target language, and the

source language with practical knowledge of his/her own language and critical

knowledge of the foreign language. Apart from the mastery of two languages, a

translator should also possess a complete knowledge of the cultures involved.

According to Edward Sapir, “no two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be

considered as representing the same social reality. The worlds in which different

societies live are distinct worlds, not merely the same world with different labels

attached” (Bassnett 21). Especially in the case of languages belonging to different

families, the difficulty of understanding the two cultures becomes very crucial. As

everyone is aware of, translating a piece from one Indian language to another Indian

language is comparatively easier than translating a piece from an Indian language into

a foreign language or vice versa because of the cultural differences. Hence knowledge

of the two cultures will enable the translator to capture the cultural nuances of some

of the idioms and phrases. Translating literature means the crossing of linguistic,

cultural and psychic divide between man and man and in this impossible task, a

translator is often found wanting. The responsibility of the translator is immense

when the SL and TL have a rich literary tradition. Praising the richness of the Tamil

Literary tradition George Hart observes, “…,the quality of classical Tamil Literature
 10

is such that it is fit to stand beside the great literatures of Sanskrit, Greek, Latin,

Chinese, Persian and Arabic”(52).

The history of Tamil literature traces the history of Tamil Nadu, focusing

more on the social and political trends of different periods. Some of them were

secular like the early Sangam poetry, and many works were religious in nature. Many

religious scriptures and the classics of the world have become easily accessible to the

entire world through translation. Jain and Buddhist writers of the medieval period and

Muslim and European authors of the later period were the main contributors to the

growth of Tamil literature. A revival of Tamil literature took place from the late

nineteenth century when works of religious and philosophical nature were written in a

style that made it easier for the common people to enjoy. Nationalist poets began to

utilise the power of poetry in influencing the masses. With the growth of literacy,

Tamil prose began to blossom and mature. Short stories and novels began to appear.

The popularity of Tamil Cinema has also provided opportunities for modern Tamil

poets to emerge.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, the novel as a genre became popular

as a result of the imitation of Western detective fiction. This was the time when Kalki

wrote his first novel Kalvanin Kadhali. Though D.V.Seshaiyangar’s narrative verse was

the first Tamil book to be called a novel, it was Mayavaram Vetanayagam Pillai

(Samuel Vedanayagam Pillai 1826-1889) is called the first Tamil novelist whose

Piratapa Carittiram was published in 1879. Many novelists like Rajam Aiyar (1872-

1898), A.Madhaviah (1872-1926), Natesa Sastri (1859-1906), T.M.Ponnusami Pillai

wrote novels on various themes. Vedanayagam wrote on romantic fantasies, R. Aiyar

concentrated on religious and philosophic topics, whereas, Madhaviah focused his

attention on social issues and social reforms. The following period witnessed a

setback in the genre of novel as the novelists of this period like Arani Kuppusami

Mudaliar, Vaduvur K. Duraisami Iyengar, and T.R.Rangaraju produced mediocre

novels. The novelists of this generation aped ‘second-rate English macabre novels,

writing stories replete with gruesome murder scenes that were melodramatic and

morbid (Kripalani 273). V.M.Kothainayaki Ammal, Vicalaksi Ammal were some of

the women writers in modern Tamil Literature. V.Ramaswami Aiyangar wrote his

novels with an aim to instruct his readers. This was the time when Shankar Ram wrote

a short-story collection, The Children of the Cauvery, which appealed to many young

readers and students. Though many social, religious, philosophical and detective

novels were written by many novelists, the historical romance in Tamil was written by

R.Krishnamurti alias Kalki.

Kalki R Krishnamurthy (1899 -1954) has authored 35 volumes of short stories,

novels, essays, biographies, travelogues, etc. He was born on September 9, 1899 at

Putta-mangalam in the old Thanjavur district. He is known as a writer of historical

and social novels. He may be considered the pioneer of historical novels in Tamil

Literature. R.Krishnamurthy, who served as a sub - editor in a Tamil periodical called

Navasakthi, published his first book in 1927. The history of Tamil literature and

journalism holds a special place for Kalki. Kalki magazine was founded by him in

1941 and he was the editor of the magazine till his death in 1954. The reason behind

his pseudonym ‘Kalki’ is that he had a fancy to consider himself like the tenth

“avathar” of Lord Mahavishnu to expose the evil deeds of the wicked. He has written

a number of short stories, novels, both social and historical, and some essays on

patriotism and social reforms. He was very progressive in his thoughts. “Kalki”,
 12

“Ra.Ki”, “Tamil Theni”, “Karnatakam” were some of his pen names. Kalki is known

to his readers as a journalist, a writer of fiction, humorist, social crusader, satirist,

travel writer, poet, critic, and script-writer and as a freedom fighter. His magazine

Vimochanam crusaded the cause of prohibition. He was posthumously awarded the

Sahitya Akademi Award for his novel Alai Osai, which is based on the Freedom

Movement. As quoted by J.Thyagarajan, in “ Tamil” Kalki was one of the dominant

writers “of early years of Indian Independence was a darling of the millions, a highly

desired and respected friend of the establishment, a prominent public figure for a

range of interests from civil disobedience in the days of the British to revival

movements of ancient Tamil heroes, arts and culture” (176). He involved himself into

numerous public causes and movements, from working for a better civic

administration to instituting a tradition of wholly Tamil musical concerts. Kalki, says

Thyagarajan commanded an enormous audience and he attributes it to Kalki’s efforts

over years:

He was the first to reel out lengthy serials of historical fiction which

was interesting in itself and also gave the Tamils a sense of pride and

elation over their heroes of countries past. .. While he was slowly

building up a pride-filled Tamil consciousness, he did not forsake a

nationalistic vision and that way he counterpoised separatist and

sectarian forces. (177)

The Department of Posts has released a postage stamp on Kalki Krishnamurthi to

commemorate his birth centenary. Kalki’s writings make his readers develop a great

pride for the grandeur of Tamil language, literature, art, valour and culture. His

historical novels Sivakamiyin Sabatham, Parthiban Kanavu and Ponniyin Selvan have
 13

brought out the monarchs, princes, princesses, queens, and warriors, alive. Ponniyin

Selvan is the last of the trilogy, set in the Chola background, the other two being,

Parthiban Kanavu and Sivakamiyin Sabadam, which are set in the Pallava

background of the seventh century A.D. These novels are known for the literary

richness as well as for the minute attention given to detail which had gone into

making them as classics.

Kalki’s work belongs to a unique category as it is a blend of history and

fiction. He has carved a niche in the Tamil literary scenario and has proved to be the

master story- teller. He has reconstructed history and enriched it with his lively

imagination and distinct narrative style, in the course of which, he might have

violated chronology, invented situations and re-written history itself. But the net

result is the amazing beauty and astounding plot. In spite of the numerous sub plots,

the author has succeeded in retaining continuity and thrill throughout the novel.

English novelists like Sir. Walter Scott and Lord Lytton and French novelists like

Victor Hugo and Alexander Dumas influenced Kalki in writing historical fiction, says

Sunda, Kalki’s biographer. In his historical romances Parthiban Kanavu and Ponniyin

Selvan, he brings out the multiplicity, the affluence and depth of Tamil tradition, art,

culture and religion. Kalki’s miraculous working of language is an important tool in

his success as a novelist. His style is unique and intelligible. He has clarity and

exactness in the construction of sentences.

India, especially, the South is famous for its art, culture, heritage, rich tradition

and abundant wealth. All this is brought out with a balanced blend in Kalki’s

Ponniyin Selvan.. Ponniyin Selvan consists of five volumes which speak about the life

of Rajaraja Chozhan, presenting the history, the arts and culture of ancient South
 14

India. The pristine glory of South India in the past, its political setup and the rulers,

which are unknown to the present generation, both native and foreign are made

available through these novels. It is quite well known that Kalki was the first Tamil

writer who gave shape to ancient Tamil Dynasties and its rulers through his

fascinating stories. He had the gift of storytelling with a timely inclusion of humour. In

his novels, he has captured the social and cultural aspects of our country and was the first

Tamil writer, who used the ancient history of the famous Tamil dynasties and regions for

the plot and background of his stories.

Kalki, himself was a translator, who has translated Mahatma Gandhi’s The

Story of My Experiments with Truth as Satyasodanai. He has also translated Swami

Vivekananda’s works and Lala Lajpat Rai’s Yuvabharat , The History of the Indian

National Movement. Almost all of the renowned Indian playwrights, poets and

novelists in English have done varying amounts of translations, and some are even

regarded as bilingual writers writing in English as well as the language of their region.

One remembers, in this connection, the names of Indo-Anglian poets like Aru Dutt,

R.C.Dutt, Roby Dutta, Sri Aurobindo, Tagore, N. V.Thadani, Dhilip Kumar Roy and

others like Mahatma Gandhi, Masti Venkatesh Iyengar, Dr. Gopal Singh, and Prema

Nandhakumar. Indian poets in English who have published volumes of translations

from Indian languages include Dilip Chitre, R. Parthasarathy (ancient Tamil epic

poetry), Arvind Krishna Mehrotra (The Absent Traveller, 1991 from Prakrit), Jayanta

Mahapatra (three translation collections from Oriya) and Ranjit Hoskote (co-translator

with Mangesh Kulkarni). Other prominent poets in English who have also done

translations include Nissim Ezekiel, Gieve Patel, Adil Jussawalla, and Saleem

Peeradina. Arun Kolatkar, and Niranjan Mohanty are the other two who have earned
 15

quite a reputation as translators as well. Dilip Chitre before starting to write poetry

translated the poems of Tukaram. Arvind Mehrotra has translated love poems from

Prakrit and also translated Kabir.

Kalki’s works have been translated not only into English, but also into many

other languages. His famous novel, Alai Osai has been translated into Gujarati, Hindi

and Russian. His other works Kalvanin Kadhali, Parthiban Kanavu, Solaimalai

Ilavarasi, Mohini Theevu and Tukkudandanai are translated into Hindi. Despite

various criticisms, Kalki is considered the first distinguished prose fiction writer in

modern Tamil. Kalki chose seventh century A.D. for his historical romances,

Sivakamiyin Sabadham, Parthiban Kanavu while Ponniyin Selvan revolves around the

Tenth century A.D. These were the ages when the Hindu religious revival happened

after a period of strong Buddhist and Jain influences, the effects of which are reflected

in these novels. Unlike Scott, Kalki believed that history is created even by individual

men and women.

In 1947, when India became free a good number of Tamil writing was there

but people themselves were awake and abreast with the times. They had learnt

English, an alien language well enough to argue and challenge the rulers, ran

newspapers English, they adopted the social, educational, administrative and judiciary

systems that had origins In England and had mastered the making of armaments that

were certainly not indigenous. Commenting on the attitudes of such a class of people

who could be so open to change in such vital matters of life and liberty, Thyagarajan

observes that these people were reluctant to "let their literature benefit by change. So

even seemingly new forms of writing such as novels and short stories became in the

hands of most practitioners vehicles for sentiments and attitudes too classical to be of
 16

any relevance to contemporary reality” (175-176). As Shyamala A.Narayanan shares her

view about historical fiction, “Here again one is sorry to see the wide gap between the

material available and the fictional product actually generated”(287). But she says that in

the current scenario,

…, a historical novel need not necessarily be a “drum and Trumpet

affair”, i.e., it need not deal only with battles and wars. That is the job of

the historian. The novelist is primarily a student of human nature and can

bring to life historical personages, and the life and manners of their times.

This can be done with subtle touches... (287)

Ponniyin Selvan is known for its ‘vastness’ (Narayanan xxxix), that runs over 2448

pages. Like any other genre, the central characters are significant to a good story. The

historical novelists like Tracy Chevalier and Phillippa Gregory were popular among

the historical fiction writers for bringing out historical characters from the scant and

made records available for others and making them appear real. As many novelists

do, Kalki also introduced fictional characters to develop the plot and to get a glimpse

of the historical events.

A historical novel could be considered great when it has the following

features: when a writer attempts to write a historical fiction s/he has to understand the

compelling characters, the tight intricate plot which is character centered. The writer

assimilates the streamlined plot, in which one event leads irresistibly to the next

leaving even the writer not knowing how the story would end. A distinctive narrative

style and a well - researched background is expected of a historical fiction writer. As

Kalki’s historical works fit into these expectations, his historical romances could be

called outstanding. Beginning to compose a historical novel is a huge undertaking

which requires wide and in depth research, particularly if accuracy is intended. Taking

the target audience into consideration in historical fiction subgenres will help give the

novel an identity. Kalki has created many unforgettable characters in Ponniyin Selvan

like Vandiyathevan, Kundavai Pirattiyar, Arulmozhivarman, Poonkuzhali, Nandini,

Azhwarkadiyan Nambi, the Pazhuvettarayars, Sendhan Amudhan, Sembian

Mahadevi, Kandan Maran and others who contribute to the development of the plot of

the novel. Ponniyin Selvan portrays the history of the Chola lineage with a variety of

fictional characters and fictitious incidents. “The Cholas”, “like the Pandyas and the

Cheras” as Ramashankar Tripathi says "were indigenous to the South, although in

later literature and inscriptions they are ascribed a mythical descent from the Sun”

(457). The novel deals with the life and times of Rajaraja Chozhan, set against the

backdrop of tenth century peninsular India. The novel centers on a number of real

historical characters and incidents. The serialization of this novel in Anantha Vikatan

went on for three and a half years and every week its publication was awaited with

great interest.

Though the title of the book is in reference to Arulmozhi Varman, there has

always been a debate as to whether Vandiyathevan or Arulmozhivarman is to be

considered the hero of the novel. Vallavarayan Vandiyathevan is shown as a brave

warrior on a mission entrusted by the crown prince, Adhitha Karikalan, to deliver a

message to his father, Sundara Chozhar and sister, Kundavai Devi. Vandhiyathevan

encounters various hurdles throughout the way and impresses the characters that he

comes across. He meets many interesting characters on his way like the scheming

politicians who gather at the Sambuvaraiyar’s palace, spies and various members of

royalty. Nevertheless, it is his valour and wit that help him escape each situation while
 18

providing us an entertaining account to read. A number of metaphors and similes and

songs are used in the novel. This book holds one attracted with its beautiful historical

descriptions and a fantastic narrative style.

Even though it is said that Kalki is the narrator of the whole novel, it is mostly

through Vandiyathevan that the readers meet all the new character that comes onto the

scenes in the novel. Kalki’s consideration as a narrator is made obvious when he

provides enough background to every situation and he shifts scenes fast enough to

keep the reader fascinated. The novel Ponniyin Selvan starts with Vandiyathevan’s

journey to Thanjavur and Pazhayarai taking scrolls from the crown Prince, Aditha

Karikalan to his father and sister. He admires the beauty and fertility of the Chola

regime on horseback. Any reader, who reads Ponniyin Selvan, will definitely

associate the sound of the horse’s hooves with Vandiyathevan thanks to the lovely

narration that is done.

The history of the Chola background is provided by the author for a better

understanding of the subtleties and nuances of the novel. Parantaka Chola was

succeeded by his second son Gandaraditya as the first son Rajaditya had died in a

battle. At the time of Gandaraditya's death, his son Maduranthakan was a two year old

child and hence Gandaraditya’s brother Arinjaya ascended the throne. After

Arinjaya’s death, his son Parantaka II, (Sundara Chola) was coronated. He had two sons,

Aditha Karikalan, the Crown prince and daughter Kundavai and the younger son

Arulmozhivarman, later known as Rajaraja Chozhan.

When the story starts, there has been rumours regarding the appearance of the

comet and people start associating it with the Emperor’s health. The Emperor Sundara

Chola is ill and bedridden. Aditha Karikalan is the general of the Northern Command
 19

and lives in Kanchi, building a Golden palace for his parents and Arulmozhivarman

who is called Raja Raja Chola I is in Sri Lanka in battle and their sister Kundavai

Piratti lives in the royal household at Pazhayarai. When rumour spreads that there is a

conspiracy against Sundara Chola and his sons, it is through Vandiyathevan that the

readers get to know about the secret meeting held at Sambuvaraiyar’s palace, where it is

decided to make Kandaradhithar’s son, Maduranthakan to ascend the throne. There are

many interesting and significant characters in the novel like Azhwarkadiyan,

Nandini, Sendhan Amudhan, Manimekalai, Kandan Maran, the Pazhuvettaraiyars,

Vanathi, the Prime Minister Anirudha Brahmmarayar, Sembian Mahadevi,

Mandakini, Ravidasan, the magician and others.

Kundavai Devi, hearing the news of the conspiracy, sends Vandiyathevan to

Sri Lanka to give a message to Arulmozhivarman to bring him back immediately. The

physician’s son Pinakapani is also sent along with him in the pretext of collecting

herbs for the ailing Emperor. In the meanwhile, Vandiyathevan reaches Sri Lanka

with Poonkuzhali's help, meets Arulmozhivarman, and becomes his close friend. In

Lanka, Arulmozhivarman realizes that his father had spent some time in an island

near Lanka and had had a clandestine marriage with Mandakini, the lighthouse

keeper, Thyagavidangayar’s sister, who is deaf and dumb. Arulmozhivarman meets

her in Lanka when she saves him from dangers caused by the enemies and realizes

from her drawings that she and his father have had two children. Later one day in

Thirupurambayam forest, Vandiyathevan sees Nandini and the Pandya conspirators

taking an oath to annihilate the Chola lineage and make a small boy the Emperor.

While coming back from Lanka, Arulmozhivarman and Vandiyathevan are caught in

a cyclone and go missing, but later rescued by the boat girl, Poonkuzhali. Rumour
 20

spreads that the Prince is dead, but he is taken to Choodamani Viharam,

a Buddhist monastery. The conspirators fix a day to kill both the king and his sons.

Nandini, in the mean time sends for Aditha Karikalan to Kadambur Palace to

discuss about the future of the Chola kingdom, where she plans the wedding

arrangement for Karikalan and Manimekalai, the Sambuvaraiyar’s daughter.Though

Karikalan knows that his life is in utter danger, goes to Kadambur palace despite

warning from his grandfather, Thirukoyilur Malayaman, who is his guardian and well

wisher. Adhitha Karikalan is then assassinated in the Sambuvaraiyar’s palace and the

history behind this murder is still a mystery. According to historians, Ravidasan,

the loyal guard of the Pandya king killed Adhitha Karikalan to avenge the death of the

Pandya king, Veerapandyan, who is supposed to be Nandini’s lover though a debate

had been going on that Veerapandyan was her father. But Vandiyathevan is accused

of the murder of Karikalan and the mystery behind the death of Nandini is later

revealed by her husband Periya Pazhuvettarayar. Arulmozhivarman is forced to be

coronated but he makes his uncle Uthama Chola the king, after which he becomes the

greatest Emperor in the Chozha lineage and came to be called Raja Raja Chozhan.

Ponniyin Selvan was translated into English by C.V. Karthik Narayanan.

C.V. Karthik Narayanan(1938), born in Calcutta, is an engineer by profession. He had

his early education in Tuticorin. Being an industrialist, he has headed companies

which manufacture automobile parts. Some of the portfolios held by him are President

of the Association of Indian Automobile manufacturers, President of the Automobile

Research Association of India, Chairman of the Southern Region of the Association

of Indian Engineering Industry, Member of the Senate of the Annamalai University.

Karthik Narayanan has translated Ponniyin Selvan in six volumes and it is published
 21

by Macmillan India Ltd. He has also translated into Tamil, S.Muthiah’s Looking Back

from Moulmein, the biography of Sri. A.M.M. Arunachalam, the late chairman of the

Murugappa group. A seasoned user of two languages, Narayanan has tried to retain

the grandeur of the original in the translation of Ponniyin Selvan. Like the original

text, the translated version in English consists of 500 chapters. Kalki’s Ponniyin

Selvan is written in five volumes and the fifth volume in two parts. In a similar

fashion, Karthik Narayanan has translated it into five parts and fifth part into two

volumes. As Kalki has called each volume with different names like the first part

Pudhu Vellam, the second one Suzhalkaatru, the third one Kolaivaal. fourth one

“Manimagudam” and fifth part divided into two and both called as Thyaga Sigaram,

the translator Karthik Narayanan has translated the titles, where the titles themselves

are symbols. These are translated into English by the target language text author

Karthik Narayanan as The First Floods, The Cyclone, Killer Sword, The Crown and

The Pinnacle of Sacrifice in two volumes, respectively. Through his translation

Karthik Narayanan has popularized the great historical classic Ponniyin Selvan among

the Non-Tamil readers. The target language text has gained wide popularity among the

lovers of both Tamil and English literatures. Although, Translation studies is becoming

popular both as an academic discipline and as an area of interest among the lovers of

literature and language , no serious academic analysis has been done on the translation of

Ponniyin Selvan.

There are four categories of readers of translation. The first one is the reader

who does not know the original language, but reads the translation because of

curiosity or genuine interest. The second is one, who as a foreign language learner
 22
improves his knowledge of the language by reading the translation. The next is

one who revives his forgotten foreign language with the help of the translation.

Yet another category is the one who, as a formidable intellectual in the original

language, reads the translation to see how the translation has been carried out. As

a translator, Karthik Narayanan has been very cautious in handling the work, as his

translation of Ponniyin Selvan has interested, influenced and satisfied the readers

of all four categories. His translations are studied and researched both by scholars in

India and abroad. To many of the Indians who have settled abroad or even for that

matter the contemporary readers and those of the future, his translation is a

source to revive the forgotten language and the history of the Tamils, in particular

the history of the Cholas. Through his translation, Karthik Narayana has

popularized the great historical classic Ponniyin Selvan among the Non-Tamil readers.

Many Tamil scholars have also showed interest in reading his

translations and analyzing them critically to find how far the translator has

succeeded in being faithful to the original. The English translation of Ponniyin

Selvan has expanded the reach of Kalki’s works and has made it available to a

wide range of people. The translator confronts certain problems while translating

a text of one language into another, which has no cultural equivalence to the SL.

The translator comes across problems involving the occurrence of synonyms,

proper names, metaphor, cultural terms, institutional terms, ambiguity in the

lexical, referential and grammatical level, quotations, idiolect, neologisms, jargon,

cliché and poetry. The objective of the study is to analyse the challenges and

problems faced by the translator in the process of handling two different

languages that have completely different style, culture and vocabulary. The study

focuses on identifying problems that arise of socio cultural differences, followed by the

semantic, syntactic and stylistic nuances of the Soure Language and the Target

Language.

The second chapter focusses on the difficulties faced by the translator in

translating cultural factors in the novel and the way the translator has handled such

issues. Tamil culture is unique with different types of festivals, beliefs, folk art forms,

etc., which may not have an equivalent in any other language, be it in India or outside

India. Language is the reflector of culture. Though the Indian communities are

multicultural and multilingual, they have a common heritage. A foreign reader has to

understand the culture and ethos of the Source Language. In translating a historical

text like Ponniyin Selvan, it is not an easy task for the translator to translate the

cultural aspects of the novel. The chapter describes in brief, certain important aspects of

Tamil culture which are relevant to the study of the novel and the analysis of the

target text. It also gives examples of cultural terms, phrases and concepts that have

been used by the writer in the source text and reveals how the translator has translated

them overcoming the challenges that they pose.

Chapter Three will focus on the semantic and syntactic problems or the

syntactic aspects seen in the novel. Tamil language is rich in polysemy. If the

translator fails to identify the contextual meaning, the translated text would not

convey the original sense as expressed in the Source Language text. Tamil vocabulary

is so rich and vast that the words have multiple meanings depending on the context of

the appearance of the word. Not only the meaning, but also the style and form should
 24

be taken into account in the functional value of a word. The translator has problems in

finding ‘equivalence’ for those culture-bound, situation-bound and context-bound

words. While translating idioms and phrases, the translator has to convey the function

of the phrase and not the words. Any phrase has a direct link to the ‘social

behavioural patterns’ of that language, where the translator faces “the problem of the

non-existence of a similar convention” in the TL culture. If two languages have

“corresponding idiomatic expressions”, in the process of inter lingual translation, an

idiom can be substituted with another. This substitution is considered only on the

“function of the idiom”and not on the “linguistic elements in the phrase” or on the

“corresponding or similar image contained in the phrase” (Bassnett 31). In the

translation of idioms and metaphors, lexical and grammatical items are replaced in

order to arrive at ‘expressive identity’ (Bassnett 32) between the SL and TL texts.

Stylistic Problems like communicative aspect, thematic prominence, word order,

literary cohesion are studied in Chapter four. The difficulties faced by the

translator in translating metaphors, rhetorical quotations, etc. are analysed in this

chapter. The source language has different registers and dialects spoken in Tamil

Nadu, and this being a historical one, one can come across different types of dialects

spoken in various parts of Tamil Nadu and by people from different walks of life. The

style of language spoken by the royal people differs from the one spoken by people

from an ordinary background. This would have posed a challenge to the translator as

these things cannot be translated into English. The verbal repartees seen all over the

novel show the language skill of the writer. The hierarchical difference expressed in

one’s speech does not find its way into the translation. The dialectical difference in

the speech of the characters seen in the original work is lost in its English translation.
 25

In Chapter five, the thesis tries to capture some of the inconveniences faced by

the translator in handling the translation of poems. It is easy to translate an incident or

communicate a message, but one can see literature making use of “form and structure

of cultural items,” of “metaphorical language”. Especially in poetry, the use of

rhythm, rhyme, alliteration, assonance, metrical pattern, rhyme scheme, etc. is

inevitable. The very purpose of poetry is to create an emotion or feeling of the heart.

To translate a poem, does not mean to have another poem of a similar type, but a

penetration of consciousness, making it to look like an independent text. As we see,

the original image, metaphor, or figure of speech of the source language text cannot

be translated into the Target Language. The translated work is expected to retain the

poetic element - adhering to metre. Ponniyin Selvan has lots of folk songs, religious

hymns, etc. in the course of the novel and the translator has translated all of these

songs into English. The main problem in translation lies in creating ‘Equivalence’

between the source text and Target text. It is quite evident that communication of

content is the first step in translation. But the original image, metaphor or figure of

speech cannot be translated. So, a good translator should be competent enough to use

corresponding images or metaphors in order to maintain the “musical flow”of the

poetry.

The concluding chapter sums up the challenges and difficulties in the

translation of a literary work and the methods and nuances adopted by the translator

Karthik Narayanan. Although the task of translating, especially, Tamil works, has

always been a challenge, many writers have ventured into this field. Though

Narayanan has taken utmost care in presenting all details from the original, without

omitting much, the English translation has failed to evoke the enthusiasm and spirit
 26

that the original text has evoked, at least to the native reader who has read the text in

Tamil. Whatever be its drawbacks, translation has been with us throughout the

history of civilization and it remains a powerful force in effectively and efficiently

bridging the gulf between man’s natural desire for gaining knowledge of all subjects

under the sun and his practical inability to acquire mastery over nearly 3000

languages of the world. Translation is an important instrument that disseminates the

culture of a tribe and promotes the language of the same with external inspirations. It is

an essential one since it paves the way for international influences and introduces new

concepts, as well as genres found in other languages.

Translation does not stop with introducing forms of art and humanity to

speakers of other languages who are ignorant of the foreign language; it further

widens the capacity for meaning, and expression possessed by one’s own language.

Translation paves the way for the reconciliations of the interests of different groups.

In a multi - lingual country like India, where two or three languages are spoken by a

person, translation studies becomes a field that is much sought after. The translator is

expected to do justice to the translation work. The reader expects the translator to be

faithful to the Source Language Text. The reader expects the translation to be a

representation of the original with respect to its language, its tradition, its syntax,

semantics, its historical and cultural relevance. Here, the translator has to cater to the

needs of the reader in adhering to “textual fidelity, aesthetic satisfaction and

pedagogic utility” (Bassnett & Trivedi 121). The translator should provide the reader

the same sense of joy and satisfaction as that of the original. The translator has to

transcend the linguistic and cultural boundaries of the source and target languages.

The translator has to keep in mind the type of audience he addresses. In the English
 27

translation of Ponniyin Selvan, the translator Narayanan has focused on certain

aspects and avoided some. Of course, Narayanan has tried to approximate the

linguistic and cultural features of the original text which renders intelligibility to the

reader, which would enable us to evaluate whether the translator has conserved or

violated the linguistic and aesthetic standard of the original text.