ADVANCED ENGLISH

GRAMMAR
English Literature Department,
Universitas Ngudi Waluyo

Mochamad Rizqi Adhi Pratama, S.Pd., M.Pd.

 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

CHAPTER 6
PARALLEL STRUCTURE

Parallel structures have the same grammatical form and function. We should make the
language even and balanced. You can achieve the parallel structure by making the forms of
words as similar as possible. The following is the example of the sentence which is not
parallel:

I like to sing and dancing.

The problem in the above sentence is not the expression to sing or dancing. Both are correct
because we can say both:

I like to sing.
I like dancing.

The problem is because the expression to sing and dancing are connected with the
conjunction and. They have different forms where it is possible to have similar forms.
Therefore, the example is not parallel. We can overcome the problems in two ways: we can
make the first expression like the second, or we can make the second expression like the first.

I like to sing and to dance.

I like singing and dancing.

Look at the following sentences:

She spends her leisure time hiking, camping, and fishing.

He changed the oil, checked the tire pressure, and filled the tank with gas.
Nancy plans to either study medicine or major in biology.
Nancy plans to study either medicine or biology.

All of the structures in italics are parallel. In the first, three gerunds are parallel; in the
second, three main verbs; in the third, two simple forms; in the fourth, two nouns. Many other
structures must be parallel in certain sentences: adjectives, adverbs, infinitives, prepositional
phrases, noun clauses, and others.
The most common situation in which parallel structures are required is in a sequence
(A, B, and C) as in the first two sentences above. Parallel structures are also required with (1)
coordinate conjunctions such as and, but, or; (2) paired conjunction such as both…and…,
either . .. or, neither…nor…or not only ... but also.

San Francisco has a pleasant climate, ______ and many fascinating neighborhoods.
(A) exciting scenery,
(B) has exciting scenery
(C) that the scenery is exciting

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

(D) the scenery is exciting

This sentence contains a series of three objects after the verb has: the first and third
are noun phrases (a pleasant climate and many fascinating neighborhoods). To be
parallel, the second object must also be a noun phrase. Therefore, choice (A) is the
correct answer; (B), (C), and (D) are not parallel.

Pre-Exercises
Choose TWO people you know. (Family members or friends.) Then on another piece of
paper, write a sentence about EACH PERSON following the directions and examples.

noun + noun My father is a good husband and a My mother is a housewife and a

successful businessman. musician.

adj + adj My father is serious and My mother is talented and

hardworking. generous.

verb - My father likes to watch football My mother likes to go to church

infinitive + games and work in the yard. meetings and talk with her
infinitive friends.

verb - My father drives carelessly and My mother talks slowly and

adverb + fast. carefully.
adverb

verb + My father enjoys working and My mother enjoys talking with

gerund + eating out. friends and going on walks.
gerund

noun + noun My father has blue eyes and gray My mother has brown eyes and
hair. brown hair.

Focus: Completing structure problems involving parallelism. (Note: One or two items in the
exercise do not focus on items involving parallel structures. These items are marked in the
answer key with asterisks.)

Exercise 1. Directions: Choose the one option-(A), (B), (C), or (D)-that correctly completes
the sentence, and then mark the appropriate blank. The first one is done as an example.
1. Insects provide many beneficial services, such as ______ , breaking down deadwood,
and pollinating plants.
___ (A) they condition soils
___ (B) to condition soil

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

___ (C) conditioning the soil

___ (D) soil conditioned
2. Frozen orange juice must be packed, ______ , and stored when the fruit is ripe.
___ (A) be frozen
___ (B) must be frozen
___ (C) frozen
___ (D) it must be frozen
3. Sioux is a North American Indian language that is spoken not only ______ Sioux but
also by the Crow and Osage tribes.
___ (A) by the
___ (B) the
___ (C) do the
___ (D) and the
4. In 1900 electrically, powered cars were more popular than gasoline powered cars
because they were quiet, operated smoothly, and ______
___ (A) handled easily
___ (B) ease of handling
___ (C) handling easily
___ (D) easy to handle
5. Roger Williams was a clergyman, ______ the colony of Rhode Island, and an
outspoken advocate of religious and political freedom.
___ (A) founded
___ (B) the founder of
___ (C) was the founder of
___ (D) he founded
6. Paint can be applied to a surface with rollers, ______ , or spray guns.
___ (A) brushes
___ (B) brushes can be used
___ (C) with brushes
___ (D) by brush
7. The use of labor-saving devices in homes, ______, and factories added to the amount
of leisure time people had.
___ (A) at an office
___ (B) used in offices
___ (C) offices
___ (D) in offices
8. A dulcimer can be played by either striking its strings with a hammer or ______
___ (A) to pluck them with the fingers
___ (B) fingers are used to pluck them
___ (C) they are plucked with the fingers
___ (D) plucking them with the fingers
9. Throughout history, trade routes have increased contact between people, ______, and
greatly affected the growth of civilization.
___ (A) have resulted in an exchange of ideas

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

___ (B) an exchange of ideas has resulted

___ (C) resulted in an exchange of ideas
___ (D) resulting in an exchange of ideas
10. Walt Disney made many technical advances in the use of sound, color, and ______ in
animated films.
___ (A) photographing
___ (B) using photography
___ (C) photography
___ (D) use of photographs
11. Artist Paul Kane traveled throughout Northwest Canada on foot, by canoe, and
______ to sketch Native Canadians going about their ordinary lives.
___ (A) on horseback
___ (B) riding a horse
___ (C) horseback
___ (D) by a horse
12. Barbara Jordan was the first woman in the South to win an election to the House of
Representatives, and _______ as Congresswoman from Texas from 1973 to 1979.
___ (A) to serve
___ (B) served
___ (C) serving
___ (D) has served
13. Photographers' choice of a ca’era depends on what kind of pictures they want to take,
how much control they want over exposure, and _______ they want to spend.
___ (A) the amount of money
___ (B) what money
___ (C) how much money
___ (D) so much money that
14. Atlanta is the commercial, financial, and ______ of Georgia.
___ (A) center of administration
___ (B) administrative center
___ (C) center for administering
___ (D) administering center
15. Even after the Revolutionary War, American importers obtained merchandise from
Britain because British merchants understood American tastes, offered attractive
prices, and _________
___ (A) easy credit was provided
___ (B) because of easy credit
___ (C) easy credit
___ (D) provided easy kredit

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Exercise 2. Each of the following sentences contains words of groups of words that should be
parallel. Circle the word that indicates that the sentence should have parallel parts. Underline
the parts that should be parallel. Then indicate if the sentences are correct (C) of incorrect (I).

___ 1. She held jobs as a typist, a housekeeper, and in a restaurant.

___ 2. The report you are looking for could be in the file or on the desk.
___ 3. She works very hard but usually gets below-average grades.
___ 4. The speaker introduced himself, told several interesting anecdotes, and finishing the
emotional plea.
___ 5. You should know when the program starts and how many units you must complete.
___ 6. The term paper he wrote was rather short but very impressive.
___ 7. She suggested taking the plane this evening or that we go by train tomorrow.
___ 8. The dean or the assistant dean will inform you of when and where you should apply
for your diploma.
___ 9. There are papers to file, reports to type, and those letters should be answered.
___10. The manager needed a quick but thorough response.

Parallel Structure with Paired Conjunctions

The paired conjunctions both…and…, either…or…, neither…nor…, and not only…but

also… require parallel structures.

I know both where you went and what you did.

Either Mark or Sue has the book.
The tickets are neither in my pocket nor in my purse.
He is not only an excellent student but also an outstanding athlete.

PARALLEL STRUCTURE WITH PAIRED CONJUNCTION

both and
either or
(same structure) (same structure)
neither nor
not only but also

Exercise 3: Each of the following sentences contains words or groups of words that should
be parallel. Circle the word of words that indicate that the sentence should have parallel parts.
Underline the parts that should be parallel. Underline the parts that should be parallel. Then
indicate if the sentences are correct (C) or incorrect (I).

___ 1. According to the syllabus, you can either write a paper of you can take an exam.
___ 2. It would be both noticed and appreciated if you could finish the work before you
leave.
___ 3. She would like neither to see a movie or to go bowling.
___ 4. Either the manager or her assistant can help you with your refund.

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

___ 5. She wants not only to take a trip to Europe but she also would like to travel to Asia.
___ 6. He could correct neither what you said nor you wrote.
___ 7. Both the tailor or the laundress could fix the damage to the dress.
___ 8. He not only called the police department but also called the fire department.
___ 9. You can graduate either at the end of the fall semester or you can graduate at the end
of the spring semester.
___ 10. The movie was neither amusing nor was it interesting.

Parallel Structure with Comparisons

When you make a comparison, you indicate the similarities or differences between two
things, and those similarities or differences must be in parallel form. We can recognize a
comparison showing how two things are different from the –er….than or the more…than.

My school is farther than your school.

To be rich is better than to be poor.
What is written is more easily understood than what is spoken.

A comparison showing how two things are the same might contain as…as or expression such
as the same as or similar to.

Their car is as big as a small house.

Renting those apartments costs about the same as leasing them.
The work that I did is similar to the work that you did.

PARALLEL STRUCTURE WITH COMPARISON

more..than
-er…than
less…than
(same structure) (same structure)
as…as
the same…as
similar…to

Exercises 4. Choose the letter of the word or groups of words that best completes the
sentence.
1. Truman Capote’s In Cold Blood is neither journalistically accurate_____.
a. a piece of fiction
b. nor a fictitious way
c. or written in a fictitious way
d. nor completely fictitious
2. Vitamin C is necessary for the prevention and ______ of scurvy.
a. it cures
b. cures

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

c. cure
d. for curing
3. A baby’s development is influenced by both heredity and ______.
a. by environmental factors
b. environmentally
c. the influence of environment
d. environment
4. Because bone loss occurs earlier in women than _____, the effects of osteoporosis are
more apparent in women.
a. men do
b. in men
c. as men
d. similar to men
Choose the letter of the underlined word or group of words that is not correct.

___ 5. Fire extinguishers can contain liquefied gas, dry chemicals, or watery.
A B C D
___ 6. The U.S. Congress consists of both the Senate as well as the House of Representatives.
A B C D
___ 7. The prison population in this state, now at an all time high, is higher than any state.
A B C D
___ 8. A well-composed baroque opera achieves a delicate balance by focusing alternatively
A B C
on the aural, visual, emotional, and philosophy elements.

D
___ 9. Manufacturers may use food additives for preserving, to color, to flavor, or to fortify
A B C
foods.
D
___ 10. A bankruptcy may be either voluntary nor involuntary.
A B C D

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

CHAPTER 7
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

A subordinate clause—also called a dependent clause—will begin with a subordinate

conjunction or a relative pronoun and will contain both a subject and a verb. This
combination of words will not form a complete sentence. It will instead make a reader want
additional information to finish the thought.

Here is the list of subordinate conjunctions:

after so that
although than
as that
because though
before unless
even if until
even though when
if whenever
in order that where
once whereas
provided that wherever
rather than whether
since while
why

Now take a look at these examples:

A ft e r A m y s n e e z e d a l l o v e r t h e t u n a s a l a d

After = subordinate conjunction; Amy = subject; sneezed = verb.

O n c e A d a m s ma s h e d t h e s p id e r

Once = subordinate conjunction; Adam = subject; smashed = verb.

U n t i l M r . S a n c h e z h a s h i s f ir s t c u p o f c o f fe e

Until = subordinate conjunction; Mr. Sanchez = subject; has = verb.

W h o a t e h a n d fu ls o f C h e e r io s w it h h i s b a r e h a n d s

Who = relative pronoun; Who = subject; ate = verb.

Remember this important point: A subordinate clause cannot stand alone as a sentence
because it does not provide a complete thought. The reader is left wondering, "So what
happened?" A word group that begins with a capital letter and ends with a period must
contain at least one main clause. Otherwise, you will have written a fragment, a major error.

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Subordinate Clauses in Informal Spoken English

Informal spoken English includes subordinate clauses that occupy complete speaker turns.
Such clauses often occur in conversation when one speaker takes over and maintains another
speaker’s topic or when another speaker provides a further comment. They often occur after a
pause, or after brief feedback from a listener and often function to evaluate what has been
said (such clauses are in bold in the examples below):

A: So I turned round and chased after him.

B: Just as I would have done.

[talking about what is covered in an insurance policy]

A: Oh I – I don’t remember.
B: I just got liability.
A: Just liability.
B: Which is good enough. At least it’s insured.
(comment after feedback from the listener)

A: Well actually one person has applied.

B: Mm.
A: Which is great.

A: They charge nearly a hundred pounds a week. But that’s the average there, you know.
B: Mm.
A: Though it’s all relative I suppose.

Problems with Clauses

Sentence with One Clause

Some sentences in English have just one subject and verb, and it is very important for you to
find the subject and verb in these sentences. In some sentences, it is easy to find the subjects
and verb. However, certain structures, such as objects of prepositions, appositives, and
participles, can cause confusion in locating the subject and verb because each of these
structures can look like a subject or verb. An object of the preposition or an appositive can be
mistaken for a subject, while a participle can be mistaken for a verb.
Therefore, you should be able to do the following in sentences with one subject and
verb: (1) be sure the sentences have a subject and a verb, (2) be careful of objects of
prepositions and appositives when you are looking for the subject, and (3) be careful of
present participle and past participles when you are looking for the verb.

Be Sure the Sentences has a Subject and a Verb

We know that a sentence in English should have a subject and a verb. The most common
problems you will encounter in TOEFL test have to do with subjects and verbs; perhaps the

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

sentence is missing either the subject or the verb or both, or perhaps the sentence has an extra
subject or verb.

Example.

______ was backed up for miles on the freeway.

(A) Yesterday
(B) In the morning
(C) Traffic
(D) Cars

Engineers ______ for work on the new space program.

(A) necessary
(B) are needed
(C) hopefully
(D) next month

The boy ______ going to the movies with a friend.

(A) he is
(B) he always was
(C) is relaxing
(D) will be

Incomplete Independent Clauses

A) Clauses
All sentences consist of one or more clauses. A simple sentence consists of one clause.

People need vitamins.

The man took a vitamin pill.
Judy lives in northern California.
In the summer, Tom walks to his office

A compound sentence consists of two independent clauses joined by a coordinating

conjunction (such as and and but).

The man took a vitamin pill, and he drank a glass of orange juice.
Judy lives in northern California now, but she was raised in Ohio.

A complex sentence consists of an independent clause (called the main clause) and a
dependent (subordinate) clause. Subordinate clauses may be adverb clauses, noun
clauses, or adjective clauses. In the sentences below, the independent clauses are
italicized.

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

The man took a vitamin pill because he had a cold.

(independent clause + adverb clause)
I didn't realize that Nancy was here.
(independent clause + noun clause)
Tom walks to his office, which is located on Broadway, every day during the summer.
(independent clause + adjective clause)

All three types of subordinate clauses are commonly seen in the Structure part of the
test, and each is considered in separate lessons (Lessons 18, 21, and 22). The emphasis
in this chapter, however, is on the basic components of independent clauses.

All clauses have a subject and a verb. Clauses with an action verb often take a direct object as
well.
Subject Verb Object
People need vitamins

The verb missing from an independent clause may be a single-word verb (need, was, took, had,
walked) or a verb phrase consisting of one or more auxiliary verbs and a main verb (will need,
has been, should take, would have had, had walked). The verbs may be active (need, take) or
passive(was needed, is taken).
The missing subject and direct object may be a noun (people, vitamins, Tom) a noun phrase
(some famous people, a vitamin pill, myfriend Tom) or a pronoun. (He, she, it, and they are
subject pronouns; him, her, it and them are object pronouns.)
After the verb to be and certain other non-action verbs, a subject complement is used rather
than a direct object. (Subject complements are also known as predicate nominatives and
predicate adjectives.)

Subject Verb Complement

She is an architect.
The teacher seemed upset.

Examples
The art of storytelling ____ almost as old as humanity.
(A) that is
(B) is
(C) it is
(D) being

_____ a few of the sounds produced by insects can be heard by humans.

(A) Only
(B) There are only
(C) That only
(D) With only

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

____ when lava cools very rapidly.

(A) Because pumice is formed
(B) To form pumice
(C) Pumice is formed
(D) Forming pumice

Duke Ellington wrote ____ during his career.

(A) that over a thousand songs
(B) over a thousand songs
(C) over a thousand songs were
(D) there were over a thousand songs

Before the invention of the printing press, books ____

(A) that were very rare
(B) were very rarely
(C) were very rare
(D) as very rare

B) Clauses with There and It

Some clauses begin with the introductory words there or it rather than with the subject
of the sentence. These introductory words are sometimes called expletives.
The expletive there shows that someone or something exists, usually at a particular time
or place.

These sentences generally follow the pattern there + verb to be + subject:

There are many skyscrapers in New York City.
There was a good movie on television last night.

The expletive it is used in a number of different situations and patterns:

It is important to be punctual for appointments.

(with the verb to be + adjective + infinitive)
It was in 1959 that Alaska became a state.
(with the verb to be + adverbial + noun clause)
It takes a long time to learn a language.
(with the verb to take + time phrase + infinitive) -
It was David who did most of the work.
(with the verb to be + noun + relative clause)

It and there, along with the verb and other sentence elements, may be missing from the
stem.

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Exercises 1.

In Michigan, ____ over six hundred feet deep.

(A) salt deposits
(B) where salt deposits are
(C) having salt deposits
(D) there are salt deposits

____ a tomato plant from 75 to 85 days to develop into a mature plant with ripe fruit.
(A) It takes
(B) To take
(C) That takes
(D) By taking

Crop rotation ________ of preserving soil fertility.

(A) it is one method
(B) one method
(C) a method is one
(D) is one method

_________ the dollar as its monetary unit in 1878.

(A) Canada adopted
(B) Adopted by Canada,
(C) It was adopted by Canada
(D) The Canadian adoption of

________ almost impossible to capture the beauty of the aurora borealis in

photographs.
(A) Being
(B) His
(C) There is
(D) Is

Usually, political cartoons ______ on the editorial page of a newspaper.

(A) appear
(B) whose appearance
(C) by appearing
(D) when they appear

_________ two major art museums, the Fogg and the Sadler.
(A) Harvard University has
(B) At Harvard University
(C) Harvard University, with its
(D) There at Harvard University

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

American actress and director Margaret Webster ______ for her production of
Shakespearean plays.
(A) who became famous
(B) famous as she became
(C) becoming famous
(D) became famous

________ gas tanks connected to welding equipment, one full of oxygen and the other
full of acetylene.
(A) It is two
(B) Of the two
(C) There are two
(D) Two
_________is more interested in rhythm than in melody is apparent from his
compositions.
(A) That Philip Glass
(B) Philip Glass, who
(C) Philip Glass
(D) Because Philip Glass

Compressed air ______ the power to drive pneumatic tools.

(A) by providing
(B) provides
___ (C) that provides
___ (D) the provision of

__________by cosmic rays.

(A) The earth is constantly bombarded
(B) Bombarded constantly, the earth
(C) Bombarding the earth constantly
(D) The earth's constant bombardment

_________primary colors are red, blue, and yellow.

(A) There are three
(B) The three
(C) Three of them
(D) That the three

________who was elected the first woman mayor of Chicago in 1979.

(A) It was Jane Byrne
(B) Jane Byrne
(C) That Jane Byrne
(D) When Jane Byrne

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Every computer consists of a number of systems ______ together.

(A) by working
(B) work
(C) they work
(D) that work

On the Moon, ______ air because the Moon's gravitational field is too weak to retain an
atmosphere.
(A) there is no
(B) where no
(C) no
(D) is no

The Glass Mountains of northwestern Oklahoma ______ with flecks of gypsum, which
shine in the sunlight.
(A) they are covered
(B) covered them
(C) that are covered
(D) are covered

In some cases, ______ to decide if an organism is a plant or an animal.

(A) difficult if
(B) it is difficult
(C) the difficulty
(D) is difficult

The first American novelist to have a major impact on world literature ______
(A) who was James Fenimore Cooper
(B) James Fenimore Cooper was
(C) it was James Fenimore Cooper
(D) was James Fenimore Cooper

_________ important railroad tunnel in the United States was cut through the Hoosac
Mountains in Massachusetts.
(A) At first
(B) It was the first
(C) The first
(D) As the first of

Generally, in the valleys and foothills of the Pacific Coast ranges.

(A) the California poppy grown
(B) the growth of the California poppy
(C) the California poppy grows

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

(D) growing the California poppy

When bats are at rest, ______ hang upside-down.

(A) they
(B) and
(C) to
(D) as

_________that the capital of South Carolina was moved from Charleston to Columbia.
(A) In 1790 was
(B) There was in 1790
(C) In 1790
(D) It was in 1790

Although not as important as they once were, _________ a major form of

transportation in North America.
(A) there are still railroads
(B) railroads, which are still
(C) railroads are still
(D) railroads still being

The Loop, which is the commercial heart of Chicago, ______ within a rectangular loop
of elevated train tracks.
(A) that is enclosed
(B) enclosing it
(C) is enclosed
(D) enclosed

_________ amino acids that serve as the basic building blocks of all proteins.
(A) About twenty
(B) For about twenty of
(C) About twenty are
(D) There are about twenty

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

CHAPTER 8
SUBJECT/VERB AGREEMENT

Subject or Verb agreement is simple, if the subject of a sentence is singular, then the verb
must be singular, if the subject of the sentence is plural, then the verb must be plural. An s on
a verb usually indicated that a verb is singular, while an s on a noun usually indicates that the
noun is plural. (Do not forget irregular plural of nouns, such as women, children, and people.

The boy walks to school.

The boys walk to school.

Although the above example seem quite simple, there are five situations when the
subject/verb agreement can be little tricky. You should be careful of subject/verb agreement
in the following situations: (1) after prepositional phrases, (2) after expressions of quantity,
(3) after inverted verbs, and (4) after certain words, such as anybody, everything, no one,
something, each, and every.

8.1 Subject Separated from the Verb

It looks easy to decide a certain verb agreement for a certain subject. However, sometimes it
is a little bit tricky when the subject and verbs are separated. Let’s take a look at the
following example:

The boys in the room are studying.

Very often, if the subject and verb are separated, they will be separated by a prepositional
phrase. The prepositional phrase has no effect on the verb.

SUBJECT + [PREPOSITIONAL VERB] + VERB

The study of languages is very interesting.

Singular subject Singular verb

Several theories on this subject have been proposed.

Plural subject Plural verb

The view of these disciplines varies from time to time.

Singular subject Singular verb

The danger of forest fires is not to be taken lightly.

Singular subject Singular verb

These expressions also have no effect on the verb.

together with
along with

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

accompanied by
as well as

The actress, along with her manager and some friends, is going to a party tonight.
Singular subject Singular verb

Mr. Robbins, accompanied by his wife and children, is arriving tonight.

Singular subject Singular verb

Note: If the conjunction and is used instead of one of these phrases, the verb would then be
plural.

The actress and her manager are going to a party tonight.

Plural subject Plural verb

Exercise 1. Choose the correct form of the verb in parentheses in the following
sentences.

1. John, along with twenty friends, (is/are) planning a party.

2. The picture of the soldiers (bring/brings) back many memories.
3. The quality of these recordings (is/are) not very good.
4. If the duties of these officers (isn’t/are) reduced, there will not be enough time to
finish the project.
5. The effects of cigarette smoking (have/has) been proven to be extremely harmful.
6. The use of credit cards in place of cash (have/has) increased rapidly in recent years.
7. Advertisement on television (is/are) becoming more competitive than ever before.
8. Living expenses in this country, as well as in many others, (is/are) at an all-time high.
9. Mr. Jones, accompanied by several members of the committee, (have/has) proposed
some changes of the rules.
10. The levels of intoxication (vary/varies) from subject to subject.

8.2 Words that always take singular verbs and pronouns

Some words are often confused by English learners as being plural. The following words
must be followed by singular verbs and pronouns in formal written English.

Any + singular noun

Anybody
Anyone
Anything

No + singular noun

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Nobody
No one
Nothing

Some + singular noun

Somebody
Someone
Something

Every + singular noun

Everybody
Everyone
Everything

Each + singular noun

Each student
Each book

Either + singular noun

Neither + singular noun

Everybody who has not purchased a ticket should be in this line.

Something was under the house.
If either of you takes a vacation now, we will not be able to finish the work.
Anybody who has lost his ticket should report to the desk.
No problem is harder to solve than this one.
Nobody works harder than John does.

None/No

None can take either a singular or plural verb, depending on the noun which follows it.

None + of the + non-count noun + singular verbs

Example:
None of the money has been found.

None + of the + plural count noun + plural verb

Example:
None of the students have finished the exam yet.

No can take either a singular or plural verb depending on the noun which follows it.

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Singular noun
No Singular verb
Non-count noun

No example is relevant to this case.

No water is found in the lake.

no + plural noun + plural verbs

No examples are relevant to this case.

Either/Neither

When either and neither are followed by or and nor, the verb may be singular or plural,
depending in whether the noun following or and nor is singular or plural. Study the following
examples:

Neither John nor his friends are going to the beach today.
Either John or his friends are going to the beach today.

8.3 Collective Noun

There are many words indicating the number of people or animals are singular. The following
nouns are usually singular. In some cases, they are plural if the sentence indicates that the
individual members are acting separately.

Congress
Organization
Government
Family
Team
Jury
Group
Army
Majority*
Committee
Club
Minority
Class
Crowd
Public

*majority can be singular or plural. If it is alone; if it is followed by plural noun, it is usually

plural.

The majority believes that we are in no danger.

The majority of the students believe him to be innocent.

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Examples of collective nouns:

The committee has met, and it has rejected the proposal.
The family was elated the news.
The crowd was wild with excitement.
Congress has initiated a new plan to combat inflation.

The following nouns are used to indicate groups of certain animals. It is not necessary to
learn the nouns; however, they mean the same as group and thus are considered singular.

Flock of birds
Flock of sheep
Herd of cattle
Pack of dogs
School of fish
Pride of lions

The flock of birds is circling overhead.

The herd of cattle is breaking away.
A school of fish is being attacked by sharks.

Collective nouns indicating time, money, and measurement used as a whole are singular.

Twenty five dollars is too much to pay for the shirt.

Fifty minutes isn’t enough time to finish the test.
Twenty dollars is all I can afford to pay that recorder.
Two miles is too much to run in one day.

8.4. A number of/The number of

a number of + plural noun + plural verbs

the number of + plural noun + singular verb

A number of students are going to the class picnic. (a number of = many)

The number of days in a week is seven.
A number of the applicants have already been interviewed.
The number of residents who have been questioned on this matter is quite small.

8.5. Nouns that are always plural

The following nouns are always considered plural. They cannot be singular. In order to speak
of them as singular, one must say “a pair of_______.”

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Scissors
Trousers
Shorts
Eyeglasses
Pants
Pliers
Jeans
Tweezers
Tongs

The pants are in the drawer.

A pair of pants is in the drawer.
The pliers were on the table.
The pair of the pliers was on the table.
These scissors are dull.
This pair of scissors is dull.

8.6. There is/There are

Remember that with sentences beginning with the existential there, the subject is actually
after the verb.

There is
Singular subject…
There was +
(or non-count)
There has been

There are
Plural subject…
There were +
There have been

There is a storm approaching.

There have been a number of telephone calls today.

Plural subject Plural verb
There was an accident last night.
Singular subject Singular verb
There were too many people at the party.
Plural subject Plural verb
There has been an increase in the importation of foreign cars.
Singular subject Singular verb
There was water on the floor where he fell.
Singular subject Singular verb

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Exercise 2. Choose the correct form of the verb in parentheses in the following
sentences.

1. Neither Bill nor Mary (is/are) going to the play tonight.

2. Anything (is/are) better than going to another movie tonight.
3. Skating (is/are) becoming more popular every day.
4. A number of reporters (was/were) at the conference yesterday.
5. Everybody who (has/have) a fever must go home immediately.
6. Your glasses (was/were on the bureau last night.
7. There (was/were) some people at the meeting last night.
8. The committee (has/have) already reached a decision.
9. A pair of jeans (was/were) in the washing machine this morning.
10. Each student (has/have) already reached a decision.
11. Either John or his wife (make/makes) breakfast each morning.
12. After she had perused the materials, the secretary decided that everything (was/were)
in order.
13. The crowd at the basketball game (was/were) wild with excitement.
14. A pack of wild dogs (has/have) frightened all the ducks away.
15. The jury (is/are) trying to reach a decision.
16. The army (has/have) eliminated this section of the training test.
17. The number of students who have withdrawn form class this quarter (is/are) appalling.
18. There 9has/have) been too many interruptions in this class.
19. Every elementary school teacher (has/have) to take this examination.
20. Neither Jill nor her parents (has/have) seen this move before.

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

CHAPTER 9
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition (in, at, with, for, until, and so on) followed
by a noun phrase or pronoun, which is called the prepositional object. Prepositional phrases
often describe relationships of time and location, among others.

In the autumn, maple leaves turn red.

Beacon Hill is one of the most famous neighborhoods in Boston.
With luck, there won’t be any more problems.
This house was built by John’s grandfather.

Often, prepositional phrases come at the beginning of sentences but they may appear in other
parts of the sentences as well. The correct answer for this type of item may be a preposition,
its object, or both, as well as other parts of the sentence.
You may see prepositions in distractors, especially before the subject of a sentence.
Remember, the object of a preposition cannot correctly be the subject of a sentence, as in
these examples of the WRONG use of prepositional phrase:
- In the autumn is my favorite season.
- Without a pencil is no way to come to a test.

Sample of problems:
________ the unaided eye can see about 6000 stars.
a. A clear night
b. It’s a clear night
c. On a clear night
d. When a clear night
________ all the field crops grown in the United States are harvested with machines called
combines.
a. Of nearly
b. Nearly
c. That nearly
d. Nearly of

Exercise 1. Choose the best answer to fill the blanks.

1. Dynamite is ordinarily detonated ______ called a blasting cap.
(A) a device is used
(B) that a device
(C) with a device
(D) the use of a device
2. ________seed of a flowering plant is covered by a dense protective coat.
(A) On each
(B) Each
(C) Each of

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

(D) That each

3. _______1900 there were some 300 bicycle factories in the United States, and they
produced over a million bicycles.
(A) In
(B) Because in
(C) It was in
(D) That in
4. A thick layer of fat called blubber keeps whales warm even ______ coldest water.
(A) although the
(B) in the
(C) the
(D) of the
5. the United States, the general movement of air masses is from west to east.
(A) Across
(B) To cross
(C) They cross
(D) It's across
6. The bark of a tree thickens _______
(A) with age
(B) it gets older
(C) as older
(D) by age
7. A substance that is harmless to a person who has no allergies can cause mild to serious
reactions in a person ________ allergies.
(A) has
(B) which having
(C) can have
(D) with
8. In 1886 a number of national unions formed the American Federation of Labor ______
(A) Samuel Gompers was its leader
(B) under the leadership of Samuel Gompers
(C) which, under Samuel Gompers' leadership
(D) Samuel Gompers led it
9. Harmonicas, autoharps, and kazoos ______ folk instruments.
(A) are examples
(B) for example
(C) are examples of
(D) as examples of
10. ________charming shops and restaurants, Old Town is the most picturesque section of
Albuquerque.
(A) With its
(B) Its
(C) Because its
(D) For its

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

11. ________, such as banking and travel, in which computers are not a convenience but a
necessity.
(A) Where some industries
(B) In some industries
(C) Some industries
(D) There are some industries
12. One of the oldest large suspension bridges still ______ today is the George Washington
Bridge between NewYork City and Fort Lee, New Jersey.
(A) uses
(B) is used
(C) the use of
(D) in use

9.1 Phrasal Verb

Phrasal verb is the verb followed by preposition to make meaningful and appropriate
expression. Often phrasal verbs have very different meaning from their first base meaning.

Base Phrasal Verbs Meaning

Look Look up Become better
Look for Find or Search
Look after Keep or Take Care of
Look forward to Expect

Exercise 2. Each of the following sentences contains at least one preposition. Circle the
prepositions. Then indicate if the sentences are correct C or incorrect (I)

____ 1. After school many students participate in sports.

____ 2. I know I can rely in you to be here on time.
____ 3. If you need more light to read, turn on the lamp next to you.
____ 4. Parents always try to bring at their children to be thoughtful.
____ 5. I’ll have to consult to my attorney before making a decision.
____ 6. Walt has lost his keys, so he must look for them.
____ 7. I just don’t approve at your cheating in the exam.
____ 8. Smoking is forbidden, so you should put out your cigarette.
____ 9. Failure to pass the test will result to the loss of your license.
____10. It is unlawful for paroles to associate with known felons.

9.2. Problems with Prepositions

Prepositions can be used in two ways: in a literal way and in an idiomatic way. In the literal
use, the preposition means exactly what you expect.

The boy ran up the hill.

She went in the house.

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

In the first example, the preposition up means that the boy went in the direction up rather than
down. In the second example, the preposition in means that she went into rather than out of
the house.
In the idiomatic use, the preposition appears in an idiomatic expression; that is, its
meaning in this expression has nothing to do with the literal meaning.

I call up friend.
He succeeded in passing the course.

In the first example, the word up has nothing to do with the direction up. To call up someone
means to telephone someone. In the second example, the word in has nothing to do with the
meaning of into or inside; it is simply idiomatic that the word in is used after the verb
succeed.

A. Recognize Incorrect Prepositions

Sometimes an incorrect preposition in a sentence in written expression questions on the

TOEFL test.

The game was called on* because of rain.

I knew I could count in* you to do a good job.

The first example should say that the game was called off because of rain. The expression
called off means cancelled. To call on someone means to visit someone, and it does not make
sense in this example. In the second example, it is not correct in English to count in someone.
The correct expression is to count on someone.

Exercise 3. Each of the following sentences contains at least one preposition. Circle the
preposition. Then indicate if the sentences are correct (C) or incorrect (I).

___ 1. After school many students participate in sports.

___ 2. I know I can rely in you to be here on time.
___ 3. If you need more light to read, turn on the lamp next to you.
___ 4. Parents always try to bring at their children to be thoughtful.
___ 5. I’ll have to consult to my attorney before making decision.
___ 6. Walt has lost his keys, so he must look for them.
___ 7. I just don’t approve at your cheating on the exam.
___ 8. Smoking is forbidden, so you should put out your cigarette.
___ 9. Failure to pass the test will result in the loss of your license.
___ 10. It is unlawful for parolees to associate with known felons.

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

B. Recognize when Prepositions have been Omitted

Sometimes a necessary preposition has been omitted from a sentence in written expression
questions.

Can you wait* me after the game.

I plan* attending the meeting.

The first example is incorrect because it is necessary to say wait for me. The second example
is incorrect because it is necessary to say plan on attending.

Exercise 4. Choose the letter of the underlined word or group of words that is not correct.

1. Amelia Earhearth, the first woman to fly solo across the Atlantic, disappeared on June
1937 while attempting to fly around the world.
2. The occurrence edema indicates the presence of a serious illness.
3. Atomic nuclei are believed to be composed by protons and neutrons in equal numbers
for the lighter elements.
4. According to legend, Betsy Ross designed and sewed the first American Flag.
5. The middle ear is attached for the back of the throat by the Eustachian tube.
6. Plats that sprout, grow, bloom, produce seeds, and die within one year are classified
for annuals.
7. A marionette is controlled by means strings connected to wooden bars.
8. In July of 1861, Pat Garret killed Billy the Kid in a house close fort Sumner.
9. Many comfort heating system using steam as a working fluid operate at the
convection principle.
10. Mars’s two small moons are irregularly shaped and covered for craters.

Exercise 5. Choose the letter of the word or group of words that completes the sentence.

1. In any matter, heat tends to flow _____to the cooler parts.

a. hotter parts
b. there are hotter parts
c. from the hotter parts
d. toward the hotter parts
2. Certain authorities claim that the costumes that people wear to parties ____ into their
personalities.
a. give subtle insights
b. they give subtle insights
c. which give subtle insights
d. subtle insights
3. _____ Army camps near Washington, D.V., in 1861, Julia Ward Howe wrote “The
Battle Hymn of the Republic”.
a. she visited
b. after visiting

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

c. when visited
d. when was she visiting
4. The body depends in food as its primary source of energy.
5. Regular programming was interrupted to broadcast a special news bulletins.
6. Sulfa drugs had been used to treat bacterial infection until penicillin becomes widely
available.
7. Plans for both the International Monetary Fund or the World Bank were drawn up at
the Bretton Woods Conference.
8. Seldom Antarctic iceberg will move far enough north to disturb South Pacific
shipping lanes.
9. In 1958, a largest recorded wave, with a height of 500 meters, occurred in Lituya Bay,
Alaska.
10. Exercise in swimming pools is particularly helpful because of the buoyant effect
water.

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

CHAPTER 10
SENTENCES WITH REDUCED CLAUSES

It is possible in English for a clause to appear in a complete form or in a reduced form.

My friend should be on the train which is arriving at the station now.

Although it was not really difficult, the exam took a lot of time.

The first sentence shows an adjective clause in its complete form, which is arriving at the
station now, and in its reduced form, arriving at the station now. The second sentence shows
an adverb in its complete form, although it was not really difficult, and its reduced form,
although not really difficult.
The two types of the clauses can reduce in English are: (1) adjective clause and (2)
adverb clauses. It is important to become familiar with these reduced clauses because they
appear frequently on TOEFL Test.

A. Use Reduced Adjective Clauses Correctly

Adjective clauses can appear in a reduced form. In the reduced form, the adjective clause
connector and the be-verb that directly follow it are omitted.

The woman who is waving to us is the tour guide.

The letter which was written last week arrived today.
The pitcher that is on the table is full of iced tea.

Each of these sentences may be used in the complete form or in the reduced form. In the
reduced form, the connector who, which, or that is omitted along with the be-verb is or was.
If there is no be-verb in the adjective clause, it is still possible to have a reduced form.
When there is no be-verb in the adjective clause, the connector is omitted and the verb is
changed into the –ing form.

I don’t understand the article which appears appearing in today’s paper.

Adjective clause containing passive voice can also be reduced. The general form of passive
voice is the be-verb (am, is, are, was, were) + Verb III. In order to make reduced form, we
omit the connector (which/who) and the be-verb.

The book which is written by Prof. Miller is very interesting.

The man who was jailed last year is already free.

Adjective clause might also be reduced when it explains the object of the full clause. Take a
look at the following examples.

The book which you bought yesterday was torn.

The man whom you met last year is going to come to my house this evening.

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

A final point to note is that some adjective clauses are set off from the rest of the sentence
with commas, and these adjective clauses can also be reduced. In addition, when an adjective
clause is set off with commas, the reduced adjective clause can appear at the font of the
sentence.

The White House, which is located in Washington, is the home of the president.
The White House, located in Washington, is the home of the president.
Located in Washington, the White House is the home of the president.

The president, who is now preparing to give a speech, is meeting with his advisors.
The president, now preparing to give a speech, is meeting with his advisors.
Now preparing to give a speech, the president is meeting with his advisors.

Exercise 1. Each of the following sentences contains an adjective clause, in a complete or

reduced form. Underline the adjective clauses. Then, indicate if the sentences are correct (C)
or incorrect (I).

___ 1. We will have to return the merchandise purchased yesterday at the Broadway.
___ 2. The children sat in the fancy restaurant found it difficult to behave.
___ 3. Serving a term of four years, the mayor of the town will face reelection next year.
___ 4. The brand new Cadillac, purchasing less than two weeks ago, was destroyed in the
accident.
___ 5. The fans who supporting their team always come out the games in large numbers.
___ 6. The suspect can be seen in the photographs were just released by the police.
___ 7. The food placing on the picnic table attracted a large number of flies.
___ 8. Impressed with everything she heard about the course, Marie signed her children up
for it.
___ 9. The passengers in the airport waiting room, herd the announcement of the canceled
flight, groaned audibly.
___10. Dissatisfied with the service at the restaurant, the meal really was not enjoyable.

B. Use Reduced Adverb Clauses Correctly

Adverb clauses can also appear in a reduced form. In the reduced form, the adverb connector
remains, but the subject and be-verb are omitted.

Although he is rather unwell, the speaker will take a part in the seminar.
When you are ready, you can begin your speech.

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

These two examples may be used in either the complete or reduced form. In the reduced
form, the adverb connectors although and when remain; the subjects he and you as well as the
be-verbs is and are are omitted.
If there is no be-verb in the adverb clause, it is still possible to have a reduced form.
When there is no be-verb in the adverb clause, the subject is omitted and the main verb is
changed into the –ing form.

Although he feels feeling rather sick, the speaker will take in the seminar.
When you give giving your speech, you should speak loudly and distinctly.

In the first example, the adverb clause although he feels rather sick does not include a be-
verb; to reduce this clause, the subject he is omitted and the main verb feels is changed to
feeling. In the second example, the adverb clause when you give your speech also does not
include a be-verb; to reduce this clause, the subject you is omitted and the main verb give is
change into giving.

Example:
When _______, you are free to leave.
A. the finished report
B. finished with the report
C. the report
D. is the repost finished
We should guess that actually, the sentence is When you are finished with the report, you are
free to leave.
We can guess the above sentence because after looking at the choices, the word finished is
used as adjective. To determine the answer, we should omit the subject and the be-verb.
Therefore, the answer is B.

Exercise 2. Each of the following sentences contains a reduced adverb clause, in a complete
or reduced form. Underline the reduced clauses. Then, indicate if the sentences are correct
(C) or incorrect (I).

___ 1. If not completely satisfied, you can return the product to the manufacturer.
___ 2. Steve has had to learn how to cook and clean since left home.
___ 3. The ointment can be applied where needed.
___ 4. Tom began to look for job after completing his master’s degree in engineering.
___ 5.Although not selecting for the team, he attends all the games as a fan.
___ 6. When purchased at this store, the buyer gets a guarantee on all items.
___ 7. The medicine is not effective unless taken as directed.
___ 8. You should negotiate a lot before buy a new car.
___ 9. Once purchased, the swim suits cannot be returned.
___ 10. Though located near the coast, the town does not get much of an ocean breeze.

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Exercise 3. Choose the answer which completes the sentence.

1. When _____ nests during spring nesting season, Canadian geese are fiercely
territorial.
a. building
b. are building
c. built
d. are built
2. In 1870, Calvin, along with Adirondack hunter Alvah Dunning, made the first known
ascent of Seward Mountain, ____ far from roads or trails.
a. a remote peak
b. it is a remote peak
c. a remote peak is
d. which a remote peak
3. Kokanee salmon begin to deteriorate and die soon ____ at the age of four.
a. they spawn
b. after spawning
c. spawn
d. spawned the salmon
4. ____ behind government secrecy for nearly half a century, the Hanford plant in
central Washington produced plutonium for the nuclear weapons of the Cold War.
a. It is hidden
b. Hidden
c. Which is hidden
d. The plant is hiding
5. Until ____ incorrect, astronomers had assumed that the insides of white dwarfs were
uniform.
a. they
b. their proof
c. the astronomers recently proven
d. recently proven
6. ______ artifacts from the early Chinese dynasties, numerous archeologists have
explored the southern Silk Road.
a. They were searching for
b. It was a search for
c. Searched for
d. Searching
7. In Hailey, the best-known lecturer was women’s rights activist Abigail Scott Duniway
of Portland, Oregon, who could usually be persuaded to speak ____ town visiting her
son.
a. she was in
b. while in
c. while she was
d. was in

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

8. The National Restaurant, ____ Washington, says that federal efforts to regulate
workplace smoking would limit restaurants’ ability to respond to the desires of their
patrons.
a. Association in
b. Association is in
c. Association which is in
d. Association, based in
9. ____ in North American waterways a little over a decade ago, zebra mussuls have
already eared a nasty reputation for their expensive habit of clogging water pipes in
the Great Lakes area.
a. The first sighting
b. Although first sighted
c. Zebra mussels were first sighted
d. First sighting
10. Small companies may take their goods abroad for trade shows without paying foreign
value-added taxes by acquiring _____ an ATA carnet
a. a document calls
b. a document called
c. calls a document
d. called a document

Exercise 4. Choose the answer which completes the sentence.

1. In the United States, ______ approximately four million miles of roads, streets, and
highways.
a. there
b. is
c. they
d. there are
2. ____ twelve million immigrants entered the United States via Ellis Island.
a. More than
b. There were more than
c. Of more than
d. The report of
3. The television, _____ so long been a part of our culture, has an enormous influence.
a. has
b. it has
c. which
d. which has
4. Psychologists have traditionally maintained that infants cannot formulate long-term
memories until ___ the age of eight or nine months.
a. they
b. they reach
c. to reach

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

d. reach
5. ____ a cheese shop has since grown into a small conglomerate consisting of a catering
business and two retail stores.
a. In the beginning of
b. It began as
c. Its beginning which was
d. What began as
6. Primarily a government contractor, ___ preferential treatment from government
agencies as both a minority-group member and a woman.
a. receives Weber
b. Weber receives
c. The reception of Weber
d. According to Weber’s reception
7. Because the project depends on _____ at the federal level, the city and country may
have to wait until the budget cutting ends.
a. it happens
b. which happening
c. what happens
d. that it happens
8. ____definitive study of a western hard-rock mining community cemetery appears to
have been done is in Silver City, Nevada.
a. Most
b. The most
c. Where most
d. Where the most
9. One of the areas of multimedia that is growing quickly ______ is sound.
a. yet is easily overlooked
b. is easily overlooked
c. it is easily overlooked
d. that is easily overlooked
10. _____, early approaches for coping with workplace stress dealt with the problem only
after its symptoms had appeared.
a. Although well-intending
b. Although it is a good intention
c. Although a good intention
d. Although well-intended

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

CHAPTER 11
SUBJECT OR VERB INVERSION

There is some confusion about when to invert the subject and verb after question words such
as what, when, where, why and how. These words can have two very different functions in a
sentence. First, they can introduce a question, and in this case the subject and verb that follow
are inverted.

What is the homework?

When can I leave?
Where are you going?

Also, these words can join together two clauses, and in this case the subject and verb that
follow are not inverted.

I do not know what the homework is.

When I can leave, I will take the first train.
Do you know where you are going?

In each of these examples, there are two clauses joined by a question word. Notice that the
subjects and verbs that follow the question words what, when, and where are not inverted in
this case.
The following example shows how this sentence pattern could be tested in structure
questions on the TOEFL test.

Example:
The lawyer asked the client why _____ it.
a. did he do
b. did he
c. he did
d. did

The following chart lists the question words and their sentence patterns:
A. Inversion of Subject and Verb with Place Expression

INVERTED SUBJECTS AND VERBS WITH QUESTION WORDS

who what when where why how
When the question word introduces a question, the subject and verb are inverted.

Question word V S ?
What are they ?
When the question word connects two clauses, the subject and verb that follow are not
inverted.

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

S V question word S V
I know what they are.

Exercise 1. Each of the following sentences contains a question word. Circle the question
words. Underline the subjects once and the verbs twice. Then, indicate if the sentences are
correct (C) or incorrect (I).

1. The phone company is not certain when will the new directories be ready.
2. The professor does not understand why so many students did poorly on the exam.
3. How new students can get information about parking?
4. Where is it cheapest to get typeset copies printed?
5. Only the pilot can tell you how far can the plane go on one tank of fuel.
6. What type of security does he prefer of his investment?
7. Not even the bank president knows when the vault will be opened.
8. How long it has been since you arrived in the United States?
9. The jury doubts what the witness said under cross-examination.
10. Do you know why he wants to take an extended leave of absence?

B. Inversion of the Subject and Verb with Place Expression

After ideas expressing place, the subject and the verb sometimes invert in English. This can
happen with single words expressing place, such as here, there, or nowhere.

Here is the book that you lent me.

There are the keys that I thought I lost.
Nowhere have I seen such beautiful weather.

In the first example, the place word here causes the subject book to come after the verb is. In
the second example the place word there causes the subject keys to come after the verb are.
In the last example the place word nowhere causes the subject I to come after the verb have.

In the closet are the clothes that you want.

Around the corner is Sam’s house.
Beyond the mountains lies the town where you will live.

In the first example, the prepositional phrase of place in the closet causes the subject clothes
to come after the verb are. In the second example, the prepositional phrase of place around
the corner causes the subject house to come after the verb is. In the last example, the
prepositional phrase of place beyond the mountains causes the subject town to come after the
verb lies.
It is important and a bit difficult to understand that the subject and verb will invert
after place expressions at the beginning of a sentence only when the place expression is
necessary to complete the sentence. Study the following examples:

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

In the forest are many exotic birds.

In the forest I walked for many hours.

In the first example, the subject the subject birds and verb are are inverted because the place
expression in the forest is needed to complete the idea many exotic birds are … In the second
example the subject I and the verb walked are not inverted because the idea I walked for
many hours is complete without the place expression in the forest; the place expression is
therefore not needed to complete the sentence.

INVERTED SUBJECTS AND VERBS WITH PLACE EXPRESSIONS

When a place expression at the front of the sentence is necessary to complete the sentence,
the subject and verb that follow are inverted.

PLACE (necessary) V S
In the classroom were some old desks.

When a place expression at the front of the sentence contains extra information that is not
needed to complete the sentence, the subject and verb that follow are not inverted.

Place (extra) S V
In the classroom, I studied very hard.

Exercise 2. Each of the following sentences contains an expression of place at the beginning
of the sentence. Circle the expressions of place. Look at the clauses that immediately follow
the place expression and underline the subject once and the verbs twice. Then indicate if the
sentence are correct (C) or incorrect (I).

____ 1. In front of the house we some giant trees.

____ 2. There a big house on the corner.
____ 3. In the cave was a vast treasure of gems and jewels.
____ 4. To the north the stream is that the settlers will have to cross.
____ 5. Around the corner are the offices that you are trying to find.
____ 6. At the Italian restaurant was the food too spicy for my taste.
____ 7. Nowhere in the world farmers can grow such delicious food.
____ 8. In the backyard the trees are that need to be pruned.
____ 9. Around the recreation hall and down the path are the tents where we will be staying
this week.
____ 10. In the apartment next to mine a man and a woman were having a heated discussion.

C. Inversion of Subject and Verb with Negatives

The subject and verb can also be inverted after certain negatives and related expressions.
When negative expressions, such as no, not, or never, come at the beginning of a sentence,
the subject and verb are inverted.

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Not once did I miss a question.

Never has Mr. Jones taken a vacation.
At no time can the woman talk on the telephone.

Hardly ever does he take time off.

(This means that he almost never takes time off.)

Only once did the manager issue overtime paychecks.

(This means that the manager almost never issued overtime paychecks.)

When a negative expression appears in front of a subject and verb in the middle of a
sentence, the subject and verb are also inverted. This happens often with the negative words
neither and nor.

I do not want to go, and neither does Tom.

The secretary is not attending the meeting, nor is her boss.

The following chart lists the negative expressions and the sentence pattern used with them:

INVERTED SUBJECTS AND VERBS WITH NEGATIVES

No not never neither nor
Barely hardly only rarely scarcely seldom
When a negative expression appears in front of a subject and verb (at the beginning of a
sentence or in the middle of a sentence) the subject and verb are inverted.
Negative expression V S
Rarely were they so happy.

Exercise 3. Each of the following sentences contains a negative or “almost negative”

expression. Circle the negative expressions. Look at the clauses that follow and underline the
subjects once and the verb twice. Then indicate if the sentences are correct (C) or incorrect
(I).
____ 1. Never the boy wrote to his sisters.
____ 2. On no occasion did they say that to me.
____ 3. Steve did not win the prize, nor did he expect to do so.
____ 4. Only once in my life gone I have to New York City.
____ 5. Did he go out of the house at no time.
____ 6. Seldom their secretary has made such mistakes.
____ 7. No sooner had she hung up the phone than it rang again.
____ 8. Sheila di not arrive late for work, nor she left early.
____ 9. Barely had he finished the exam when the graduate assistant collected the papers.
____ 10. The police did not arrive in time to save the girl, and neither did the paramedics.

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

D. Inversion of Subject and Verb with Conditionals

In certain conditional structures, the subject and verb may also be inverted. This can occur
when the helping verb in the conditional clause is had, should, or were, and the conditional
connector if is omitted.

If he had taken more time, the results would have been better.
Had he taken more time, the results would have been better.

I would help you if I were in a position to help.

I would help you were I in a position to help.

If you should arrive before 6:00, just give me a call.

Should you arrive before 6:00, just give me a call.

In each of these examples, you can see that when if is included, the subject and verb are in
the regular order (if he had taken, if I were, if you should arrive). It is also possible to omit
if; in this case, the subject and verb are inverted (had he taken, were I, should you arrive).

The following chart lists the conditional verbs that may invert and the sentence patterns used
with them:

INVERTED SUBJECTS AND VERBS WITH CONDITIONALS

had should were
When the verb in the conditional clause is had, should, or were, it is possible to omit if and
invert the subject and verb.

(omitted if) V S
Were he here, he would help.
It is also possible to keep if. Then the subject and verb are not inverted.

If S V
If he were here, he would help.

Exercise 4. Each of the following sentences contains a conditional with a stated or an

implied if. Circle the conditionals, or put an asterisk (*) where if has been omitted. Look at
the clauses that follow and underline the subjects once and the verb twice. Then indicate if
the sentence are correct (C) or incorrect (I).

____ 1. *Were our neighbors a bit friendlier, it would be somewhat easier to get to know
them.
____ 2. There are plenty of blankets in the closet if should you get cold during the night.
____ 3. Has he enough vacation days left this year, he will take two fill weeks off in
December.
____ 4. Had we been informed of the decision, we might have had something to say about it.
____ 5. I would like to know could you help me pack these boxes.

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

____ 6. He would have been in big trouble had not he remembered the assignment at the last
minutes.
____ 7. If your friends come to visit, will they stay in a hotel or at your house?
____ 8. He might be a little more successful today were he a little more willing to do some
hard work.
____ 9. Should you ever visit this town again, I would be delighted to show you around.
____ 10. Do you think that she would give the speech were she asked to so?

E. Inversion of Subject and Verb with Comparison

An inverted subject and verb may also occur after a comparison. The inversion of a subject
and verb after a comparison is optional, rather than required, and it is a rather formal
structure.

My sister spends more hours in the office than John.

My sister spends more hours in the office than John does.
My sister spends more hours in the office than does John.

All three of these examples contain the comparison more…than, and all three are correct in
English. It is possible to have the noun John alone, as in the first example; it is possible that
the comparison is followed by the inverted subject and verb does John, as in the third
example.

The results of the current experiment appear to be more consistent than ____ the resultd of
any previous tests.
a. them
b. were
c. they were
d. were they

In this example, you should notice the comparison more consistent than, and you should also
understand that the results of the current experiment is being compared with the results of
any previous tests. Because the results of any previous tests is the subject, only a verb is
needed; the best answer to this question is therefore answer (B). We know that it is possible
for a subject and a verb to be inverted after a comparison, and in this case the subject the
results of any previous tests comes after the verb were.
The following chart lists the sentence patterns used with comparisons:

INVERTED SUBJECTS AND VERBS WITH COMPARISONS

The subject and verb may invert after a comparison. The following structures are both
possible.
S V comparison S V
We were more prepared than the other performers were

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

S V comparison V S
We were more prepared than were the other performers
Note: A subject-verb inversion after a comparison sounds rather formal.

Exercise 5. Each of the following sentences contains a comparison. Circle the comparisons.
Look at the clauses that follow and underline the subjects once and the verbs twice. Then
indicate if the sentences are correct (C) or incorrect (I).

____1. The candidate has received more votes than has any other candidate in previous years.
____2. Obviously we were much more impressed with performance than did the other
members of the audience.
____3. The film that we saw last night at the festival was far better than any of the other
films.
____4. The vegetables at the market this morning were far fresher than were those at the
market yesterday.
____5. I am afraid that is the condition of these tires as bad as the condition of the others.
____6. We firmly believed that our team could achieve a much faster time than any of the
others.
____7. This apple pie is not as good as the last one that you made.
____8. On the fishing trip, Bobby caught twice as many fist as anyone else did.
____9. The final speaker gave us more details than had any of the previous speakers.
____10. Do you know why does he need to sleep so many more hour than do the others?

Exercise 6. Choose the letter of the word or group of words that best completes the sentence.

1. Rarely ____ located near city lights or at lower elevations.

a. observatories are
b. are
c. in the observatories
d. are observatories
2. There are geographic, economic, and cultural reasons why ____ around the world.
a. diets differ
b. do diets differ
c. are diets different
d. to differ a diet
3. Were _____ millions of dollars each year replenishing eroding beaches, the coastline
would be changing even more rapidly.
a. the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers not spending
b. the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers not spend
c. the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers does not spend
d. not spending the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

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 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

4. Nowhere _____ more skewed than in the auto industry.

a. that retail trade figures
b. retail trade figures are
c. are retail trade figures
d. retail trade figures
5. New York City’s Central Park is nearly twice as large _____ second smallest country,
Monaco.
a. as
b. is the
c. as is
d. as is the
6. Potassium has a valence of positive one because it usually loses one electron when
_____ with other elements.
a. does it combine
b. it combines
c. in combining
d. combination
7. The economic background of labor legislation will not be mentioned in this course,
______ be treated.
a. trade unionism will not
b. not trade unionism will
c. nor will trade unionism
d. neither trade unionism will
8. ______ test positive for antibiotics when tanker trucks arrive at a milk processing
plant, according to federal law, the entire truckload must be discarded.
a. Should milk
b. If milk
c. If milk is
d. Milk should
9. Located behind _____ the two lacrimal glands.
a. each eyelid
b. is each eyelid
c. each eyelid are
d. each eyelid which is
10. Only for a short period of time ______ run at top speed.
a. cheetahs
b. do cheetahs
c. that a cheetah can
d. can

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