ACE Personal Trainer

Manual, 4th edition

Chapter 9:
Functional Programming for
Stability-Mobility and Movement
1
Learning Objectives
ƒ This session, which is based on Chapter 9 of the ACE
Personal Trainer Manual (4th ed.), covers stability and
mobility training and movement training.
ƒ After completing this session, you will have a better
understanding of:
– Neurophysiological properties that impact movement
– The various components of stability and mobility training
– The five primary patterns of movement training and how they are
addressed in the movement-training phase
Introduction
ƒ Today’s decreasing levels of activity and commonplace
poor posture lead to muscle imbalances.
ƒ This session focuses on the need to reestablish stability
and mobility across the joints, as well as how to train the
five basic movement patterns:
– Bend-and-lift movements (e.g., squatting)
– Single-leg movements (e.g., single-leg stance and lunging)
– Pushing movements (primarily in the vertical/horizontal planes)
– Pulling movements (primarily in the vertical/horizontal planes)
– Rotational (spiral) movements
Movement
ƒ Improving clients’ movement efficiency and ability to
perform daily activities is one of many possible
definitions of functional training.
ƒ The ability to move efficiently requires appropriate levels
of both stability and mobility.
– Joint stability
• Ability to maintain or control joint movement or position
– Joint mobility
• Range of uninhibited movement around a joint or body segment
Movement Efficiency
ƒ Movement efficiency involves a synergistic approach
between stability and mobility.
– “Proximal stability promotes distal mobility.”

ƒ The relationship between stability and mobility

throughout the kinetic chain is complex.
Mobility and Stability of the Kinetic Chain
ƒ While all joints demonstrate varying
levels of stability and mobility, they
tend to favor one over the other,
depending on their function.
– For example, while the lumbar
spine demonstrates some mobility,
it is generally stable, protecting the
low back from injury.
– On the other hand, the thoracic
spine is designed to be more
mobile to facilitate a variety of
movements in the upper extremity.
– The foot is unique, as its level of
stability varies during the gait cycle.
Poor Posture
ƒ When mobility is compromised, the following movement
compensations typically occur.
– The joint will seek to achieve the desired range of motion (ROM)
by incorporating movement into another plane.
– Adjacent, more stable joints may need to compromise some
degree of stability to facilitate the level of mobility needed.
Lack of Mobility

ƒ A lack of mobility can be attributed to reduced levels of

activity and conditions that promote muscle imbalance.
– Loss of mobility leads to compensations in movement and
potential losses to stability at subsequent joints.
– Muscle imbalances ultimately contribute to dysfunctional
movement, as illustrated on the following slide.
Dysfunctional Movement
Movement Compensations
ƒ Movement compensations generally represent an
inability to maintain muscle balance and neutrality at the
joint.
ƒ Periods of inactivity when joints are held passively in
shortened positions result in muscle shortening.
ƒ Muscle shortening and lengthening alter both the
physiological and neural properties within the muscle.
Length-tension Relationships
ƒ The length-tension relationship is the relationship between
the contractile proteins of a sarcomere and their force-
generating capacity.
– A slight stretching of the sarcomere beyond its normal resting
length increases its force-generating capacity, as illustrated on the
following slide.
– Stretching of the sarcomere beyond optimal length reduces the
potential for contractile protein binding.
– Shortening the sarcomere beyond resting length results in an
overlap of contractile proteins.
Length-tension Relationship Illustration
 Length-tension Curve Shifts to the Left
ƒ Muscle immobilization, passive shortening, trauma, and aging all
shorten muscles, thereby shifting the length-tension curve to the left.
– Muscles can shorten in as little as two to four weeks when held in
passively shortened positions.
– Simply stretching a tight muscle does not restore its normal force-
generating capacity due to the reduced number of sarcomeres.
– Passive stretching or elongation of a tightened muscle will gradually add
sarcomeres back in line.

100% Shortened Muscle

Lengthened Muscle
75%

Muscle Force (%) 50% Healthy, Normal Muscle

25%

0%
0% 100% 150%
Resting Sarcomere Length (% of Resting Length)
 Length-tension Curve Shifts to the Right
ƒ When muscles lengthen on the opposing side of the joint, they
undergo an adaptive change and add sarcomeres in series.
– Muscles may demonstrate greater force-generating capacities in
lengthened positions.
– Muscles demonstrate reduced force-generating capacity in the normal-
resting-length or shortened positions.
– Restoring the muscle’s force-generating capacity is best achieved by
strengthening a muscle in normal-resting-length positions.

100% Shortened Muscle

Lengthened Muscle
75%

Muscle Force (%) 50% Healthy, Normal Muscle

25%

0%
0% 100% 150%
Resting Sarcomere Length (% of Resting Length)
Force-couple Relationships
ƒ Muscles rarely work in isolation, but instead function as integrated
groups.
– Many function by providing opposing, directional, or contralateral pulls at
joints (termed force-couples).
– For example, maintenance of a neutral pelvic position is achieved via
opposing force-couples between four major muscle groups.
Neural Control
ƒ Joint movement is dependent on nerve activity.
– To help stabilize and control movement within the joint, some
degree of simultaneous co-contraction of the antagonist also
occurs.

ƒ When a muscle becomes shortened, increased tonicity

occurs within the muscle (hypertonicity).
– A hypertonic muscle requires a smaller or weaker nerve impulse
to activate a contraction (lowered irritability threshold).
– When an individual tries to activate the antagonist at a joint, the
reduced irritability threshold of the agonist may prematurely
activate the muscle and inhibit the action of the antagonist.
Reciprocal Inhibition and
Synergistic Dominance
ƒ Hypertonic muscles decrease the neural drive to the
opposing muscle via reciprocal inhibition.
ƒ Reciprocal inhibition of the opposing muscles contributes
to further weakening of the antagonist.
– This reduces its ability to generate adequate levels of force to
move the joint.
– When other muscles at the joint (synergists) assume the
responsibility of becoming the prime mover, it is called
synergistic dominance.

ƒ Compromised joint movement alters neuromuscular

control and function.
Phase 1: Stability and Mobility Training
ƒ The objective of this phase is to reestablish appropriate levels of
stability and mobility throughout the kinetic chain following the
principle of “proximal stability promotes distal mobility.”
Stability and Mobility
Programming Components
ƒ The figure below illustrates a programming sequence to promote stability and
mobility within the body.
Stabilizers versus Prime Movers
ƒ Muscles that act primarily as stabilizers generally contain
greater concentrations of type I muscle fibers.
– Type I muscle fibers enhance a stabilizer muscle’s capacity for
endurance.
– These muscles are better suited for endurance-type training
(higher-volume, lower-intensity).

ƒ Muscles primarily responsible for joint movement and

generating larger forces generally contain greater
concentrations of type II muscle fibers.
– These muscles are better suited for strength- and power-type
training (higher-intensity, lower-volume).
Stretching Techniques

ƒ Much of this phase is devoted to improving muscle flexibility.

ƒ Passive elongation of the tightened muscles is generally needed to
impose the appropriate overload to begin the morphological process
of adding sarcomeres back into the muscle.
– The ACE Personal Trainer Manual (4th ed.), provides specific guidelines
on passive elongation.
ƒ The application of different stretching modalities is effective in
restoring and maintaining good posture, and muscle balance.
– The following slide provides a template, along with suggestions on which
stretching technique is best to include during each phase of a workout
session.
Stretching Techniques Template
Myofascial Release
ƒ To perform myofascial release, clients perform small,
continuous, back-and-forth movements (using a stick or
foam roller) over the tender region(s) for 30 to 60
seconds.
ƒ This technique:
– Realigns the elastic muscle fibers from a bundled position into a
straighter alignment with the muscle and fascia
– Resets the proprioceptive mechanisms of the soft tissue
– Should precede static stretching
– Helps reduce hypertonicity within the underlying muscles
Static Stretches
ƒ Static stretches should be taken to the point of tension
and held.
– This timeframe is adequate to evoke the appropriate
neurological responses to relax the muscle and allow stretching
of the non-elastic tissue of the muscle.
– Clients should perform 4 or more repetitions for 15–60 seconds
each.
Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation

ƒ To conduct proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation

(PNF), clients can perform a “hold-relax” stretch.
– Passively move the joint to the point of tension.
– Perform a mild isometric contraction (<50% MVC) in the
stretched muscle for 6–15 seconds
– Follow with a 10- to 30-second assisted or passive static stretch.
Active Isolated Stretches and
Dynamic/Ballistic Stretches

ƒ In active isolated stretches (AIS), clients can perform

1–2 sets x five to 10 repetitions at a controlled tempo.
– These stretches should be held at the end range of motion for
1–2 seconds.

ƒ Dynamic and ballistic stretches should be performed for

1–2 sets x 10 repetitions.
– Ballistic stretches involve a high risk of injury and should be
reserved only for well-conditioned individuals (e.g., athletes).
Strengthening Postural Muscles
ƒ The goal is to condition the postural muscles (tonic) that
typically contain greater concentrations of type I fibers.
– Strengthening muscles to improve posture should ideally begin
with a series of low-grade isometric contractions.
– Higher intensities that require greater amounts of force will
generally evoke faulty recruitment patterns.

ƒ The exercise volume can be gradually increased to:

– Improve strength and endurance
– Reestablish muscle balance at the joints
Stabilization Through External Support
ƒ Many deconditioned individuals lack the ability to
stabilize their entire kinetic chain.
– Consequently, the initial emphasis should be on muscle isolation
using supportive surfaces prior to introducing integrated
strengthening exercises.
– The use of support offers the additional benefit of kinesthetic and
visual feedback.
Dynamic Strengthening
ƒ Strengthening exercises should ultimately progress to
dynamic movement.
– Control ROM initially to avoid excessive muscle lengthening
(where the muscle is strong).
ƒ Dynamic strengthening to improve posture does not involve
heavy loads, but volume to condition the type I fibers.
– Plan on 1–3 sets of 12–15 repetitions when introducing dynamic
strengthening exercises.
ƒ Follow a progression for strengthening of weakened muscles:
– 2–4 repetitions of isometric muscle contractions, each held for
5–10 seconds at <50% of MVC in a supported, isolated
environment
– Progress to dynamic, controlled ROM exercises incorporating
1–3 sets of 12–15 repetitions.
Proximal Stability: Activating the Core
Proximal Stability:
Lumbar Spine

ƒ The goal of this stage is to promote stability of the

lumbar spine by improving the reflexive function of the
core musculature.
– The core functions to effectively control the position and motion
of the trunk over the pelvis.
– The term “core” generally refers to the muscles of the lumbo-
pelvic region, hips, abdomen, and lower back.
– Rather than identify each muscle, the following slides categorize
the muscles and structures by function and location.
Deep Layer
ƒ The deep or innermost layer of the core consists of:
– Vertebral bones and discs
– Spinal ligaments running along the front, sides, and back of
the spinal column
– Small muscles that span a single vertebra that are generally
considered too small to offer significant stabilization of the
spine

ƒ These small muscles offer little support or contribution

to moving the spine given their small size, but are rich
in sensory nerve endings and provide continuous
feedback to the brain regarding loading and position of
the spine.
Middle Layer
ƒ The middle layer consists of muscles and fasciae that
encircle the lower regions of the spine.
ƒ These muscles include the:
– Transverse abdominis (TVA)
– Multifidi
– Quadratus lumborum
– Deep fibers of the internal oblique
– Diaphragm
– Pelvic floor musculature and the adjoining fasciae

ƒ This is the muscular layer usually referred to as the core.

Outer Layer
ƒ The outermost layer consists of larger, more powerful
muscles that span many vertebrae.
ƒ Muscles in this region include the:
– Rectus abdominis
– Erector spinae
– External and internal obliques
– Iliopsoas
– Latissimus dorsi
Relationship Between
Vertebrae and Core Muscles
ƒ The relationship between the vertebrae and the core
muscles can be likened to a segmented flagpole with
guy wires controlled by the neural subsystem.
– The segmented pole represents the vertebrae, while the guy
wires represent the core layer.
– Balanced tension within the guy wires increases tension to
stiffen the flagpole and enhance spinal stability.
“Hoop Tension”
ƒ The TVA is the key muscle that works reflexively with the neural
system.
ƒ Activation of the core muscles, primarily the TVA, produces a “hoop
tension” effect.
– This contraction pulls the abdominal wall inward and upward,
compressing the internal organs.
– This reduces joint and disc
compression by creating a
rigid cylinder to stabilize
the spine against loading
forces.
Neural Dysfunction of the TVA
ƒ TVA malfunction and limited co-contraction of core
muscles have been found in individuals suffering from
low-back pain.
– Delayed activation of the TVA may inadequately stabilize the
lumbar spine during movements of the upper and lower
extremities.
– Individuals lacking appropriate TVA function may need to rely on
synergistic muscles to assume the role of stabilizing the spine.
Model for Core and Balance Training
ƒ The body’s COM is located within the region of the core.
– Controlling the COM within the BOS is critical to balance training.
– Core conditioning and balance training are fundamentally the same
thing.
ƒ To effectively activate and condition the core—and train balance—
trainers can utilize a progressive training program.
Activation of the TVA
ƒ Activation of the TVA draws the abdomen inward toward
the spine—often referred to as “centering,” “drawing-in,”
or “hollowing.”
– Centering serves essential motor re-education purposes, but it
does not ensure the same degree of stability as an activation
pattern called “bracing.”
– Bracing is the co-contraction of the core and abdominal muscles
to create a more rigid and wider base of support (BOS) for spinal
stabilization.

ƒ The concept of “centering” should be mastered first,

reestablishing the core’s reflexive function, before
introducing the concept of “bracing.”
Activating the Core: Supine
Progressing Core Activation: Quadruped
Proximal Mobility: Hips and Thoracic Spine
Proximal Mobility:
Pelvis and Thoracic Spine

ƒ The goal of this stage is to improve mobility of the two

joints immediately adjacent to the lumbar spine.
ƒ Trainers should follow some fundamental principles
when programming to improve mobility in these body
regions:
– These regions are typically prone to poor mobility.
– When stretching, clients must avoid undesirable or compensated
movements at successive joints.
– Supportive surfaces should be utilized while promoting mobility.
– Incorporate flexibility exercises that lengthen the muscles in all
three planes.
Hip and Thoracic Spine Mobility Exercises
ƒ Specific exercises for promoting mobility include:
– Supine 90-90 neutral back
– Cat-camel
– Pelvic tilts
– Pelvic tilts progressions: supine bent-knee marches
– Pelvic tilts progressions: modified dead bug with reverse bent-knee marches
– Hip flexor mobility: lying hip flexor stretch
– Hip flexor mobility progression: half-kneeling triplanar stretch
– Hamstrings mobility: lying hamstrings stretch
– Hip mobilization with glute activation: shoulder bridge (glute bridge)
– Hip mobilization: supine 90-90 hip rotator stretch
– Posterior compartment mobilization: table-top kneeling lat stretch
– Thoracic spine (T-spine) mobilization exercises: spinal extensions and spinal
twists
– Thoracic spine (T-spine) mobilization: prisoner rotations
– Posterior mobilization: rocking quadrupeds
Proximal Stability: Scapulothoracic Region;
Distal Mobility: Glenohumeral Joint
Proximal Stability: Scapulothoracic Spine
Proximal Mobility: Glenohumeral Joint

ƒ This stage is designed to improve stability within the

scapulothoracic region during upper-extremity
movements to facilitate appropriate mobility at
glenohumeral joint, which is a highly mobile joint.
– Promoting stability within this joint requires muscle balance
within the force-couples of the joint.
– As many of these muscles also cross the glenohumeral joint,
they require substantial mobility.
Force-couple Relationships of the Shoulder
ƒ A normally positioned scapula promotes muscle balance and
effective force-coupling relationships.
ƒ Problematic movements are associated with arm abduction and a
lack of scapular stability during horizontal push-and-pull movements.
– During abduction, the rotator cuff muscles play an important role in
initiating movement and facilitating an inferior glide of the humeral head.
• They contract in anticipation of deltoid action.
– Collaborative action of the supraspinatus acting as the primary abductor
for the first 15 degrees of abduction and the infraspinatus, subscapularis,
and teres minor depressing the head of the humerus inferiorly within the
glenoid fossa permits rotation to occur.
– After ~15 degrees of abduction, the deltoid takes over as the primary
abductor and the rotator cuff muscles continue to depress and stabilize
the humeral head.
– If the deltoid acted alone, pure superior glide would occur, which would
impinge the humeral head against the coracoacromial arch at
approximately 22 degrees of abduction.
Muscle Action Involved in Abducting the Arm
Promoting Stability Within
the Scapulothoracic Region
ƒ During pushing and pulling movements, key
parascapular muscles co-contract to permit movement
and stability of the scapulae.
ƒ When the thoracic spine lacks appropriate mobility, it
affects mobility and muscle action within the
glenohumeral joint.
ƒ Promoting stability within the scapulothoracic region
requires thoracic mobility in addition to other key factors:
– Tissue extensibility (both active and passive structures)
– Healthy rotator cuff muscle function
– Muscle balance within the parascapular muscles
– The ability to resist upward glide and impingement against the
coracoacromial arch during deltoid action
Stretching the Shoulder Capsule
ƒ To enhance tissue extensibility, trainers can employ
several different stretching modalities.
– Myofascial release using a stick or foam roller will help realign
the elastic fibers and reduce hypertonicity.
– When stretching the shoulder capsule with a client, trainers must
address the inferior, posterior, anterior, and superior
components.
Closed-chain versus Open-chain Exercises
ƒ Closed kinetic chain (CKC) movements
– The distal segment is fixed (e.g., pull-ups and push-ups)
– A key role of the serratus anterior is to move the thorax toward a more
fixed, stable scapulae.
– CKC exercises load and compress joints, increasing kinesthetic
awareness and proprioception.
– Many are too challenging for deconditioned individuals
ƒ Open kinetic chain (OKC) movements
– A key role of the serratus anterior is to control movement of the
scapulae against a more fixed ribcage.
– Generally considered more functional, as they closely mimic daily
activities
– Isolated OKC exercises, however, are not as effective in restoring
coordinated parascapular control.
ƒ Initially, clients should use the floor to provide kinesthetic feedback
and OKC movements to improve control and movement efficiency.
Exercises for Scapulothoracic Region Stability
ƒ Shoulder setting
– The first step is to help the client recognize
the normal resting position of the scapulae
kinesthetically.
• Have the client feel the correct scapulae
position against the floor.
– The exercise pictured here helps achieve
this awareness by teaching the client to
“pack” the scapulae.
– A variety of exercises can be used to
condition the rotator cuff muscles.
• Whichever exercises the trainer and client
select, the client must perform them from
the packed shoulder position.
Exercises for Scapulothoracic Region Stability

ƒ Specific exercises for proximal mobility of the hips and

thoracic spine include:
– Internal and external humeral rotation
– Diagonals
– Reverse flys with supine 90-90
– Prone arm lifts
– Closed kinetic chain weight shifts
– Arm roll
Distal Mobility
Distal Mobility and Stability:
ƒ Within the distal segments of the body, Distal Extremities
the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles
(triceps surae) are often problematic.
ƒ Tightness within the triceps surae or a
foot positioned in pronation may often
exhibit calcaneal eversion.
ƒ During the bend-and-lift movement
screen, an individual who is unable to
keep the heels down will need to
improve ankle mobility and calf flexibility.
ƒ After reestablishing flexibility within the
calf muscles, individuals can progress to
performing the dynamic ankle
mobilization exercise presented here.
Balance
Static Balance

ƒ The ability to move efficiently requires control of the

body’s postural alignment, or balance.
– Balance is the foundational element of all programming.
– Balance also contributes to improving the psychological and
emotional states by building self-efficacy and confidence.

ƒ Balance is subdivided into:

– Static balance
– Dynamic balance
Balance Terminology: Center of Mass
ƒ COM, or center of gravity (COG), represents that point
around which all weight is evenly distributed.
– It is generally located about 2 inches (5.1 cm) anterior to the spine
in the location of the first and second sacral joints.
– COM varies in individuals by body shape, size, and gender.
– A person’s COM constantly shifts as he or she changes position,
moves, or adds external resistance (illustrated on the following
slide).
Center of Gravity Illustrated
 Balance Terminology: Base of Support
ƒ BOS is defined as the two-dimensional distance between and beneath
the body’s points of contact with a surface.
– The body is considered stable when its line of gravity (LOG) falls within its
BOS.
– The LOG is a theoretical vertical line passing
through the COM, dissecting the body into the
sagittal and frontal planes.

BOS
Balance Terminology: Line of Gravity
ƒ Maintaining balance becomes more challenging
when:
– The LOG or the COM falls near, or outside of,
the BOS
– One challenges the body’s limits of stability (LOS)
ƒ LOS is the degree of allowable sway away from the
LOG that can be tolerated without a need to change
the BOS.
Training Static Balance
ƒ Static balance training begins with segmental or sectional
stabilization training.
ƒ This entails the use of specific static-balance exercises
performed over a fixed BOS that impose small balance
challenges on the body’s core.
– The client adopts a seated position and engages the core
musculature.
– Clients can be gradually progressed by following the training
guidelines presented on the following slide.
– As each variable or condition is introduced, the trainer may need to
remove others temporarily until the client regains postural control.
ƒ Balance is a trainable skill and improvements are evident
within a few weeks.
Training Guidelines:
Static Balance (Segmental)
Progression: Static Balance (Segmental)
ƒ If appropriate and consistent with the client’s goals,
trainers can introduce two more challenging variables:
– Reduce the points of contact
– Add additional unstable surfaces

ƒ Trainers should introduce each of these challenges

separately, gradually increasing the exercise difficulty by
manipulating the variables and conditions provided on
the previous slide.
ƒ Next, trainers can introduce the second challenge in a
similar manner.
Static Balance: Integrated (Standing)
ƒ The natural progression from seated exercises is to standing
exercises, thereby integrating the entire kinetic chain.
– During integrated movements, the effects of external loads, gravity, and
reactive forces all increase.
– McGill introduced the concept of bracing discussed previously,
explaining how it improves spinal stability by providing a wider BOS.
ƒ To teach a client how to brace, a trainer can simply have the client
stand in a relaxed position and engage the core muscles.
– The client can then imagine a person standing in front of him or her who
is about to deliver a quick jab to the stomach.
– In anticipation of the jab, the individual should stiffen up the trunk region
by co-contracting both layers of muscles.
Standing Static Balance Training Progressions
ƒ The trainer can introduce standing static-balance training on stable
surfaces before progressing to:
– Static unstable surfaces
– Dynamic unstable surfaces
ƒ Both forms of training are important to developing efficiency within
the proprioceptive, vestibular, and visual systems.
– All balance exercises should ultimately incorporate some form of
dynamic balance training on stable surfaces to mimic ADL.
– When designing static balance-training programs, trainers should follow
the stance-position progressions illustrated below.
– The trainer should identify which stance position challenges the client’s
balance threshold and then repeat the exercises outlined previously.
Phase 2: Movement Training
ƒ Human movement can essentially be broken down into
five primary movements that encompass all ADL.
– Bend-and-lift movements (e.g., squatting)
– Single-leg movements (e.g., single-leg stance and lunging)
– Pushing movements (primarily in the vertical/horizontal planes)
– Pulling movements (primarily in the vertical/horizontal planes)
– Rotational (spiral) movements

ƒ This phase teaches these five movements patterns.

– If a client can perform these five primary movements effectively,
it decreases the likelihood for compensation, pain, or injury.
Abilities versus Skills
ƒ Trainers should differentiate between abilities and skills
when establishing the timeframes needed to teach
movement patterns.
ƒ Abilities
– Inherited traits that are stable and enduring
– Underlie the performance of many skills

ƒ Skills
– Developed and modified with practice

ƒ Two to four weeks is usually adequate, but trainers might

need to devote extra time when teaching movement
patterns.
Lower Extremity Kinematics
ƒ Before teaching the movement patterns, it is important to
understand certain kinematics within the lower extremity.
– An important relationship exists among the ankle, knee, and hip.
– During the heel-strike instant of gait, the ankle dissipates forces
upward through the knee and beyond.
– To help tolerate these forces, the foot normally moves into
pronation as a person bears weight onto that foot.
Ankle Pronation and Supination
Pronation and the Gluteals

ƒ Internal rotation between the femur and tibia places

stress on the medial surface of the knee and forces the
knee into abduction (valgus stress).
– This increases the strain placed on the anterior cruciate ligament
(ACL).
– A key factor in protecting the knee is the gluteal group, which
functions to decelerate internal hip rotation.
– A common postural deviation is to stand in pronation.
Glute Dominance
ƒ Glute dominance implies reliance on eccentrically
loading the gluteus maximus during a squat (bend-and-
lift) movement.
– The first 10 to 15 degrees of the downward phase are initiated
by pushing the hips backward, creating a hip-hinge movement.
– In the lowered position, this maximizes the eccentric loading on
the gluteus maximus.
– Glute dominance also helps activate the hamstrings, which pull
on the posterior surface of the tibia.
Quad Dominance
ƒ Quad dominance implies reliance on loading the
quadriceps group during a squat (bend-and-lift)
movement.
– The first 10 to 15 degrees of the downward phase are initiated
by driving the tibia forward, creating shearing forces across the
knee as the femur slides over the tibia.
– In this lowered position, the gluteus maximus does not
eccentrically load.
– Quad-dominant individuals transfer more pressure into the
knees, placing greater loads on the ACL.
Lower-extremity Mechanics and Women
ƒ Proper lower-extremity mechanics are important to
preserve the integrity of the knee.
ƒ They are even more critical to women given their:
– Larger Q-angle (the angle formed by the longitudinal axis of the
femur and the line of pull of the patellar ligament)
– Increased joint laxity associated with hormones
– Smaller ligaments and surface area for attachment
– Weaker muscles
– Motor skill development differences
Weight Transference During Gait
ƒ As the body moves to accept weight onto the stance-leg,
it must also preserve optimal alignment among the hip,
knee, and foot.
– This weight transference normally involves a 1- to 2-inch (2.5- to
5.1-cm) lateral shift of the hips over the stance-leg, coupled with
tilting that hip upward by approximately 4 to 5 degrees (i.e., hip
adduction).
– In the first illustration on the following slide, the line of gravity
passes vertically through the vertebrae and sacrum, whereas in
the second illustration, the right hip is elevated (as it would be
during gait when one accepts weight onto the right leg).
Normal Hip Position versus
Right Hip Adduction
Gluteal and Quadratus Lumborum Actions
ƒ As the right hip and femur are positioned closer to the
midline (as seen in the second illustration on the
previous slide), they are classified as moving into
adduction.
– This movement involves the collaborative actions of the right
gluteal group to control excessive hip adduction and the left
quadratus lumborum to prevent excessive hip tilting.
– Weakness in any of these muscle groups can create potential
knee issues by allowing excessive hip adduction.
Primary Movements: Bend-and-lift Patterns
ƒ The bend-and-lift movement associated with the squat is subject to
much controversy given its potential for harm to the knees and low
back.
– Faulty movement patterns associated with poor technique will ultimately
lead to overload and potential injury.
– One limiting factor to good technique is a lack of ankle mobility.
ƒ To evaluate this limitation, have the client place one foot on a low
riser [<12 inches (30 cm)], positioning the tibia perpendicular to the
floor.
– The client leans slowly forward, dorsiflexing the ankle until the heel lifts
off the floor or the ankle falls into pronation.
– Mobility <15 degrees merits a need to improve ankle flexibility prior to
teaching the full bend-and-lift movement.
Hip ROM During a Squat
ƒ The hips typically exhibit between 100 and 135 degrees
of flexion.
ƒ The amount of hip flexion required during a squat
averages 95 degrees.
– Hence, it is important to shift the pelvis posteriorly during the
downward phase to facilitate adequate hip flexion.

ƒ The hip-hinge exercise discussed later in this session

teaches clients how to shift their hips backward to:
– Promote additional hip flexion
– Reduce the shearing forces across the knee joint
Lumbar Forces During a Squat
ƒ During a squat movement, the inability to stabilize the
spine increases compressive and shear forces on the
lumbar vertebrae.
– Squatting (with external loads) with excessive lumbar extension
dramatically increases the compressive forces on the lumbar
spine.
– The pelvic tilts and back alignment and figure-4 exercises
discussed later in this session promote optimal spinal alignment.
Bend-and-lift Movement Progressions
ƒ Considering the variations present in most individuals’
daily movements, clients should be trained functionally to
mimic these patterns.
ƒ Bend-and-lift movements should be progressed to
include variations in foot position coupled with various
arm movements.
– Trainers should teach these variations beginning with the arms
at the sides prior to moving into high-arm positions.
– High-arm positions require a greater degree of thoracic mobility,
which many clients may lack.
– Trainers should teach the bend and lift in the dead-lift position
first, before introducing the front-squat position and then the
back and overhead positions.
Bend-and-lift Movement Training Sequence

ƒ Specific exercises for the bend-and-lift movement

pattern include:
– Hip hinge
– Pelvic tilts and back alignment
– Lower-extremity alignment
– Figure-4 position
– Squat variations
Single-leg Stand Patterns
ƒ Standing efficiently on a single leg mandates stability in
the stance-leg, hip, and torso, while simultaneously
exhibiting mobility in the raised leg if stepping is
involved.
– Weakness in the hip abductors reflects an inability to control
lateral hip shift.
– Before learning any single-leg movements, clients should learn
how to effectively control hip adduction.
Static Balance on a Single Leg
ƒ Once an individual demonstrates the ability to effectively
stand on one leg, the trainer can introduce dynamic
movements.
– Next, various forms of resistance that increase the stabilization
demands can be introduced.
– The following slide presents a functional series of movements
based off the Balance Matrix created by noted physical therapist
Gary Gray.
Single-leg Movement Patterns
Single-leg Exercises
ƒ Progression for the single-leg stance involves adding
external resistance and increasing the balance
challenge.
ƒ A primary single-leg pattern involves teaching clients
how to lunge effectively.
– Lunge mechanics are very similar to the squat or bend-and-lift
mechanics.
Lunge Training Sequence

ƒ Specific exercises for the lunge movement pattern

include:
– Half-kneeling lunge rise
– Lunges
– Lunge matrix (Gary Gray)
Single-leg Exercise Progressions
ƒ Once a client demonstrates proficiency with the standard
lunge pattern, progress the exercise to include:
– Directional changes
– Different foot positions
– Upper-extremity movement

ƒ High-arm positions require a greater degree of thoracic

and hip mobility, which a client may lack.
ƒ When working with athletes, movements can progress to
jumps, hops, or bounds.
Directional Movements for Lunges, Jumps, etc.
Pushing/Pulling Movements
ƒ During shoulder flexion and overhead presses, movement to 180
degrees is achieved by the scapulae rotating against the ribcage
and the humerus rotating within the glenoid fossa.
– The movement generally requires approximately 60 degrees of scapular
rotation and 120 degrees of glenohumeral rotation.
– The scapulae need to remain stable to
promote normal mobility within the
glenohumeral joint.
– Faulty activation of specific
scapular muscles compromises
scapular stability.
Integrating Whole-body Movement Patterns

ƒ In previous stages, stability and mobility exercises for the

shoulder girdle focused on isolated action.
– The emphasis during this phase of training shifts toward
integrating whole-body movement patterns.
– Exercises can begin with more traditional pushing movements
that target the shoulder girdle in a bilateral or unilateral fashion.
Scapular Stability During Shoulder Movement
ƒ To facilitate scapular stability during movement, mobility
within the thoracic spine must first be established.
ƒ Gary Gray uses his Thoracic Matrix exercise to integrate
the entire kinetic chain.
– Moves the thoracic spine three-dimensionally through each
plane, driving with the arms or by using a dowel or light bar in
various standing or lunging positions
Considerations for the Overhead Press
ƒ Many clients simply yield to gravity during the eccentric
or downward phase of a shoulder press.
– This creates instability within the shoulder joint, given the
changing roles of the deltoids between the starting and overhead
position.
– If the latissimus dorsi is engaged to begin the lowering phase, it
helps stabilize the shoulder and precipitates greater force
production during the lifting phase.
Pulling Movements
ƒ Pulling movements follow many of the same principles
as pressing movements with regard to stabilizing the
scapulothoracic region.
ƒ Trainers need to identify whether they want to train a
client to:
– Pull from a position of scapular stability, implying that the
movement is purely from the shoulder
– Intentionally incorporate scapular retraction into the pulling
motion

ƒ Exercises can begin with more traditional pulling

movements that target the shoulder girdle in a bilateral
or unilateral fashion.
Pushing and Pulling Training Sequence

ƒ Specific exercises for pushing and pulling movement

patterns include:
– Thoracic matrix
– Bilateral and unilateral presses
– Bilateral and unilateral rows
– Overhead presses
Rotational Movements
ƒ Rotational movements generally incorporate movement into multiple
planes simultaneously.
ƒ Many of these movements increase the forces placed along the
vertebrae.
– Performing rotation exercises without thoracic mobility or lumbar
stability may compromise the shoulders and hips, and increase the
likelihood for injury.
ƒ Mobility and stability in the thoracic and lumbar spine are critical in:
– Facilitating synchronous movement
– Dissipating the generated ground and reactive forces over larger
surface areas
ƒ The need for thoracic mobility is greater during rotational
movements than with pushing and pulling movements, given the
three-dimensional nature of the movement patterns.
Considerations for Rotational Movements

ƒ Trainers need to remember that the thoracic spine offers

greater mobility than the lumbar spine.
– Therefore, lumbar stability and control of lumbar rotation while
promoting movement within the thoracic spine should be
emphasized.
Rotational Movement Training Sequence

ƒ Specific exercises for rotational movement patterns

include:
– Wood-chop spiral patterns
– Full wood-chop and hay-bailer patterns
Summary
ƒ This session introduced the relationship of the entire
kinetic chain with reference to postural alignment of the
joints.
ƒ Proper execution of functional movements enhances
movement efficiency, as well as the integrity of the joint
structures and soft tissues.
ƒ This session covered:
– Biomechanical and physiological concepts of movement
– Phase 1: Stability and mobility training
– Phase 2: Movement training