DC Transformer

1. Introduction to AC Transformer:
In the presence of constant magnetic flux, an AC transformer is a basic component that
transforms an AC power at one voltage to another voltage. It actually contains more than one
coils of conducting wire that are enfolded in a mutual core (Main body of Transformer). These
conducting coils are not electrically attached with each other. The only connection among them
that they shared magnetic flux present within the core.
1.1 Transformer Winding:
One winding of the transformer is attached with the ac power supply and the other transformer
winding is connected with the electrical load. The primary winding or sometimes called input
winding is that winding which is connected to the ac power supply and the secondary winging or
may be called output winding is that winding which is connected to the electrical load. A tertiary
winding is that winding if a transformer has a third winding.
1.2 Need for a Transformer?
An AC transformer generally transforms one ac voltage to another voltage without changing the
main power provided to it. A transformer increases the output voltage of a particular case, at the
same condition it reduces the rated current to maintain the power into the circuit equal to the
output power from it. However, ac power should be generated at one crucial point, its voltage
boost up to transmit for long distance at negligible power losses, and its voltage decreases again
for some other application. The line losses in a power system is directly related to the square of
the current present in the transmission line. By increasing the amount of the transmission voltage
level which will reduce the transmission current by10 times. Image that if a transformer does not
exist, thein it is not be possible to utilize electrical power in different ways as we are using
currently.
1.3 Different types and structure of Transformers:
According to the one of two types of cores, some transformer are called as power transformer.
According to the construction, some type of transformer has a simple four-sided shaped covered
with the steel material of the transformer windings enveloped about the two sides of a rectangle.
The type of transformer is called core form transformer. Another type of transformer has a three-
legged coated piece of steel core with the windings draped round the center leg. This type of
body of transformer is called shell form Transformer. [1]
Power transformers are can be called for different names; it depends on different application in
the industry. A transformer is generally called unit transformer if it is directly connected to the
output of a transformer and used to increase the generated voltage (usually 110KV). On the other
hand, a transformer is called substation transformer, if it is used in the end side of transmission
lines and normally used to step down the voltage by an amount of 2-35KV. A distribution
transformer is one which is connected at the input of the distribution lines and usually stepping
down the voltage level so that it can be utilize for commercial use. These voltages may be 110,
210 or 220V.
All transformers have same basic fundamental electric components. However, their different use
in different application makes them different in the electrical power system.
More discussion about the transformers, there are various power transformer are available, two
special-purpose transformers are used within fundamental electrical conversions and power
systems. Among the list, first I will describe the special purpose transformers. The special
purpose transformer is an equipment which specifically constructed to deal high voltage and
convert it into a small output voltage which has direct relation to it. This transformer is known as
a potential transformer. It has also a special function that it also generates an output voltage
which could be directly proportional to its input voltage; the basic difference between both a
potential and power transformer, is that the potential transformer is constructed to deal only a
very low current levels. Another kind of special purpose transformers is designed to provide a
very small output current but it is directly proportional to its input current. This is known as a
current transformer.
1.4 The Ideal Transformer working:
An ideal transformer has both lossless winding (the primary winding and the secondary
windings). By the simple two equation, one can understand the relationship between the input
current and voltage to the output current and the voltage. Suppose that Np are turns of wire on its
input-side and Ns are turns of wire on its secondary output-side of a given transformer, the
general expression among the primary voltage Vp(t) which is supposed to be given to the
primary side of the transformer and the secondary voltage Vs(t) generated on the secondary
output-side is…[2]
𝑉𝑝(𝑡) 𝑁𝑝
= =a
𝑉𝑠(𝑡) 𝑁𝑠

Where small ‘a’ is defined as the turns ratio of the given transformer:
𝑁𝑝
‘a’= 𝑁𝑠

1.5 The Power in a lossless Transformer:

The electrical power connected to the primary input-windings of a transformer is measured by
the simple equation:
𝑃𝑖𝑛 =𝑉𝑝 𝐼𝑝 cos𝜃𝑝

Where 𝜃𝑝 is the angle among the primary input-side voltage and the input-side current. The
electrical power provided to the output side, which is given to the load is denoted as….
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 =𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠 cos𝜃𝑠
Where θs is the position among the secondary output-side voltage and the secondary output-side
current. As the angles of current and voltages respectively have no effect in an ideal transformer,
 𝜃𝑝 − 𝜃𝑠 =θ.
An ideal transformer has same power factor of its primary and secondary windings.
1.6 Transformer voltage regulation and efficiency:
In spite of that the input voltage remain constant, the ideal transformer has variable output
voltage because in the practical transformer impedance is connected in series. By compare an
ideal transformer is in this respect, it is normal to describe an important quantity which is called
voltage regulation. At the full-load, an entity that relates transformer output voltage at no load to
the output voltage at full load is called the voltage regulation. That can be defined with the
following given equation below…..
Voltage Regulation=(𝑉𝑠,𝑛𝑙 -𝑉𝑠,𝑓𝑙 )/𝑉𝑠,𝑓𝑙 *100%

Normally, that is a very nice rehearsal to maintain a small value of voltage regulation that may
possible. With an ideally transformer case, Voltage Regulation = 0%. But it’s always not a nice
habit to have a very low regulation, though it is sometimes very high impedance and great
voltage regulation occurs. The ideal transformers intentionally is applied to minimize the faulty
currents in a device.

1.7 The Efficiency of a transformer:

By their efficiencies, transformers are analyzed and evaluated. A device’s efficiency is calculated
by the following equation…..
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
η= 𝑃𝑖𝑛 *100.0%
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
η=𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡+𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠*100%

There are many kinds of losses in the transformers but I discussed only three main losses in the
transformer:
1. In Copper (PR) losses. By the resistance in series within the equivalent circuit, the losses are
called PR losses.
2. The Hysteresis losses. The transformer losses are very famous and are accounted for by
resistor Rc.
3. Eddy current losses. These losses are also very important with respect to the transformer
efficiency and are accounted for by resistor Rc.
For a given load, the efficiency of a transformer is calculated. The overall losses is the sum of
resistances and applied the Pout. The Pout is calculated as….
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 =𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠 cos𝜃𝑠
The efficiency of the transformer is expressed by…
𝑉𝑠𝐼𝑠𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃
η=𝑃𝑐𝑢+𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒+𝑉𝑠𝐼𝑠𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃*100%
 2. Dc Converters/Choppers:
In the many industrial application, it is, mostly required that to change the one fixed dc voltage
to another variable dc voltage level. A circuit which is generally used to convert a fixed voltage
to another voltage is generally known as dc converter circuit or chopper circuit. A dc chopper
circuit is consider as an AC transformer that provides a variable ac voltage level. A dc converter
or chopper circuit is also used to increase or decrease the voltage level by using some kind of
semiconductor switches.
2.1 Application of chopper circuits:
It is used in electrical vehicles, the hybrid electric cars, the submarines, heavy duty trucks, and in
regenerative braking system, the dc converters have wide application specially used for traction
motor control. The most important application of dc converters is to use in braking system which
is used to recover the energy back to the power system, and the aspect results in great amount of
energy savings for transportation systems. The dc choppers are also widely used in voltage
regulation process and may be attached with an inductor L, to produce a dc current supplier,
particularly for the current supplier inverter.
2.2 Performance parameters of DC to dc Converters:
In case of dc to dc choppers, the input and output voltages are purely dc. A dc converter can
produce a variable output dc voltage to a fixed dc input voltage which is shown in fig. below.
The generated output dc voltage surely contains some harmonics as we know that due to the ac
component but the dc input voltage is purely dc. The given converter withdraws current from the
dc source only if the converter connects to the load to supply source and the input current is
discontinuous.
The dc output power is
Pdc = Ia*Va
Where Va and Ia are called average voltage and current levels.
AC output power is….
Pac = IoV
Where Vo and Io; the rms voltage and current level.
Now, Dc-converter efficiency will be…
ηc=Pdc*Pac
The rms ripple content of the output voltage is…

Vr= √𝑉𝑜2 − 𝑉𝑎2

The rms ripple content of the input current is…..

Ir= √𝐼𝑖 2 − 𝐼𝑠 2
Where Ii and Is are the rms and average values of the dc supply current.
The ripple factor of the output voltage is
𝑉𝑟
RFo=𝑉𝑎

Ripple factor of the input current is:

𝐼𝑟
RFs =𝐼𝑠

The efficiency is measured by the relation of the power output to the power input, which is
mainly depend on the switching losses, which depends on the switching frequency of the
converter. The switching frequency f must be very high to reduce the values and sizes of
capacitances and inductances respectively. The designer has to negotiation on these contradictory
requirements. In general, fs > 18Hz of audio frequency.

2.3 Principle of stepping down voltage:

The principle of stepping down voltage can be described by Figure a. A dc converter switch Sw
is on for the time 𝑡1 , the total input voltage is supplied to the load. Then in the next cycle, the
switch remains off for a time 𝑡2 , the zero voltage is appeared across the load. The graphical
representations for the voltage and output load current are also shown below in Figure b. The dc
chopper switch can be employed by utilizing a (1) the power bipolar junction transistor (BJT),
(2) the power metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET), (3) the power gate-
turn-off transistor (GTO), or (4) insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT). The real-world
switches have a small dropping voltage which is between .5 to 2V, and by simply, we shall
compromise on the voltage drop of these power switches.
2.4 Principle of step-up operation:
A chopper circuit can be utilized as to increase a dc voltage level and a circuit is arranged for
voltage increasing operation is shown Figure a. When power switch SW is connected or on for
the instant 𝑡1 , the current of the inductor will rise and inductor will energy store with an amount
L. If the power Sw is remain off for instant 𝑡2 , the inductor stores energy and is moved to the
electrical load through a power diode 𝐷1 and the current in the inductor will fall accordingly.
Suppose that if a continuous current flow, the waveform of the inductor’s current is shown in
Figure b.
2.5 Switching mode Regulators:
In important application of dc converters is they can be used to transform a fixed dc voltage level
to a regulated dc voltage level as switching-mode regulators. The regulation is attained by pulse
width modulation at a constant frequency and the power switching component is generally can
be a bipolar junction transistor, MOSFET or Cool Mos. The components of power switching
regulators are shown in Figure below. We can notice from figure that the output of dc converters
with resistive load is discontinuous and contains some harmonics. Ripple content is usually
decreased by the L*C filter.
In the form of integrated circuits, switching regulators are mostly easily available. The researcher
can choose the changing frequency by selecting the values of Resistor and Capacitor of
frequency oscillation. For the maximum efficiency, the minimum oscillation period must be
around the 1 hundred times higher than the switching time of the transistor; such that, if a
transistor 𝑇1 has a switching time period of 0.5 μs and the oscillation period should be 50 μs, that
provides the highest oscillation frequency of 20.0 kHz. The restriction is due to losses in the
switching in the transistor 𝑇1 . With the switching frequency, the transistor losses are also
increases which results decrease in efficiency. In general, the inductor core losses confine the
high frequency working operation. By comparing the output voltage to the desired voltage level
is called control voltage 𝑉𝑐 . The 𝑉𝑐𝑟 also related with a saw-tooth voltage 𝑉𝑟 to produce the Pulse
width modulation controlling signal for the chopper. Four basic types of switching regulators are
given below.
1. Buck-Regulators
2. Boost-Regulators
3. Buck–boost Regulators
4. Cúk-Regulators

2.5.1 Buck regulators:

In these regulators, an average output voltage level 𝑉𝑎 must be smaller than the input voltage, 𝑉𝑠
Therefore the “buck,” is a very famous regulator. The basic circuit arrangement of the regulator
by utilizing a power-BJT is presented in figure. It acts like a stepping down transformer.
Transistor 𝑄1 acts like a controlled switch and diode Dm, a freewheeling diode is an
uncontrolled switch. They work as two single-pole single-through (SPST) bidirectional switches.
The circuit diagram in figure a, is mostly represented by two switches. The circuit diagram
working is further divided into two circuit arrangements. Arrangement-1 begins when transistor
𝑄1 is closed for time 𝑡1 . The current at the input, will rise and flowing toward an inductor L, a
capacitor C, and a resistor R. On the other hand, arrangement-2 starts when transistor 𝑄1 is open
at time𝑡2 . The Dm a freewheeling diode will conduct due to already energy stored in the L, and
the its current will continue flowing through the inductor, a capacitor, through the electrical
load, and power diode Dm. The current in an inductor will fall unless the Q1 is on in the coming
duty cycle. It is supposed that the current rises and falls linearly. In most real life circuits, the
switches have a finite, nonlinear resistance but it can generally be negligible in most of the
applications. The inductor’s inductance, the capacitor’s capacitance, the current of the inductor
could be irregular because they are all dependent on the switching frequency.

2.5.2 The Boost-Regulator:

In this regulator, the generated output voltage must be higher than the supplied voltage level,
therefore it is called “boost.” A ‘boost’ regulator by utilizing a power switch may be Mosfet is
shown in Figure. Transistor M1 acts like a controlled switch and diode Dm is an uncontrolled
switch. The circuit in figure is often represented by two switches.
The circuit shown in figure, its working principle can be distributed into two arrangements. In
arrangement-1 starts when transistor Q1 is closed at 𝑡1 .The current of the input, will rise,
flowing towards an inductor and Q1. Arrangement-2 again starts when M1 is opened for the
instant at𝑡2 . The transistor current which was flowing through it now pass through an inductor, a
capacitor, the electrical load, and the power diode Dm. The current in the inductor will fall unless
power MOSTET is closed in the upcoming duty cycle. The load will utilize the stored energy by
the inductor. The equivalent circuit arrangements of working process can also be presented.

2.5.3 The Buck–Boost regulators:

This regulator produce a regulated voltage that may smaller than or higher than the supplied
voltage. That’s why its name is “buck–boost”. The polarity of generated output voltage should be
inverted to that of the supplied voltage. The ‘regulator’ is also called an ‘inverting regulator’.
The circuit diagram of a ‘buck–boost regulator’ is shown in figure below. Transistor Q1 acts like
a controlled switch and diode Dm is an uncontrollable switch. They work as two SPST current-
bidirectional switches. The circuit diagram shown in figure is mostly represented by two
switches as shown in figure. The working circuit diagram is further divided into two
arrangements of operations. In the arrangement-1, the transistor 𝑄1 is closed and power
switching diode Dm will act as a reverse biased circuit. The current at the input, will rise, and it
passed through the transistor and inductor L.
In the arrangement-2, the Q1 is remaining open and the current that was passing through inductor
now will pass through the inductor, capacitor, and a freewheeling diode Dm, and the conducting
load. The energy is moved toward the electrical load which was stored by the inductor. The
current in the inductor will decreased unless the power switch Q1 is closed in the upcoming
cycle. The possible arrangements of the circuit for can be presented as below...

2.5.4 Cúk regulators:

The circuit diagram of the Cúk regulator using a power bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is
shown in Figure below. Like a to the ‘buck–boost regulator’, the ‘Cúk’ regulator generate a
generated output voltage that should be smaller than or higher than the supplied voltage, but it
has inverted polarity of the generated output than the supplied voltage. It is also known as an
inverter. When the input voltage is supplied and transistor Q1 is remain open circuit, diode Dm
act as a forward biased and capacitor C1 is charged through inductor L1, Dm, and the input
voltage supply Vs. Transistor Q1 act like a controlled switch and diode Dm is an uncontrollable
switch. They activate as like two SPST current-bidirectional switches. The circuit diagram
shown in figure is frequently represented by two switches as shown in figure. The circuit
diagram working operation can be shared into two arrangements. The arrangement-1 starts when
𝑄1is closed on at an instant𝑡1 . The inductor L1 current will rise. At some instant, capacitor C1
voltage acts as a reverse biased to power switching diode Dm and turns it open. It will become
discharged by transforming its stored energy to the arrangement created by the both capacitors,
the electrical load, and second inductor. In arrangement-2 operation begins when transistor Q1 is
become an open circuit at t = t1. The discharged capacitor is excited from the supplied voltage
Vs and the second inductor supplied energy to the load which it was stored. The switching diode
Dm and Q1 shows a simultaneously switching process. The capacitor C1 acts like a sophisticated
medium for transferring energy from the source to the output. The arrangements of circuits are
shown below.
2.6 Comparison of Regulators:
When the current flows through an inductor L, a magnetic field is set up through it. Then any
change in this current change the magnetic field and as a result an emf (electro motive force) is
induced. This emf tries to maintain the flux at its original density. This phenomenon is known as
the self-induction. As we know that an inductor actually limits the change of its currents and tries
to maintain the ripple current low.
As we see in the above diagram there is no change in the position of the main switch Q1 for the
case of buck and buck–boost regulators. Switch Q1 is connected directly to the dc supply line. In
the same way, there is no difference in the position of the main switch Q1 in case of both boost
and Cúk regulators. Switch Q1 is connected to the two supply lines at a time. When the switch is
closed, the power supply become short through an inductor L, by this the rate of change of
increasing or decreasing current will be limited.
In above while discussing the regulators, we calculated the voltage gain of the regulators with
the conditions that there were no resistances effect with the inductors and capacitors. However,
such resistances may be very small, can reduce the gain significantly.
 3. Homopolar Motors:
Mostly inventions occur by the efforts of the group of scientists, the tribute for invention of
electrical motors belong to the group of researchers. By the invention of electromagnetism
phenomenon in 1820s by the ‘Christian Oersted’, it was developing much speedily in the
invention of electrical motors and also other researchers also participated in this invention that
were ‘W. Sturgeon’ , ‘J. Henry’, ‘A.M Ampere’, ‘M. Faraday’, ‘T. Davenport’ and many more.
Explaining a general meaning of ‘motor’ as denotation a device that transform an electrical
energy into Mechanical Energy, many sources confirms that M. Faraday is invented the first
electrical motor, in 1821. The invented machines was very useful but the most people think that
it is not even comparable with the modern devices.
That’s why, people today generally say, that in 1820s, after the Oersted had invented the
electromagnetism phenomenon, the intelligent scientist and researcher ‘Michael Faraday’ broke
an idea that how the conductor rotates?, then he created the world’s first electrical motor. This
invention has transformed the world, or at least in the engineering!
An incredible quality efforts have been made towards development on the ‘homopolar’ machine
working, currently after about 2-centuries resulting its recognition by the M. Faraday, a few
contents of his discovery has been published and its utility is still unclear in the practical lifes.
3.1 Faraday’s Motor:
In 1821, the discovery of electromagnetism by
the Hans Christian Oersted, Michael Faraday
gave out an idea how the conductor rotates? Then
he created the world’s first electrical motor. Even
it is a primal component that functioned no real
world application, it was a tremendous dive for
humanity and going towards the refined motors of
today.
These electrical machines built of a conducting
wire suspended in a tray of ‘mercury’ (see Fig. 1).
There is a permanent magnet at the bottom of the
tray. In the left-side of the tray, the permanent
magnet located with a piece of thread and move
freely at the bottom of the tray, the conducting
metal wire was not movable. In the right hand
side, the magnet was not keeping move on and the
suspended wire moves freely.
By connecting an electrical battery supplied to the movable wire, the electrical circuit is
completed with the conducting material such as mercury that is an excellent conductor of
electricity and the producing a flowing current through the moving wire at a constant magnetic
field. The magnetic field produced by the permanent magnetic is interacted with the already
existing electromagnetic field which rotates the permanent magnet on the left-hand side tray, or
of the movable wire on the right hand-side (Fig. 1).
A magnetic field is produced around the conducting wire as the current flows through it (this is
an Oersted invented phenomenon). The magnetic field of conducting wire cooperated with a
secondary field constructed into the device, a permanent magnet produced the magnetic field
which remains fixed to the middle of the tray.
Oersted’s and Ampere’s experiment results were endorsed by the Michael Faraday with a
number of speculations surrounding. Then the M. Faraday arranged an experiment which was
showing the phenomenon invented by the Oersted either it is generating a magnetic field or not
and in October 1821 he proved it.
A closed path is formed by connecting a battery with it. Then a circular path is produces around
the conducting wire. By reversing the whole process conducted by the Faraday, the permanent
magnetic and conducting wire would now the freely move around the circulated area. The
conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy was the first demonstrated and ‘Faraday’
became the first person who invented the electrical machine. [3]

3.2 Direct Current Motors:

At the fundamental level of research, electrical motors transform electrical energy into the
mechanical energy. This is achieved by the two cooperating magnetic fields, one is stationary
and another devoted to a rotating part. Different types of electrical motors present in this modern
world, but DC motors are generally used to convert one form to another. Dc motors are able to
achieve the high torques and they are easily operated and by controlling the supplied voltage,
they are easily controllable. DC motors are not only the most compatible, but the primogenital
electrical motors by history.
Some fundamental codes of electromagnetic phenomenon presented by the early 1800’s by
‘Oersted’, ‘Gauss’ and ‘M. Faraday’. By 1820s, ‘H. C Oersted’ and ‘Andre Marie Ampere’
invented that a magnetic field is generated by the electric current. Many active researchers
contributed in this laureate work. To appreciate the invention of DC motors, depeds on the way
how you understand the ‘motor’.

3.3 The working principle Homopolar motor:

In the homopolar electrical machine procedure talk about to a movable electrical conducting
material bounded to a one direction and remain in the constant magnetic field. In the principle,
an essential relation between the electrical and magnetic fields and moment of inertia. Their
magnitudes are calculated by the generated electric power. A constant magnetic field is exist in a
current carrying wire, that’s why the wire rotates.
However, in the adjacent space, inertia is the result of a moving mass. That’s acknowledged the
empty spaces have a very strong inertial qualities as they are a fluid medium of exciting density.
A force is transformed to the moving mass another instant observation should be made: the mass
is stopped unless it is accelerating and continuing its movement. Due to the above mention
reason generating a flow in the same direction and velocity as the displacing mass which is due
to the relation of the mass integral atoms with the medium. [4]
The working principle is that in the order to have an electric induction, a relative movement is
absolutely necessary in this would propose that it is rather the aether flow. In the case of a motor
the opposite principle is also presented. A flowing medium will be irritated by the flowing
current with the perpendicular magnetic field and this flow carried out away the object.
The basic principle of homopolar generation describe: In the presence of a constant magnetic
field, when an electrical conductor is moving electricity is generated. In short, the created
electrical current start flowing in the direction perpendicular to both of the above if the conductor
is perpendicular to the magnetic field. When the reverse principle is describing to a motor,
electricity is supplied to the motor but only the electrical polarity changes.
As like a battery that supply pure dc current, in the same way, the electrical energy generated by
the homopolar generator is a direct current (DC) An optimal
and constant power existed. Fortunately, When a generator
drawn a huge quantity of current but this is not affected the
generated voltage. Comparing power sources, as an
additional work load, the prime mover is not reproduced
back in the power generation process. The motive torque
remains unchanged, immediate and always optimal, when it
is applied for a motor.
Along with the axis of rotation, a homopolar motor has a
constant magnetic field and when we applied magnetic field
the current that at some point is not remain parallel. The
nomenclature of homopolar states to the single polarity.
Homopolar motors essentially have a one-turn coil, which
restricted them to operate at very low voltages. This has
delimited the real world application of the kind of motor (in
Fig. 2).
Movable magnet is not necessary condition, or it can be connected to other parts of the motor;
the basic objective is to associate with the magnetic field induced by the current in the
conducting wire to produce a magnetic field. But, magnet must be the conductive material as the
overall battery-wire circuit is being completed by it. The magnet may be attached to the dc
supply or dc bank and the conductive wire is allowed to rotate freely while it has opened the
electric circuit path at the rotation axis. The current in the conducting wire is not parallel with the
magnetic field even at some point along with the electric field loop. A Lorentz force must be
perpendicular to both of current and magnetic field. The Lorentz force generates a torque in the
conducting wire by acting tangential and as a result the wire will rotates. In compare with the
other electrical dc machines, the magnetic field and the electric current direction and magnitude
are not changed. [5]
Similar to the most power machines, a homopolar motor can be operate at revere conditions.
When an electrical power supply of an appropriate type is act like input, due to conductor
motion, mechanical energy is generated from it and vice versa. A simple law of the Lorentz force
is being based by the working operation of a homopolar motor. The moving conducting current
in a homopolar motor feels some kind of induced force and a torque will produce due to the
motion of the rotor.
Many types of homopolar motors exist but I will discuss only about the drum type and disc type
motors only. [6]

3.4 Disc type Motor:

A very simple principle of a disc type homopolar motor is that; A conducting disc with a shaft
(which is commonly called rotor), a brush is connected on the disc outer circumference and one
on the shaft (sliding contacts), a return current path (which is a stator part) and the magnetic field
are the main components of a disc type motor. The magnetic field is produced by the coils or
magnets and the magnetic field is supposed to be symmetrical and parallel directed to the rotor

part of the motor. The above given equation is about the electric field equation for current loop.
The emf is produced by the rotating disc is explained in the half of the equation part and the
source voltage is described in the second half. The radial electric field is Er and the Faraday’s
law is evaluated it for the current path among inner and outer disc radii. Without taking into
account the losses of brush and conductor can be written to and also ignore the friction:

Where σ is a constant and called conductivity, ω is called angular velocity and rin and rout are
the ‘inner and outer radii’ of the shaft where‘d’ denoted the thickness of the disc, Ir is the radial
current of the rotor and B0 is the uniform magnetic field. The second part of the equation is
describe the open circuit voltage (Voc) which is measured by the current in the rotor will be set
to zero:
And the short circuited current (Isc) is measured as the following equation:

Homopolar machines typically operate at small voltages and high currents which can be shown
by solving these equations for different supposed parameters. The magnetic field strength, the ω
and the outer and inner radii measured the homopolar machine voltage. In order to reduce
electrical losses and friction in the brushes, higher voltages would be suitable and allows a very
small conductor area of cross sectional. Superconducting magnets produce a solider and uniform
magnetic field, will lead to high voltages and to smaller and lighter weight machines size are.
The torque may be determined by the ‘Lorentz force’ experiences by the rotor which is given
below….

3.5 Drum Type Motor:

The magnetic field in the drum type homopolar motor is directed towards the radially directed
and the part that carrying cuuent which is a shaft that directed parallel to the surface of the drum.
Along the circumference of the rotor, the magnetic field should remain constant but varies along
with drum surface. Now, radius of the ‘drum’ will not remain same to the length of working (the
specific subpart of the shaft on which the force exert) of ‘homopolar machine’. The working
length is now measured by brushes distance that is generally calculated by the circumference of
the drum type motor. Now again, the coils or magnets provided the magnetic field are. Same
measurements can be performed to the disc type homopolar machine the drum type motor
measured the voltage and torque.
Where ‘r’ denotes the ‘radius of drum’, ‘L’ shows the length of drum, ‘ω’ is the angular speed,
‘σ’ is the conductivity of the material, ‘t’ is the thickness of the drum and ‘B(L)’ is the magnetic
field directed to the length of the drum surface.
The strength of magnetic field is directly proportional to the produces torque and generating
voltage which enhances the capability of electrical machines and enable a shorter sizes machines
having equivalent rating to the big size. It may deal with the radius and length separately, that is
its huge benefit. But the total magnetic field strength reduces swiftly to the increase lengths. We
are here concentrating on the disc type motors bur the same principles and rules can be applied to
the other type of the motor e. g ‘drum type’. [7]
 4. Homopolar Generator:
One of the most famous DC machine is the homopolar generator which has a conductive disk
that revolves around a coordinated plane that is directed perpendicular to the constant magnetic
field. The electrical difference between the center and the rim of the disk creates potential
difference. By depending upon the directions of magnetic field and rotation of the disk, the
polarity can be determined easily. Homopolar generator also known as a faraday’ disk or
unipolar generator. In the case of prototype, the generated voltage is very small in fact a few
volts but if we connect large rating generators, they can generate thousands of voltage (they are
connected in series circuit for getting sum of all generator voltage). Homopolar generators are
constructed on a very small internal resistance, that’s why they can produce a huge amount of
electric current which may be more than that of million amperes. [8]

During the experiments, ‘M. Faraday’ first invented the homopolar generator in 1830s. In his
majesty, it is normally known as ‘Faraday disk’. It was the start of the modern era of generators,
A magnetic field phenomenon based electrical generators. By using the phenomenon of
magnetism, it was incompetent and not fully utilize in the industry as a power supplier, but it was
the first indication of generating electricity and gave an ideal of a dc power full generator and
after that an alternating current.[9]
A homopolar generator can be converted into the homopolar motor by placing the battery that
drove in a homopolar motor. While a homopolar motor produces a mechanical energy and it
takes electrical energy at the input. The principle of homopolar generator is reverse as the motor:
In it the conducting disk is rotated by means of some mechanical energy and as a result it induces
some emf and if the circuit is completed then it draws electrical current.
Within the disk, a small charge carrier q which is travelling with some velocity ‘v’. The Lorentz
force (qv ×B) is influencing the charge carrier that is directed towards the axle of the disk which
is attached with the conductor. This produces an emf as that is shown by a voltmeter indicator (if
the circuit is closed then current is appeared).
As compare to other multi pole generators, a homopolar generator is theoretically very simple
but, only one current path is possible in it. That’s why it’s generated a low voltage. (By the way,
a large amount of current is provided by the brushes.)
4.1 Application of Homopolar machine?
Although a marvelous quality of attempt is made to the way of research on the phenomenon of
homopolar machine. Since by the ‘Faraday’ recognition since he invented the idea of homopolar
generation, only a small amount of its theory is published with the world but its application is
still unclear in our daily practical life.
Homopolar generation is an extra efficient way of generation. It is a bitter fact that embarrassed
the whole scientific community. While it tapping the freely energy, the generation process has
not been changed inspite of many engineering confronts. [10]
Unipolar motors is also a famous name of homopolar motors. In both alternating and direct
current generation, the electric motors of non-commutation are applied. They mostly precede
energy that travels in unidirectional.
They are mostly installed in the electroplating plants. This is the most important application of
the homopolar generator. They mostly provides low voltage and supply high current. A duty
machines can easily be drive by the current producing by these machines.
Wind turbines of high torques are also utilize the homopolar machines. As there is no need of
multidirectional gears, the operating cost of wind turbine for converting the wind into electrical
energy is very small. As compare to the bidirectional machines, they require less maintenance
cost.
Prototypes models or toys that utilize small engines, may be constructed using these types of
machines. A magnetic field is produced and magnet is made to spin when a force is exerting on
the rotating wheel. The generated electrical power is uni-direction, which emparts power to the
engine.
There are many other application where the homopolar phenomenon is used if one think and
observe about it. [11]
 5. Homopolar Transformer:
It is similar to the dc machine (can be a generator or motor) but the body of stator winding
consists of rotor windings as well. The stator and rotor windings remain in direction of a
discretely generated magnetic field. The rotor windings are linked to analogous stator’s winding
with the help of slip rings. While positioned in a shared magnetic field, many isolated windings
may be constructed which are not electrically in contact with each other. The stator that
producing torque on the rotor windings, transmit power to only one winding of the machine. This
type of rotor torque is changed into current into the secondary windings and it also responded to
the electrical load with the stator additional terminals. [12]
The homopolar transformer has an input winding in which in the presence of a constant magnetic
field current flows that create a torque in the rotor windings which generates a current in a
secondary winding a in the presence of shared magnetic field effect. There is another
personification, only one winding linked with the voltage taps of the transformer coupled to the
terminals of the stator, different levels of output voltages are transferred to selector switch
terminals for measuring the ratio of voltage at the time of providing to the load.
5.1 Background of the Invention:
Basic structure and working operation of homopolar transformer for the electrical woking of the
weapons of marines systems is very famous in its working as broke out. In “U.S. Pat. No.
3,657,580 to Doyle”. It is a super combination of a homopolar generator and motor where in a
super conducting material is placed and current flows through it in the presence of madnetic
field. The current will exert a rotational force perpendicular to the direction of the conductor and
the magnetic field, it is a homopolar motor principle. While in the working principle of a
homopolar generator, within the magnetic field a voltage is produce by the movement of
conductor. Speed of the moving conductor and the no. of moving turns of the conductor and the
magnetic field magnitude is directly proportional to the armature voltage in the homopolar
generator. The torque produced has direct relation to current and the no. of turns of the
conductor. It’s the principle of motor.
By ignoring the equipment weight and size, distortion of voltage and losses are currently viewed
in the solid state power electronics conversion application of different voltage levels, when we
supply the electrical energy to the homopolar transformers for the DC electrical ‘propulsion’
systems, It is thereby, an important goal to convert a fixed dc voltage level to another dc voltage
level by utilizing a homopolar machine of the current development to more clearly and
competently. [13]
 6. Flywheels:
From one cycle to another cycle, pure mechanical flywheels where mainly applied exclusively to
keep smoothly machines running, thereby make possible the industrial revolution in several
years ago. Many structures and strategies where proposed and instigated during that era, but it in
the 20th century, the structures and rotational designs were completely analyzed of flywheels
rotor. In 1970, flywheel energy storage idea was suggested as a key objective for hybrid electric
vehicles and static backup power. Fiber made material rotors where also built at the same time,
and till the1980s “magnetic bearings” were invented. Thus, by extensive research, the
prospective for an electric energy storage element by using flywheels has been recognized.
For numerous energy storage industrial applications, most recent improvements in the
constructing staff, magnetically bearings and solid state electronics make flywheels a spirited
option. In the power electronics development, the switches like IGBTs and FETs are the
superconducting, makes it achievable to for the flywheel work at very high power, it is
analogous in size to the flywheel or even small in size. By using the “composite” (a mixture of
materials) materials make possible to achieve with the power density at high rotational velocity
that should be superior to that of dc batteries. Magnetically formed bearings produce negligible
friction that allows it having very small losses when it is storing energy. The energy stored is
directly proportional to the square wheel speed. Higher speed is required, but it directly related to
the mass. [14]
A huge number of qualities that enables flywheels for attraction in the applications as a storing
units where they are now utilized easily.
1) Very high power density.
2) Huge amount of energy density.
3) Very small capacity limits, the lifetime of the flywheel does not dependent on the discharging
and discharging time period. It operates very efficiently both in conditions of small and on high
discharging. It is optimized device such as dc power bank structure for varying load is complex.
4) As it is available in the rotational velocity, the quantity and position of charge carrier simply
calculated.
5) Periodically maintenance is not even necessary.
6) Recharge time is very small.
7) It is “Scalable technology” and universally available.
8) Composite with environmental friendly materials.
One of the most advantages of flywheels is that it is capable of handling the high power
variations. That is a required feature in an electric vehicle, where during acceleration a large
power is needed and, if by reversing the direction of motor, which are called electrical brakes are
applied, then a huge quantity of power is created for an instant, which results an additional
competent saving of energy, that resulting in lower fuel consumption.
Individually up to 500 MJ at pulsed power applications, the flywheels are capable of storing and
high ranges of power levels from kilowatt to Gigawatt, with the high powers models. To
maintain the grid frequency, the flywheels are appropriate due to their response time. The
irregular renewable sources contribute more production of energy, this is the most important
quality that is growing with the time in the world energy market. [15]
A real representation of induction process is indicated by the apparatus which can be a generator
or motor is used in the process. The electromagnetic complex measurements programs with the
help of supercomputer are possible. That’s why at any practical structure of devices have been
overcome the many restrictions and different constraints. By keeping in mind the constraints of
energy sources to the electrical load so that they can match with the generating system. All type
of technical association also reviewed for example in the case of voltage generator. The
efficiency of all new designed machines can improved very significantly.
In the stator windings, considerable amount of resistive power loss is produce due to the high
current. By increasing the size of the conductor, the cable resistance will significantly improve.
Rectangular shaped conductors are used in conventional generators. As the resistive power loss
in the windings of the stator is directly proportional to the square of the current produced,
theoretically it would be beneficial to design a generator that generates low current and high
voltage levels. Insulated conductors are required in such a generator, conventionally high voltage
solid dielectric materials for is it example. The generators of this new type is called Power
former.
The main objective of the above paragraph is to discuss about the importance about the flywheel
designs specifications, its performance in industries and some recent improvement. Furthermore,
why high voltage motor/generators are used in flywheels is also briefed.
6.1 Flywheel basics:
Due to the rotating mass, energy is stored in a flywheel. A substantial amount of kinetic energy
in flywheels is stored as rotational energy, depending on the speed of the rotating wheel and the
inertia. For a stable operation, to minimize the friction-loss from the air and balanced by
bearings, the flywheel is situated inside a vacuum container. Depending on the phase angle, with
an electrical machine that can work either as a motor or generator kinetic energy is transmitted to
and out of the flywheel. Electric energy supplied to the winding of stator which is converted into
rotating torque and when it is supplied to the rotor winding, causes it to rotate faster and achieve
kinetic energy. This is the working principle how it is acting as motor. When it is acted like a
generator, electrical energy is produced when the kinetic energy is stored in the rotor is
converted by the production of torque. By the way, to control the power input and output, speed
and frequency etc. power electronics is obligatory.
In a flywheel, according to equation below, the mass and the square of its rotational speed is
directly related to the stored kinetic energy.
1
𝑒𝑘 = I𝜔2
2

Where 𝑒𝑘 is the stored kinetic energy that is in the flywheel, where ‘I’ denotes as “moment of
inertia” and ω is called the “angular velocity” in the flywheel. The “moment of inertia” is a
related to its shape and mass of an object. For the case of rotors made with steel materials are the
main shape in a cylinder solid which is described in the the following expression for Inertia:
 1
𝐼𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 = ∗ 𝑟 2 ∗m=0.5 ∗ 𝑟 4 a*p*pi
2
In case the failure of a catastrophic, circumferential cracks are build up by the flywheels as they
are more probable, which are very less likely to produce free flying projectile pieces by making
fiber resistant composite rotors with circumferentially directed fibers. Rotational speed drop is
50% allowed in the most structures, the total stored energy is the amount of available energy is
75%. Depth of discharging in general is 75%. While, the power capabilities of the
motor/generator examine by power electronics. [16]
6.2 Magnetic bearings:
Due to the friction and electrical losses and short life period, mechanical bearings that were used
in the modern high-speed flywheels in the past cannot be utilized. Magnetic bearing system is
applied instead of it a permanent magnet or electro permanent magnet. The shaft of the Electro
permanent magnetic bearings are isolated, have no movable parts, involvement a little bit apparel
and need not a lubricant agent. When it includes of permanent magnet, by the forces of
repulsions bears the weight of the flywheel and to balance the flywheel, electromagnets are used,
it will become a very complex “guiding system”. Mechanical bearings at the end of the flywheel
axle is an easier way to balance it. It is possible since the permanent magnet levitate the flywheel
and thus, it will reduce friction. Without need of electricity or positioning control system, the
flywheel automatically directed by the high-temperature super-conducting (HTS) magnetic
bearing are the best performing of bearing. However, liquid nitrogen based cooling process is
used in HTS magnets. [17]
6.3 Flywheel technical considerations:
For smoothly working operation, most designers have applied the theory of storing kinetic
energy in a rotating mass for many years. Till now, the motor/generator is connected with the
huge majority consist of steel wheels, where the flywheel rotational speed without considerably
decrease in the high rotating inertia permitted long ride-through time. The electrical frequency is
directly reacted to the change in rotational speed and total stored energy hardly exceeded 5% of
the power delivery of those flywheels.
6.4 Motor/generator:
The most flywheel system designer choose specifications for standardized the electric power
have prepared are the variable speed AC (alternating current) alternators (to provide
accommodation the steady slowing during discharge of the flywheel) and diodes to distribute in
DC generation. The axial-flux and the radial-flux permanent magnet machines (AFPM and
RFPM respectively) are the two typical kinds of machines used. Internal rotor (shaft), internal
stator, multidisc, slotted or slot-less stator, rotors with interior or surface-mounted magnets are
the number of choices for the design structure of an AFPM machine that are available. By the
way, axial machines have two working surfaces instead of radial machines. Either one rotor
combined with two stators or two rotors combined with one stator and vice versa. The output
power is increases by using a two surface working machine. This is its advantage. There are
many advantages of the axial machines over the radial machines for example, an easy cooling
mechanism and have a planar adjustable air gap, significantly working under low-pressure
circumstances. A single-rotor combined with the two-stator (AFPM) arrangement without
connecting the winding of the stator. It is to be observed that the permanent type magnets are a
constitute fragment of the rotor of the flywheel and the stators are set to the main body of it. [18]

6.5 Power Electronics:

Variable frequency AC current is generated by a brushless permanent magnet generator. In the
most real world devices, it is essential to first rectify the current and then convert it back into AC
current, the load must have a constant frequency. SCR controlled transistor, GTO or IGBT
switches are used in the most power energy converters for energy storage systems. SCRs (silicon
controlled rectifiers) where the most active and least costly semiconductor suitable for power
conversion in early years of energy storage application development. Up to 5kV voltages, current
up to 3000 A and switching frequencies up to 500 Hz is managed by SCRs. Those switches they
were replaced with GTOs, which don’t depend on an energized line to work an energized power
line is needed to provide the external on/off signal. Voltages up to 6 kV, current up to 2000 A
and switching frequencies up to 1 kHz is handled by the GTO switching. IGBTs is developed in
the last few years. Voltages up to 6.7 kV, current up to 1.2 kA and most important high
switching frequencies is handled by the IGBT.
Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) is the method that used to produce AC current from DC
current. In the inverter pulses of different sizes are functional to the IGBTs, the inductive load
causing the DC current to be postponed and modulated a sine wave. By reducing some of the
higher order harmonics, a fast switching frequency in the power converter improves harmonics
of a sine wave. Even a filter is used for the reduction of the harmonic content, which is
consisting of capacitors and inductors can be attached to the output of AC side.
In order to make them more flexible, Electro-mechanical energy conversion systems have
introduced. Instead of one complex setup by using a single 3-phase inverters is a more flexible
design that set up the other benefits like the capability to function in the occurrence of a single-
phase fault.

6.6 Small-scale size Flywheel:

Small-scaled size flywheel energy storage systems is comprised with reasonably small specified
figure of energy, repression volume and weight of. By the electrical machine and the power
converter interface, the higher specific power is possible and can be controlled. For buffer
storage applications this technology is most appropriate. Combination of a flywheel peak power
buffer with a battery energy source is used for the development of alternative dual power source
electric vehicle systems.

6.7 Power peak buffers:

In an electric vehicle, the uses of a flywheel as power buffer the peak current drawn from the
ordinary storing supply e.g. battery can considerably reduce. Withdrawing of the peak current
will protract the life of a battery.
6.8 A flywheel energy storage system with wind-diesel generator:
The year of 2000, simulation was introduced of a wind-diesel generation plant with a kinetic
energy storage unit and the design of it was undertaken. By the diesel generator and the flywheel,
the normal wind oscillations are compensated. This component is the objective of the system. To
compensate both frequency and voltage of the system, 0.6kWh, 50 kW flywheels are capable of
supply active and reactive power. Total power during a period of 1.8 min with a rated voltage
750 V and a maximum current of 102 amperes is provided by this unit.

6.9 photovoltaic system for Flywheel:

In 2001, a “doubly salient permanent magnet (DSPM) motor” flywheel energy storage was
simulated for constructing “integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) system”. Situated in Hong Kong By
totaling a flywheel to a BIPV equipped building, the load supply time can be protracted
from 8 am to 5 pm to 7 am beyond 8 pm.

6.10 Harmonics in Flywheels:

For the reduction of harmonics different flywheel systems in low voltage (400 V) power
networks have been related and implemented. A decrease of about 50% was established, up to
the eleventh harmonic.

6.11 Distribution network:

In the year 2000, it was examined that in a 10MJ flywheel energy storage system, which is used
to sustain high quality electric power and give assurance to a reliable power supply from the
distribution network. The voltage in the distribution network within 98–102% is maintained by
the FES and for 15 min, it had the capability of supplying 10 kW of power.

6.12 UPS system of high power:

In 2001, was introduced a 50MW/650 MJ storage is based on industry established flywheels. For
plasma experiments possible applications are energy supply, huge UPS systems and
accelerations of heavy equipment. With an overall efficiency of 91–95%, the 50 MW peak power
can be provided for about 13s. The flywheels are connected in parallel to a 1200V DC-link.
Similarly the flywheels have earlier been examined in city traffic control and railway systems
with an ensuing energy save of roundabout of 40%.

6.13 Aerospace Application:

A flywheel connected to a two pole, three-phase PM synchronous motor/generator have been
simulated. On board of the International Space Station, the flywheel storage element is proposed
to change a battery storage unit. Up to 7kVA, 80V and 50A and 1000Hz is rated the motor. An
association with the 35% lighter and 55% smaller in volume of flywheel and NiH2 battery
systems is showed by the “EOS-AMI type spacecraft”. [19]
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[17] Taylor P, Johnsson L, Reichert K, DiPietro P, Philip J, Butler P. A summary of the state of the art of
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