TABLE OF CONTENTS

Sr. No. Title Page No.

Chapter 1: 1.1 Introduction 7

Introduction

Chapter 2: 2.1.1 Components Of Cooling Tower 8

Literature Survey 2.1.2 Materials
2.1.3 Types Of Cooling Tower
2.2 Cooling Tower Corrosion 13
2.2.1 Corrosion
2.2.2 Corrosion Control
2.2.3 Inhibitor
2.2.4 Inhibitor Selection
2.3 Scaling 16
2.3.1 Types Of Scaling
2.3.2 Deposite Control Method
2.4 Microbial Growth 18
2.4.1 Problems
2.4.2 Selection Of Micro Biocides
2.4.3 Oxidizing Toxicants
2.4.4 Non Toxicating Biocides
2.4.5 Chemical Dosing At Ct-2
2.5 Performance Improvement 24
2.5.1 Reduce Water Loss
2.5.2 Reduce Water Blow Down
2.5.3 Use Alternative Water Supply
2.5.4 Reuse Water Blow Down
2.6 Water Treatment 26
2.6.1 Sulphuric Acid Treatment
2.6.2 Side Stream Consideration

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Chapter3: 3.1 Performance 30
Therotical 3.2 Assessment 32
Calculation 3.3 Factors Affecting Performance 32
3.3.1 Design
3.3.2 Fill Media Effects
3.3.3 Water Distribution Fins
3.4 General Improvement Procedure 37

Chapter 4: 4.1 cooling approach 39

Experimental 4.2 cooling range 39
Calculations
II Result & Discussion 44

III Conclusion 46
IV References 47

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 List of Tables

Sr. No. Title Page No.

Table 1 Types of Cooling Towers
1. 12

2. Table 2 Chemical Dosing Rate 23

Table 3 Chemical Dosing at CT 4

3. 23

Table 4 Treatment options comparison

4. 27
Table 5 Design Values of Different Fills
5. 36
Table No -6 (Plain Packing)
6. 41

7 Table No -7 (Plain Packing with husk layer) 42

8 Table No -8 (Plain Packing with husk layer & louvers) 42

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 List of Figures

Sr. No. Title Page No.

Fig. 1 proposed model
1. 7

Figure 2 Cooling Tower Types

2. 11
Figure 3 Corrosion cell
3. 13

Figure 4 Biofouled Heat Exchanger

4. 19
Figure 5 Hierarchy of opportunities 24
5.
6 Figure 6 Range and approach schematic 30

7 Figure 7 Tower size v/s approach 34

8 Figure 8 Tower size v/s wet-bulb 34

9 Figure 9 Tower size v/s head load 35

10 Figure 10 Tower size v/s range variance 35

11 Figure 11 cooling tower 40

12 Figure 12 Diagram of range and approach 41
13 Figure 13 Range and approach schematic 41
14 Figure 14 Comparison of Approach of the three cases 44

15 Figure 15 Comparison of Range of the three cases 45

16 Figure 16 Comparison of efficiecy of the three cases 45

17 Figure 17 Summary of achieved results of the three cases 46

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 List of equations

Sr. No. Title Page No.

Equation 1 Water losses
1. 21

2. Equation 2 Cycle of Concentration C.O.C. 25

Equation 3 CT Range
3. 30

Equation 4 CT Approch
4. 30

5. Equation 6 CT Effectiveness 31

6. Equation 7 Evaporation loss 31

7. Equation 8 blow down 31

8. Equation 9 Liquid/Gas ratio 32

9. 32
Equation 10 CT Range Def. 2

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 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

A cooling tower is a heat rejection device which extracts waste heat to the atmosphere
through the cooling of a water stream to a lower temperature. Cooling towers may either use the
evaporation of water to remove process heat and cool the working fluid to near the wet-bulb air
temperature or, in the case of closed circuit dry cooling towers, rely solely on air to cool the working
fluid to near the dry-bulb air temperature. In energy conversion lab there are five different engine in
which experiment is conducted. These engine require cold water for conducting the experiment. After
successfully completion of experiment hot water comes out from the engine as bi product. Since the
water coming from the engines are hot, so this water is not suitable to use in the lab. So this water is
discharged in the ground as a waste behind the lab.To utilize the water again or to overcome from the
water problem, a cooling tower is developed. This cooling tower will do the work of reducing the
water temperature. The water coming from the different engine will be supplied into the cooling
tower and after cooling is done again it is supplied into the main stream. The tower provides a
horizontal air flow as the water falls down the tower in the form of small droplets. The fan centered at
the top of units draws air through two cells that are paired to a suction chamber partitioned beneath
the fan. The outstanding feature of this tower is lower air static pressure loss as there is less resistance
to air flow. The evaporation and effective cooling of air is greater when the air outside is warmer and
dryer than when it is cold and already saturated. Originally, cooling towers were constructed
primarily with wood, including the frame, casing, louvers, fill and cold-water basin. Sometimes the
cold water basin was made of concrete. Today, manufacturers use a variety of materials to construct
cooling towers. Materials are chosen to enhance corrosion resistance, reduce maintenance, and
promote reliability and long service life. Galvanized steel, various grades of stainless steel, glass fiber
and concrete are widely used in tower construction, as well as aluminium and plastics for some
components. Fig. 1 shows the proposed model of cooling tower .

Fig. 1 proposed model

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 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Cooling Tower

Cooling towers are a very important part of many chemical plants. The primary task of a cooling tower is
to reject heat into the atmosphere. They represent a relatively inexpensive and dependable means of
removing low-grade heat from cooling water. The make-up water source is used to replenish water lost to
evaporation. Hot water from heat exchangers is sent to the cooling tower. The water exits the cooling
tower and is sent back to the exchangers or to other units for further cooling.Cooling towers are able to
lower the water temperatures more than devices that use only air to reject heat, like the radiator in a car,
and are therefore more cost-effective and energy efficient.

2.1.1 Components

The basic components of a cooling tower include the frame and casing, fill, cold-water basin, drift
eliminators, air inlet, louvers, nozzles and fans. These are described below.

a. Frame and casing: Most towers have structural frames that support the exterior
enclosures(casings), motors, fans, and other components. With some smaller designs, such as some
glass fibre units, the casing may essentially be the frame.

b. Fill: Most towers employ fills (made of plastic or wood) to facilitate heat transfer by
maximizing water and air contact. There are two types of fill:

c. Splash fill: Water falls over successive layers of horizontal splash bars, continuously breaking
into smaller droplets, while also wetting the fill surface. Plastic splash fills promote better heat
transfer than wood splash fills

d. Film fill: consists of thin, closely spaced plastic surfaces over which the water spreads,
forming a thin film in contact with the air. These surfaces may be flat, corrugated, honeycombed, or
other patterns. The film type of fill is the more efficient and provides same heat transfer in a smaller
volume than the splash fill.

e. Cold-water basin: The cold-water basin is located at or near the bottom of the tower, and it
receives the coled water that flows down through the tower and fill. The basin usually has a sump or
low point for the cold-water discharge connection. In many tower designs, the coldwater basin is
beneath the entire fill. In some forced draft counter flow design, however, the water at the bottom of
the fill is channelled to a perimeter trough that functions as the coldwater basin. Propeller fans are

7
mounted beneath the fill to blow the air up through the tower. With this design, the tower is mounted
on legs, providing easy access to the fans and their motors.
f. Drift eliminators: These capture water droplets entrapped in the air stream that otherwise
would be lost to the atmosphere.
g. Air inlet: This is the point of entry for the air entering a tower. The inlet may take up an
entire side of a tower (cross-flow design) or be located low on the side or the bottom of the tower
(counter-flow design).
h. Louvers: Generally, cross-flow towers have inlet louvers. The purpose of louvers is to
equalize air flow into the fill and retain the water within the tower. Many counter flow tower designs
do not require louvers.
i. Nozzles: These spray water to wet the fill. Uniform water distribution at the top of the fill is
essential to achieve proper wetting of the entire fill surface. Nozzles can either be fixed and spray in a
round or square patterns, or they can be part of a rotating assembly as found in some circular cross-
section towers.
j. Fans: Both axial (propeller type) and centrifugal fans are used in towers. Generally, propeller
fans are used in induced draft towers and both propeller and centrifugal fans are found in forced draft
towers. Depending upon their size, the type of propeller fans used is either fixed or variable pitch. A
fan with non-automatic adjustable pitch blades can be used over a wide kW range because the fan can
be adjusted to deliver the desired air flow at the lowest power consumption. Automatic variable pitch
blades can vary air flow in response to changing load conditions.

2.1.2 MATERIALS

Originally, cooling towers were constructed primarily with wood, including the frame, casing,
louvers, fill and cold-water basin. Sometimes the cold-water basin was made of concrete. Today,
manufacturers use a variety of materials to construct cooling towers. Materials are chosen to enhance
corrosion resistance, reduce maintenance, and promote reliability and long service life. Galvanized
steel, various grades of stainless steel, glass fibre, and concrete are widely used in tower construction,
as well as aluminium and plastics for some components.

a) Frame and casing. Wooden towers are still available, but many components are made of
different materials, such as the casing around the wooden framework of glass fibre, the inlet air
louvers of glass fibre, the fill of plastic and the cold-water basin of steel. Many towers (casings and
basins) are constructed of galvanized steel or, where a corrosive atmosphere is a problem, the tower
and/or the basis are made of stainless steel. Larger towers sometimes are made of concrete. Glass
fibre is also widely used for cooling tower casings and basins, because they extend the life of the
cooling tower and provide protection against harmful chemicals.
b) Fill. Plastics are widely used for fill, including PVC, polypropylene, and other polymers.
When water conditions require the use of splash fill, treated wood splash fill is still used in wooden
towers, but plastic splash fill is also widely used. Because of greater heat transfer
c) efficiency, film fill is chosen for applications where the circulating water is generally free of
debris that could block the fill passageways.
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c) Nozzles. Plastics are also widely used for nozzles. Many nozzles are made of PVC, ABS,
polypropylene, and glass-filled nylon.

d) Fans. Aluminium, glass fibre and hot-dipped galvanized steel are commonly used fan materials.
Centrifugal fans are often fabricated from galvanized steel. Propeller fans are made from galvanized
steel, aluminium, or moulded glass fibre reinforced plastic

2.1.3 TYPES OF COOLING TOWER

A. Natural draft cooling tower

The natural draft or hyperbolic cooling tower makes use of the difference in temperature between the
ambient air and the hotter air inside the tower. As hot air moves upwards through the tower (because
hot air rises), fresh cool air is drawn into the tower through an air inlet at the bottom. Due to the
layout of the tower, no fan is required and there is almost no circulation of hot air that could affect the
performance. Concrete is used for the tower shell with a height of up to 200 m. These cooling towers
are mostly only for large heat duties because large concrete structures are expensive. There are two
main types of natural draft towers:

 Cross flow tower: air is drawn across the falling water and the fill is located outside the tower
 Counter flow tower: air is drawn up through the falling water and the fill is therefore located
inside the tower, although design depends on specific site conditions

B. Mechanical draft cooling tower

Mechanical draft towers have large fans to force or draw air through circulated water. The water falls
downwards over fill surfaces, which help increase the contact time between the water and the air -
this helps maximize heat transfer between the two. Cooling rates of mechanical draft towers depend
upon various parameters such as fan diameter and speed of operation, fills for system resistance etc.

C. Open vs. Closed-Circuit Towers

One of the primary differentiations between cooling towers is whether it is an open or closed-circuit
tower. In open towers, the cooling water is pumped through the equipment where it picks up thermal
energy and then flows directly to the cooling tower where it is dispersed through spray nozzles over
the fill, where heat transfer occurs. Then, this same water is collected in the tower sump and is sent
back to the equipment to begin the process again. In an open tower any contaminants in the water are
circulated through the equipment being cooled. In a closed-circuit tower, sometimes referred to as a
fluid cooler, the cooling water flows through the equipment as in the open tower. The difference is
when the water is pumped to the cooling tower, it is pumped through a closed loop heat exchanger
that is internal to the cooling tower, then returned to the equipment. In this application, water in the
closed loop is not in direct contact with the evaporative water in the tower, which means
contaminants are not circulated through the equipment. In a closed-circuit tower, a small pump,
known as a “spray pump” circulates a separate body of evaporative water from the tower sump,

9
through the spray nozzles and over the internal heat exchanger piping. This “open” evaporative body
of water is contained within the tower and needs to be regularly made up to replenish evaporative and
other losses. However, once water treatment in the closed cooling loop is stabilized, the only time it
needs to be made up or adjusted is if there is a leak.
D. Hybrid Towers

Hybrid towers are closed towers which can operate either in the sensible heat transfer mode only
(without evaporation) or a combination of sensible and latent heat transfer (with evaporation). During
periods of low load and/or low ambient temperature, the spray of water is stopped and heat is sensibly
transferred to the flow of air across the fins of the coils containing the cooling fluid. During periods
when this is not enough, a latent heat transfer system is activated by switching on an evaporative
cooler or water is sprayed across the dry coils to allow for increased heat transfer through
evaporation. These processes offer substantial savings in water.

Figure 2 Cooling Tower Types

Mechanical draft towers are available in a large range of capacities. Towers can be either factory
built or field erected – for example concrete towers are only field erected. Many towers are

10
constructed so that they can be grouped together to achieve the desired capacity. Thus, many cooling
towers are assemblies of two or more individual cooling towers or “cells.” The number of cells they
have, e.g., an eight-cell tower, often refers to such towers. Multiple-cell towers can be lineal, square,
or round depending upon the shape of the individual cells and whether the air inlets are located on the
sides or bottoms of the cells.

Type Advantages Disadvantages

Forced draft Air is blown
through the tower by a fan a. Suited for high air a. Recirculation due to
located in the air inlet resistance due to centrifugal high air-entry and low air-exit
blower fans velocities, which can be solved
b. Fans are relatively quiet by locating towers in plant
rooms combined with discharge
ducts

Induced draft cross flow

a. Water enters at top and a. Less recirculation than a. Fans and the motor
passes over fill forced draft towers because the drive mechanism require
b. Air enters on one side speed of exit air is 3-4 times weather-proofing against
(single-flow tower) or opposite higher than entering air moisture and corrosion because
sides (double-flow tower) they are in the path of humid
c. An induced draft fan exit air
draws air across fill towards
exit at top of tower

Induced draft counter flow

a. Hot water enters at the top
b. Air enters bottom and exits at the top
c. Uses forced and induced draft fans

Table 1 Types of Cooling Towers Type

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2.2 Cooling Water Chemistry
Cooling towers are dynamic systems because of the nature of their operation and the environment
they function within. Tower systems sit outside, open to the elements, which makes them susceptible
to dirt and debris carried by the wind. Their structure is also popular for birds and bugs to live in or
around, because of the warm, wet environment. These factors present a wide range of operational
concerns that must be understood and managed to ensure optimal thermal performance and asset
reliability. Below is a brief discussion on the four primary cooling system treatment concerns
encountered in most open re-circulating cooling systems.

2.2.1 Corrosion

Corrosion is an electrochemical or chemical process that leads to the destruction of the system
metallurgy. Figure illustrates the nature of a corrosion cell that may be encountered throughout the
cooling system metallurgy. Metal is lost at the anode and deposited at the cathode. The process is
enhanced by elevated dissolved mineral content in the water and the presence of oxygen, both of
which are typical of most cooling tower systems.

Figure 3 Corrosion cell

There are different types of corrosion encountered in cooling tower systems including pitting, galvanic,
microbiologically influenced and erosion corrosion Loss of system metallurgy, if pervasive enough, can
result in failed heat exchangers, piping, or portions of the cooling tower itself.

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2.2.3 Corrosion Control

a) Cathodic Polarization
Process of changing the anodic or cathodic potential or both to reduce the driving force of the
corrosion reaction is called “polarization”. Polarization reduces the driving force of the corrosion
reaction and minimizes metal loss by changing the potential of either the anode or the cathode or both
so that the difference in potential between them is reduced to a minimum. If the amount of oxygen
diffusion to the metal surface can be controlled, the corrosion reaction can be polarized. This is
achieved by cathodic corrosion inhibitors. They form a film, which prevents the diffusion of oxygen
to the cathode side.
b) Anodic Polarization
Anodic surfaces can be polarized by formation of an oxide layer. This film formation is accomplished
by a mechanism known as chemisorption. Stainless steel naturally forms such films. This
unfortunately is not always the case with all metals. Most metals must be aided by the addition of
such anodic corrosion inhibitors as chromate, nitrite, etc.
c) Passivation
When corrosion reactions are completely polarized, the metal is said to be at “passive state” At this
point there is no difference in potential between the anode and cathode areas, and corrosion ceases.
When polarization is disrupted in a passive metal at a given point, a very active anodic site is set up,
with resultant accelerated local corrosion, particularly if the metal was strongly anodically polarized.

2.2.4 Corrosion Inhibitors

The principal method of controlling corrosion in cooling water system is by means of chemical
corrosion inhibitors. Their function in preventing corrosion lies in their ability to insulate the electric
current between the cathode and anode. If the insulation effect occurs at the anodic site, then the
inhibitor is classified as an anodic inhibitor and if the cathodic site is insulated then the inhibitor is
classified as a cathodic inhibitor.

Corrosion inhibitors are classified as anodic, cathodic or both depending upon the corrosion reaction
each controls. Inhibition usually results from one or more of three general mechanisms. In the first,
the inhibitor molecule is adsorbed on the metal surface by the process of chemisorption, forming a
thin protective film either by itself or in conjunction with metallic ions. In second mechanism
inhibitors however merely cause a metal to form its own protective film of metal oxides, by
increasing its resistance. In the third type inhibitor reacts with a potentially corrosive substance in the
water.

Anodic inhibitors build a thin protective film along the anode increasing the potential at the anode
and slowing the corrosion reaction, the film is initiated at the anode although it may eventually cover
the entire metal surface. Because this film is not visible to the naked eye so the appearance of the
metal will be left unchanged.

13
Cathodic inhibitors are generally less effective than the anodic type. But they often form a visible
film along the cathode surface, which polarizes the metal by restricting the access of dissolved
oxygen to the metal substrate. The film also acts to block hydrogen evolution sites and prevent the
resultant depolarizing effect.

Examples include:

a. Chromates
b. Orthophosphates
c. Zinc
d. Polyphosphates

 Synergic Blends like

a. zinc-chromates
b. chromate-polyphosphates
c. chromate-orthophosphate

2.2.5 Inhibitor Selection

It is often difficult to make a proper choice between the many cooling water corrosion inhibitors
unless there is some understanding of their properties. Choice of the proper inhibitor is determined
by:

a. Design parameters
b. Water composition
c. Metals in the system
d. Stress conditions
e. Treatment level required
f. pH
g. Dissolved oxygen content
h. Salts and SS composition

2.3 Scaling
Scaling is the precipitation of dissolved minerals components that have become saturated in solution.
Factors that contribute to scaling tendencies include water quality, pH, and temperature. Scale
formation reduces the heat exchange ability of the system because of the insulating properties of
scale, making the entire system work harder to meet the cooling demand. Deposits typically consist of
mineral scales (i.e.CaCO3. CaSO4, Ca3(PO4)2, CaF2, etc), corrosion products (i.e. Fe2O3, Fe3O4,
CuO etc), particular matter (i.e. clay, slit), and microbiological mass.

14
2.3.1 Types

a. Waterborne salts
Precipitated salts of calcium and magnesium often form dense scales and sludge’s which are usually
quite adherent and therefore difficult to remove. In addition they are effective heat insulators, which
reduce process efficiency. Calcium carbonate, calcium sulphate, calcium and magnesium silicates and
calcium phosphate are some of the more prevalent compounds found in cooling water systems.
b. Waterborne foulants
A variety of such materials as suspended mud, sand, silt, clay, biological matter or even oil may
enter a cooling water system through its make up supply. They usually accumulate in low flow areas,
or in locations at which an abrupt change in flow velocity occurs. Therefore the most sedimentation is
found in such places as cooling tower basins and heat exchangers. To control sedimentation it is
necessary to control the suspended particulate matter. The control of particle size and density is
accomplished by use of modern deposit control materials. To a certain degree mud, sand, slit, dirt and
clay are suspended in most make up supplies. However the amount of these constituents is usually
much greater for surface waters.
Microbiological growth may be a particularly troublesome foulant in the makeup supply. The
microbiological population in a towers make up supply often approaches or exceeds the control limit
for proper tower operation. Oil often adheres to metal; surfaces and acts as a deposit binder. Oil films
serve as insulators and can seriously retard heat transfer. In addition oil acts as a nutrient for
microbes, therefore increasing microbiological activity, fouling and slime binding. Also oil films
prevent corrosion inhibitors from reaching and passivating metal surfaces.
c. Airborne foulants
The air in contact with open cooling water systems contains many of the same suspended materials
found in the makeup water. Sand, slit, clay, dirt, bacteria etc. entering with the air add to the overall
fouling of the system. Airborne contamination by gases also helps in deposition. Oxygen and carbon
dioxide accelerate corrosion, leading to deposition and further corrosion by the under-deposit
mechanism. Since pick up of both gases occur continuously, near saturation levels of these dissolved
gasses are present in the water. Gaseous contaminants such as sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide
and ammonia may also be absorbed from the air. The first two reduce oxidizing corrosion inhibitors
(e.g. chromates) to insoluble foulants. Hydrogen sulphide is very corrosive and quickly forms iron
sulphide deposits, which lead to further corrosion. Ammonia selectively corrodes copper and its
alloys leading to the deposition of copper corrosion products.

2.3.2 Deposit Control Methods

A. Conventional treatments
 Softening (sodium or hydrogen zeolite exchange, lime softening and demineralization all
remove the ions that cause scale formation)
 Acid feed (acid neutralizes alkalinity in the water, thereby preventing carbonate formation)

15
 Side stream filtration (Side stream filters are used in some cooling tower applications, with 1
to 5 % of the cooling water flow passing through the filter. Several type of media are used but sand is
the most common, operating at a 10 % to 20 % efficiency level. For greater efficiency, anthracite or
mixed media can be substituted. If the suspended solids are in the range of 10 to 30 ppm, 50~75 %
removal can be achieved, and in highly turbid waters, 90 % removal is possible. In general a side
stream filter allows cooling water turbidity to approach the turbidity of the filter effluent. With oil
contamination side stream filters are impractical because of rapid fouling of the filter medium.)

B. Use of Polymeric Deposit Control Agents

A polymer is defined as macromolecule consisting of a number of repeating units of “building

blocks”. These units are referred to as monomers. Modern technology has made it possible to build
chains of various lengths and compositions by varying the polymerization conditions and the
monomer groups incorporated into the structure. The behaviour of a polymer results primarily from
two factors: its chain length or molecular weight and its functional group. These polymeric deposit
control agents include, Scale inhibitors, Dispersants, Flocculants

C. Scale Inhibitors

Scale inhibitors are important to the performance of many treatment programs. Scale inhibitors
function by adsorbing on to suspended solids/scaling particles and adsorbing on to solids/ surfaces in
the system, thereby acting to prevent growth of scale/deposits and enhancing performance of
corrosion inhibitors. These polymers have the ability of adsorbing on active sites of the crystal to
prevent any further growth of crystal. Some of the functional groups of the scale inhibitor adsorbed
on the crystals but the rest of them are free from the adsorption and give electrical charge to the
crystals. Thus, the static electrical repelling force of the crystals is increased and the crystals are kept
in a dispersed condition. Certain polymers can distort scale crystals by disrupting their lattice
structure and normal growth patterns. The inclusion of a relatively large irregularly shaped polymer
in the scale lattice tends to prevent the deposition of a dense uniformly structured crystalline mass on
the metal surface. These crystals can develop internal stresses which increase as the crystal grows,
with the result that deposit breaks away from the metal surface. Anionic polymers such as
polyacrylates, polymethacrylates and maleic anhydride derivatives are excellent scale control agents.
Also polyphosphate, phosphate esters and phosphonates can control scale.

D. Dispersants

“The principal role of a dispersant is to reduce the tendency for small particles to agglomerate”.
Dispersants are polymers, which control particles by increasing charge on the particle surface,
thereby keeping the particles repelled and suspended. A polymer can be adsorbed on foulant surface
imparting a like charge to them and thereby causing the particles to remain in suspension because of
charge repulsion. Dispersant polymer is a common component of cooling water treatment programs.

16
These polymers prevent deposit because they keep suspended particles from adhering to pipes, tubes,
or other surfaces in the cooling systems and are removed with the water by blow down. In order to be
effective the polymers must strongly adhere to the particle surfaces so that the polymer’s fate is the
same as the particle it is bound to. The amount of polymer necessary is a complex function of
hardness, temperature, pH, and many other factors. Much of this is due to the increased
thermodynamic “driving force” for precipitation of calcium carbonate or calcium phosphate. At high
bulk water temperatures (>60 °C), high calcium concentrations (>750mg/lit as CaCO3), or low flow
rates (<1 m/sec), the tendency for scale formation, even with cooling water treatment programs, is
greatly increased.

E. Flocculants

A high molecular weight polymer can attach itself to many foulant particles creating a low density
floc. With an increase in the overall size of suspended material, there is a corresponding decrease in
the surface area available for attachment, which reduces the extent of deposition possible. Much of
suspended matter found in cooling water has a negative surface charge. This charge keeps the
suspended matter separated. If the surface charge of the particles can be reduced, the particle will
agglomerate into light, fluffy flocs with little tendency to adhere to metal surfaces. This can be
accomplished by adding a long chain oppositely charged (cationic) polymer to the cooling water,
which neutralizes the negative charge of the suspended material.

2.4 Microbial Growth

Microbiological activity is microorganisms that live and grow in the cooling tower and cooling
system. Cooling towers present the perfect environment for biological activity due to the warm, moist
environment. There are two distinct categories of biological activity in the tower system. The first
being plank tonic, which is bioactivity suspended, or floating in solution. The other is sessile bio-
growth, which is the category given to all biological activity, biofilms, or bio-fouling that stick to a
surface in the cooling system. Bio films are problematic for multiple reasons. They have strong
insulating properties, they contribute to fouling and corrosion, and the bi-products they create that
contribute to further micro-biological activity. They can be found in and around the tower structure,
or they can be found in chiller bundles, on heat exchangers surfaces, and in the system piping.
Additionally, bio films and algae mats are problematic because they are difficult to kill. Careful
monitoring of biocide treatments, along with routine measurements of biological activity are
important to ensure bio-activity is controlled and limited throughout the cooling system. Cooling
water microorganisms include: Algae, Fungi, and Bacteria etc

17
 Figure 4 Biofouled Heat Exchanger

2.4.1 Problems

Continued accumulation and growth of microorganisms in a cooling water system causes a number of
problems. Good corrosion and deposit control programs are incumbent upon asuccessful microbial
control program. A plant unable to control microbial growth will experience increased difficulty in
controlling corrosion and deposition. Another problem associated with microbial growth is the
deterioration of cooling tower lumber this reduces the efficiency of the cooling tower operation and
increases operating cost of the plant. Microbiological growth also causes environmental pollution.

A. Microbiological Induced Corrosion, (MIC)

Any corrosion initiated or propagated by the action of microorganisms either directly or indirectly is
called MIC. Many microorganisms found in cooling water utilize hydrogen in their metabolic
processes, which often results in the cathodic depolarization of the corrosion reaction. Many
microbial species present special corrosion problems, in addition to those inherent in the basic nature
of their actions. Sulphate reducing bacteria produce extremely dangerous hydrogen sulphide gas,
which corrodes metals by low pH attack and by the formation of ferrous sulphide. Sulphate oxidizing
bacteria produce sulphuric acid and produce localized low pH areas in the system. Corrosion
proceeds very rapidly in these low pH areas. Nitrifying bacteria nullify the effectiveness of nitrite
corrosion inhibitors by oxidizing nitrite to nitrate. This is the most serious in closed re-circulating
systems which commonly use nitrite as a corrosion inhibitor in the systems where NH3 is present in
water.

B. Deposit Problems

Deposit of microbial matter may lead to physical problems in the system, culminating in loss of
efficiency, heat transfer and production. The accumulation of bio matter on the internal sections of
cooling towers can seriously reduce the units efficiency e.g. deposition on splash plates will increase
the water droplet size and will reduce the effective surface area. Algae can plug the holes in the

18
distribution deck of a cooling tower producing uneven distribution of water over the tower packing,
resulting in a serious loss in efficiency.

2.4.2 Selection of Micro Biocides

A number of factors will determine the proper choice of micro biocide or combination of micro
biocides, oxidizing and non-oxidizing micro biocide. The selection of a micro biocide involves
several factors. First it must be effective in inhibiting almost all -microbial activity. Second, it must
be economical in a treatment programme. This is often accomplished by combining a small amount
of an expensive but highly effective, micro biocide with another less expensive one resulting in broad
spectrum control at reasonable cost. Environmental discharge and disposal considerations constitute
another factor, which determines the choice of micro biocides. Disposal problems caused by toxicity
have limited the use of certain micro biocides in many areas. The micro biocide chosen must be
easily detoxified before cooling system bleed off reaches receiving streams. The operating parameters
of the cooling water system will also affect the choice of a micro biocide. Temperature, pH and
system design are fundamental considerations in a decision involving oxidizing or non oxidizing
toxicants. Other considerations may include,

a. The nature of treatments being used for control of scale and corrosion
b. Whether to apply the biocide continuously, intermittent, or as a periodic shock dose.
c. The appropriate dose required
d. Location of point of addition.

2.4.3 Oxidizing Toxicants

A. Chlorination
a) The most commonly used oxidizing micro biocide is Chlorine. It is the most effective of all
halogens. Chlorine is an excellent algaecide and sporicide. It is also an excellent bactericide in most
circumstances. Free residual chlorine at levels of 0.5 ppm and slightly above are usually enough to
control most microbial growth. A number of factors determine the amount of chlorine required in an
open cooling water system. These include chlorine demand, contact time, pH, and temperature of the
water. When chlorine gas is fed to water, it hydrolyzes to form two acids, hypochlorous acid (biocide)
and hydrochloric acid, respectively.
b) Cl2 + H2O OCl + HCl
c) Hypochlorous acid is very weak acid but an extremely powerful oxidizing agent. It easily
diffuses through the cell walls of microorganisms, and reacts with the cytoplasm to produce
chemically stable nitrogen chlorine bonds with the cell proteins. Some quantity of Hypochlorous acid
will ionize into hypochlorite ions according to this reversible reaction.
d) HOCl H+ + OCl- The PH of the cooling water is directly responsible for the extent of
ionization of hypochlorous acid. The acid state is favoured by low pH .At pH 7.5 there will be
approximately equal amounts of acid and hypochlorite ion. Chlorine becomes ineffective as a micro

19
biocide at pH 9.5 or greater as a result of total ionization. A, pH range of 6.5~7 is considered practical
for chlorine based microbial control programme. Hypochlorous acid is estimated to be twenty times
more reactive (effective) as a micro biocide than the hypochlorite ions. If ammonia is present in
cooling water then chlorine reacts with ammonia to form chloramines (NH2Cl etc) due to which there
is a decrease in the residual chlorine within the system. Chloramines are poor biocides and are more
harmful environmentally than chlorine itself due to very long half life. Because the amount of
chlorine added to the system is directly proportional to the alkalinity reduction. Many plants find it
necessary to suspend acid feed during chlorination periods in order to avoid low PH excursions.
Chlorine is destroyed by sunlight and by aeration so, its dosing is preferred at night to prolong its
effect. Other oxidizing biocides include ozone, chlorine dioxide and hypochlorites.
e) Hypochlorites are salts of hypochlorous acid. They are composed of sodium hypochlorite
(NaOCl) and calcium hypochlorite (Ca (OCl) 2) when they are added to cooling water system
function in much the same way as chlorine gas.
f) Chlorine dioxide is a gas produced at site from sodium chlorite with chlorine gas. It does not
form hypochlorous acid in water like chlorine it exists as dissolved chlorine dioxide in solution and is
generally less reactive as a micro biocide but more effective than chlorine at higher PH ranges.
g) Ozone is a powerful and naturally unstable gas. As a micro biocide it reacts in much the same
manner as the other oxidizers” by combining with protein and inactivating enzymes that are essential
to cell respiration”.

B. Bromination

For systems, operating at above 7.0 pH i.e. alkaline media like Phosphate treatment system,
bromine is more efficient than chlorine as a biocide. Because 50 % of hypochlorous acid, HOCl
(biocide) formed due to chlorination, ionize into hypochlorite ions (OCl-) at pH 7.5. Hypochlorite
ions as a biocide are twenty times less effective than HOCl. At pH 8.0, Chlorination will yield only
20 % HOCl& 80 % OCl ions. But at this pH bromination will yield 80 % HOBr (micro biocide) & 20
% OBr ions-. That is why at alkaline pH bromination is more effective than chlorination in the
control of microbiological growth. At pH (8~9.3), only a small percentage of chlorine is available as
the active toxicant, hypochlorous acid. Target bromination is one of the most effective oxidizing
biocide treatments for cooling water systems. This is achieved by feeding sodium bromide with a
chlorine- based oxidant in a 1:1 molar ratio to achieve bromination.

Bulab-6040 used at FFC for bromination is a sodium bromide salt. It has no oxidizing capability
until it is activated by reacting it with hypochlorous acid to yield hypobromous acid. Hypochlorous
acid is generated through addition of sodium hypochlorite or chlorine in water as,

20
 In the presence of NH3 bromamines are formed which are more effective than chloramines in the
control of bacteria. Also bromamines breakdown more quickly than chloramines in the environment
and has lower long- term environmental toxicity.

2.4.4 Non Oxidizing Biocides

Non-oxidizing biocides can be more effective than oxidizing biocide because of their overall control
of algae, fungi, and bacteria. They have also greater persistence, as many of them are PH
independent. They are used in conjunction with oxidizing micro biocides for broad control. Most of
plants chlorinate intermittently and add a non -oxidizer once or twice a week or as per requirement.
Their mode of activity is to inhibit cell growth by preventing the transfer of energy or life
sustaining chemical reactions occurring within the cell. Organic sulphur compounds include a
wide variety of different biocides, Methylene bisthiocynate` (MTB) is most common, which is
effective in controlling algae, Fungi and bacteria.

2.4.5 Chemical Dosing at CT – 4

The chemical dosing at cooling tower 4 are recommended and monitored by the service provider
Buckman. Keeping in view the basic medium of operation the company has recommended the
appropriate service dosing and their quantity at the operating C.O.C. The tables here explain the
dosing, their rates and applications.

21
Chemicals Product Product Product Status Frequency Drop Rate
(PPM) (Kg) (Lit)
Bulab 9063 18 95 73 Neat 24 hrs 50 ml /59
Sec
Bulab 7024 20 106 94 Neat 24 hrs 50 ml /46
Sec
Bulab 9067 18 95 79 2 x Diluted 24 hrs 110ml /
min
Bulab 8006 5 26 24 Neat 24 hrs 17ml / min
Bulab 6041 * 200 149 With Hypo @ 70 Lit 583ml / 30
/hr Sec
Bulab 3847 82 1000 Neat `Monthly N/A
Table 2 Chemical Dosing Rate

Chemicals Trade Name Intended Application

Zinc and inorganic BULAB 9063 Provides both anodic and
phosphate cathodic corrosion protection
Zinc BULAB 9050 Protection of mild steel
piping and equipment in
cooling water systems
Bromine oxidizing biocide BULAB 6041 Used pH above 7.2
Surfactant BULAB 3847 Prevents growth of Bacteria,
Fungi, Algae and Sulphate
Reducing Bacteria (SRB);
Proven effectiveness in
ammonia containing CW
Hypochlorite - Kills the bacteria
Bio-dispersant BULAB 8006 Designed to inhibit slime
build up; enhances the
effectiveness of
microorganism control
Polymer BLS 9067 Controls the precipitation of
calcium phosphate & stabilize
the Zinc
Phosphonate and Polymer BULAB 7024 Controls the precipitation of
calcium carbonate and
deposition due to silt or other
particulate material
Table 3 Chemical Dosing at CT 4

22
2.5 Performance Improvement

Water Use
The hierarchy of opportunities approach can be used to identify and prioritise water efficiency
opportunities.

Figure 5 Hierarchy of opportunities

2.5.1 Reduce water loss

Reducing water losses reduces the quantity of make-up water required for the system. Potential
opportunities to reduce water loss include:
• Fixing leaks
• Reducing splash
• Optimising overflow
• Eliminating drift – drift losses should be maintained at less than 0.002% of cooling water circulation
rate. Repair or install new systems to achieve best practice.

Equation 1 Water losses

2.5.2 Reduce blow down

A. Increase cycles of concentration
As water evaporates from cooling towers the contaminants, salts and minerals measured as total
dissolved solids (TDS) that accumulate can cause biological growth, corrosion and scale resulting in
tower damage, poor heat transfer and possibly the growth of harmful bacteria such as Legionella. The
sources of contaminants include:

23
• Salts and minerals already in the make-up water
• Chemicals added to reduce corrosion, scale and biological growth
• Pollutants entering the water during the evaporation phase from the surrounding air such as dust.

To reduce the build up of these contaminants, a portion of the water in the tower is bled off (blow
down). This water loss from the tower is then replaced with fresh incoming make-up water. A
conductivity probe or sensor in the tower basin initiates blow down when the levels of dissolved
solids exceed a set value. ‘Cycles of concentration’ (C.O.C.) compare the level of dissolved solids in
the tower’s make-up water to the level of dissolved solids in the tower’s bleed water.

Equation 2 Cycle of Concentration C.O.C.

Increasing the number of C.O.C. will reduce the volume of blow down and consequently the volume
of make-up water required by the tower. The maximum C.O.C. for a tower will depend on the quality
of the make-up water and the corrosion resistance of the tower’s basin and condenser. C.O.C. over 5
is considered to be efficient but this is not always achievable. Scale forming ions such as calcium and
magnesium can often be precipitated out (by water softeners) or kept in solution (by acids) through
effective water treatment enabling the tower to operate at higher cycles of concentration. According
to the Queensland Water Commission, a cooling tower is considered inefficient if:

• The system is operating at less than 5 COC or 1850 mg/L TDS/2750 μs/cm conductivity (allowed
only in documented instances of high-TDS make-up water); and/or
• System losses are greater than 8% of the make-up water.

2.5.3 Use alternative water supplies

Alternative water supplies have the potential to reduce potable water requirements in cooling towers,
through direct substitution and by reducing the cycles of concentration. Alternative water supply
options include recycled water, process or rainwater. Note that health risks need to be considered
when assessing the viability of alternate water supplies. Additional water treatment may also be
required depending on the quality of water available.

2.5.4 Reuse blow down

Potential opportunities to reuse cooling tower blow down include:
• Toilet and urinal flushing (treatment may be required)
• Landscape irrigation (may require dilution with potable or rainwater due to salt content or
treatment)

24
• Cleaning (health risk assessment may be required and the impacts of corrosion should Be
considered).

2.6 Water Treatment

Almost all well-managed cooling towers use a water treatment program. The goal of a water
treatment program is to maintain a clean heat transfer surface and preserve capital while minimizing
water consumption and meeting discharge limits. Critical water chemistry parameters that require
review and control include pH, alkalinity, conductivity, hardness, microbial growth, biocide and
corrosion inhibitor levels. Depending on the quality of the make-up water, treatment programs may
include corrosion and scaling inhibitors, such as organo-phosphate types, along with biological
fouling inhibitors. Historically, chemicals have been fed into the system by automatic feeders on
timers or actuated by conductivity meters. Automatic chemical feeding tends to decrease chemical
dosing requirements. Current technology allows chemicals to be monitored and controlled online 24-
7 in proportion to demand. This ensures results and can allow cycles to be increased. Where overfeed
is prevalent, it can reduce chemical feed, too. Water treatment is required in cooling towers to prevent
corrosion of the system,build up of scale and for microbiological control. Typically this is carried out
through one of the following:

• Direct chemical dosing (to prevent scale and prohibit corrosion)

• Acid dosing (to control ph and scale)
• Ozone dosing (or other microbial treatment to prevent microbial growth)
• Pre-treatment of make-up water (e.g. Water softening, reverse osmosis)
• Side stream filtration (to prevent solid build up)
• Cover exposed areas of cooling towers (to reduce algal growth).

2.6.1 Sulphuric “Acid” Treatment

Sulphuric acid can be used in cooling tower water to help control scale build-up. When properly
applied, sulphuric acid will lower the water’s pH and help convert the calcium bicarbonate scale to a
more soluble calcium sulphate form. In central North Carolina, most plants will be able to operate six
to 10 cycles of concentration without acid feed. Along our coasts, acid can be used to increase cycles
as water tends to be harder and higher in alkalinity. The same can be said if hard alkaline well water
is used as tower make-up. Important precautions need to be taken when using sulphuric acid
treatment. Because sulphuric acid is an aggressive acid that will corrode metal, it must be carefully
dosed into the system and must be used in conjunction with an appropriate corrosion inhibitor.
Workers handling sulphuric acid must exercise caution to prevent contact with eyes or skin. All
personnel should receive training on proper handling, management and accident response for
sulphuric acid used at the facility.

2.6.2 Side Stream Filtration

In cooling towers that use make-up water with high suspended solids, or in cases where airborne
contaminants such as dust can enter cooling tower water, side stream filtration can be used to reduce
solids build up in the system. Typically, five to 20 per-cent of the circulating flow can be filtered
using a rapid sand filter or a cartridge filter system.

25
Rapid sand filters can remove solids as small as 15 microns in diameter while cartridges are effective
to remove solids to 10 microns or less. High efficiency filters can remove particles down to 0.5
microns. Neither of these filters are effective at removing dissolved solids, but can remove mobile
mineral scale precipitants and other solid contaminants in the water. The advantages of side stream
filtration systems are reduced particle loading on the tower. This ensures heat transfer efficiency and
may reduce biocide or dispersant demands.

2.6.3 Ozone
Ozone can be a very effective agent to treat nuisance organics in the cooling water. Ozone treatment
also is reported to control the scale by forming mineral oxides that will precipitate out to the water in
the form of sludge. This sludge collects on the cooling tower basin, in a separation tank or other low-
flow areas. Ozone treatment consists of an air compressor, an ozone generator, a diffuser or contactor
and a control system. The initial capital costs of such systems are high but have been reported to
provide payback in 18months.

Option Advantages Disadvantages

Operation improvements to Low capital costs Low None
control blow down and operating costs Low
chemical additions maintenance requirements
Sulphuric acid treatment Low capital cost Low Potential safety hazard
operating cost Increased Potential for corrosion
concentration ratio, when damage if overdosed
alkalinity limited
Side stream filtration Low possibility of fouling Moderately high capital cost
Improved operation No effectiveness on
efficiency dissolved solids Additional
maintenance
Ozonation Reduced chance for organic High capital investment
fouling Reduced liquid Complex system Possible
chemical requirements health issue
Magnet System Reduced or eliminated Novel technology
chemical usage Controversial performance
claims
Reuse of water within the Reduces overall facility Potential for increased
facility water consumption fouling, scale or corrosion
Possible need for additional
water treatment

Table 4 Treatment options comparison

26
2.6.4 Magnets

Some vendors offer special water-treating magnets that are reported to alter the surface charge of
suspended particles in cooling tower water. The particles help disrupt and break loose deposits on
surfaces in the cooling tower system. The particles settle in a low-velocity area of the cooling tower --
such as sumps --where they can be mechanically removed. Suppliers of these magnetic treatment
systems claim that magnets will remove scale without conventional chemicals. Also, a similar novel
treatment technology, called an electrostatic field generator, is also reported.

2.6.5 Sonication
An emerging technology is sonication or ultrasound which uses vibration to remove fats. This
technology can be used in wastewater systems to emulsify fats making them easier to remove by
methods such as DAF. Sonication has also been trialled in conjunction with anaerobic treatment as a
means of disrupting sludge production to yield a larger quantity of biogas.

2.6.6 Electro coagulation

Electro coagulation can be used to remove suspended and colloidal solids, fats, oils and grease and
complex organics. The process involves passing an electrical current through water to initiate a range
of electrochemical reactions which destabilise, suspend, emulsify or dissolve contaminants in the
wastewater which forces them to precipitate.

2.6.7 Activated carbon

Activated carbon is generally used after biological or physical-chemical treatment to polish waste
water for reuse. The carbon absorbs both organic and inorganic compounds including heavy metals.
Activated carbon is formed by heating carbon containing substances such as coal or charcoal in the
presence of steam to form highly porous carbon providing a large surface area for contaminants to
adsorb onto. Activated carbon can be regenerated on site by heating carbon to a high temperature.
Using activated carbon prior to a disinfection phase can reduce the disinfection requirement. The use
of activated carbon as part of the cooling tower or boiler water treatment can lead to better water
efficiencies through reduced bleed.

2.6.8 Ultraviolet radiation (UV)

This chemical-free method of disinfecting water inactivates microorganisms such as protozoa,
bacteria, moulds and yeasts through the use of ultraviolet radiation. The effectiveness of the system
can be increased with the simultaneous use of ozone. However, water quality characteristics such as
high turbidity, organic components and flow rate can reduce efficacy. Like ozone, UV radiation does
not provide any residual sanitisation compared with chlorine.

2.6.9 Hydrocavitation

Hydrocavitation is a chemical free system of water treatment. Two streams of water are accelerated to
high velocities and collide which results in hydrodynamic cavitation and mechanical shear forces,
which are believed to kill bacteria and reduce corrosion activity. It removes the need for chemicals
and can increase the ability to reuse water. It is generally applied to cooling tower water (refer to case
study below) as it can control corrosion and kill legionella. However, new studies are investigating

27
the efficiency of removing heavy metals, phosphorous and trichloroethylene (TCE) from wastewater
with additional reductions in BOD.

2.6.10 Radio frequencies

Radio frequencies alter the water’s scaling tendencies by creating a “seeding” mechanism that
agglomerates scale-forming minerals in the water. This technology removes minerals before they can
be deposited on heat exchange surfaces.

28
 CHAPTER NO-3

THEROTICAL CALCULATION

3.1 Performance
These measured parameters and then used to determine the cooling tower performance in several
ways.
a) Range. This is the difference between the cooling tower water inlet and outlet temperature. A high
CT Range means that the cooling tower has been able to reduce the water temperature effectively,
and is thus performing well. The formula is:
Equation 3 CT Range

b) Approach. This is the difference between the cooling tower outlet coldwater temperature and
ambient wet bulb temperature. The lower the approach the better the cooling tower
performance; although, both range and approach should be monitored, the `Approach’ is a better
indicator of cooling tower performance.
Equation 4 CT Approach

Figure 5 Range and approach schematic

c) Effectiveness. This is the ratio between the range and the ideal range (in percentage), i.e.
difference between cooling water inlet temperature and ambient wet bulb temperature, or in other
words it is = Range / (Range + Approach). The higher this ratio, the higher the cooling tower
effectiveness.

29
 Equation 6 CT Effectiveness

d) Cooling capacity. This is the heat rejected in kCal/hr or TR, given as product of mass flow
rate of water, specific heat and temperature difference.

e) Evaporation loss. This is the water quantity evaporated for cooling duty. Theoretically the
evaporation quantity works out to 1.8 m3 for every 1,000,000 kCal heat rejected. The following
formula can be used (Perry):

Equation 7 Evaporation Loss

T1 - T2 = temperature difference between inlet and outlet water

f) Cycles of concentration (C.O.C). This is the ratio of dissolved solids in circulating water to the
dissolved solids in makeup water.
g) Blow down losses depend upon cycles of concentration and the evaporation losses and is given by
formula:
Equation 8 Blow down

h) Liquid/Gas (L/G) ratio.

The L/G ratio of a cooling tower is the ratio between the water and the air mass flow rates. Cooling
towers have certain design values, but seasonal variations require adjustment and tuning of water and
air flow rates to get the best cooling tower effectiveness. Adjustments can be made by water box
loading changes or blade angle adjustments. Thermodynamic rules also dictate that the heat removed
from the water must be equal to the heat absorbed by the surrounding air. Therefore the following
formulae can be used:

Equation 9 Liquid/Gas ratio

30
Where: L/G = liquid to gas mass flow ratio (kg/kg)
T1 = hot water temperature (°C)
T2 = cold-water temperature (°C)
h2 = enthalpy of air-water vapour mixture at exhaust wet-bulb temperature.
h1 = enthalpy of air-water vapour mixture at inlet wet-bulb temperature.

3.2 Assessment
The performance of cooling towers is evaluated to assess present levels of approach and range against
their design values, identify areas of energy wastage and to suggest improvements. During the
performance evaluation, portable monitoring instruments are used to measure the following
parameters:
a) Wet bulb temperature of air
b) Dry bulb temperature of air
c) Cooling tower inlet water temperature
d) Cooling tower outlet water temperature
e) Exhaust air temperature
f) Electrical readings of pump and fan motors
g) Water flow rate
h) Air flow rate

3.3 Factors Affecting Performance

3.3.1 Design
a. Capacity
Heat dissipation (in kCal/hour) and circulated flow rate (m3/hr) are not sufficient to understand
cooling tower performance. Other factors, which we will see, must be stated along with flow rate
m3/hr. For example, a cooling tower sized to cool 4540 m3/hr through a 13.9°C range might be larger
than a cooling tower to cool 4540 m3/hr through 19.5°C range.
b. Range
Range is determined not by the cooling tower, but by the process it is serving. The range at the
exchanger is determined entirely by the heat load and the water circulation rate through the exchanger
and on to the cooling water.
Equation 10 CT Range Def. 2

Thus, Range is a function of the heat load and the flow circulated through the system. Cooling towers
are usually specified to cool a certain flow rate from one temperature to another temperature at a
certain wet bulb temperature. For example, the cooling tower might be specified to cool 48000 m3/hr
from 44°C to 34°C at 26.7°C wet bulb temperature.

𝑪𝑻 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒂𝒄𝒉 (𝟓°𝑪) =𝑪𝑾 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑 (𝟑𝟒°𝑪)−𝑾𝒆𝒕 𝒃𝒖𝒍𝒃 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑 (𝟐𝟗°𝑪)

31
As a generalization, the closer the approach to the wet bulb, the more expensive the cooling tower
due to increased size. Usually a 2.8°C approach to the design wet bulb is the coldest water
temperature that cooling tower manufacturers will guarantee. If flow rate, range, approach and wet
bulb had to be ranked in the order of their importance in sizing a tower, approach would be first with
flow rate closely following the range and wet bulb would be of lesser importance. The range
increases when the quantity of circulated water and heat load increase. This means that increasing the
range as a result of added heat load requires a larger tower. There are two possible causes for the
increased range:
 The inlet water temperature is increased (and the cold-water temperature at the exit remains
the same). In this case it is economical to invest in removing the additional heat.
 The exit water temperature is decreased (and the hot water temperature at the inlet
remains the same). In this case the tower size would have to be increased considerably because the
approach is also reduced, and this is not always economical.

c. Heat Load
The heat load imposed on a cooling tower is determined by the process being served. The degree of
cooling required is controlled by the desired operating temperature level of the process. In most cases,
a low operating temperature is desirable to increase process efficiency or to improve the quality or
quantity of the product. In some applications (e.g. internal combustion engines), however, high
operating temperatures are desirable. The size and cost of the cooling tower is proportional to the heat
load. If heat load calculations are low undersized equipment will be purchased. If the calculated load
is high, oversize and more costly, equipment will result. Process heat loads may vary considerably
depending upon the process involved. Determination of accurate process heat loads can become very
complex but proper consideration can produce satisfactory results. On the other hand, air conditioning
and refrigeration heat loads can be determined with greater accuracy.
d. Wet Bulb Temperature
Wet bulb temperature is an important factor in performance of evaporative water cooling equipment.
It is a controlling factor from the aspect of minimum cold water temperature to which water can be
cooled by the evaporative method. Thus, the wet bulb temperature of the air entering the cooling
tower determines operating temperature levels throughout the plant, process, or system. Theoretically,
a cooling tower will cool water to the entering wet bulb temperature, when operating without a heat
load. However, a thermal potential is required to reject heat, so it is not possible to cool water to the
entering air wet bulb temperature, when a heat load is applied. The approach obtained is a function of
thermal conditions and tower capability.
Initial selection of towers with respect to design wet bulb temperature must be made on the basis of
conditions existing at the tower site. The temperature selected is generally close to the average
maximum wet bulb for the summer months. An important aspect of wet bulb selection is whether it is
specified as ambient or inlet. The ambient wet bulb is the temperature, which exists generally in the
cooling tower area, whereas inlet wet bulb is the wet bulb temperature of the air entering the tower.
The later can be, and often is, affected by discharge vapours being re-circulated into the tower.
Recirculation raises the effective wet bulb temperature of the air entering the tower with
corresponding increase in the cold water temperature. Since there is no initial knowledge or control
over the recirculation factor, the ambient wet bulb should be specified. The cooling tower supplier is
required to furnish a tower of sufficient capability to absorb the effects of the increased wet bulb
temperature peculiar to his own equipment.

32
e. Tower Size
If heat load, range, approach and wet-bulb temperature are held constant, changing the fourth will
affect the tower size as follows:

a) Tower size varies inversely with approach. A longer approach requires a smaller tower.
Conversely, a smaller approach requires an increasingly larger tower and, at 5°F approach,
the effect upon tower size begins to become asymptotic. For that reason, it is not customary in the
cooling tower industry to guarantee any approach of less than 5°F.

Figure 7 Tower size v/s approach

b) Tower size varies inversely with wet bulb temperature. When heat load, range, and approach
values are fixed, reducing the design wet-bulb temperature increases the size of the tower. This is
because most of the heat transfer in a cooling tower occurs by virtue of evaporation (which extracts
approximately 1000 Btu’s for every pound of water evaporated), and air’s ability to absorb moisture
reduces with temperature.

Figure 8 Tower size v/s wet-bulb

c) Tower size varies directly and linearly with heat load.

.

33
 Figure 9 Tower size v/s head load

d) Tower size varies inversely with range. Two primary factors account for this. First; increasing the
range—also increases the ITD (driving force) between the incoming hot water temperature and the
entering wet-bulb temperature. Second, increasing the range (at a constant heat load) requires that the
water flow rate be decreased—which reduces the static pressure opposing the flow of air.

Figure 10 Tower size v/s range variance

3.3.2 Fill media effects

In a cooling tower, hot water is distributed above fill media and is cooled down through evaporation
as it flows down the tower and gets in contact with air. The fill media impacts energy consumption in
two ways:

34
a. Electricity is used for pumping above the fill and for fans that create the air draft. An
efficiently designed fill media with appropriate water distribution, drift eliminator, fan, gearbox and
motor with therefore lead to lower electricity consumption.
b. Heat exchange between air and water is influenced by surface area of heat exchange, duration
of heat exchange (interaction) and turbulence in water effecting thoroughness of intermixing. The fill
media determines all of these and therefore influences the heat exchange. The greater the heat
exchange, the more effective the cooling tower becomes.

There are three types of fills:

a) Splash fill media. Splash fill media generates the required heat exchange area by splashing water
over the fill media into smaller water droplets. The surface area of the water droplets is the surface
area for heat exchange with the air.
b) Film fill media. In a film fill, water forms a thin film on either side of fill sheets. The surface area
of the fill sheets is the area for heat exchange with the surrounding air. Film fill can result in
significant electricity savings due to fewer air and pumping head requirements.
c) Low-clog film fills. Low-clog film fills with higher flute sizes were recently developed to handle
high turbid waters. Low clog film fills are considered as the best choice for sea water in terms of
power savings and performance compared to conventional splash type fills.

Splash fill Film fill Low clog film fill

Possible L/G ratio 1.1 – 1.5 1.5 – 2.0 1.4 – 1.8
Effective heat 30 – 45 m2/m3 150 m2/m3 85 - 100 m2/m3
exchange area
Fill height required 5 – 10 m 1.2 – 1.5 m 1.5 – 1.8 m
Pumping head 9 – 12 m 5–8m 6–9m
required
Quantity of air High Lowest Low
required
Table 5 Design Values of Different Fills

3.3.3 Water Distribution

a. Optimize cooling water treatment
Cooling water treatment (e.g. to control suspended solids, algae growth) is mandatory for any cooling
tower independent of what fill media is used. With increasing costs of water, efforts to increase
Cycles of Concentration (COC), by cooling water treatment would help to reduce make up water
requirements significantly. In large industries and power plants improving the COC is often
considered a key area for water conservation.
b. Install drift eliminators
It is very difficult to ignore drift problems in cooling towers. Nowadays most of the end user
specifications assume a 0.02% drift loss. But thanks to technological developments and the
production of PVC, manufacturers have improved drift eliminator designs. As a result drift losses can
now be as low as 0.003 –0.001%.

35
3.3.4 Fans
The purpose of a cooling tower fan is to move a specified quantity of air through the system. The fan
has to overcome the system resistance, which is defined as the pressure loss, to move the air. The fan
output or work done by the fan is the product of air flow and the pressure loss. The fan output and
kW input determines the fan efficiency. The fan efficiency in turn is greatly dependent on the profile
of the blade. Blades include:
a) Metallic blades, which are manufactured by extrusion or casting processes and therefore it is
difficult to produce ideal aerodynamic profiles
b) Fibre reinforced plastic (FRP) blades, are normally hand moulded which makes it easier to
produce an optimum aerodynamic profile tailored to specific duty conditions. Because FRP fans are
light, they need a low starting torque requiring a lower HP motor, the lives of the gear box, motor and
bearing is increased, and maintenance is easier.

A 85-92% efficiency can be achieved with blades with an aerodynamic profile, optimum twist, taper
and a high coefficient of lift to coefficient of drop ratio. However, this efficiency is drastically
affected by factors such as tip clearance, obstacles to airflow and inlet shape, etc.

Cases reported where metallic or glass fibber reinforced plastic fan blades have been replaced by
efficient hollow FRP blades. The resulting fan energy savings were in the order of 20-30%and with
simple payback period of 6 to 7 months (NPC).

3.4 General Improvement Procedures

The following could be fruitful options to improve energy efficiency of cooling towers:

1. Follow manufacturer’s recommended clearances around cooling towers and relocate or

modify structures that interfere with the air intake or exhaust
2. Optimize cooling tower fan blade angle on a seasonal and/or load basis
3. Correct excessive and/or uneven fan blade tip clearance and poor fan balance
4. In old counter-flow cooling towers, replace old spray type nozzles with new square spray
nozzles that do not clog
5. Replace splash bars with self-extinguishing PVC cellular film fill
6. Install nozzles that spray in a more uniform water pattern
7. Clean plugged cooling tower distribution nozzles regularly
8. Balance flow to cooling tower hot water basins
9. Cover hot water basins to minimize algae growth that contributes to fouling
10. Optimize the blow down flow rate, taking into account the cycles of concentration (COC)limit
11. Replace slat type drift eliminators with low-pressure drop, self-extinguishing PVC cellular
units
12. Restrict flows through large loads to design values
13. Monitor approach, effectiveness and cooling capacity to continuously optimize the cooling tower
performance, but consider seasonal variations and side variations
14. Monitor liquid to gas ratio and cooling water flow rates and amend these depending on the
design values and seasonal variations. For example: increase water loads during summer and
times when approach is high and increase air flow during monsoon times and when
approach is low.
15. Consider COC improvement measures for water savings

36
16. Consider energy efficient fibre reinforced plastic blade adoption for fan energy savings
17. Control cooling tower fans based on exit water temperatures especially in small units
18. Check cooling water pumps regularly to maximize their efficiency

37
 CHAPTER NO-4

EXPERIMENTAL CALCULATION

When air flow passes a wetted surface there is a transfer of sensible and latent heat. If there is
a difference in temperature between the air and the wetted surface, heat will be transferred. If
there is a difference in the partial pressure of water vapor in the air and that of the water,
there will be a mass transfer. This transfer of mass causes a thermal energy transfer because if
some water is evaporated from the water layer, the latent heat of this vaporized water will be
supplied to the air. The cooling tower effectiveness is the ratio of range to the ideal range:

Range(R)
Effectiveness(ɛ) =
Range(R) − Approach(A)

Tw1 − Tw2
ɛ=
Tw1 + Twb1

Range = Tw1-Tw2

Approach (A) = Tw2-Twb1

4.1 Cooling Tower Approach:

The difference between the Cold Water Temperature (Cooling Tower Outlet) and ambient Wet Bulb
Temperature is called as Cooling Tower Approach.

Approach = Cold Water Temperature - Wet Bulb Temperature

Cooling Tower approach is the better indicator for the performance.

4.2 Cooling Tower Range:

The difference between the Hot Water Temperature(Cooling Tower Inlet) temperature and cold water
(Cooling Tower Outlet) temperature is called Cooling Tower Range.

Range = Hot Water Temperature – Cold Waater Temperature

38
5 Three cases with different packing have been studied and tested in this
cooling tower:

1. Case (1) :- Plain packing for the induced draft tower without louvers.
2. Case (2) :-Plain packing sandwiched in the husk layers; for the induced draft tower without
louvers
3. Case (3) :-Plain packing sandwiched in the husk layers; for the induced draft tower with
louvers

Figure 11

The magnitude of certain parameters needs to be measured to study the tower effectiveness of
each case. Range, Approach, and efficiency as well as the evaporation loss rates are taken
into consideration in this project. Range and Approach are critical parameters from which we
can evaluate the performance and effectiveness of heat transfer rates in a cooling tower
(figure 4.4). Thus, below calculations are measuring tools for our project. Range is the
difference between inlet (warm) water and outlet (cooled) water. Approach is the difference
between the outlet water temperature and the entering air wet bulb temperature. The higher
approach the less efficient is the cooling tower whereas the higher range the high efficient the
tower is.

39
Figure 12 Diagram of range and approach Figure 13 Range and approach schemati

Four trials were attempted to measure the temperature readings of each case. The calculations
of Range, Approach, Efficiency & the Evaporation rate were carried out on the most ideal
trial. In other words, the mean average of all trials has been selected to represent each
parameter

The air entering the cooling tower is denoted as Ta1 and the air exiting it is Ta2. Similarly,
the water entering the tower is Tw1 and the exit is Tw2. Using these notations, temperature
readings were recorded in tables 4.1, 4.2, 4.3. Further analysis of obtained results is explained
below.

Case 1: Plain packing:

In this system, a centrally located fan at the top, takes suction from the tower and discharges
it to the atmosphere. The packing is of approx
Trial Ta1(⁰C) Tw1(⁰C) Ta2(⁰C) Tw2(⁰C)
1 27 52 33 38
2 26.9 35 31.1 29
3 27.1 50 32.2 36
4 27.1 51 31.1 35
Average 27 47 31.8 34.5
Table No -6 (Plain Packing)

Range = 47-34.5 = 12.5⁰C

Approach= Cooled water-Wet bulb temperature,

40
the corresponding wet bulb temperature is 25⁰C (obtained by measuring )
Approach=34.5-25 = 9.5⁰C
Efficiency = Range / (Range + Approach).
Efficiency= 12.5/ (12.5+9.5) = 56.81%

Case (2): Plain packing sandwiched in the husk layers; for the induced draft
tower without louvers
Trial Ta1(⁰C) Tw1(⁰C) Ta2(⁰C) Tw2(⁰C)
1 27 50 33 44
2 26.9 48 31.1 36
3 27.1 50 32.2 45
4 27.1 49 31.1 35
Average 27 49.25 31.85 40
Table No -7 (Plain Packing with husk layer)

Range = 49.25-40= 9.25⁰C

The wet bulb temperature is 35⁰C
Approach= 40-35=5⁰C
Efficiency = Range / (Range + Approach).
Efficiency=9.25/ (9.25+5) = 64.9 %

Case (3):Plain packing sandwiched in the husk layers; for the induced draft tower
with louvers

Trial Ta1(⁰C) Tw1(⁰C) Ta2(⁰C) Tw2(⁰C)

1 26.2 50 30.4 36
2 27.2 50 31.5 35
3 27.1 49 32.2 32
4 23.5 49 31.1 30
Average 26 49.5 31.3 33.25
Table No -8 (Plain Packing with husk layer & louvers)
Range = 49.5-33.25= 16.25⁰C
41
The wet bulb temperature is 34⁰C
Approach= 40-34=6⁰C
Efficiency = Range / (Range + Approach).
Efficiency=13.75/ (13.75+6) = 73.03%

42
 CHAPTER NO-5

RESULT & DISCUSSION

As per the obtained results, the induced fan has the lowest effect in heat transfer. The air flow
is very weak across the tower. Hence, less efficient cooling is noticed. The rate of
evaporation loss is the minimum compared to the other cases.
The efficiency of cooling depends on several parameters. This includes the terms “Range and
Approach”. The higher range is the good cooling tower is whereas the lower approach, the better rate
of heat transfers. In this case, we have higher approach and less range which
resulted in lower efficiency. One of the possible reasons of having less efficiency is due to
having well insulated frame with no air entry portion other than the duct opening of the
forced draft fan. The small holes on the fills can’t allow large volume of air flow to pass
through them.
The second case has achieved better results than the first one. The efficiency has reached up to
20.8% which represents almost double what was achieved in the induced draft experiment. The
reason behind that is probably caused by the location of the fan. It is located in the above of the
collection basin and right after the last cooling stage (fill). Evaporation loss has also increased and
contributed to better cooling.

approach
10

6
approach
4

0
1 2 3

Figure 14 Comparison of Approach of the three cases

43
 Figure 4.7 Comparison of Approach of the three cases

range
18
16
14
12
10
8 range
6
4
2
0
1 2 3

Figure 15 Comparison of Range of the three cases

efficiency
80
70
60
50
40
effecivness
30
20
10
0
1 2 3

Figure 16 Comparison of efficiecy of the three cases

It is, of course, legitimate for a theory which attempts to describe a physical phenomena to
suppress those factors whose effect on the overall results is small enough as to be within the
degree of accuracy of the available testing procedures. Absolute exactitude is sacrificed for
the sake of the clarity with which the effects of the essential factors on the phenomena are
described. Figure 4.6 summerizes the achieved results for the three cases

44
 80

70

60

50
approach
40
range
30 effecivness
20

10

0
1 2 3

Figure 17 Summary of achieved results of the three cases

In comparison to these cases, case III is the highest in cooling range and efficiency as well as the
evaporation loss rate. Having both induced draft fan and louvers has achieved excellent results that
met our expectations. The louvers has allowed the air to pass effectively through the fills reaching to
the top of the tower where the induced fan discharges it. The air is discharged to the atmosphere with
some vapor content in it. Below charts are representations of our obtained data for the three cases.
The difficulty of obtaining consistent results in the testing of cooling towers is, or course,
well known. One of the main factors that governs test results, the atmospheric wet-bulb entering the
cooling tower pulsates during the test, is affected by changing wind conditions,
and even is affected by the character of the environment in which the cooling tower is installed. A
reasonable tolerance in the guarantee for a type of equipment as cooling towers represent, is
therefore, unavoidable.

45
 CONCLUSION

For any engineering projects, existence of some challenges essentially requires analysis and
methods to overcome. However, overcoming these challenges needs effective utilization of
leadership skills and critical thinking of the problem as well. This may include the
engineering knowledge that is gained through studying courses in the university. As it can be
noticed from the results we gained, incorporating both induced draft fans and louvers have
positive impact on cooling tower performance as it helped in recirculating of air. They contributed in
increasing the efficiency of the cooling tower by enabling more volume of air to pass through the
tower and hence more heat will be dissipated. The zigzag water flow pattern has made the water
movement to slow down and longer time of water exposure to air is achieved. Plastic fills and husk
have helped us in achieving as excellent results as 12 C of cooling.
The senior design project is a milestone for engineering degree students. In fact, we have
learned lots of useful information through conducting this experiment and writing up this
thesis. The importance of a cooling tower in industries has motivated us to study its performance and
look for possible ways to increase its efficiency.

46
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